AIRBUS TECHNICAL DIGEST

NUMBER 20 DECEMBER 1996

AIRBUS FLY-BY-WIRE AIRCRAFT AT A GLANCE A PILOT'S FIRST VIEW CAPTAIN CHRIS KRAHE 22

2ND A330/A340 TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM 4TH AIRBUS TRAINING SYMPOSIUM CUSTOMER SERVICES EVENTS 1010

FLYING FAUNA AND FLORA DAVID SAXTON 1111

COMING IN FROM THE COLD IMPROVED WATER AND WASTE SYSTEM PROTECTION FROM FREEZING LUC LEROY 1616

AIRBUS CABIN AIR QUALITY ONLY THE BEST! MARTIN DECHOW 2424

RESIDENT CUSTOMER SUPPORT REPRESENTATION 3030

COMING IN FROM THE COLD PART II 3232

Cover photo - Sweet corn en route from Miami to Frankfurt The articles herein may be reprinted without permission except where copyright source is indicated, but with acknowledgement to Airbus Industrie. Articles which may be subject to ongoing review must have their accuracy verified prior to reprint. The statements made herein do not constitute an offer. They are based on the assumptions shown and are expressed in good faith. Where the supporting grounds for these statements are not shown, the Company will be pleased to explain the basis thereof. © AIRBUS INDUSTRIE 1996 Publisher: Airbus Industrie Customer Services, 1 rond-point Maurice Bellonte, 31707 Blagnac Cedex, France Telephone +33 (5) 61 93 33 33, Telex AIRBU 530526F, Telefax +33 (5) 61 30 01 25 Editor: Denis Dempster, Product Marketing Graphic design: Agnès Lacombe, Customer Services Marketing Photo-engraving: Passion Graphic, 60 boulevard Déodat de Séverac, 31027 Toulouse Cedex, France Printer: Escourbiac, 5 avenue Marcel Dassault, 31502 Toulouse Cedex, France This issue of FAST has been printed on paper produced without using chlorine, to reduce waste and help to conserve natural resources. 'Every little helps'.

FAST / NUMBER 20 1 or those pilots unfamiliar with the Airbus Industrie cockpit and sys- F tem design philosophy, it is appropriate to look at a few issues which are perceived to be significant and may cause uncertainty. The sources for these notes are broad, and include feedback from more than 60 operators of A319s, A320s, A321s, A330s and A340s. Experience with cross crew qualification provides a further practical basis for the information. AIRBUS FLY-BY-WIRE AIRCRAFT AT A GLANCE A PILOT’S FIRST VIEW Captain Chris Krahe Vice President Operational Flight Group Training and Flight Operations Support Airbus Industrie Customer Services Directorate

Pilots tend to be rather conservative in their outlook; a healthy quality in aviation. Because Airbus Industrie’s fly-by-wire technology represents a significant new step in design philosophy, pilots have sometimes taken a cynical view of the new concepts involved, especially when not all the facts are available to them. The adjustments which were necessary with the ad- vent of jet and swept wing transports are now a matter of history. The Airbus fly-by-wire family represents another step forward, requiring simi- lar changes of outlook. The new generation flight deck

A K

C B C

H D E E D H F K I I

G G

G J

2 FAST / NUMBER 20 EXPERIENCE a folder entitled “Specially Heard Insider Talk”, the initials of which sum- Fly-by-wire aircraft from Airbus marise the content to some extent!). Industrie have now been in airline ser- vice for more than seven years and DESIGN OBJECTIVES over 700 are currently in service. More than 10,000 pilots from over 60 opera- Airbus Industrie has set new standards tors worldwide have followed the rele- in fuel-efficiency, performance, manu- vant training courses of Airbus facturing quality, durability, ease of Training or the airlines. In the mean- maintenance, environmental friendli- time, over seven million flight hours ness and comfort. While advanced and over four million flight cycles have aerodynamics could achieve some of been reached. The experience gained in these objectives, the brilliant speed and the process of conversion to this tech- accuracy of the computer was har- nology has been well analysed. nessed wherever possible. Exact perfor- Examples of A320 folklore include mance matching of power plants with stories of incidents such as the “stuck- airframe was critical for the A340 in or- in-the-hold” and “unable to descend”. der to avoid carrying extra weight gen- Extensive research has been carried out erated by engines which provide excess with many A320 operators which re- thrust. (The twins have different design veals no recorded evidence that these objectives, and considerable excess incidents ever occurred. Indeed, from a thrust to cover loss of 50% of it follow- technical point of view, it is impossible ing an engine failure.) The use of to understand how either incident could lighter materials, load alleviation and have occurred because the basic modes, flight envelope protection, were also Heading and Vertical Speed, are always advances which have been applied. available. However, these unsubstanti- Airbus Industrie has an outstanding ated stories continue to circulate freely reputation for building solid and (Lufthansa has even seen fit to establish durable airframes. The structures have

A OVERHEAD PANEL F ELECTRONIC CENTRALISED System panels used more frequently are in lower part, AIRCRAFT MONITORING SYSTEM centre row for engine related systems, flow scheme - ECAM from bottom to top. Push-button controls, dark cockpit UPPER DISPLAY UNIT (DU) philosophy Engine primary indication, fuel quantity, slats/flaps position,warning/caution/memo message LOWER DISPLAY UNIT (DU) B FLIGHT CONTROL UNIT (FCU) Aircraft system synoptics, status of systems Engages autopilot and autothrust. Selection of modes HEADING, SPEED, MACH, ALTITUDE, VERTICAL SPEED, LOC, APPROACH G MULTI-PURPOSE CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT (MCDU) Controls the Flight Management System (FMS) C EFIS CONTROL PANEL and the Central Fault and Display System (CFDS) Select modes, ranges and options of Electronic Flight Instruments System, BARO:STD selection, master warning, master caution, autoland warning and H SIDESTICK sidestick priority lights I PULL-OUT WORKING TABLE D PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY (PFD) In stowed position - Footrest pedals right and left Engage status of Flight Director, autopilot and autothrust. Flight Mode Annunciation. Indication of ATTITUDE, AIRSPEED, ALTITUDE, VERTICAL J FULL-SIZE PRINTER SPEED, HEADING, ILS-DEVIATION, MARKER, RADIO ALTITUDE K STAND-BY INSTRUMENTS Attitude, altitude, speed, DDRMI, compass E NAVIGATION DISPLAY (ND)

FAST / NUMBER 20 3 been thoroughly ground tested and the ● Adherence to colour coding (white, data validated on flight test aircraft. blue, amber, red, green, magenta). They have the most efficient corrosion ● Need to show concept (ECAM nor- protection and their content of totally mal mode). corrosion-free composites is the highest ● Paperless aircraft (ECAM abnormal in the industry. mode). For passenger comfort, the “soft EPR/N1” cruise mode, minimises THE COMPUTERS thrust fluctuations. On A330/A340, turbulence is damped by the CIT (con- As is well known, transport aircraft pre- trol in turbulence) mode which uses el- ceding A319/A320/A321/A330/A340 evator and rudder deflection to min- fly-by-wire aircraft, used computers to imise the effects of an unstable drive FMS, EFIS, autopilot, manage atmosphere, and the MLA (manoeuvre navigation, and enable automatic ap- load alleviation) function which uses proaches to be flown safely. Such tech- ailerons and spoilers to minimise wing nology was to some extent “add-on”, deflection under load. Cabin air is rather than “built-in”, as the rest of the passed through an optional ozone con- aircraft usually functioned convention- verter to reduce “red-eye” on ultra long ally. range flights, and the A340 engine/ The designers of Airbus Industrie fly- airframe combination produces the by-wire aircraft have taken the use of quietest cockpit and cabin in the sky. computers a step further by internetting the computers and systems. Delibe- COCKPIT GENERAL DESIGN rately, different manufacturers, differ- ent hardware and different software Airbus Industrie has entrusted world fa- formats have been employed in order to mous industrial designers with the ob- eliminate the potential for common jective of providing the flight crew with faults. Software development follows a pleasant, comfortable and modern well established international rules and working place. The cockpit colour Airworthiness Regulations including scheme, light blue for panels, dark blue rigorous testing and modification track- for linings and working surfaces, black ing procedures. When studying the air- for handles such as sidestick, thrust craft, it will become apparent that every levers, flap handle etc. and grey for major system has some sort of interac- knobs and rotary selectors has been de- tion with other systems or flight situa- veloped according to ergonomic criteria tions (e.g. changes to the condition of and applied throughout. Special atten- the hydraulic and electrical systems tion has been given to cockpit lighting. directly effect flight control laws). Halogen type bulbs are used, dimmable in steps or stepless, where appropriate. FLIGHT PHASES Large surface dome lights comprising several bulbs and integrated emergency Performance and vertical and lateral lights provide shadow-free general illu- navigation obviously depend on the mination. Console lights and lighting phase of flight. The Flight Management below the pilots’ seats illuminate the and Guidance System (FMGS) comput- floor area. The pilot seats have been ers respond to changes of flight phase equally redesigned with optional head- automatically, altering performance rests and multiple adjustment facilities. /speed targets to fit with the phase of The seat cover tissue is the same mater- flight. ECAM information is presented ial as used in Porsche cars. in a pre-set sequence from start-up to Air-conditioning flow has been care- shut-down, as a function of each flight fully studied. The air is provided phase. Crew awareness of what flight through various outlets that can be phase the computers are in is important. controlled according to any demand, with a draft-free airflow. THE SIDESTICK Fasteners, nuts and bolts normally FLY-BY-WIRE visible on the instrument panels have been covered by lightweight molded History sheet material for a clean, calm and homogeneous aspect. From the early days of aviation until The pull-out folding table is very the times of the Stratocruiser and Super convenient for paperwork or when eat- Guppy, flying an airplane was often ing a meal. Ample stowage space is hard physical work. Battling against the provided for coats and on-board docu- elements, pilots had to navigate their mentation with space to be customised flying machines by manually operating for company items. control cables that were connected to Turning now to the instrument pan- the surfaces of flaps, ailerons, elevators els, several design principles have been and rudders. Larger and faster aircraft applied throughout : required more than human strength to ● Lights-out concept. control them. Powerful hydraulic sys- 4 FAST / NUMBER 20 tems which the pilot operated via the controls, cables and pulleys were intro- CONVENTIONAL FLYING CONTROLS duced. In the early 1980s, however, secondary flight control design began to utilise electrical signals from the control lever via computers to the hy- draulic actuators of the surfaces. The new fly-by-wire system extended this technology to primary flight controls. The conventional yoke was no longer needed because the flight deck com- mands were transmitted electronically. It was replaced by a smaller lever, the sidestick. The new system reduced the aircraft’s weight, the mechanical com- plexity and cut costs. For the pilot, the system enhances advantages mainly in terms of precision, safety and ergonomy. Through the mediating role of the computers which know the full scope of the technical and aerodynamic capabili- ties of the aircraft, the pilot can exploit these to the full without the risk of ex- ceeding the flight envelope. The enve- lope part of the fly-by-wire computers is pre-programmed to limit aircraft atti- tudes (in Normal Law) to 67 degrees of MODERN FLYING CONTROLS bank (2.5G in level flight) and usually B Aileron +30 to -15 degrees of pitch. Violations of speed limits (Vmo/Mmo, low G speeds), are also protected against, re- Autopilot ELAC (2) gardless of pilot sidestick input. commands (1) Y

Technical B Spoilers Y Of all alternatives, thought of or tried out in a long development process, the designers, together with experienced LAF airline and test-pilots, retained the side- stick as it is today. The sidestick pro- vides no direct feedback through the Spoilers YY

grip. Feedback is indirect via the BG G G results of the application. The sidestick is moved against spring pressure and damping elements. The designers G SEC (3) wanted to avoid complex back-driven (1) (2) G feedback systems, sidestick linking, B Aileron jam or feedback monitoring devices, and control-splitting systems, all of which increase friction, weight, com- Hydraulic: plexity and cost and finally reduce LAF Load alleviation function B Blue system system reliability. ELAC Elevator and aileron computer G Green system The sidestick has no direct mechani- SEC Spoiler and elevator computer Y Yellow system cal connection to the control surface. The means of transmission from side- stick to computers to control surfaces is If an incapacitated pilot should freeze via shielded low impedance electric his sidestick into full deflection, the cables. As part of the A320 European other pilot simply presses his instinc- and US certification process, the sys- tive take-over pushbutton on his side- tem was bombarded by radiation from stick and immediately takes control. military radars and the aircraft was After holding the button depressed for deliberately flown into multiple light- 30 seconds, he can lock out the other ning strikes. There are no recorded sidestick completely. However, the last cases in airline service where electro- pilot to press and hold this button al- magnetic interference has affected ways takes control. the A319, A320, A321, A330 or A340 If both pilots make a sidestick input fly-by-wire systems. In fact, it is under- together, the result is the algebraic sum stood that the US FAA electromagnetic of both inputs. It is, therefore, impor- protection standards for fly-by-wire tant in the training environment to give transports have now been reduced. priority to the other cues which mea- FAST / NUMBER 20 5 sure trainee inputs, such as the visual 33 degrees bank, when releasing the cues used in the past. It is important for stick, it returns to 33 degrees. To per- pilots to be clear about the allocation of form a steep turn at 45 degrees or 60 control. degrees of bank, the stick must be held into the turn and pulled in order to Control in Pitch maintain level flight. In alternate law in roll, the sidestick Control is via the computers. commands control surfaces directly, Throughout the flight, the elevators which is virtually the same as a conven- move under the control of the flight tional aircraft. It may be found that al- computers with no pilot input needed to ternate law roll is rather more sensitive maintain a 1.0G flight. than normal law. In normal or alternate law the side- stick does not select a control deflection The Sidestick - practical or attitude directly, as would be the case with a conventional aircraft, and It takes most pilots 10 minutes (i.e. the elevator deflection is not propor- one traffic pattern) to get used to it. It tional to sidestick movement. A fore or enables the aircraft to be flown more aft sidestick application selects “G”. If precisely, and requires less effort. a pitch input is made and held, the air- The lack of “through-stick” feedback craft will pitch at a constant G until the is a much more minor issue in practice flight envelope limits are met. than might be expected. Alternative Moving the sidestick back creates a feedback cues are abundant and are demand greater than 1.0G, and forward quickly substituted for the traditional creates a demand less than 1.0G. When feel. the sidestick is released (stickfree), the The automatic trim function is a de- demand fed to the computers is to light once experienced and further im- maintain flight at 1.0G (relative to the proves precision flying. earth). One can, therefore, consider a selected input as a selected vector THRUST MANAGEMENT through space, which the computers will maintain, even through turbulence. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine There is no need to ride the sidestick Control) driven engines need electrical as may be done with conventional signals for thrust control. With this, the controls. weak points of conventional autothrot- In normal law there is no require- tles could be eliminated (GO-levers, ment to trim. Without autotrim, the fly- backdrives, clutches with spurious en- by-wire aircraft would be no different gine retards on take-offs, jams or run- from a conventional aircraft in that as it aways). In manual thrust, the pilot slows down, it would try to maintain its moves the thrust levers between idle in-trim speed, and as a result would and full thrust as usual. In autothrust, pitch nose down, losing altitude. the thrust levers are set to a fixed posi- However, in normal law, the flight con- tion which defines the maximum thrust trol computers now detect a pitch-down available. No thrust rating panel is re- tendency as a G less than 1.0G and so quired. Whether in manual or auto- cause the elevators to move up, return- thrust, speed and power changes are ing the aircraft to flight at 1.0G. As a monitored via N1, indicated speed and result, the aircraft will decelerate in speed trend as on any aircraft. level flight with no pilot input, main- Compared to the old system, this new taining 1.0G to the earth and continu- system has a reliability which is in- ously adjusting the trim until it reaches creased by an order of magnitude. the flight envelope protection. It may take a few minutes to get used to the thrust levers. It is a training issue Control in Roll and experience shows, all pilots master the thrust levers after some practice in In normal law in roll, the sidestick the simulator. demands roll rate. If the sidestick input in roll is held, the aircraft will roll until THRUST LEVERS the flight envelope limits are met. This is apparent during a crosswind take-off, ● In manual thrust, the thrust levers are if a normal control input is made into handled as on any other aircraft. They wind and held after rotation. While on can be set to 4 gates (see Figure 1). the runway, the sidestick applies aileron These gates define the maximum thrust directly, and then when airborne as the available up to that gate (TOGA, flight control laws blend in, the aircraft FLEX/MCT, CLIMB (CLB) and will roll into the crosswind at a rate IDLE). proportional to the sidestick deflection. ● Automatic thrust is armed when the Up to 33 degrees of bank, the aircraft is thrust levers are moved forward of the automatically trimmed and maintains CLB gate (TOGA or FLEX on take-off level flight (no nose drop). Above with Flight Director on). 6 FAST / NUMBER 20 ● At thrust reduction to CLB (i.e. Figure 1 when the thrust levers are pulled back from TOGA or FLEX to the CLB A320 thrust levers gate), autothrust mode engages. ● In autothrust, the cue of thrust lever A/THR range

FLX T/O dc

c‡Pd

y8dd

cyPddddd

cyPddddddd

yPdddddddddd

yPdddddddddddd

yPdddddddddddddddd

yPdddddddddddddddddd

cyPddddddddddddddddddddd

cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddd

cyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc

cyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAufyPddTu

ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTcPdddddddddddTu

QddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

†Rdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@wfsdwsdwesRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd sRHcRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

csRddddddddddddddddddddddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddTuc

csRddddddddddddddddddd csRddddddddddddddddddddTuc

sRdddddddddddddddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddTu

sRdddddddddddddd sRdddddddddddddddddddTuc

csRddddddddddd sRddddddddddddddddddTu

sRdddddddd csRdddddddddddddddTu

sRdddddd csRdddddddddddddTu

csRddd sRdddddddddddddddTuc

csRd csRddddddddddddddTuc

sRddddddddddddddTu

sRdddddddddddddTuc

sRddddddddddddTu

sRdddddddddddTuc

sRddddddddddTu

sRddddddddddTu

csRdddddddddTu

sRdddddddddddTuc

sRddddddddddTu

sRddddddddddTu

csRdddddddddTu

sRddddddddTu

sRdddddddTuc

csRddddddddTuc

sRdddddddTuc ‡Pdd

csRddddddddTuc UddS

csRddddddddTuc dddr

csRddddddddTuc ctdddc

sRddddddddTu cUddSc

csRdddddddTu tdddrc

csRdddddddTu UddS

csRddddddddTuc dddr

csRdddddddTu cddTˆc ctddSc

dddddc sRdddddddTuc tdddAˆ cUddrc

dv csRdddddddTu UddddI tddd

dd sRdddddddTuc dddddd UddS

sRdddddddTuc dddddddTˆc dddr

csRddddddTuc ctddddddddAˆ ctdddc

sRddddddTu cUdddddddddAˆc cUddSc

csRddddddTuchftdddddddddddAˆ tdddrc

sRddddddTuheUddddddddddddAˆc UddS

sRddddddTuhddddddddddddddAˆ ctdddr

sRddddddTufdddddddddddddddAˆc cUddSc

csRdddddTcPdddddddddddddddddAˆ cdddrc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddAˆc tddd

cs9dddddddddddddddddddddAu UddS

movement is not available. Engine in- xdddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ ctdddr

cddddddddddddddddddddddddAˆc cUddSc

tdddddddddddddddddddddddddAu cdddrc

UdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ tddd

dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAˆchfUddS

ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAˆhectdddr

MCT ‡8dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuchcUddSc

UddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆcgcdddrc

ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAugtddd

ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆfUddS

csRdHcRddddddddddddddddddddddAˆcctdddr

csRdddddddddddddAuy8ddSc

sRddddddddddddrc

csRddddddS

cddddr

cddddc

cdddSc

TOGA tdddrc

UddS

ctdddr

cUdddc

dTˆc cdddSc

xdIc cdddrc

cQdv tddS

c†9I Uddr

xdvc ctdddc

cQAˆ cUddSc

cxdI tdddrc

ddvc UddS

QdIc ctdddr

†9dv cUdddc

cxdI cdddSc

Qdvc cdd@‰c

xdIc cdH‰

cQdv

cdTˆ c†9Aˆc

cxdI xdIc

Qdvc cQdv

†9Aˆ cxdI

c†9Aˆc Qdvc

xdAˆ xdAˆ

cQdAˆc cQdI

c†9dAˆ cxdd

†9dI Qdvc

c†9dvc xdIc

†9Aˆ cQdv

c†9Aˆc

c†9Aˆc Climb xdAˆ xdIc

cQdI cQdv

c†9dvc cxdI

†9Aˆ Qdvc

c†9Aˆc xdIc

†9Aˆ cQdv

c†9Aˆc c†9I

xdIc xdvc

cQdv cQAˆ

c†9Aˆc cxdI

xdAˆ Qdvc

cQdAˆc xdIc

c†9dAˆ cQdv

†9dAˆc cxdAˆc

c†9dAˆ QdIc

†9dAˆc †9dv

c†9dAˆ cxdI

†9dI ddvc

c†9dvc QdIc

xdAˆ †9dv

cQdAˆc cxdI

c†9dAˆ Qdvc

†9dI xdAˆ

c†9dvc cQdI

†9Aˆ cxdd

cxdAˆc Qdvc

†9Aˆ QdAˆ Instinctive

†9dI cxdI

c†9dvc Qdvc

xdAˆ xdIc

cQdAˆc cQdv

c†9dAˆ cxdI

†9dI Qdvc

c†9dvc xdIc

†9Aˆ cQdv

c†9Aˆc cxdAˆc

xdAˆ QdIc

cddAˆc †9dv

cdAˆ cxdI

cQdAˆc Qdvc

c†9dAˆ xdIc

†9dAˆc cQdv

c†9dIc c†9Aˆc

†9dv xdIc

cxdAˆc cQdv

cxdI dications, indicated speed and speed QdAˆ

†9dAˆc Qdvc

c†9dIc †9Ic

†9dv cxdv

c†9Aˆc QI

xdAˆ xdvc

cQdAˆc cQAˆ c‡Eˆ

c†9dIc cxdI ‡8dI

†9dv dd UddS

c†9Aˆc Qdvc ctdddr

†9Aˆ †9Aˆ cUdddc

cxdAˆc cxdI cdddSc

QdIc Qdvc tdddrc

†9dv xdIc UddS

c†9Aˆc cQdv ctdddr

†9Aˆ cxdI cUdddc

c†9Aˆc Qdvc cdddSc

xdAˆ xdAˆ tdddrc

cQdAˆc cQdI Uddd

c†9dvc dddS

c†9dAˆ Idle †9dI xdIc ctdddr

c†9dvc cQdv cUddSc

†9Aˆ cxdI cdddrc

cxdAˆc Qdvc tddd

QdAˆ xdIc UddS

†9dAˆc cQdv ctdddr

c†9dIc c†9Aˆc cUddSc

†9dv xdIc tdddrc

c†9Aˆc cddc Uddd

†9Aˆ cQdv ctdddS

cxdAˆc c†9Aˆc cUdddr

QdAˆ xdIc cdddSc

†9dI cQdv tdddrc

c†9dvc cxdI UddS

†9Aˆ Qdvc ctdddr

cxdAˆc xdIc cUdddc

QdAˆ cQdv cdddSc

†9dAˆc c†9IhecyPddc tdddrc

c†9dIc xdvcgcyPddddc UddS

†9dv cQIcfcyPddddddc ctdddr

c†9Aˆc cxdcecyPddddddddc cUddSc

†9Aˆ dddddddddddddddc tdddrc

cxdAˆc ctdddddddddddddddc Uddd

y8dddddddddddddddc dddS

QdIc Reverse

†9dv cyPddddddddddddddddddc ctdddr

c†9Aˆc cyPddddddddddddddddddddc cUddSc

†9Aˆ c‡Pddddddddddddddddddddddc cdddrc

c†9Aˆc cBdddddddddddddddddddddddc tddd ‡Pdc

†9Aˆ cxdddddddddddddddddddddddc UddS UdSc

c†9Aˆc Qddddddddddddddddddddddc ctdddr ctd@‰c

xdIc †Rdddddddddddddddddddddc cUdddc ‡8@‰

cQdv cddddddddddddddddddddv tdddSc c‡8@‰c

c†9Aˆc cQdddddddddddddddddddI Udddrc cUdr

†9Aˆ c†9ddddddddddddddddddd dddS tdSc

c†9Aˆc †9dddddddddddddddddS ctdddr c‡8drc

†9Aˆ c†9ddddddddddddddddc cUdddc ‡8dS

cxdAˆc †9dddddddddddddddI tdddSc c‡8d@‰

QdAˆ c†9ddddddddddddddd Udd@‰c cUd@‰c

†9dI †9dddddddddddddd dddr td@‰

c†9dvc c†9ddddddddddddd ctdddc c‡8@‰c

†9Aˆ †9dddddddddddd cUddSc ‡8dr

c†9Aˆc c†9ddddddddddd tdddrc UdSc

xdAˆ xdddddddddddvc UddS ctd@‰c

cQdI cQddddddddddIc dddr ‡8@‰

c†9d c†9ddddddddddc ctddSc c‡8drc

†9dTˆc †9dddddddddc cUddrc cUdS

c†9dIc cxdddddddddc tddd tddr

†9dv Qddddddddc UddS c‡8dSc

cxdAˆc †9dddddddc dddr ‡8d@‰c

QdAˆ c†9ddddddv dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd ‡8uchctdddc Ud@‰

†9dIhfc‡PdTˆ †9dddddI dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd UddTucgcUddSc ctd@‰c

c†9dvchey8dddI c†9ddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddTucftdd@‰c ‡8@‰

xddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddTuccy8ddr c‡8drc

†9Aˆh‡Pdddddd disconnect c†9Aˆcfcy8ddddddd cQdddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddc cUdS

†9Aˆec‡Pdddddddddvc c†9dddvc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddv td@‰

c†9Aucy8ddddddddddIc †9ddIc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddAuc c‡8drc

xddddddddddddddddc cxdddc yPdTˆc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddTuc cUdS

cddddddddddddddddc QddvhecyPdddddddIc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddTuc td@‰

cddddddddddddddddv xddIhyPdddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddd c‡8@‰c

yPdddddddddddddddddI cdddecyPddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddd ‡8dr

‡Pdddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddS c‡8dSc

cy8ddddddddddddddddddddd yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddd@‰ cUd@‰c

c‡Pdddddddddddddddddddddddvc cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd ddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c tddr

cBddddddddddddddddddddddddIc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddd@‰ c‡8dSc

c†9ddddddddddddddddddddddddc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd ctddddddddddddddddddd@‰c ‡8d@‰c

†9dddddddddddddddddddddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cUdddddddddddddddddd@‰ Ud@‰

c†Rddddddddddddddddddddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddddddddddddddddd@‰c ctddrc

cs9ddddddddddddddddddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddddddd@‰ ‡8dS

†Rdddddddddddddddddddv cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddddddddddddddd@‰c c‡8d@‰

s9dddddddddddddddddI cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddddd@‰ cUd@‰c

c†Rddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddddddddddddddrc td@‰

cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddddS c‡8@‰c

trend are used as unambiguous thrust cs9dddddddddddddddvc †9ddddddddddddddIc cxdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddddd@‰ ‡8dr

c†Rddddddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddddddddddd@‰c UdSc

cs9ddddddddddddv dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddddddddd@‰ ctd@‰c

†9dddddddddddI Qddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuyPddTuc cdddddddddd@‰c ‡8dr

c†9ddddddddddd xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddddddr UdSc

†9ddddddddddvc cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc yPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tdddddddddSc ctd@‰c

c†RdddddddddIc cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Udddddddd@‰c ‡8@‰

cs9ddddddddv cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddd@‰ c‡8@‰c

†9dddddddI cxdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc yPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ddddddddrc cUdr

c†9ddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddchyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHcRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddS tdSc

†9ddddddvc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddcecyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwcs9dddc sdwcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddd@‰ c‡8@‰c

c†9dddddIc QddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc dddc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ddddd@‰c ‡8dr

†9dddddv xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cUdddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddddr UdSc

c†9ddddI cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cddddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cUddddSc ctd@‰c

†9dddd cyAˆ cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cddddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddd@‰c ‡8@‰

c†9dddvc cyPddI cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cddddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddr c‡8drc

†9ddIchfcyPdddddvc cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cQdddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tdddSc cUdS

c†9ddvhecyPdddddddIc cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw dddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡PTu Udddrc td@‰

†9dIhyPdddddddddddc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cUdddc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc UdddTu dddS c‡8@‰c

c†RdgyPdddddddddddddv ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cQdddc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctdddddddTˆchfdddr ddTˆ ‡8dr

yPdddddddddddddddI y8ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cxdddc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUddddddddAuhectdddc QddAuc UdSc

yPdddddddddddddddddd yPddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@wc ctdddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddddddddTucgcUddSc †RdddTuc d@‰c

cyPdddddddddddddddddddddvc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cUdddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tddddddddddddddTucfcdddrc s9dddTˆc dd@‰

yPddddddddddddddddddddddddIc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwcedddc cddddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc UddddddddddddddddTucetddS c†RdddAˆ ctd@‰c

cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwcgdddv cQdddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddddddddddddddddddTuy8ddr csRddAuc ‡8dr

cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI cyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddHwhfdddI cxdddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUdddddddddddddddddddddddddv csRdddTˆ UdSc

yPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddHwc Qddd dddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc tddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc cs9ddAuc ctd@‰c

yPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc cyPddddddddddddddddddddddHwc xddd dddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddTu UddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc †RdddTuc ‡8@‰

yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv yPdddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cdddvc dddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu sRddddTu c‡8drc

cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI cyPddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cdddIc dddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu s9ddddTˆ cUdS

yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cyPddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cddddc dddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddTu tdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu c†RddddAuc td@‰

‡Pddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc yPddddddddddddddddddddddHw cQdddc dddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddTu UdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu csRddddTˆc c‡8@‰c

BdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc yPddddddddddddddddddddddHw cxdddc dddv csRddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cs9dddAu ‡8dr

xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc yPdddddddddddddddddddddHwc dddv dddI sRddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc †9ddddTˆ UdSc

cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv cyPdddddddddddddddddddddHw dddI dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆc c†RddddAuc ctd@‰c

cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI yPddddddddddddddddddddHw Qddd dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc csRddddTˆc ‡8dr

cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvcheyPddddddddddddddddddddHw xddd dddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddTu tddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cs9dddAu c‡8dSc

QdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIcgcyPdddddddddddddddddddHw cddd dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddTuc Uddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc †RddddTu cUd@‰c

xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddcfyPdddddddddddddddddddHwc cdddvc dddd sRddddddddddddddddddTuhectddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc sRddddTˆ td@‰

cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddceyPddddddddddddddddddHw cdddIc dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddTucgcUddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc s9dddAuc c‡8drc

cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cddddc dddd csRddddddddddddddddddTucfcddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS c†RddddTˆc ‡8dS

dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cQdddc dddd csRddddddddddddddddddTucetddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cs9dddAu Ud@‰

QdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cxdddc dddd sRddddddddddddddddddTc8dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc †RddddTˆ ctd@‰c

xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc dddv dddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc s9dddAuc ‡8dr

cQddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw dddI dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS c†RddddTˆc UdSc

cxdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc Qddd dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cs9dddAu ctd@‰c

QddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc xddd dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc †RddddTˆ cU@‰

xdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cdddvc dddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc cdddTˆ s9dddAuc c@‰c

cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cdddIc dddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc tddddAuc c†RddddTˆc

cQdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cddddc dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS UddddddTˆc cs9dddAˆ

cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHw cQdddc dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr ctddddddddAu †9dddAuc

QddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cxdddc dddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc cUddddddddddTˆ c†RddddTˆc

xddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc dddc dddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc tddddddddddddAuc cs9dddAu

cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@w dddc dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd UddddddddddddddTˆc †9ddddTˆ

cQddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc dddv dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS ctddddddddddddddddAu c†RddddAˆc

cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc dddI Qddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cUddddddddddddddddddTu csRdddAu

QdddddddddddddddddddddHws9ddIc Qddd cddd s9ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc tdddddddddddddddddddddTu cs9dddTˆ

cddddddddddddddddddHwcecxdddc xddd Uddd cxddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc UdddddddddddddddddddddddTu †RdddAˆc

cy8ddddddddddddddddHwcgQddv cdddvc Qddd ctddddHc9ddddddddddddddddddddS ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu s9ddAu

cyPdddddddddddddddHwhexddI cdddIc xddd cUdddce†Rdddddddddddddddddddr cUddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ c†9dddTu

cyPdddddddddddddddHwhfcdddvc cQdddc cdddvc cdddScfsRdddddddddddddddddv tddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc †RddddTˆ

cyPdddddddddddddddHw cQddIc cxdddc cdddIc tdddrcgsRdddddddddddddddAuc UdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ s9dddAˆc

cyPddddddddddddddHwc cxdddv dddv cddddc UddShecsRddddddddddddddTuc ctdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc c†RdddAu

cyPddddddddddddddHwc dddI dddI cddddc ctdddrhfcsRddddddddddddddTuc ‡8dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cs9dddTˆ

cyPddddddddddddddHwc Qddd Qddd cddddc cUdddc csRddddddddddddddTuc UddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆc †RdddAˆc

cyPddddddddddddddHwc xdddvc xddd cddddc cddddc csRddddddddddddddTuchfctddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAu s9ddAu

cyPdddddddddddddHw cQddIc cddd cddddc tdddSc csRddddddddddddddTˆchecUddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu c†9dddTˆ

cyPdddddddddddddHw cxdddv cddd cddddc Udddrc csRdddddddddddddAuhetdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu †RdddAˆc

cyPdddddddddddddHw QddI cdddvc cddddc ctdddS csRdddddddddddddTuhUdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ s9ddAu

cyPdddddddddddddHw xddd cQddIc cddddc cUdddr csRdddddddddddddTufctdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddI c†9dddTˆ

cyPdddddddddddddHw cdddvc cxdddc cddddc cdddSc csRdddddddddddddTˆecUdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd †RdddAˆc

cyPdddddddddddddHw cQddIc dddc cddddc tdddrc sRdddddddddddAuccddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS s9ddAu

cxdddv dddv cddddc UddS sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr c†9dddTˆ

cyPdddddddddddddHw pushbutton

cyPdddddddddddddHw QddI dddI cddddc ctdddr sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc †RdddAˆc

cyPdddddddddddddHw xddd Qddd cddddc cUdddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c s9ddAu

cyPdddddddddddddHw cdddvc xddd cddddc tdddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr c†9dddTˆ

c‡PdddddddddddddHw cQddIc cddd cQdddc Udddrc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc †RdddAˆc

y8ddddddddddddHw cxdddv cdddvc cxdddc dddS sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc s9ddAu

yPddddddddddddHw dddI cQddIc dddc ctdddr sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS c†9dddTˆ

‡PddddddddddddHw Qddd cxdddc dddc cUddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr †RdddAˆc

cy8dddddddddddHw xdddvc dddc dddc tdddrc s9ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc s9ddAˆ

cyPddddddddddd@w cQddIc dddc dddc Uddd c†Rdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc c†9ddAˆc

cyPddddddddddddH‰c cxdddv dddv dddc dddS csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS †9ddAu

c‡PddddddddddddHwc QddI dddI ctdddc ctdddr cs9ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@‰ c†9dddTˆ

y8ddddddddddd@wc xddd Qddd cUdddc cUddSc †Rddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc †9dddAˆc

yPddddddddddddH‰ cdddvc xddd cQdddv tdddrc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS c†RdddAˆ

yPddddddddddddHw cQddIc cddd cxdddI Uddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cs9ddAuchfc‡PTˆc

‡PddddddddddddHw cxdddv cdddvc dddd dddS s9ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc †RdddTˆche‡8ddIc

cy8ddddddddddd@w QddI cdddIc dddd ctdddr c†Rdddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc s9ddAˆhc‡8ddddv

cyPddddddddddddH‰c xddd cQdddc dddd cUddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddS c†9ddAˆcg‡8dddddI

cyPddddddddddddHwc cQddvc cxdddc dddd tdddrc s9ddddddddddddcddddddd@‰ †9ddAˆfc‡8ddddddd

cxddIc dddv dddd Uddd ‡Pddec†Rdddddddddddddddddddrc c†RddAucecUddddddddvc

cues. c‡Pdddddddddddd@wc

y8ddddddddddddH‰ dddv dddI dddd dddS Udddfcs9ddddddddddddddddS cs9ddTuccdddddddddIc

yPddddddddddddHw QddI Qddd dddd ctdddr ctdddSg†Rdddddddddddddddr †9dddddddddddddddv

‡PddddddddddddHw xddd xddd dddd cUddSc cUdddrhsRdddddddddddddc c†9ddddddddddddddI

c‡8dddddddddddHw cdddvc cddd yPddTuhdddd tdddrc tdddSches9dddddddddddc cddddddddddddddd

y8dddddddddd@w cQddIc cdddvc yPddddddTˆgdddd Uddd Udddrchec†RdddddddddddTu c‡8dddddddddddddddvc

‡PdddddddddddH‰c cxdddv cdddIc cddddddddddAˆcfdddd ctdddS ctdddS cs9dddddddddddTˆ ‡8ddddddddddddddddIc

cy8ddddddddddHwc QddI cQdddc c‡PddddddddTuchetdddfs9ddAˆfQddd cUdddr cUdddr †RdddddddddddAuc c‡8ddddddddddddddddddv

cyPddddddddddHwc xdddvc cxdddc ‡8dddddddddddTˆchUddSfc†9ddIfxddd cdddSc tdddSc sRdddddddddddTˆc ‡8dddddddddddddddddddI

c‡Pdddddddddd@wc cQddIc dddv c‡8dddddddddddddAˆgctdddrg†9ddfcddd tdddrc Udd@‰c s9ddddddddddAu c‡8dddddddddddddddddddddvc

‡8ddddddddddH‰ cxdddc dddI ‡PdTˆc ‡8dddddddddddddddIgcUddScgcxddvcecddd yPdddddddTuc c‡8ddS ctdddr c†RdddddddddddTu ‡8ddddddddddddddddddddddIc

cy8ddddddddd@w dddv Qddd UdddIc UdddddHwecs9dddddvcfcdddrchddIcecdddvc ‡PddddddddddddTˆ cUdddr cUddSc cs9dddddddddddTˆ Uddddddddddddddddddddddddv

cyPddddddddddH‰c QddI xddd dddddchfctdddddcg†9ddddAˆfcdddhctddScecdddIc c‡8ddddddddddddddAˆc cdddSc tdddrc †RdddddddddddAuc dddddddddddddddddddddddddI

c‡Pdddddddddd@wc xdddvc cddd dddddchfcUddddScgc†9ddddIfcQddvcgcUddrcecddddc ‡8ddddddddddddddddAˆ cdddrc c‡8ddS sRdddddddddddTˆc Qdddddddddddddddddddddddddvc

y8ddddddddddH‰ cQddIc cdddvc ctdddddchfcdddddrchxdddddvcecxddAˆgcdddfcddddc c‡8ddddd@wecsRddddddI tddd cUdd@‰ s9ddddddddddAu †RddddddddddddddddddddddddAˆ

‡Pdddddddddd@w cxdddc cdddIc ‡8dddddchftddddShecQddddIcfQddAˆcfcddSfcdddSc cUddddd@‰cfcs9dddddvchcdddddTu UddS tdddrc c†RdddddddddddTu csRddddddddddddddddddddddI

cy8ddddddddddH‰c Qddv cQdddchfcy8ddddddchfUddddrhecxdddddcfxdddAueyPdd@‰fcddd tddddd@‰h†9ddddIchtdddddddddTu ctdddr UddS csRdddddddddddTˆ sRddddddddddddddddddddvc

cyPddddddddddHwc xddI cxdddchecyPddddddddvhfdddddchfdddddvfcdddddddddd@‰cftddddc Udddd@‰chcxdddddchUddddddddddddddTuc cUddSc ctdddr cs9ddddddddddAˆc s9ddddddddddddddddddIc

c‡Pdddddddddd@wc cdddvc dddch‡PdddddddddddIhfdddddchfQddddIgs9ddddddH‰gddddrc dddddrhfdddddvhdddddddddddddddddddd tdddrc ‡8ddSc †9ddddddddddAˆ c†Rddddddddddddddddddv

‡8ddddddddddH‰ cQddIc dddchUdddddddddddddhfdddddchfxdddddgc†RdddHwhxddd QddddchfddddddgctdddddddddddddddddddS UddS Udddrc c†RddddddddddAuc csRddddddddddddddddI

cy8ddddddddd@w cxdddv dddvhddddddddddddddhfdddddchfcddddd cdddvc †RddSchfdddddrgcUddd@wcsRdddddddddddr dddr ctdddS cs9ddddddddddTˆc csRdddddddddddddddvc

cyPdddddddddd@‰c QddI QddIhQdddddddddddddhfdddddchfcdddddvc cdddIc s@‰chfdddddcgcddddrgcsRddddddchcyPdTu ctdddc cUdddr †9ddddddddddAu sRddddddddddddAˆ

c‡PdddddddddddH‰ xddd xdddh†RHwfcdddddhfdddddchfcdddddIc cddddc dddddcgtddddchecsRddcgc‡PddddddTˆc cUddSc tdddSc c†RdddddddddddTˆ s9dddddddddddI

y8dddddddddd@w cdddvc cyPdddTu cddd cdddddhfdddddchfcQdddddc cddddc ctdddddcgUdddSc ‡8ddddddddAˆ tdddrc Udddrc cs9ddddddddddAuc c†Rdddddddddddvc

‡PdddddddddddH‰c cQddIc c‡PdddddddTˆhfcdddvc cdddddvchedddddchfcxdddddc cddddc ‡8ddddScgddddrc c‡8ddHwccs9ddAˆc Uddd ctdddS †RdddddddddddTˆc csRdddddddddAu

c‡8ddddddddddHwc cxdddc ‡8dddddddddAˆchecdddIc cdddddIchedddddv dddddc cddddc c‡8dddddrcfctdddd ‡8d@wcf†9ddIc dddS cUdd@‰ s9ddddddddddAu csRdddddddddTˆ

y8ddddddddd@wc Qddv c‡8dd@wces9ddIchecQdddc cddddddchedddddI dddddc cQdddc y8dddddSgcUdddS Uddrgcxdddv ctdddr tdddrc c†RdddddddddddTˆ csRddddddddAˆc

‡Pdddddddddd@‰ xddI cUdd@‰fc†9ddvhecxdddc cQdddddcheQddddd dddddc cxdddc yPdddddddrgtdddd‰ dddchdddI cUddSc c‡8ddS cs9ddddddddddAˆc csRdddddddAˆ

c‡8ddddddddddH‰c cdddvc cdddrcgxddIhfdddv cxdddddchexddddd dddddc ctdddc yPdddddddddcgUddddddddddddTˆchfdddchQddd tdddrc cUdddr †RddddddddddAˆ cs9ddddddAˆc

‡8ddddddddd@wc cQddIc cdddhcdddhfdddI dddddchecddddd dddddc cUdddc yPdddddddddd@whddddddddddddddAuhfdddchxddd UddS tdddSc s9dddddddddAuc †RddddddAˆ

cy8ddddddddd@‰ cxdddv cdddhcdddhfdddd dddddchecdddddvchectdddddc cddddc yPdddddddddddH‰cgctddddddddddddddddTˆhedddchtddS dddr Udddrc c†9ddddddddddTˆc s9dddddAˆc

c‡PddddddddddH‰c QddI yPdddddTuchcdddhcdddhfQddd dddddvhecdddddIchecUdddddc cddddc cyPddddddddddddHwchcUdddddddddddddddddAˆchQddvhUddr ctdddc ctdddS †RddddddddddAˆ c†9dddddAc

y8ddddddddd@wc xddd ‡PdddddddddTucgcdddhtdddhfxddd dddddIhecQdddddchecddddddc cQdddc c‡PdddddddddddHwhfcQdddddHwcesRddddddAˆhxddAˆcfctdddc cUddSc cUdddr sRdddddddddAuc †9ddddrc

‡Pdddddddddd@‰ cdddvc c‡8ddddddddddddTˆcfcQddvcgUdddhfcddd QdddddhecxdddddvhecdddddSc cxdddc ‡8ddddddddHw c†RddHwcgs9dddddIhcQddAˆfy8ddSc tdddrc tdddSc s9dddddddddTˆc c†RddS

c‡8ddddddddddH‰c cQddIc ‡8ddddddddddddddAˆfcxddAˆfctdddShfcdddvc xdddddhfQddddIhecdddddrc dddc c‡8dddddddHw c†9dddddvcgc†9ddAucyPddd@‰c UddS Udddrc c†9dddddddddAˆ cs@‰

‡8ddddddddd@wc cxdddv c‡8dddddHwcsRddddddIgQddAucey8dd@‰hfcdddIc cdddddhfxdddddvchtddddd dddc cUddddddHw xdddddIch†RddddddddH‰ ctdddr ctdddS †9dddddddddAuc

cy8ddddddddd@‰ QddI cUdddd@wfcs9dddddvcf†9ddddddddd@‰chfcQdddc cdddddhfcQddddAˆhUddddS dddc tddddd@w cQdddddchesRddddHw cUdddc ‡8dd@‰ c†RddddddddddTˆc

c‡PddddddddddH‰c xdddvc tdddd@‰cg†9ddddAˆfc†RdddddddH‰ cxdddc cdddddhfcxdddddAucgdddddr dddc Udddd@‰c cxdddddc cdddSc Udddrc cs9dddddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddddd@wc cQddIc UddddrhcxdddddIgcsRdddHw dddc cdddddvchfQddddddTucyPddddddSc dddc ctdddddc dddddc tdddrc ctdddS †9dddddddddAuc

cy8ddddddddd@‰ cxdddc dddddcheQdddddvc Qddv cdddddIchf†9ddddddddddddddd@‰c dddc cUdddddAuc cydu dddddc UddS cUdddr c†RddddddddddTˆc

c‡PddddddddddH‰c dddv c‡Pddc dddddche†9ddddAˆ xddI cddddddchfc†9ddddddddddddd@‰ dddc tdddddddddddTu ddddTˆ dddddc dddr tdddSc cs9dddddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddddd@wc QddI cUdddv dddddchecxdddddI cddd cQdddddc †RdddddddddddH‰c dddc 9ddddddddddddddddTuchedddddIhfctdddddc ctdddc Udddrc †9dddddddddAuc

cy8ddddddddd@‰ xddd cddddI dddddchfQddddd cddd cxdddddc sRdddddddHwc dddc †RddddddddddddddddddddTugQdddddhfcUddddSc cUddSc ctdddS c†RddddddddddTˆc

c‡PddddddddddH‰c cQddvc cddddd dddddchfxdddddvc cdddvc dddddc dddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddcfxdddddhftdddddrc tdddrc ‡8dd@‰ cs9dddddddddAˆ

y8ddddddddd@wc cxddIc cdddddvchfdddddchfcQddddIc cdddIc dddddc dddc csRddddddddddddddddcfcdddddvchc‡8ddddd UddS Udddrc †9dddddddddAˆc

‡Pdddddddddd@‰ dddv tdddddIchfdddddchfcxdddddv cQdddc QdddSc dddc sRdddddddddddcfcQddddAˆh‡8dddddS ctdddr ctdddS c†9dddddddddAu

c‡8ddddddddddH‰c QddI Uddddddvhfdddddc dddddI cxdddc †RdH‰c dddc sRdddddcfcxdddddAucfcy8ddddd@‰ cUddSc cUdddr †RddddddddddTˆ

‡8ddddddddd@wc xddd ctdddddddIhfdddddv dddddd dddc dddc QdddddddTuyPddddddddrc cdddrc tdddSc s9dddddddddAˆc

c‡8dddddddddH‰ cdddvchfy8ddddddddhfQddddI Qddddd dddv dddc †Rdddddddddddddddddd tddd yPdddTuc Udd@‰c c†RdddddddddAˆ

‡8dddddddddc cQddIcheyPddddddddddvchexddddd xdddddvc dddI dddv sRddddddddddddd@wc UddShfcyPdddddddddTˆ ctdddr cs9ddddddddAˆc

cy8ddddddddddc cxdddvhcdddddddddddddIchecdddddvchfcdddddIc Qddd dddI cyPd sRddddddddddH‰ ctdddrhec‡PddddddddddddAuc ‡8ddSc †9ddddddddAu

c‡PdddddddddHw QddIhcddddddddddddddchecQddddIchfcQdddddc xddd dddd cyPddd sRdddddHwc cUddSche‡8dddddddddddddddTˆc Udddrc c†9dddddddddTˆ

‡8dddddddd@w xdddvcgcQddddHwcs9ddddvhecxdddddchfcxdddddc cddd dddd cyPdddddvc tdddrchc‡8dddddddddddddddddAˆ ctdddS †9dddddddddAˆc

cy8dddddddd@‰c cdddIcgc†RdHwfxddddIhfdddddv dddddc cdddvc dddd cyPdddddddddIc UddShe‡8ddddddHwfsRdddddI cUdddr c†9dddddddddAˆ

dddddddddd@‰ cQdddc cdddddhfQddddI dddddc cdddIc dddd yPdddddddddddddc dddrhc‡8ddddd@whs9dddd tdddSc †9dddddddddAˆc

ddddddddd@‰c c†9ddv cQddddvchexdddddvchfdddddc cQdddc dddd cyPddddddddddddddddc ctdddchcUddddd@‰chcxddddvc Udd@‰c c†RdddddddddAˆ

c‡Pddddddddd@‰ xddI cxddddIchecQddddIchfdddddc cxdddc Qddd cyPddddddddddddddddddddc cUddSchtddddd@‰hfddddIc ctdddr cs9ddddddddAuc

‡8ddddddddd@‰c cdddvc dddddchecxdddddvhectdddddc dddc cddd yPddddddddddddddddddddddSc tdddrcgc‡8dddd@‰chfdddddc cUdddc †9dddddddddTˆc

c‡8ddddddddd@‰ cQddIc QddddvhfQddddAˆchcUddddSc dddv ddddhfyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddrc UddSh‡8dddddr dddddc tdddSc c†9dddddddddAˆ

y8ddddddddd@‰c cxdddc xddddAˆche†9ddddAˆhtdddddrc dddI cdddgyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd ctdddrhUddddddc dddddc c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddddAˆc

‡Pdddddddddd@‰ dddv cdddddIchecxdddddAˆcfc‡8ddddd dddd Uddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cUdddchdddddddddddddTucgdddddc cUdddr c†9dddddddddAˆ

c‡8ddddddddddH‰c QddI cQdddddchfQdddddAufy8dddddS cyPddddddddTuc dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddScgctdddddddddddddddTˆcfQddddcgyPdddTuchftdddSc †RdddddddddAˆc c‡PTˆc

‡8ddddddddd@wc xddd cxdddddchf†9dddddddddddddddd@‰ cyPdddddddddddddTˆ cyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd tdddrcgcUddddddddddddddddAˆf†Rdddcf‡PdddddddTˆcheUdddrc s9ddddddddAu ‡8ddAˆ

c‡8ddddddddd@‰ cQddvc dddddvhfc†9dddddddddddddd@‰c c‡PddddddddddddddddAuc cyPTuyPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu UddShtddddddd@wsRdddddddAˆchec‡8dddddddddAˆhctdddS c†9dddddddddTˆ UddddAˆc

‡8ddddddddd@‰c cxddIc QddddI †9ddddddddddddH‰ ‡8dddddddddddddddddddd cyduyPddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddrhUddddddH‰cesRddddddAˆhecUdddHwccs9ddAˆcgcUdddr †9dddddddddAˆc ddddddAˆ

c‡8dddddddddH‰ Qddv xdddddvchfc†RdddddddddHw c‡8dddddddddddddddddddddvc yPddddddddddddddddddddddddHwgcs9ddd@whesRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctdddchddddddhcs9ddddIhetdddg†9ddIcgtdddSc c†RdddddddddIc dddddddddD

‡8dddddddd@w xddI cQddddIc sRddddHw cUddddddddddddddddddddddAˆ yPdddddddddddddddddddHwc xdddrchfcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddhfsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUddScgctdddddShexdddddheUddSgcxdddcgUdd@‰c cs9ddddddddc dddddddd@‰

c‡8dddddddd@‰c cdddvc cxdddddv tddddddddddddddddddddddddIhecyPdddddddddddddddddHw cdddvc sRdddddddddddddddddddddd sRddddddddddddddddddddTu tdddrcgcUdddd@‰hecdddddvchdddrhdddvfctdddr †9ddddddddTˆ ddddddddd@‰c

y8dddddddd@‰ cQddIc dddddI UdddddddddddddddddddddddddvcfyPdddddddddddddddHwc cdddIc csRddddddddddddddddddd csRddddddddddddddddddTuc UddShcdddddrchecQddddIchdddchdddIf‡8ddSc c†9ddddddddAˆc ctdddddddd@‰

‡Pddddddddd@‰c cxdddc Qddddd ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuyPdddddddddddHwc cddddc csRddddddddddddddddd sRdddddddddddddddTuc dddrhcdddddhfcxdddddchdddchdddSfUdddrc †9ddddddddAˆ ‡8ddddddd@‰c

c‡8ddddddddd@‰ dddv xdddddvc cUdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cddddc csRddddddddddddddd csRdddddddddddddddTu ‡PTˆ ctdddchcddddd dddddchdddvhdddrectdddS c†9ddddddddAˆc cy8ddddddd@‰

cUddddddddd@‰c QddI cdddddIc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddHwc cdddSc sRdddddddddddd csRddddddddddddTuc UddAˆc cUddSchcdddddhfctdddddchQddIgctdddcecUdddr †9ddddddddAˆ ddddddddd@‰c

cdddddddddH‰ xdddvc cddddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddd sRdddddddddd sRdddddddddddddTuc ddddAˆ tdddrchcdddddhfcUdddddchxdddvcf‡8ddScetdddSc c†9ddddddddAuc dddddddd@‰

‡Pdddddddd@w cQddIc cQdddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cdddIc sRdddddddd csRdddddddddddTu ctdddddAˆc UddShecdddddhfcdddddSchcQddAuecy8dd@‰ceUdd@‰c †9dddddddddTˆc ddddddddd@‰c

cxdddv c†RdHw cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddc csRddddd csRddddddddddTuc cUddddddAˆ dddrhecdddddvchetdddddrchc†9ddddddddd@‰ectdddr c†9dddddddddAˆhfctdddddddddr ● c‡8dddddddd@‰c

‡8dddddddd@‰ dddI tddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddc cs9ddd sRddddddddddTu tddddddddAuc ctdddchecQddddAˆhc‡8ddddShf†RdddddddH‰ce‡8ddSc †RdddddddddAˆche‡8dddddddddc

c‡8dddddddd@‰c Qddd c‡8ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cddddc †Rdd sRddddddddddTu UddddddddddTˆc cUddSchecxdddddAˆcg‡8dddddr csRddHwcfUdddrc s9ddddddddAˆhc‡8ddddddd@w

‡8dddddddd@‰ xdddvc y8dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS cddddc csRdddddddddTu ddddddddddddAu tdddrchfQdddddAufcy8dddddSc ctdddS c†9ddddddddAˆcg‡8ddddddd@‰c

c‡8dddddddd@‰c cQddIc yPdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cddddc sRddddddddTu ddddddddddddddTˆ UddS †9ddddddTuyPddddddd@‰c cUdd@‰ †9ddddddddAˆfc‡8ddddddd@‰

‡8dddddddd@‰ cxdddv yPddddddHws9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cddddc csRddddddddTuchedddddddddddddddAˆc ctdddr c†9ddddddddddddddd@‰ tdddrc c†9ddddddddAˆce‡8ddddddd@‰c

c‡8dddddddd@‰c QddI cyPddddddHwcecxddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc cddddc csRddddddddTucfctddddddddddddddddAˆ cUddSc †Rddddddddddddd@‰c c‡8ddS †9ddddddddAˆc‡8ddddddd@‰

‡8dddddddd@‰ xddd cyPdddddddHwhQdddddddddddddddddddddddddrc cddddc csRdddddddTuey8dddddddddddddddddAˆc tdddrc sRddddddddddH‰ cUdddr c†9ddddddddAc8ddddddd@‰c

c‡8dddddddd@‰c cdddvc cyPddddddHwchexddddddddddddddddddddddddS cddddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddAu Uddd sRddddddHw tdddSc †Rdddddddddddddddd@‰

y8ddddddddH‰ cQddIc cyPddddddHwc cQdddddddddddddddddddddd@‰ cddddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddS c‡8dddrc s9ddddddddddddd@‰c

‡Pdddddddd@w cxdddc cyPddddddHwc c†9dddddddddddddddddddddrc cddddc s9ddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆ ctdd@‰ cUdddS c†9ddddddddddd@‰

c‡8dddddddd@‰c Qddv yPddddddHw †9dddddddddddddddddddd cQdddc cxdddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc cUddrc cddddr †9ddddddddddrc

‡8dddddddd@‰ xddI cyPdddddddHw c†Rdddddddddddddddd@wc dddc ctdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuchftddd tdddSc c†9ddddddddd

c‡8dddddddd@‰c cQddvc yPddddddHw csRddddddddddddd@‰ cUdddc cUdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucheUddS c‡8dd@‰c †9ddddddddvc

‡8dddddddd@‰ cxddIc cyPddddddHwc csRdddddddddddrc cddddc cddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆchdddr cUdddr c†9dddddddAˆ

c‡8dddddddd@‰c dddv yPdddddddHwc csRHws9ddd cQdddc tdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAugctdddc tdddSc ‡PdTˆcgyPTˆ ‡PTˆe†9dddddddAˆc

‡8dddddddd@‰ QddI cyPddddddHwc xdddvc cxdddv UdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufcUddSc Udddrc UdddAufyPdddI c‡8ddAec†9dddddddAˆ

c‡8dddddddd@‰c xdddvc cyPddddddHwc cQddIc dddI ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuetdddrc ctdddS dddddddddddddddd cUdddrf†9dddddddAˆc

cQddIc cyPdddddHw cxdddc dddd ctddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTc8ddd cUdddr QddddddddddddddS cdddScfcxddddddddAu Noise cues are of limited value ex- ‡8dddddddd@‰

c‡8dddddddd@‰c cxdddvhfyPdddddHwc dddc dddd c9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddS tdddSc †Rdddddddddddd@‰ cdddd@‰cgQddddddddddc

‡8dddddddd@‰ QddIheyPddddHw dddv dddd c†RdddHw sRdddddddddddddr c‡8dddrc s9ddddddddddrc tddddrh†9dddddddddv

c‡8dddddddd@‰c xdddgcyPdddddHw dddI dddd csRddddddddddc cUdddS c†9ddddddddS c‡8dddSchc†9ddddddddAˆc

‡8dddddddd@‰ cdddvcecyPddddHwc dddd dddd sRdddddddv tddd@‰ xddddddd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰che†RddddddddAˆ

Udddddddd@‰c cQddAucyPddddHwc Qddd dddd s9dddddAuc Udddrc cdddddd@‰c c‡8dddH‰ s9dddddddAˆc

ctddddddddH‰ cxdddddddddHwc xddd dddd cxddddddddTu ctdddS tddddddr ‡8dd@w c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8dddddd@w ddddddHw cdddvc dddd ctdd@wsRddddTu cUdddr UdddddSc c‡8dddrc †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8dddddd@‰c cyPddddddc cdddIc dddd cUddrcesRddddTu tdddSc ctddddd@‰c ‡8dddS c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8dddddddr cyPddddddddddc cQdddc dddd tdddgsRdddddTuc c‡8dddrc ‡8dddddr c‡8ddd@‰ †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8dddddddSc cyPddddddddHc9dddc cxdddc dddd UddShcsRddddTuc cUdddS c‡8dddddSc ‡8dddH‰c c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c cyPddddddddddHwccxdddv dddc dddd ctdddrhecsRddddTuc tddd@‰ cUddddd@‰c c‡8dd@wc †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ cyPddddddddddddddHwcfQddI dddv dddd cUddSc sRddddTˆ Udddrc tddddd@‰ ‡8dd@‰ c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c cyPdddddddddddddddd@wcgxddd dddI dddd tdddrc sRdddAuc ctdddS c‡8dddddrc c‡8dd@‰c xddddddddAˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ yPdddddddddddddddddddddd@‰hcdddvc dddd dddd Uddd sRdddTuc cUdddr ‡8dddddS ‡8dddr cQddddddddIc

‡8ddddddd@‰c dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddH‰chcQddIc Qddd dddd dddS sRddddTu tdddSc Uddddd@‰ c‡8ddddc c†9ddddddddv

c‡8ddddddd@‰ ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@wchecxdddv xddd dddd ctdddr sRddddTu c‡8dd@‰c ctddddd@‰c cyPddTˆc ‡8dd@w †9dddddddAˆc

‡8ddddddd@‰c Qddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@‰ QddI cdddvc dddd cUddSc sRddddTu cUdddr ‡8dddd@‰ yPddddddAˆ c‡8dd@‰c c†9dddddddAˆ

c‡8ddddddd@‰ xdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c xdddvc cdddIc dddd tdddrc sRddddTu tdddSc c‡8dddddrc cyPddddddddddD ‡8dd@‰ †RdddddddAuc

‡8ddddddd@‰c cQddddddddddddddddddddddddddddH‰ cdddIc cQdddc dddd UddS csRdddTu Udddrc ‡8dddddS cyPddddddddddddd@‰ c‡8dddrc cddddddddTˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ cxdddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cQdddc cxdddc Qddd ctdddr csRdddTuhfctdddS Uddddd@‰ yPddddddddddddddd@‰c ‡8dddd cQddddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c Qddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cxdddv dddv xddd cUdddc csRdddTuhecUdd@‰ ctddddddrc cyPddddddddddddddddddr c‡8ddd c†9ddddddddAˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ †9dddddddddddddddddddddd@w QddI dddI cddd cdddSc csRdddTuhtdddrc ‡8dddddS cyPdddddddddddHweddddddSc ‡8dddS †9ddddddddAˆ

cxddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c xdddvc dddd cddd tdddrc csRdddTugUddS Uddddd@‰hf‡PdddddddddddHwcectddddd@‰c c‡8dddH‰ c†9ddddddddI ‡8ddddddd@‰c Reverse

c‡8ddddddd@‰ dddddddddddddddddddd@‰ cQddIc Qddd cddd UddS cs9dddTˆectdddr ddddd@‰chec‡8dddddddddHwg‡8dddd@‰ cUdddc †9ddddddddvc

cUddddddddrc ctddddddddddddddddddd@‰c cxdddc xddd cddd ctdddr †RdddAucy8dddc Qddddrhf‡8dddddddHwchUdddddrc tdddSc c†9dddddddAˆ

tddddddddS y8dddddddddddddddddd@‰ dddv cddd cdddvc cUdddc sRddddddddSc †9ddSchfUdddddd@wchctdddddS c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ yPddddddddddddddddddd@‰c QddI cdddvc cdddIc cdddSc s9dddddd‰c c†RH‰chfdddddddche‡8dddd@‰heyPddddTu y8dd@‰ c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c c‡PddddHwcdddddddddddddd@‰ xdddvc cdddIc cddddc tdddrc cxdddddddTuc dddddddAˆcgc‡8dddd@‰ch‡PddddddddTˆ cdddd@‰c †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8ddddddd@‰ y8dddHwceQdddddddddddd@‰c cQddIc cQdddc cddddc UddS ddddddddddTu cs9dddddAug‡8dddddrhc‡8dddHwsRdddAˆc tddd@‰ cxddddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c cyPddddHwcfxddddddddddd@‰ cxdddv cxdddc cddddc ctdddr ctdddddddddddddTuc †RddddddTˆfUdddddSchcUdd@wfs9ddIc c‡8dd@‰c QddddddddI

c‡8ddddddd@‰ ‡PdddddHwcgcQddddddddd@‰c dddI dddv cdddSc cUddSc cUdddccs9dddddddddTu s9dddddAˆcctddddd@‰chtdddrcfcxdddv ‡8dd@‰ †9ddddddddvc

cUddddddd@‰c cy8ddddHwchcxdddddddd@‰ Qddd dddI cddd cdddrc tdddScexdddddddddddTu c†9dddddAuy8dddd@‰heUddShQddI cy8dd@‰c c†9dddddddAˆ

tddddddd@‰ cyPddddHwchfQdddddddrc xdddvc Qddd cdddIc tddd Udd@‰cecQddddddddddddddTu †Rddddddddddddrchedddrhxddd dddd@‰ †9dddddddAˆc

cy8dddddddrc cyPddd@w xddddddS cQddIc xddd cddddc UddS ctdddrfc†RdddddddddddddddddTu s9dddddddddShfdddchcddd ctddd@‰c c†9dddddddAˆ

dddddddddS c‡PddddH‰c cQdddd@‰ cxdddv cdddvc cddddc ctdddr ‡8ddSchddddddddddddddddddddTu c†9ddddddddrhfdddvhtddd ‡8dd@‰ †9dddddddI

ctdddddddd@‰ ‡8dddHwc cxddd@‰c QddI cdddIc cddddc cUdddc UdddrchQdddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddddddddvhfQddIhUddS c‡8dd@‰c cxddddddddvc

‡8ddddddd@‰c BddHwc Qd@‰ xdddvc cQdddc cddddc cdddSc ctdddShe†9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTˆc tddddddddAuchexdddvcfctdddr ‡8dd@‰ QdddddddAˆ

c‡8ddddddd@‰ †Cwc †C‰c cQddIc cxdddc cddddc tdd@‰c cUdddrhec†9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddIc UdddddddddddhecQddAufy8ddSc c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddAˆc

cUddddddd@‰c cxdddc dddc cddddc Uddr tdddSchf†9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc ctddddddddddddhec†9ddddTcPddd@‰c ‡8dd@‰ c†9dddddddAˆ

tddddddddr dddv dddc cddddc ctdddc c‡8dd@‰chfc†9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddSc ‡8dddd@ws9dddShf†RddddddddH‰ c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddAˆc

c‡8dddddddSc QddI dddv cddddc cUddSc cUdddr †9ddddddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c c‡8dddd@‰cc†9d@‰ sRddddHw ‡8dd@‰ c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c xddd dddI cddddc tdddrc tdddSc c†9ddddddddddddddddddddddddr cUdddddrf†C‰c c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddI

c‡8ddddddd@‰ cdddvc Qddd cddddc UddS Udddrc xdddddddddddddddddddddddSc cQddddSc ‡8dddr c†9dddddddvc

cUddddddd@‰c cQddIc xddd cddddc ctdddr ctdddS cQddddddddddddddddddddd@‰c c†9dddrc c‡8dddSc xdddddddAˆ

tddddddddr cxdddv cdddvc cddddc cUdddc cUdd@‰ c†9ddddddddddddddddddddr †Rdd ‡8ddd@‰c cQdddddddAˆc

c‡8dddddddSc QddI cdddIc cQdddc cdddSc tdddrc †9dddddddddddddddddddc c‡8ddd@‰ c†9dddddddAˆ

‡8ddddddd@‰c xdddvc cQdddc dddc tdddrc UddS c†9ddddddddddddddddddc ‡8ddd@‰c †9dddddddI

c‡8ddddddd@‰ cQddIc cxdddc cddddc UddS ctdddr †9dddddddddddddddddc c‡8ddd@‰ c†9dddddddvc

‡8ddddddd@‰c cxdddc dddc cxdddc ctdddr ‡8ddSc cxddddddddddddddddddTˆ ‡8ddd@‰c †9ddddddAˆ

‡PdddddTuc c‡8ddddddd@‰ Qddv dddv dddv cUddSc Udddrc Qdddddddddddd@cRdddAuc c‡8ddd@‰ cxdddddddAˆc

UddddddddddTuc ‡8ddddddddrc xddAˆc dddI dddI cdddrc ctdddS †9dddddddddddresRdddTˆc ‡8ddd@‰c QdddddddAˆ

ddddddddddddddddTu UddddddddS cdddIc Qddd dddd tddd ‡8dd@‰ cxddddddddddScfs9ddAˆ c‡8ddd@‰ †9dddddddI

ddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddddddd@‰ cQdddc xddd dddd UddS Udddrc Qdddddddddrcfc†RddAuc ‡8ddd@‰c c†9dddddddvc

dddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ‡8ddddddd@‰c cxdddv cdddvc dddd ctdddr ctdddS †9dddddddShcs9ddTˆc c‡8ddd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Uddddddd@‰ QddI cdddIc dddd cUddSc cUdddr c†9ddddddrhe†9ddAu ‡8ddd@‰c c†9ddddddAˆc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctddddddd@‰c xdddvc cQdddc dddd tdddrc tdddSc xdddddSchec†RdddTˆ Uddd@‰ xdddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dddddddr cQddIc cxdddc dddd Uddd Udddrc cQddd@‰chfcs9ddAˆc ctddd@‰c cQdddddddAˆc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dddddddSc cxdddc dddv dddd dddS ctdddS cxdddr †9ddAu ‡PTˆ ‡8dd@‰ c†9dddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ‡8ddddddd@‰c Qddv dddI dddd dddr cUdddr dddc c†RdddTˆhfc‡8ddI c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Uddddddd@‰ xddI dddd dddd ctddSc tdddSc cs9ddAuche‡8ddddvc ‡8dd@‰ c†9ddddddAˆc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctddddddd@‰c cddd Qddd dddd ‡8ddrc Udd@‰c †9dddTˆcgc‡8dddddIc c‡8dd@‰c xdddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cUdddddddr cdddvc xddd Qddd UddS ctdddr c†RdddAˆgcUdddddddv ‡8dd@‰ cQdddddddI

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddddddSc cQddIc cddd cddd ctdddr ‡8ddSc cs9ddAˆcftddddddddI c‡8dd@‰c c†9dddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddd@‰c cxdddv cdddvc Uddd cUddSc Udd@‰c †9ddAˆec‡8ddddddddd ‡8dd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tddddddd@‰ QddI cdddIc dddd tdddrc ctdddr c†RddAucy8ddddddddddvc c‡8dd@‰c cxdddddddAˆc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dddddd@‰c xddd cQdddc dddd Uddd ‡8ddSc cs9dddddddddddddddAˆ y8dd@‰ QdddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ‡8dddddddr cQddvc cxdddc dddd dddS Udddrc xddddddddddddddddI ‡Pddd@‰c †9dddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu UdddddddSc cxddIc dddc dddd ctdddr ctdddS cdddddddddddddddddvc c‡8ddd@‰ cxdddddddAˆc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctddddddd@‰c dddv dddv Qddd cUddSc cUdd@‰ tdddddddddddddddddIc ‡8ddd@‰c QdddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dddddddr QddI QddI xddd tdddrc tdddrc c‡8ddddddddddddddddddv Uddd@‰ †9dddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc UdddddddSc xdddvc xddd cddd UddS UddS ‡8dddddddddddddddddddAˆc ctddd@‰c c†9dddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ctddddddd@‰c cQddIc cddd tddd dddr ctdddr c‡8dddddddddddddddddddddIc ‡8dd@‰ xdddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dddddd@‰ cxdddc cdddvc Uddd ctdddc ‡8ddSc ‡8dddddddddddddddddddddddv c‡8dd@‰c cQdddddddAˆc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dddddd@‰c Qddv cdddIc Qddd cUddSc Udd@‰c c‡8ddddddddddddddddddddddddI ‡8dd@‰ c†9dddddddIc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cUdddddddr xddI cddddc xddd cdddrc ctdddr cUddddddddddddddddddddddddddvc c‡8dd@‰c xddddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tdddddddSc cdddvc cQdddc cdddvc tddS cUddSc cQddddddddddddddddddddddddddAˆ ‡8dd@‰ cQdddddddAˆc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dddddd@‰c cQddIc cxdddc cdddIc c‡8ddr tdddrc c†RddddddddddddddddddddddddddI cy8dd@‰c c†9dddddddIc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dddddd@‰ cxdddc dddv cddddc cUddSc UddS sRddddddddddddddddddddddddvc dddd@‰ †9dddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhUdddddddrc Qddv dddI cddddc cdddrc ctdddr csRdddddddddddddddddddddIc ctddd@‰c cxdddddddAˆc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufdddddddS xddI Qddd cddddc tddd ‡8ddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddv ‡8dd@‰ QdddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddr cQddvc xddd cddddc UddS Udddrc sRdddddddddddddddddAˆc c‡8dd@‰c †9dddddddv

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv cxddIc cddd cddddc ctdddr ctdddS sRddddddddddddddddAˆ ‡8dd@‰ c†9ddddddAˆc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc dddv cdddvc cddddc cUddSc cUdd@‰ csRddddddddddddddI c‡8dd@‰c xdddddddAˆ

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cQddIc cddddc cdddrc tdddrc csRdddddddddddddvchf‡8dddr cQdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc cxdddc cddddc tddS c‡8ddS sRddddddddddAˆhec‡8dddSc c†9dddddddvc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc dddv cddddc Uddr cUdddr sRdddddddddIhe‡8ddd@‰c xdddddddAˆ

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddc dddI cddddc ctdddc cdddSc sRddddddddhc‡8ddd@‰ cQdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddv Qddd cQdddc cUddSc tdddrc sRddddddddgcUddd@‰c c†9dddddddvc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddI xddd cxdddc cdddrc c‡8ddS cs9dddddvcfcddd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddvc cddd dddc tddd cUdd@‰ †9ddddAˆe‡Pddd@‰c cxdddddddAˆc

cQddIc cddd dddc UddS tdddrc c†RddddAuy8dddH‰ QdddddddIc

cept at high thrust settings (the A340 is sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddc cdddvc dddc ctdddr UddS cs9ddddddddc xddddddddv

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddv cQddIc dddc cUddSc ctdddr †9ddddddSc cQdddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddI cxdddc dddc tdddrc ‡8ddSc cxddddd@‰c c†9dddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddvc dddc dddc UddS Udd@‰c ctdddd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddIc dddc ctdddc dddr ctdddr ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddc dddv cddddc ctdddc ‡8ddSc c‡8ddd@‰ Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddv QddI cxdddc cUddSc Udddrc cUddd@‰c †9ddddddAˆ

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddI xddd dddc tdd@‰c ctdddS cddd@‰ cxdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddvc cdddvc dddc Uddr cUdddr ‡Pddd@‰c Qdddddddvc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddAˆ cQddIc dddc ctdddc tdddSc c‡8ddd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cxdddc dddv cUdddc Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddAˆc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddd dddc dddI cdddSc ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ QdddddddIc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddvc dddc dddd tdddrc ‡8dddr ‡8ddd@‰c †9dddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc dddv dddd UddS UdddSc c‡8ddd@‰ cxdddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc dddI dddd dddr ctddd@‰c ‡8ddd@‰c Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddv Qddd dddd ctddSc cUdddr Uddd@‰ xdddddddIc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddI xddd dddd cUddrc tdddSc ctddd@‰c cQdddddddv

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddvc cddd dddd tddd Udddrc ‡8dd@‰ c†9ddddddAˆc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddIc cdddvc dddd UddS ctdddS c‡8dd@‰c †9ddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddc cdddIc dddd dddr ‡8dd@‰ ‡8dd@‰ cxdddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddv cQdddc dddd ctdddc Udddrc c‡8dddrc dddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddI cxdddc dddd cUddSc ctdddS ‡8dddS Qdddddddvc

cQddvc dddv Qddd tdddrc cUdddr c‡8ddd@‰ †9ddddddAˆ

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc unlock sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddIc QddI xddd UddS tdddSc ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddv xddd cddd ctdddr Udddrc c‡8ddd@‰ Qdddddddvc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddI cddd cddd cUddSc ctdddS ‡8dddH‰c †9ddddddIc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc cddd cddd cdddrc cUdd@‰ c‡8dd@wc cxdddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddIc cdddvc cddd tddS tdddrc ‡8dd@‰ QddddddAˆc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc cdddIc cddd c‡8ddr c‡8ddS c‡8dd@‰c xdddddddIc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddv cddddc cddd cUddSc cUdd@‰ ‡8dd@‰ cQdddddddv

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cQdddc cddd cdddrc tdddrc c‡8dddrc cxdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc cxdddc cddd tddd c‡8ddS ‡8dddd Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc dddv cddd UddS cUdddr c‡8dd@wc †9ddddddAˆ

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddc QddI cddd dddr tdddSc ‡8dd@‰ cxdddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddv xddd cddd ctdddc Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cddd cdddvc cUddSc ctdddS ‡8dd@‰ xdddddddAˆ

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xdddvc cdddvc cdddIc tdddrc cUdd@‰ c‡8dddrc cQdddddddI

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddIc cQddIc cddddc UddS tdddrc ‡8dddS c†9dddddddvc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc cxdddc cddddc ctdddr c‡8ddS c‡8ddd@‰ xdddddddIc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddv dddc cddddc cUddSc cUdd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰c cQdddddddv

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddI dddc cddddc cdddrc tdddrc Uddd@‰ cxdddddddAˆc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddvc dddv cddddc tddd UddS ddd@‰c QdddddddIc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc QddI cddddc UddS ctdddr c‡Pddd@‰ †9dddddddv

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddc xddd cQdddc ctdddr cUddSc ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddv cddd dddc cUddSc tdddrc c‡8ddd@‰ Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddI cddd cUdddc tdddrc c‡8ddS cUddd@‰c xdddddddIc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddvc cdddvc cQdddc Uddd cUdddr tddd@‰ cQdddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc cdddIc cxdddc dddS tdddSc cy8dd@‰c cxdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddv cQdddc ctdddc ctdddr Udd@‰c dddd@‰ Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cxdddv cddddc cUddSc ctdddr ctddd@‰c xdddddddIc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xdddvc dddI cxdddc tdddrc cUdddc y8dd@‰ cQdddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddIc Qddd ctdddc UddS tdddSc ‡Pddd@‰c cxdddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc xddd cddddc ctdddr c‡8dd@‰c Uddd@‰ Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddv cddd cxdddc cUddSc cUdddr ctddd@‰c xdddddddAˆ

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddI cdddvc dddv tdddrc tdddSc y8dd@‰ cQdddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc cdddIc dddd UddS Udd@‰c ‡Pddd@‰c cxddddddddvc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc cddddc dddr dddr ctdddr c‡8ddd@‰ QdddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc cQdddc dddc ctdddc cUddSc cUddd@‰c xddddddddv

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddv cxdddv dddc cUddSc tdddrc tddd@‰ cQdddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI dddI dddv cdddrc c‡8ddS c‡8dd@‰c c†9ddddddd

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc dddd dddI tddd cUdddr ‡8dddr xdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc Qddd dddd UddS tdddSc c‡8dddSc cQddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc xddd dddd ctdddr c‡8dddrc ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddv cddd dddd cUddSc cUdddS c‡8ddd@‰ QddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cdddvc Qddd tdddrc cddd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰c xdddddddvc

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc cQddIc xddd UddS tdddrc c‡8ddd@‰ cQddddddIc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQddIc cxdddc tddd dddr c‡8ddS ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddv

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddv dddc dddd ctdddc cUdddr c‡8ddd@‰ QddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI dddv xddd cUddSc tdddSc ‡8dddH‰c xdddddddvc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xdddvc dddI cddd tdddrc Udddrc c‡8dd@wc cQddddddAˆ

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddIc Qddd cddd UddS ctdddS ‡8dddr cxdddddddI

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQdddc xddd cddd ctdddr ‡8dd@‰ c‡8dddSc dddddddd

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddv cddd tddd cUdddc Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰c Qdddddddvc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cdddvc dddd cdddSc ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ †9ddddddIc

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddd cdddIc xddd tdddrc cUdddr cUddd@‰c cxdddddddv

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhcQddvc cQdddc cddd UddS tdddSc tddd@‰ dddddddI

sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTugddIc cxdddc cddd dddr Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c Qdddddddvc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucy8dddv dddc cddd ctdddc ctdddS ‡8dddr xdddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc dddv cddd cUddSc ‡8dd@‰ c‡8dddSc cQdddddddv

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddI cddd tdddrc Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddI

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddd cddd UddS ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ Qddddddd

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddd cddd ctdddr cUdd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰c xdddddddvc

sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddd cddd cUddSc tdddrc c‡8dddH‰ cQddddddIc

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddvc cddd cdddrc c‡8ddd ‡8dd@w cxdddddddv

csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddIc cddd tddd cUdddS c‡8dd@‰c QddddddI

csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQdddc cddd UddS tddd@‰ ‡8dd@‰ xdddddddvc

ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddc cddd ctdddr Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c cQddddddIc

QdddecsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuchedddv cdddvc cUddSc ctdddS ‡8dd@‰ cxdddddddv

xdddvcfcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTugdddI cdddIc tdddrc cUdddr c‡8dddrc QddddddI

cdddIchesRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuedddd cddddc UddS tdddSc ‡8dddS xdddddddvc

cQdddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd cQdddc ctdddr c‡8dd@‰c c‡8ddd@‰ cdddddddIc

cUdddc cUdddr ‡8dddH‰c cQdddddddc

especially quiet). cxdddv csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddc

QddI csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddc cdddSc tdddSc c‡8ddd cxdddddddv

xdddvc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddc tdddrc Udd@‰c ‡8dddd QddddddI

cdddIc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddc UddS ctdddr c‡8dd@wc xdddddddvc

cQdddc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddc ctdddr ‡8ddSc ‡8dd@‰ cdddddddIc

cxdddv sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuchfdddc cUddSc Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c cQdddddddc

QddI cs9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhdddc cdddrc ctdddS ‡8dd@‰ c†9ddddddv

xdddvc xdddcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufdddc tddd cUdddr c‡8dd@‰c xddddddI

cQddIc cdddfcsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv UddS tdddSc ‡8dd@‰ cdddddddvc

cxdddv cdddhesRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc ctdddr Udd@‰c c‡8dd@‰c cQddddddIc

dddI cdddvchfsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUddSc ctdddr ‡8dddr cxdddddddv

Qddd cdddIc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddrc ‡8ddSc c‡8dddSc QddddddAˆc

xdddvc cddddc csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tddd Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰c xdddddddIc

cQddIc cQdddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc UddS ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ cddddddddc

cxdddv cxdddv sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddr cUdd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰c cQdddddddv

QddI dddI ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctddSc tdddrc c‡8ddd@‰ cxdddddddI

xddd Qddd ddddesRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ‡8ddrc UddS ‡8ddd@‰c Qddddddd

cQddvc xddd ddddgsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Uddd ctdddr c‡8ddd@‰ xdddddddvc

cxddIc cddd ddddhcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddS ‡8ddSc ‡8ddd@‰c cdddddddIc

dddv cdddvc dddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUdddr Udd@‰c c‡8dddH‰ cQdddddddv

QddI cdddIc dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddSc ctdddr ‡8dd@w cxdddddddI

xddd cddddc dddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc tdddrc cUddSc c‡8dd@‰c Qddddddd

cQddvc cQdddc dddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu UddS tdddrc ‡8dd@‰ xdddddddvc

cxddIc cxdddv dddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctdddr UddS c‡8dddrc cQddddddIc

dddv dddI Qddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cUddSc ctdddr ‡8dddS cxdddddddc

QddI dddd xddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddrc ‡8ddSc c‡8ddd@‰ dddddddv

xdddvc dddd cddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tddd Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰c QddddddI

cQddIc Qddd cddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu UddS ctdddS Uddd@‰ xddddddd

cxdddv xdddvc cddd sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuchedddr cUdd@‰ ddd@‰c cdddddddvc

QddI cdddIc cddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufctddSc tdddrc c‡Pddd@‰ cQddddddIc

xddd cQdddc cddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucy8dd c‡8ddS ‡8ddd@‰c cxdddddddv

cdddvc cxdddc cddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAu cUdddr c‡8ddd@‰ dddddddI

cQddIc dddc cddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddSc ‡8ddd@‰c Qddddddd

cxdddv dddc cddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc tdddrc c‡8ddd@‰ xdddddddvc

QddI dddv cddd csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhc‡8ddS ‡8ddd@‰c cQddddddIc

xdddvc QddI cddd sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufy8dddr c‡8ddd@‰ cxdddddddv

cQddIc xddd cddd csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc ‡8ddd@‰c QddddddI

cxdddc cddd cdddvc c‡dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc c‡8ddd@‰ xddddddd

Qddv cdddvc cdddIc cUdd@wesRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cUddd@‰c cdddddddvc

xddI cQddIc cddddc cdddrcgsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu tddd@‰ cQddddddIc

cdddvc cxdddc cddddc tdddhfcsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dd@‰c cxdddddddc

cQddIc dddc cddddc UddS csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dd@‰ dddddddv

cxdddv dddv cddddc dddr dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dd@‰c QddddddI

QddI dddI cddddc ctdddc ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ‡8dd@‰ xdddddddvc

xdddvc Qddd cddddc cUddSc ctddd@wccsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc c‡8dd@‰c cdddddddIc

cdddIc xddd cddddc tdddrc cUdd@‰hcsRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu y8dd@‰ cQdddddddc

cQdddc cddd cddddc UddS tdddrc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc ‡Pddd@‰c cxdddddddc

cxdddv cdddvc cddddc ctdddr c‡8ddS sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Uddd@‰ dddddddv

QddI cdddIc cddddc cUddSc cUdddr sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu ctddd@‰c QddddddI

xddd cQdddc cQdddc cdddrc tdddSc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuch‡8dd@‰ xddddddd

cdddvc cxdddc cxdddc tddd Udd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucecy8dd@‰c cdddddddvc

cQddIc dddv dddc UddS ctdddr sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc cQddddddIc

c†9ddv QddI dddc ctdddr cUddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc cxdddddddc

xddI xddd dddc cUddSc tdddrc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddv

cdddvc cddd dddc tdddrc c‡8ddS csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddI

cQddIc cdddvc dddc UddS cUdd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddddddd

cxdddc cdddIc dddc ctdddr tdddrc s9dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xdddddddvc

dddv cddddc dddc cUddSc UddS dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddIc

QddI cQdddc dddc cdddrc ctdddr ‡8ddd@wccsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQdddddddc

xdddvc cxdddc dddc tddd ‡8ddSc c‡8ddd@‰hsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddddddv

cQddIc dddc dddc UddS Udddrc ‡8ddd@‰chfsRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddddddI

cxdddv dddv dddc ctdddr ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

dddI QddI dddc cUdddc ‡8dddr ‡8ddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddddddvc

Qdddvc xddd dddv cdddSc UdddSc c‡8ddd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddddddIc

†9ddIc cddd dddI tdddrc ddddrc ‡8ddd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQdddddddc

cxdddc cdddvc dddd UddS ctdddS Uddd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddddddv

dddv cQddIc dddd ctdddr ‡8dd@‰ ctddd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddddddI

QddI cxdddc dddd cUddSc Udddrc ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

xdddvc dddv dddd tdddrc ctdddS c‡8dd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cQddIc dddI dddd Uddd cUdddr ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddvc

cxdddc dddd dddd dddS tdddSc c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddIc

dddv dddd dddd ctdddr Udd@‰c ‡8dd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddddddc

QddI Qddd dddd cUddSc ctdddr c‡8dd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddc

xdddvc xddd dddd tdddrc ‡8ddSc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddv

UddS Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddddddI ● cQddIc cdddvc dddd

cxdddv cdddIc Qddd dddr ctdddS ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

QddI cddddc xddd ctdddc ‡8dd@‰ c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

xddd cQdddc cddd cUddSc Udddrc ‡8dd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddddddvc

cdddvc cxdddc cddd tdddrc dddS c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddIc

cQddIc dddv cddd UddS ctdd@‰ ‡8dddr csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddddddc

cxdddv dddI cddd ctdddr ‡8ddrc c‡8dddSc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddc

QddI dddd cddd cUdddc Uddd ‡8ddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddddddv

xddd Qddd cddd cdddSc ctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddI

cdddvc xddd cddd tdddrc ‡8dddr ‡8ddd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cQddIc cdddvc cddd UddS UdddSc c‡8ddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cxdddv cdddIc cddd dddr ddd@‰c ‡8ddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddvc

QddI cQdddc cddd ctdddc ctdddr c‡8ddd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddddddIc

xdddvc cxdddc cddd cUddSc ‡8ddSc ‡8ddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

cdddIc dddc cddd tdddrc Udddrc c‡8ddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddddddv

cQdddc dddv cdddvc UddS ctdddS ‡8ddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddddddI

cxdddv dddI cdddIc ctdddr cUdd@‰ Uddd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

QddI Qddd cddddc cUddSc tdddrc ddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

cdddrc UddS dddd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddvc These aircraft are extremely visual xdddvc xddd cddddc

cQddIc cdddvc cddddc tddd ctdddr ctddd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxddddddIc

cxdddv cdddIc cddddc UddS ‡8ddSc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

dddI cQdddc cddddc ctdddr Udddrc c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

Qddd cxdddc cQdddc cUddSchfctdddS ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu Qddddddv

xdddvc dddc cxdddc tdddrchfcUdddr c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu xddddddI

cQddIc dddv dddc Uddd tdddSc ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cxdddv QddI ctdddc dddS Udd@‰c c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

QddI xddd cddddc ctdddrhfctdddr ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddvc

xdddvc cddd cxdddc cUddSchf‡8ddSc c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddddddIc

cdddIc cddd dddc cdddrchfUdddrc ‡8dd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

cQdddc cdddvc dddc tddShfctdddS c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

cxdddv cdddIc dddc UddrhfcUdddr ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

QddI cQdddc dddc ctdddchftdddSc c‡8dd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddv

xddd cxdddc dddc cUddSchec‡8dd@‰c ‡8dd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc QddddddI

cdddvc dddc dddc tdddrchecUdddr c‡8dd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

cQddIc dddv dddc UddShftdddSc ‡8dddr csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cxdddv QddI dddc dddrhfUdddrc c‡8ddddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddvc

QddI xddd dddc ctddSchectdddS ‡8dddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddIc

xddd cddd dddc cUddrchecUdd@‰ c‡8dddSc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cxdddddddc

cQddvc cddd dddc tdddhftdddrc ‡8ddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

cxddIc cdddvc dddc UddShec‡8ddS c‡8ddd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddv

dddv cQddIc dddc ctdddrhecUdddr ‡8ddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddddddI

QddI cxdddc dddv cUddSchetdddSc c‡8dddH‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

xdddvc dddc dddI cdddrcheUdd@‰c ‡8dd@w csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

cQddIc dddc dddd tdddhectdddr c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

cxdddc dddv dddd UddShecUddSc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

dddv dddI Qddd ctdddrhetdddrc c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cQddddddvc

QddI Qddd xddd cUddSchc‡8ddS ‡8dd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxddddddIc

xdddvc xdddvc cddd cdddrchcUdddr c‡8dddrc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddc

cQddIc cdddIc cddd tdddhetdddSc cUdddS csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc dddddddc

cxdddc cddddc cddd UddSheUdddrc cdddH‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

Qddv cQdddc cddd ctdddrhctdddS ‡Pdd@w sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc Qddddddv

xddI cxdddc cddd cUddSch‡8dd@‰ c‡8dddrc sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddI

cdddvc dddv cddd tdddrchUdddrc ‡8dddS sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cQddIc dddI cddd UddShctdddS c‡8dddH‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

cxdddv Qddd cddd ctdddrhcUdddr ‡8dddc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

QddI xddd cddd cUddSchtdddSc c‡8dddSc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cdddddddvc

xddd cddd cddd cdddrchUdddrc ‡8ddd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cdddddddIc

cdddvc cddd cddd tdddhctdddS c‡8ddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cQdddddddc

cQddIc cddd cddd UddShcUdd@‰ ‡8ddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cxdddddddc

cxdddc cdddvchfcddd ctdddrhtdddrc Uddd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

dddv cQddIchfcddd cUddScgc‡8ddS ddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddc

QddI cxdddchfcddd tdddrcgcUdddr dddd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu dddddddv

xdddvc dddchfcddd UdddhtdddSc ctddd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu QddddddI

cQddIc dddvhfcddd dddShUdddrc ‡8dd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc xddddddd

c†9ddv QddIhfcdddvc dddrgctdddS c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu cddddddd

xddI xdddhfcddddc ctddScg‡8dd@‰ ‡8dd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc cddddddd

cdddvc cdddvchecdddrc cUddrcgUdddrc c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhecQddddddvc

cQddIc cdddIchecdddvc tdddhdddS ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucgcxddddddIc

cxdddc cddddchecdddIc UddSgctdddr c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTufdddddddc

dddv cQdddchecddddc ctdddrg‡8ddSc ‡8dd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddc

QddI cxdddchecddddc cUddScgUdddrc cy8dd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddv

xdddvc dddchecddddc tdddrcfctdddS dddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddAuc

cQddIc dddvhecddddc UddSgcUdd@‰ ctddd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cxdddv dddIhecddddc dddrgtdddrc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

QddI Qdddhecddddc dddcfc‡8ddS c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

xddd xdddhecddddc ctddScfcUdddr ‡8dddr csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

cdddvchfcdddvchcddddc cUddrcftdddSc c‡8dddSc sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

cQddIchfcdddIchcddddc tddSgUdd@‰c ‡8dddH‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

cxdddchfcQdddchcddddc c‡8ddrfctdddr c‡8dd@wc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

dddvhfcxdddchcddddc cUdddcfcUddSc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

QddI dddchcddddc cdddScftdddrc c‡8dd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

xdddvchfdddvhcQdddc tdddrcec‡8ddS ‡8dd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cQddIchfdddIhcxdddc UddSf‡8dd@‰ c‡8dd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cxdddvhfQdddhedddc ctdddrfUdddrc ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

QddIhfxdddhedddc cUddScectdddS c‡8dd@‰c sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

xdddhfcdddhedddc tdddrcecUdddr ‡8dd@‰ csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

cdddvchecdddhedddc UddSftdddSc c‡8dd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cQddIchecdddvchdddc dddrfUdddrc ‡8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cxdddvhecdddIchdddc ctdddcectdddS c‡8dddrc csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

QddIhecQdddchdddc cUddSce‡8dd@‰ cUdddS sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

xdddhecxdddchdddc tdddrceUdddrc tddd@‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cdddvchedddchdddc UddSfdddS c‡8dd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cQddIcheQddvhdddc dddrectdddr y8dd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuc

cxdddvhexddIhdddc ctddSce‡8ddSc ‡Pddd@‰c csRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTu

QddIhecdddhdddv cUddrceUdddrc c‡8ddd@‰ sRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuhg

xdddhecdddhdddI tdddectdddS ‡8ddd@‰c sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTuch

cQddvchcdddvcgdddd UddSecUdd@‰ c‡8ddd@‰ csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddTucf

cxddIchcQddIcgdddd ctdddretdddrc ‡8ddd@‰c csRddddddddddddddddddddddddddddT

dddvhcxdddcgdddd cUddSceUddS c‡8dddH‰ sRdddddddddddddddddddddddddd

QddIhedddcgdddd cdddrcctdddr ‡8dddc sRdddddddddddddddddddddd

xdddvchdddcgdddd tddSe‡8ddSc c‡8dddSc csRddddddddddddddddd

cQddIchdddvgQddd UddreUdd@‰c cUddd@‰c csRddddddddddddd

cxdddchQddIgcddd ctdddcctdddr cddd@‰ sRdddddddd

dddvhxdddgUddd cUddSccUddSc ‡Pddd@‰c csRddd

QddIhcdddgdddd cdddrctdddrc Uddd@‰ cs

xdddvcgcdddvcfdddd tddSc‡8ddS ctddd@‰c

cQddIcgcdddIcfQddd UddrcUdddr y8dd@‰

cxdddcgcQdddcfxddd ctddSctdddSc ‡Pddd@‰c

Qddvgcxdddcfcddd cUddr‡8dd@‰c c‡8ddd@‰

(see later paragraph on FMGS). The xddIhdddcfcddd cdddcUdddr ‡8ddd@‰c cdddvcgdddvfcddd tdddcdddSc c‡8ddd@‰

cQddIcgQddIfcddd c‡8dddddd@‰c ‡8ddd@‰c

cxdddcgxdddfcddd cUdddddddr c‡8ddd@‰

Qddvgcdddfcddd cdddddddSc ‡8ddd@‰c

xddIgcdddfcddd tdddddddrchfc‡8ddd@‰

cdddvcfcdddfcddd UddddddS ‡8ddd@‰c

cQddIcfcdddvcecddd ctdddddddrhfc‡8ddd@‰

cxdddcfcQddIcecddd cUddddddSchfcUddd@‰c

Qddvfcxdddcecddd cdddddddrchftddd@‰

xddAˆcfdddcecddd tddddddShfc‡8dd@‰c

cQddIcfdddvecddd Uddddd@‰hf‡8dd@‰

cxdddcfQddIecdddvc ctddddddrchec‡8dd@‰c

dddvfxdddecdddIc cUdddddShf‡8dd@‰

QddIfcdddecQdddc cddddddrhec‡8dd@‰c

xdddfcdddecxdddc tdddddSche‡8dd@‰

cQddvcecQddfdddc Udddd@‰chc‡8dd@‰c

cxddIcecxddvcedddc dddddrhe‡8dd@‰

QddvfddIcedddc ctddddSchc‡8dd@‰c

xddIfdddcedddc cUddddrch‡8dd@‰

cdddvceQddcedddc tddddShc‡8dddrc

cQddIcexddvedddc UddddrhcUdddS

cxdddcecddIedddc ctddddSchcddd@‰

Qddvecdddedddc cUddddrcg‡Pddd@‰c

xddIecQddvcdddc cddddSgc‡8ddd@‰

cdddvccxddIcdddc tddd@‰g‡8ddd@‰c

cQddIcedddcdddc Udddrcfc‡8ddd@‰

cxdddvedddcdddchfctdddSg‡8ddd@‰c

QddIedddcdddchfcUdddrfc‡8ddd@‰

xdddeQddddddvhftdddScf‡8dddH‰c

cdddexddddddIhfUdd@‰cec‡8ddd

cQddvccdddddddhectdddrf‡8dddS

c†9dAˆcQddddddhecUdddcec‡8ddd@‰

xddIcxddddddhetdddScecUddd@‰c

cdddeddddddheUdd@‰cetddd@‰

cQdddddddddShctdddrec‡8dd@‰c

cxdddddddddch‡8ddSce‡8dd@‰

dddddddddIhUdddrcc‡8dd@‰c

Qdddddddddgctdddde‡8dd@‰

xdddddddddgcUddddcy8dd@‰c

cQddddddddgtddddddddd@‰

cxddddddddgUdddddddd@‰c

Qdddddddfctdddddddd@‰

xdddddddfcUddddddd@‰c

cdddddddftddddddd@‰

cQddddddfUdddddd@‰c

cxddddddectdddddd@‰

QdddddecUddddd@‰c

xdddddetddddd@‰

cdddddc‡8dddd@‰c

cQdddd‡8dddddr

cxddddddddddSc

Qdddddddddrc

xddddddddd

cddddddddS

cddddddddr

cdddddddSc

cdddddddrc

cddddddd

cddddddS

cddddddr

cddddddc

cdddddSc

cdddddrc

cddddS

cddddr cdddSc whole package of cues needs to be s@‰c monitored. Once this becomes famil- iar, and the cues presented are under- TOGA: Take-Off, Go-Around stood, the thrust management task is a FLX T.O.: Flexible Take-Off simple one. MCT: Maximum Continuous Thrust ● Manual thrust is always available. A/THR: Autothrust ● With autothrust engaged, and the thrust levers at a gate, disconnection of the autothrust would signal the FADEC to provide the thrust equivalent actly the same way. However, the func- to the thrust lever angle (TLA). tion is significantly different from the ● Pushing the thrust levers fully for- ball in that the centering of the trape- ward to the stop (TOGA gate) always zoid (Beta Target) will provide provides maximum thrust available. maximum performance with mini- mum drag. ALPHA FLOOR If no rudder action is taken to centre the Beta Target, like a conventional air- Alpha Floor is a low speed protection craft, roll will occur towards the dead (in normal law) which is purely an engine. However, unlike a conven- autothrust mode. When activated, it tional aircraft, with stick free (no side- provides TOGA thrust. As the aircraft stick roll input), the flight control laws decelerates into the alpha protection will detect the roll and apply aileron range, the Alpha Floor is activated, even if the autothrust is disengaged. Activation is roughly proportional to Figure 2 the rate of deceleration. Engine failure after take-off - Slideslip target Alpha Floor is inhibited : ● below 100 feet radio Altitude, ● if autothrust unserviceable, ● following double engine failure on an A340 (or one engine out on the MAN SRS NAV twins), TOGA ALT 1 FD2 ● following certain system/auto flight A/THR failures, 250 5000 ● above Mach 0.53. Subject to the above, at low speeds, if 180 a rapid avoidance manoeuvre is re- 30 30 quired to avoid terrain, windshear or 15 another aircraft, it is safe to rapidly pull 160 the sidestick fully aft and/or bank and F 60 hold it there. The aircraft will pitch up 20 20 9 40 to max Alpha, engage TOGA thrust 140 20 and climb away. Such precise ma- 10 10 noeuvring around the low speed edge of the flight envelope is virtually not possible in any conventional aircraft. 120

ONE ENGINE 500 INOPERATIVE FLIGHT TBN If an engine fails, the triangle at the top 109.30 QNH 1015 of the PFD horizon will divide (see Figure 2). The lower resulting trapezoid 31 32 33 34 3 changes to blue and will move out in a similar sense to a conventional slip ball, indicating pilot rudder demand in ex- FAST / NUMBER 20 7 and spoiler to stop the roll. The rate of resource management principles are es- roll will depend on the severity of the sential. The continued monitoring of thrust loss. In the worst case, the roll raw data (needles and DME) is always will stabilise between 7-9 degrees bank a protection from inaccurate informa- angle, leading to a slow heading drift tion. of about 0.5 degree per second, with- Getting used to the MCDU is acceler- out any sidestick roll input or rudder ated by an effective “freeplay trainer” input. (see Figure 3) and exposure . There should be plenty of both. As knowledge FLIGHT MANAGEMENT is built up, the pilot can easily become AND GUIDANCE SYSTEM bogged down by trivia, and lose the big picture. The pilot must always ask him- Honeywell programme the Multi- self: purpose Control and Display Unit ● What is the aircraft doing and (MCDU) to operate the Flight where is it? Management and Guidance System ● What is the phase of flight? (FMGS) to differing aircraft manufac- ● Are the computers right? turer requirements. The Airbus design How does the raw data compare? philosophy of MCDU management ● What happens next, and what differs in some significant ways from must be planned for? other fits, such as the B747 or MD11. ● Are tasks being shared between A pilot not having used a Flight both pilots efficiently? Management System before should not In order to help the pilot to see what attach excessive importance to it. It is the computers are instructing the air- important, as a long-term (planning) craft to do, there is a Flight Mode management tool for performance, lat- Annunciator (FMA) on the top part of eral and vertical navigation, but short- the Primary Flight Display (PFD), and term changes are made on the Flight targets indicated on ALT, SPEED and Control Unit (FCU) on the glareshield HEADING scales. From the beginning, panel, where the basic modes of these should be thought of as essential Heading and Vertical Speed are set at instrument scan targets. The FMA is any time, as with any other autopilot. the feedback from the computers, it The FMGS focuses many tasks which closes the loop and will display the traditionally were scattered via the key- paramount feedback. To maintain total board and screen (MCDU) into the awareness, the scan should continue computers and autopilot. It represents a from the FMA to cover the Navigation major pilot interface with the aircraft, Display (ND), and the upper display but it is not vital and must not become (ECAM) memo area. too dominant in pilot activities, espe- cially in terminal areas. The MCDU is a TWO PILOT OPERATIONS compelling tool, however in flight, only one pilot at a time should be working Many pilots have already operated as (head down) on the keyboard. Strict part of a two man crew. One of the pri- adherence to task sharing and crew mary objectives of Airbus technology has been to design the flight deck for ease of operation to facilitate two-crew Figure 3 functions more safely than before. FMGS MCDU FCU Free play trainer However, this does not detract from the fact that effective task sharing and crew resource management are vital ingredi- ents of two-pilot operations, especially in high workload areas and abnormal situations. This is rarely seen more than during ECAM actions resulting from an abnormal situation. This can be antici- pated by reviewing attitudes towards effective communication, listening, reviewing, and the establishment of priorities.

CCQ MIXED FLEET FLYING

Whereas A319, A320, A321 are cov- ered by the same type rating, the other family members A330 and A340 each have their own type rating. However, all these Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft share a lot of commonality. Following the FAA Advisory Circular AC 120-53,

8 FAST / NUMBER 20 Airbus Training has set up short differ- feel, differing eye height (A320 - ence training courses to obtain the new A330/A340) and differing numbers of type rating when the applicant holds engines (A330/A340) can be under- one of the family as base aircraft. This stood, we believe, if one applies them is known as Cross Crew Qualification to existing technology. However, with a (CCQ). thorough understanding of the generic ● A320 ➡ A330: 11 days CCQ course philosophy of the Airbus fly-by-wire ● A320 ➡ A340: 13 days CCQ course aircraft, it will be realised that : ● A340 ➡ A320: 11 days CCQ course ● Aircraft response to control inputs is ● A330 ➡ A340: 3 days CCQ course very alike between A320, A330 and ● A340 ➡ A330: 1 days CCQ course A340 aircraft, It is, of course, necessary that the air- ● Eye height is not an issue for those worthiness authority of the operator ap- airlines who have practiced A320/ proves the CCQ combinations in ques- A340 mixed fleet flying for some time. tion, which is the case already for a ● Engine failure, in terms of aircraft number of countries such as France, handling, whether on the A320 fam- Austria, UK, Germany, USA and ily, A330 or A340, becomes a non- Canada. Concerning Mixed Fleet threatening event, where unusual atti- Flying, there has been first experience tudes cannot result from rudder mishan- gained by some operators, such as dling (see paragraph One Engine Lufthansa (A320 and A340). The Inoperative Flight). A large box ap- German airworthiness authority (LBA) pears around the failed engine's para- has laid down rules concerning: meters on ECAM, and if an engine fire ● experience on “base” aircraft, is involved, a repeater light adjacent to ● practice on “new” aircraft, the engine master switch confirms cor- ● refresher training, rect engine selection during the failure ● proficiency checks. drill. A strong safety argument in favour ● The identification of which engine to of mixed fleet flying, accepted by the shut down is a question of proper crew German authorities is, that dedicated coordination, required for any abnormal long haul flying reduces handling situation. Heavy emphasis during con- skills, which can be regained through version and recurrent training will ad- a combination of long and short haul dress this issue. flying. There are multiple and obvious The current mixed fleet flying prac- attractive features of such mixed flying tice provides for a minimum period on cited by the crews who practice it. the first variant, followed by a short With certain airlines, industrial and Cross Crew Qualification course and a labour contracts prohibit mixed fleet minimum period of the second variant. flying - reasons which have of course Following this process, release to full nothing to do with the technical/profi- mixed fleet flying operations is envis- ciency issue. aged, subject to the maintenance of The traditional arguments against minimum currency requirements and mixed fleet flying, such as differing aircraft ratings of both variants.

CONCLUSION

As can be seen from these notes, changing to the A319/A320/A321 or A330 from other types (other than A340) will re- quire some change of operational philosophy. These aircraft can be flown precisely and smoothly with little effort, and can, therefore, create a sense of considerable satisfaction. However, under extreme conditions when, for example, severe weather and abnormalities combine, it is most important to be aware of the differences. Under stress, reversion to certain well-ingrained pilot instincts, such as riding the controls, is not helpful in any fly-by-wire aircraft. In order to establish the new skills necessary, it is important to unlearn some traditional ones. Understanding the importance of this, and maintaining an open mind, are important attitudes to bring to training courses. Airbus aircraft are products of large commitments of research, development and testing by some of the best aeronauti- cal designers and engineers from four countries. The new generation aircraft (A319 through A330/A340) have now accu- mulated large amounts of in-service experience over seven million flight hours. They are quality products. Pilots flying these aircraft will find that they have embarked on a most enjoyable and professionally rewarding part of their aviation careers. ■

FAST / NUMBER 20 9 THE 2ND A330/A340 TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM 11th to 15h of November 1996, Dublin

ver two hundred representa- ten answers to remaining questions tives from twenty-eight opera- were given in the documentation pro- O tors, seventy-three suppliers vided to each participant. and Airbus Industrie attended the sec- This meeting allowed our customers ond A330/A340 Technical Sympo- to know better all the processes being sium in Dublin. The conference was developed by Airbus Industrie to im- chaired by Jean-Pierre Samat, prove in-service reliability and main- A330/A340 Programme Director, tenance. Engineering and Technical Support, Following the tradition, Airbus Customer Services Directorate. Industrie distributed Awards for oper- Twenty-five formal presentations ational excellence to Air Portugal for were organised in two sessions which A340 and Thai Airways International ran in parallel in two different rooms. for the A330. These Awards for opera- All these presentations were made us- tional excellence correspond to a ing a computerised projection which quantification of the airline operation pleased the participants in terms of based on operational interruption rate, comfort and graphic quality. These duration of the flight, etc... The formal presentations covered the prin- awards for highest aircraft utilisation cipal questions asked by the operators went to Virgin Atlantic for A340 and prior to the meeting. In addition, writ- Aer Lingus for A330. ■

Mr Roger LECOMTE Airbus Industrie VP Engineering and Technical Support, and the happy recipients with their awards: (from left to right) Mr Larry STANLEY - AER LINGUS Deputy Chief Executive Mr Jorge SOBRAL - AIR PORTUGAL General Director Maintenance and Engineering Peter WOOLLACOTT - VIRGIN Head of Development Airbus Group Wiboon KULARTYUT THAI AIRWAYS INTERNATIONAL Avionics Engineer

THE 4TH AIRBUS TRAINING SYMPOSIUM 5th to 9th of May 1997, Barcelona

n excellent opportunity for ● Lectures ● Flight Crew training Airbus operators’ Training ● Airline Panels ● Maintenance training A Directors and Managers to ● Workshops ● Cabin Crew training share their experience, to meet with ● Caucus sessions ● Performance Engineers training other airline’s training specialists, ● Show room ● Human Factors Airworthiness Authorities... and ● Regulatory aspects Airbus Industrie staff. Invitations to attend this event are presently being sent by Airbus Industrie’s Training and Flight Operations Support Division. ■

10 FAST / NUMBER 20 vailability rectly ventilated of fresh and air condi- Afruit and tioned can safely fresh flowers, carry great vari- many of them ex- eties of vegeta- otic, all the year bles, flowers and round is now so livestock. common-place Not all airlines that we give little carry these prod- thought to the ucts so not all effort involved in aircraft need to transporting be configured to South African carry them. flowers daily to Hence the rea- Stuttgart. son why aircraft Without aircraft manufacturers it would not be offer them as op- possible. And it is tions. All Airbus not possible on Industrie aircraft all aircraft. Only can be config- those which have ured to carry live the cargo com- stock and perish- partments cor- able goods.

by David Saxton, Senior Engineer Ground Handling and Special Transport Airbus Industrie Engineering Directorate

FAST / NUMBER 20 11 TRANSPORT OF cerned. A high relative humidity level PERISHABLE GOODS is also required - up to 90% for some products. Under Perishable Goods most people Too low a temperature will perma- think of salad produce and, perhaps, nently change the texture of some prod- strawberries, but these items cover just ucts, so called chilling injury. Typical a very small part of what the air cargo symptoms of such injury may be dis- industry transport as Perishables. The colouration, off-flavours and a decrease list goes far beyond just lettuce and in the ability to resist decay, thus reduc- tomatoes, and includes apples, pears, ing their resale value. melons, cut flowers, fresh fish, meat, Pre-cooled goods are generally trans- pharmaceuticals and much more. ported in containers, using either The transport of perishable goods is purpose-built insulated containers, or one of the fastest growing segments of using one of the commercially available the air transport industry, with freight “cool blankets” to maintain tempera- forwarders increasingly resorting to air tures within the container. Alter- transport for the shipment of these natively, goods may be transported on high-value products. standard pallets. In this case the re- CONTENTS The extra cost of air transport is off- quired temperature is maintained in the set by the reduced travelling time, re- cargo compartment either by the use of AIRLINES sulting in the produce reaching the mar- dry ice contained within the consign- ket in a fresher condition. To achieve ment, or by using the aircraft’s ventila- Perishable goods label this result careful planning and profes- tion system. Where higher temperatures sional handling of the produce play a are required, an optional heating system crucial role. is also available. In the transport of such high-value The cargo compartments of Airbus products the watch words have to be Industrie’s wide-body aircraft are fitted “Time is money”; lost time and inade- with semi-automatic cargo loading quate planning can mean lost money. systems which accept a comprehen- Much time can be saved by having the sive range of pallets and containers. necessary export/import documentation The Airbus Industrie standard-body correctly complete before the products aircraft can also be fitted with a semi- arrive at the airport for despatch. automatic cargo loading system. Many major airports either already The basic versions of Airbus have or are rapidly developing special Industrie's aircraft are not provided departments to handling exclusively the with ventilation nor heating, but a range specific requirements of perishable of options are available to provide a goods. Although speed is essential in suitable environment for the safe trans- moving the product as quickly as possi- port of perishable goods. ble from the farm to the market, the In addition to the temperature and compatibility between the various prod- relative humidity requirements of the ucts is also important. various products, the vapours given off In order that the products remain in by some products can be harmful to optimum condition for the market, it is other products, or may cause premature necessary to maintain a constant tem- ripening. For example, apples - in com- perature during transit in the range 2 ¡C mon with a range of other fruit - give Insulated LD3 “cooltainer” to 10 ¡C, depending on the product con- off ethylene gas which is detrimental to lettuce, carrots and some types of flow- ers. Also products that should retain a green colour during transit, such as ba- nanas and peppers, should not be trans- ported with ethylene producers. Odours given off by apples, citrus fruits, onions, pineapples and fish are readily absorbed by dairy produce, eggs, meats and nuts. Apples and pears may acquire an earthy taste if trans- ported together with potatoes. As will be appreciated from the above, the particular requirements of the various products can limit the possi- bility to carry mixed loads in one cargo compartment, and careful selection is required when making-up loads of per- ishable goods. This problem can be made all the more difficult when a planned load does not arrive on time. To assist operators with the transport of perishable goods, IATA are currently preparing a perishable goods manual.

12 FAST / NUMBER 20 in the cargo compartment to permit the SOME TOPICAL TIPS: safe transport of live animals. This Ensure load compatibility and specification contains a table which required transit temperatures. Ask: lists the recommended temperature - does one or more of the products range in the cargo compartment for the give off ethylene gas or odours? various types of animals. - does one or more of the products Airbus Industrie is currently spons- absorb odours? oring the regular 5-year review of this Examples: specification, with Boeing as co- ● Ethylene Producers sponsor. Typically apples, avocados, This concern for the welfare of the bananas, honeydew melons, animals continues into commercial ser- peaches, pears, plums, tomatoes. vice through the IATA Live Animals ● Ethylene Sensitive Board, a trade association representing Typically carrots, lettuce, some over 250 commercial airlines world- flowers, celery, some nursery stock, wide, which has published the “IATA all products that should keep a Live Animals Regulations” as an indus- green colour. try standard for transporting animals. ● Odour Producers These regulations are updated annually Typically apples, citrus fruit, and can be considered as the "bible" for pineapple, onions, potatoes, the transport of live animals. carrots, fish. The IATA regulations, which are rec- ● Odour Sensitive ognized by CITES (Convention on Typically meats, eggs, dairy International Trade in Endangered produce, nuts, celery. Species of wild fauna and flora) and the Council of Europe, are implemented by the member states of the European LIVE ANIMAL TRANSPORT Union, and other countries such as Canada and the United States. The pref- The transport of live animals has be- ace to these regulations states that “In come a highly emotive issue in recent the transport of animals, no aspect is years with demonstrations against the more important than ensuring the shipment of sheep and calves, but farm safety and welfare of the animals on the animals are not the only animals that ground and in the air”. travel around the world. Many of the professionals in animal The quantity and type of animals that transport are also members of the are transported by air, range from Aunt AATA (Animal Transport Association), Emma’s pet poodle who is being taken an international body to which sets high with her on holiday, through horses that standards for the transport of live ani- are travelling to a race meeting or a mals. Airbus Industrie is a member of show-jumping event, a load of pedigree the AATA and an industry associate breeding animals destined to set-up a member of IATA. new herd in a third-world country and Animal passengers are not so very on to exotics such as a panda going to a different from their human counter- new home, or returning to an old one. parts. They need to feel comfortable when travelling and therefore have spe- cific requirements for warm and fresh air. As with human passengers, the most stressful period is boarding and Live Animals label deboarding, with strange noises, smells and unusual movement. Once on-board the aircraft and conditions have sta- LIVE ANIMALS bilised, most animals will settle-down for the rest of the flight. Again, as with human passengers, the need for a comfortable environment is important. In general, most animals travel better with cooler temperatures, and adequate ventilation. The combina- tion of high temperature and high hu- midity is at least uncomfortable for Concern for the welfare of animals most animals, and in some cases can be on board aircraft begins long before the fatal. So as to assist the shipper and air- animals even arrive at the airport. The line when calculating how many ani- SAE specification AIR1600 “Condi- mals can be safely transported under a tions in Cargo Compartments for Live given set of climatic conditions, Airbus

Animal Transport” sets out the re- Industrie has worked with several inter- CONTENTS quirements which the airframe manu- national airlines to develop a simplified facturer has to follow to ensure that a calculation method allowing the calcu- AIRLINES suitable environment can be provided lation of heat load and moisture rate. FAST / NUMBER 20 13 2 Summary - Unvented compartment Ground case 1 Summary- Evaluation graphs Vented compartment Moisture rate Flight case calculations Heat load Ground case calculations Airline/Operated data 2 Aircraft data Flight case 1 Evaluation graphs Airbus Industrie's simplified calculation method

Previous methods required the use of The heart of this calculation method formulae and the reference to a range of is sheet 4 of Basic Data Form which is graphs, tables and lists. used to collect the required basic data The simplified calculation method and the results provided by the various developed by Airbus Industrie is based graphs. The only manual calculations on a series of graphs and a Basic Data required are simple arithmetic, all other Form (see below). Using this simplified calculations are made by the sets of method it is possible to determine graphs. whether or not the planned load can be The calculation is made in three sepa- carried safely under the given climatic rate steps: conditions. ● Collection of the basic data, (temper- ature and humidity at the departure and destination airports and flight data) ● Calculation of the heat load and A310A333 moisture rate of the animals using a Livestock Transportation Manual specific set of graphs ● Evaluation of the resulting relative BASIC DATA FORM humidity in the cargo compartment us- ing a second set of specific graphs Ventilated Cargo Compartment only These calculations are made for the ground conditions and for the flight Do the evaluation with the respective graphs and compare FLIGHT PROFILE results with the recommended values from Sheets 2 + 3 conditions. In each step the result ob- Environmental Heat Load Humidity tained is used as the input to the next Data Evaluation Evaluation step. The final result is a set of three Departure airport Cargo Compt Total Moisture Ground Case Temp Rate Rel. Humidity values for cargo compartment relative OAT on ground °C humidity - at departure airport, at desti- Enter in Graphs 5 + 12 20 KW °C % 3.3 25 2.2 71 nation airport and in flight, which al- g. H2O/s Ambient Rel. Humidity % Use in Graph 12 60 enter in graph 2 enter in graph15 use in graph13 Result from lows the user to decide if the given graph 15 load possible? conditions are acceptable or not. As YES / NO load possible? was mentioned earlier, the combination YES / NO of high temperature plus high humidity can be fatal. It is generally accepted Destination airport Cargo Compt Total Moisture Ground Case Temp Rate that a relative humidity of 80% is the OAT on ground absolute maximum for safe transport of 16 °C KW °C % Enter in Graphs 5 + 12 3.3 25 2.2 62 animals. g. H2O/s Ambient Rel. Humidity enter graph 2 enter in graph15 use in graph13 Result from A presentation brochure is available % Use in Graph 12 50 graph 15 from Airbus Industrie showing how to use this new calculation method. load possible? load possible? Flight Conditions YES / NO YES / NO For operational use, the Basic Data Form and the related graphs will be in- Typical IAS 0.8 Mach Cargo Compt Total Moisture corporated in the Airbus Industrie Flight Case Temp Rate Typical Altitude 35 000ft. KW Livestock Transportation Manual °C 1.9 % ° 4.1 20 55 (LTM), together with a worked exam- TAT Flight - 24 C g. H2O/s From graph 5a or see below enter in graph 2a enter in graph15a use in graph13a Result from ple and an explanation of the various Use in graph 12a graph 15 a graphs. Graph 5a uses 35 000ft / 0.8 Mach as standard. load possible? load possible? For other IAS / Altitude use Graphs 5b YES / NO YES / NO and 5c to Calculate OAT/ TAT Flight

Load Possible YES NO If NO, revise selected temperature or animal load Sheet 4/5

14 FAST / NUMBER 20 Because some of the graphs are cargo compartment specific, it has been nec- essary to make future editions of the LTM aircraft model specific. This new method has been incorpo- rated into the A310 Livestock Transportation Manual (LTM) - issue date Jan 95 - and will be progressively incorporated into the Livestock Transportation manuals for the remain- ing aircraft models. To assist operators who use comput- erised documentation, Airbus Industrie has agreed with IATA that this calcula- tion method should be made available in diskette form. The conversion from a paper form into a diskette is being made through the IATA Live Animals and Perishables Board.

When the dogs are happy, the owner is happy too! SOME TOPICAL TIPS

➤ To safely transport live animals the cargo compartment must be provided with the optional ventilation and heating system(s). ➤ Do not mix live animals with perishable goods in the same cargo compartment. ➤ Do not carry animals that are natural enemies in the same cargo compartment. ➤ Refer to the current edition IATA Live Animals Regulations for information on container requirements, labelling, handling procedures, documentation and general requirements.

LATEST NEWS!

At the last meeting of IATA Live Animals and Perishable Cargo Board, held in Montreal, Canada, 8 through 10 October 96, a demonstration was given of a proto- type diskette for making the live animal calculations. The final version of this diskette version should be available later next year, and will allow such calculations to be made in a matter of seconds. In addition to making calculations for the number of live animals that can be safely carried, the calculation method developed by Airbus Industrie can also be used to calculate the quantities of perishable cargo which can be carried, and the compatibility of different perishables. ■

Copies of the IATA LIVE ANIMALS REGULATIONS can be obtained from: IATA, 2000 Peel Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2RA Phone: 1 (514) 985 6326 Fax: 1 (514) 844 9089

More information about the AATA can be obtained from: Animal Transport Association, PO Box 60564 AMF, Houston TX 77205-0564 Phone: 1 (713) 443 4595 Fax: 1 (713) 443-4596 or, in Europe: PO Box 251, Redhill, RH1 5FU England Phone: +44 1 (737) 82 22 49 Illustrations on pages 13 and 15 are taken from the IATA LIVE ANIMALS REGULATIONS Fax: +44 1 (737) 82 29 54

FAST / NUMBER 20 15 IMPROVED WATER AND WASTE SYSTEM PROTECTION As operation of the Airbus family of aircraft is progressively expanding, the likelihood of some of them operating in extreme cold weather areas around the world increases. To ensure that Airbus aircraft can operate efficiently in these conditions, cold weather trials were conducted in Canada, Northern Sweden and Siberia.

Pacific Ocean

Bering Sea

YAKUTSK YELLOWKNIFE

Arctic Ocean

FROBISHER BAY

Norwegian Sea KIRUNA

A tl an tic O ce an

16 FAST / NUMBER 20 by Luc Leroy Cabin Interior & Payload Systems Airbus Industrie Customer Services Directorate

FROM FREEZING hat is meant by "Cold Soak" and how does the aircraft manufacturer deter- W mine the effects of extreme cold weather conditions? With the introduction of each new aircraft, or new airline operating within these areas the aircraft turnaround times and dispatch reliability must be deter- mined. To evaluate the effects of extreme cold is a complex task and is made even more so due to the fact that the aircraft’s passenger and cargo doors must remain open during the turnaround operations! For those of us that live in temperate climates, it is difficult to imagine how cold the ground temperature conditions can be. We often hear on the TV weather fore- cast the subject of wind-chill factor and the effect the wind speed has on the air tempera- ture. In certain circumstances the combined ef- fect of freezing conditions coupled with the wind-chill factor can cause the effective temper- ature to fall below minus 50 ¡C! It became apparent to Airbus Industrie that there was a real need to carry out a detailed investigation into the effects of cold weather, and so, with the delivery of an A310 to Wardair in the early 1980s the cold weather programme was launched. This programme was extended to the A320 when Air Canada took delivery of their first aircraft. As with all aircraft manufacturers, Airbus Industrie quickly realised that the protection from extreme weather conditions would not be an easy task. In fact, to prevent the water and the waste system from freezing requires a balance be- tween the required electrical power, the extra weight gener- ated by the heaters, control sys- tems and the insulation, compared to the extra operations costs to the operators of such a system. Listed below is the request received by Airbus Industrie from Air Canada for their A320 fleet operating under maximum ambient air temperature minus 40¡C and maximum wind speed 50km/h: ● All the cargo doors and one cabin door open for 90 minutes; ● Two additional cabin doors open for 30 minutes; ● Water and waste tanks containing any quantity, up to full; ● APU shut-down; ● Aircraft electrically powered. Based on the above typical customer criteria, for “cold weather” operators and the experience gained from cold weather campaigns, this article develops the philosophy adopted by Airbus Industrie for the existing aircraft. FAST / NUMBER 20 17 PROTECTION FROM avoid a “cold-bridge” phenomenon. FREEZING FOR THE WATER The water drain valves, located be- AND WASTE SYSTEMS low the cargo floor panels, on the A330 and the A340 are protected by heated The following principles are applicable cuffs (Figure 3). for all Airbus Industrie aircraft types. In the electronics compartment, The potable water lines and control where the potable water supply pipe- valves, the waste water (also called lines are shrouded to prevent water grey water) and drain mast, and in some spillage, an inner line heater is used to cases the toilet system waste dump prevent the water from freezing. lines are protected in the areas of possi- Further options include heated water ble freezing by electrical heating and and waste servicing panels and heated insulation. fill, overflow and drain nipples. Of course, equipment that is affected Irrespective of what type of heaters by extreme weather conditions is, are installed they are all regulated by an where possible, installed within warm associated sensor coupled to a control areas of the aircraft. However, due to unit (see Figure 2). The sensors are in- the physical needs of the water and stalled every seven metres in the cold- waste system it is impossible to avoid est areas and regulate the temperature areas such as the landing gear bays and between 6¡C and 10¡C with the excep- cargo compartments (Figure 1). It is to tion of the drain mast where the tem- be noted that the insulation mats in the perature is maintained between cargo bay are not installed on the fuse- 35¡C and 40¡C. lage skin but bonded to the cargo floor The “Cold weather package” in- panel to avoid water accumulation in stalled on the Air Canada Airbus Fleet the mats. includes additional features, which en- A typical heater and insulation instal- able operations of their aircraft at minus lation (Figure 2) shows how the ribbon 40¡C (see Figure 4 and compare it with type heater is installed together with the Figure 1). These features include the insulation covers that prevent heat dis- capability to depressurise the potable persion on the heated pipe-lines. The water system on the ground, thus en- pipe-lines, whether they are heated or abling the non-heated items such as the not, are equipped with Teflon clamps to water filter or the faucet to be drained

Figure 1 A319/A320/A321water/waste system “Standard” fit

Forward Lavatories galley Lavatory A D & E Aft galley Cabin floor

SB 38-1045 SB 38-1021 Mod 25120 Mod 23324 SB 38-1014 Mod 21629

4MP Water Waste 10DW tank tank M M 8MP 16MA SB 30-1033 SB 38-1015 M Mod 25162 Mod 21662 M SB 38-1025 14MP Mod 22618

Outer skin

SB 38-1041 SB 38-1016 Mod 24229 Mod 21649

Insulated Insulated and heated

18 FAST / NUMBER 20 Figure 2 Figure 3 Ribbon heater Cuff heater

Outer protection sheath

Self limiting heating element 4 way fill/empty valve Copper shield

Inner insulation

Insulation

Connecting pins Heater Bonding tape

Cuff heater

Potable water line Temperature sensor Sensing clip

Figure 4 A319/A320/A321water/waste system "Cold weather package" fit (post-Mod 21597)

Forward Lavatories galley Lavatory A D & E Aft galley Cabin floor

SB 38-1021 Depressurization valve Mod 23324

M 61DW

SB 38-1015 29DW 4MP Water Mod 22617 Waste 10DW tank tank M SB 38-1026 M Mod 24559 8MP 16MA SB 30-1020 M 14MP Mod 23243 M

Outer skin

SB 38-1041 Mod 24229

Insulated Insulated and heated Inner line heater

FAST / NUMBER 20 19 Figure 5 Forward attendant's panel (FAP)

WATER AND WASTE WTR WATER QTY IND SEL SEL SEL SEL SYST ON 25% 50% 75% 100% DEPR % 0 25 50 75 100 WASTE QTY SYST LAV A LAV D LAV E INOP INOP INOP INOP

LIGHT SMOKE EVAC CIDS EMER PNL RESET LAV EVAC COMD LIGHT DAUT TEST

into the heated tubes below the cabin tection for the extremes of temperature floor and water tanks; additionally, the variation experienced by Air Canada lavatory water heater, air compressor (if during normal operations. installed) and the vacuum toilets are Several improvements were shown to switched off automatically when the be necessary and were subsequently system is depressurised. adopted and installed by service bul- The depressurisation of the system is letins on the fleet. Once installed, the designed to be operated by the mechan- additional protection gave the capabil- ics and/or the cabin crew from a switch ity for the aircraft to sustain the temper- on the Forward Attendant's Panel ature conditions and thereby improve (FAP) (Figure 5). the reliability and performance range. The lessons learnt from these early KNOWLEDGE FROM tests on the A320 were taken into ac- WEATHER CAMPAIGNS count when Air Canada acquired their AND first A340, and the additional protection IN-SERVICE EXPERIENCE packages were introduced before the entry into service. Following the two To assess the effects of extreme cold cold soak trials, these systems were weather on the aircraft systems Airbus then fine tuned to provide the Air Industrie has performed several “cold Canada A340s with excellent reliability weather campaigns” using A310, A320 during their first winter season opera- and A340 at Frobisher Bay and tions. Yellowknife in Canada, at Kiruna in Sweden and Yakutsk in Siberia. These CURRENT tests where performed in the real envi- SOLUTIONS ronment which has proven to be the most effective method to observe and The following recommendations from monitor the ground servicing proce- Airbus Industrie have been developed dures and the efficiency of the protec- and proven to be beneficial to operators tion on the water and waste systems. in extreme cold weather conditions. Each test aircraft is fitted with nu- Irrespective of whether the various merous temperature sensors, located systems have been upgraded or not, throughout the aircraft and linked to a Airbus Industrie has developed specific data log computer. The computer sys- handling procedures for the mainte- tem provides the means to store data re- nance staff to prepare the aircraft dur- lated to the temperature conditions in ing extreme cold weather conditions. the heated and un-heated systems and These procedures are applicable to all the ambient temperature of the cabin Airbus aircraft, and for the water and and cargo compartments. waste systems these are contained in However, as we previously stated, the the Aircraft Maintenance Manual best way to test the aircraft system be- (AMM) ATA 12-31-38 (Figure 6). haviour is in real conditions, during daily operations at the customer facili- A319/A320/A321 ties. Such a test was performed with the programme assistance of Air Canada, with the entry into service of their A320 fleet. This Generally, the standard-body aircraft quickly revealed that the existing pro- operating in Northern Europe are not tection was not providing adequate pro- affected by cold soak conditions during 20 FAST / NUMBER 20 the average winter, and therefore do not Figure 6 require the cold weather package. Furthermore, these aircraft that have the Water and waste drain under cold soak conditions cargo compartment heating installed Temperature rarely suffer delays due to freezing. ° Operations can be placed in three +10 C categories: 0°C ❍ Aircraft operated the average winter conditions, such as Western Europe / -10°C South East Asia. -20°C ❍ Aircraft operated as above, but with a turnaround, or overnight stop in cold -30°C areas, such as at Moscow or Chicago. ❍ Aircraft operated in continuous cold -40°C soak conditions. -50°C These variations in operations has led 30min 60min 90min 120min 150min Time Airbus Industrie to develop and intro- duce modifications to ensure that nor- Draining not required Draining not required provided mal dispatch reliability can be main- air conditioning system is on Draining recommended tained regardless of the weather and cabin temperature is more conditions (see table 1). Draining imperative than 10°C ● For the aircraft operating in aver- age winter conditions but with overnight stops in cold areas, a small number of cases were still being re- ported. Of these cases the most com- mon problem was related to either the “interruption of the water supply at the FWD galley” or “waste servicing panel freezing, unable to dump”. The forward galley water interruption was attributed to either: ❍ the low usage of the forward galley,

Table 1 A319/A320/A321 Modifications from MSN shown and Service Bulletin availability

Mod 21 597 SB 38-1029 Install potable and waste water freezing protection

Mod 21629 / MSN 0165 SB38-1014 Install insulation at the forward and aft potable water and water drain lines at the cabin floor interface

Mod 21662 / MSN 0148 SB 38-1015 Relocation of the water drain valve (4MP)

Mod 21649 / MSN 0108 SB 38-1016 Modify the potable water servicing panel

Mod 22073 SB 38-1020 Install heating element on the fill/overflow drain valve and overflow pipe (in service aircraft only) on the potable water tank installed in aft section

Mod 22617 SB 30-1015 Relocate temperature sensor 61DW for aft waste water lines

Mod 22618 / MSN 0384 SB 38-1025 Improved insulation of the fill/drain valve 16MA

Mod 23243 SB 30-1020 Waste servicing panel freezing protection

Mod 23324 / MSN 0421 SB 30-1021 Forward potable water supply line, relocation of the sensor 10DW

Mod 24229 / MSN 0490 SB 38-1041 Improve mechanism of the overflow valve 8MP and drain valve 14MP control handle (cancels the Inspection SB 38-1023)

Mod 24559 SB 30-1026 Relocate temperature sensor 29DW for forward water supply lines (supersedes the SB 30-1016)

Mod 25120 SB 38-1045 Protect the potable water supply pipe-lines of the Galley 1 from freezing

Mod 25162 SB 30-1033 Freezing protection of the vacuum tank area

Mod 25280 / MSN 0560 SB 30-1030 Improved drain mast (supersedes the SB 30-1007 and SB 30-1017)

FAST / NUMBER 20 21 related to low passenger load factor A300-600/A310 during the flight, programme ❍ the forward cargo door being opened, and the combined effect of cold condi- Dedicated modifications similar to tions coupled with the wind chill factor, those given previously have also been on the ground. introduced for the wide-body aircraft To ensure continuous water supply to (see Table 2). To ensure that these ful- the forward galley, Airbus Industrie de- filled the requirements a trial was con- veloped a method to heat the water sup- ducted in 1995, on an A310 in Yakutsk ply line in the forward section of the (Republic of Sakha). Temperatures aircraft. This improvement was intro- within this region often fall to as low as duced by the modification Mod 25120 minus 54¡C, and it is reported to be one and the associated SB 38-1045. As the of the coldest areas in the world. water lines at this position pass through During this test more than 800 para- the electronics bay and are therefore meters were measured and recorded, in shrouded, these lines required internal three different types of test conditions. heating. After each test session and overnight In the aft section of the aircraft, heat- cold soak for up to 16 hours a test flight ing the waste servicing panel provided was performed. further improvements, particularly dur- From the results gathered, several ing short turnaround times. modifications were developed for the The Mod 25162, with its associated water and waste systems. SB 30-1033, was introduced further to in-service experience having shown A330/A340 that during servicing: programme ❍ the waste drain valve remained in closed position due to ice formation, The long range programme was al- ❍ the rinse lines were not fully drained ready subject to the improvements and at the previous servicing operation, findings from the A320 tests. As a re- leading to the freezing of the drain sult, the first A340 to be operated in nipples. cold weather areas was already ● For those operators whose aircraft equipped with modification to combat continually fly from areas of extreme freezing problems (Mod 40959). Addi- weather conditions, the complete mod- tionally, even the pre-production test ification package has proven to be effi- aircraft was equipped with cold weather cient. Refer to optional modifications protection and monitoring systems. Mod 21597 / SB 38-1029 which in- The modifications on Table 3 have clude electrical heating of the complete been introduced following in-service potable and waste systems below the experience and analysis of the data cabin floor and extend to the waste tank gathered from the various cold weather drain valves and servicing panel. campaigns.

Table 2 A300-600/A310 Modifications from MSN shown and Service Bulletin availability

Mod 07210 / MSN 0378 SB 38-2008/6006 Protect water line against freezing (fuselage section 13/14)

Mod 08093 / MSN 0574 SB 38-2012 Relocation of potable water supply line

Mod 08506 / MSN 0638 SB 38-2013/6008 Relocate the aft drain valve (cancels SB 38-2011)

Mod 08643 / MSN 0647 SB 38-2019 Heating of the water servicing panel

Mod 08643 / MSN 0647 SB 30-2020/6015 Water servicing panel heating plate: overheating damage for aircraft having Mod 02517

Mod 08766 and 10923 SB 38-2020 Install freezing protection for the potable water system

Mod 10969 SB 38-2021 Introduction of heated nipples on waste servicing panel

Mod 11033 SB 21-2050 Modify ventilation in toilet Y and Z areas

Mod 11226 SB 38-2022 Relocation of the aft drain valve for aircraft equipped with cold weather package

Mod 11605 SB 30-2024/6018 Introduction of an improved drain mast

22 FAST / NUMBER 20 Table 3 A330/A340 Modifications from MSN shown and Service Bulletin availability

Mod 40959 Install potable and waste water freezing protection

Mod 41657 / MSN0004 SB30-4002 Additional heating in section 16/18

Mod 41999 / MSN0020 SB30-3002/4009 Add heated nipples and heating provisions for valves

Mod 42001 / MSN0020 SB38-3006/4008 Heating of the waste balancing valves and waste drain valve

Mod 42705 / MSN0034 SB38-3033/4038 Inspect the installation of the heater cuff sensors 1310DW and 1320DW on valves 9MA and 22MA

Mod 42730 / MSN0040 SB38-3013/4019 Relocate the potable water heating elements

Mod 42960 / MSN0032 SB30-3009/4015 Replacement of WIPCU

Mod 43025 / MSN0034 SB38-3016/4022 Introduce heating of the waste separating system and overboard vent lines

Mod 44022 / MSN0114 SB30-3014/4019 Introduction of an improved drain mast

Mod 44206 / MSN0114 SB38-3026/4035 Relocate the temperature sensors 330DW and install new and 44399 / MSN0114 support bracket for the fill/drain valve 9MA and cable control

CONCLUSION

With more than 1500 Airbus Aircraft in service around the world operated by more than 140 customers, work still continues to provide even better solutions. The results from the various cold soak tests coupled with the in-service data are still being evalu- ated. From this mass of information more is being learnt on air-flow and temperature change, further adding to our ability to design systems that combat problems associated with freezing conditions. Further research is under way to review the principle of the water and waste system protection from freezing, which in turn may lead to provision of standard aircraft with full cold weather operation capability in a future programme. ■

For any details about these modifications, please contact Mr Alex. SCHNOOR, Retrofit Modification Planning, AI/SE-TR5, Tel.: +33 (5) 61 93 39 13, Fax: +33 (5) 61 93 41 06

FAST / NUMBER 20 23 Measurements of air quality were performed in the past. However, there was insufficient knowledge about the following contaminants: ● particle countings within fresh and recirculation air and in the cabin, ● types and amount of microbiological contaminations, ● types and amount of volatile organic compounds (VOC). Thus, Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus and Airbus Industrie decided to perform measurements during in-service flights of Airbus aircraft. The study of these three types of contaminants, the measuring principles and the analysis of the results are described in this article.

Dipl.-lng. Martin Dechow Predevelopment Air Systems Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus GmbH

wo aircraft types were selected technology and was developed in to perform the measurements: 1988/89. This element has a dioctyl Tthe Airbus A310 of Swissair phthalate (DOP) efficiency according and the Airbus A340 of Lufthansa (see to MIL-STD-282 of more than Figure 1) for the following reasons : 99.97% and belongs to the EU- ● The two aircraft types have differ- ROVENT class EU13. This type of ent air distribution systems installed. filter is mainly used for medical appli- While the A310 has got local mixing cations. of fresh and recirculation air with an ● Both aircraft are used for medium extraction of the used air from the and long range operations. Thus, flight ceiling area, the A340 is equipped time dependant concentrations of con- with a central mixing unit. The recir- taminants can be evaluated. Some culation air is sucked from the under- VOC measurements need several floor area forward and aft of the wing. hours to detect certain compounds. ● The recirculation filters belong to Both airlines achieve a high standard two different generations. The A310 of maintenance (e.g. filter removal on filter development began in 1979. The time) and accurate cabin cleaning to filter efficiency with particles of enable an assessment of the measured 0.51µm in diameter is 90% and 99% air quality parameters. with AC coarse test dust. This is much more than for filters which are typi- PARTICLE COUNTING cally used in building ventilation sys- tems. According to the EUROVENT Measuring principle air filter efficiency classification, this “clean room filter” belongs to the Fixed installed equipment was neces- class EU9. The HEPA (high efficiency sary to perform the measurements. It particulate air) filter of the A340 be- consisted of eight particle sensors, a longs to the new generation air filter pressure transducer for flight phase

Figure 1 Selected aircraft types for cabin air measurements: Swissair A310 and Lufthansa A340

Central Data Units Swissair Particle Sensors: A310 Hatrack Dadopanel First/Business Class Economy Class Economy Class Non smoker Non smoker Smoker

Lufthansa A340

24 FAST / NUMBER 20 indication and a central unit for power ❍ cruise condition, Figure 2 supply and data storage. It was in- ❍ twenty-five minutes before landing, stalled within the aircraft for about ❍ twenty-five minutes after landing. A310/A340 one year and delivered results during For ease of analysis the recorded par- Particle sensor installation hatrack normal in-service flights. ticle counts were averaged and com- Inside the cabin six particle sensors pared as shown in the figures 3a, b and were installed in pairs in the first c. From this the following statements (A310) business class (A340), and can be concluded: economy class non smoking and smok- ● General Statement ing sections. The air intakes of the sen- The particle concentration is highly de- sors were located between two centre pendant on flight phase and on occu- Sensor hatracks (ceiling sensors) (see Figure pant activity. Thus, peak concentrations 2) and close to the floor level behind are much higher than the cabin mean the dadopanels (floor sensors). values and during night flights they are Another sensor was installed in the substantially lower. fresh air duct downstream of the air ● Ventilation Air conditioning pack and one in the recir- The mean particle concentration, within culating air duct of the cabin air distrib- the recirculation air is found to be ution system downstream of the recir- lower than or equal to the fresh air con- Suction culation filter. In the A310 the re- centration for all ground and flight opening circulation air sensor analyses mainly cases for both aircraft types. the air of the economy class smoker The A310 ventilation system is sepa- (zonal recirculation). The recirculating rated in three cabin zones. Each of the air intake of the A340 was located in zones has got a local recirculation fan/ the underfloor area and the recirculated filter. The worst recirculation air was air is a mix of the outgoing air of all selected for the measurement (aft cabin cabin classes. zone, mainly economy class smoker). The measuring principle of the parti- Even this air purified with an EU9 filter cle sensors is based on a laser optic that is less contaminated than the fresh air counts the number of particles in the air before and after take-off and before and conducted through the sensor. Particles after landing (Figure 3a). During cruise with more than 0.5µm in diameter were the contamination is found to be equal detected. for fresh and recirculation air. With the HEPA filter used in the Results of the countings A340 aircraft and with a central recir- culation system the concentration ratio The data were separated according to between fresh and recirculation air is the following flight phases: detected to be between 250 during ❍ twenty-five minutes before take off, cruise and 2800 before take-off ❍ twenty-five minutes after take off, (Figure 3b). The reason for the different

Figure 3a Figure 3b Figure 3c Particle concentration ratio - between fresh air and recirculated air - between cabin air and supply air

A310 A340 A310 Economy Class

12 EU9 filter 3000 EU13 filter 50 efficiency efficiency 10 2500 40

8 2000 30 6 1500 20 4 1000 10 2 500

0 0 0

Fresh air has 10 times as many Fresh air has 2800 times as many Cabin air has 40 times as many particles as recirculated air particles as recirculated air particles as supply air

Before T/O During cruise Before landing Smokers After T/O After landing Non smokers

FAST / NUMBER 20 25 ratio between ground and flight phases retaining capacity. Smaller germs are is mainly the substantially lower out- detected with a probability of less than side particle concentration in higher al- 50%, larger ones with more than 50%. titudes. Higher ratios before take-off in A low cut-off value means an accurate comparison to after landing are caused measurement device. The equipment by aircraft queues at the taxi way. used in this study has got a very low On the ground the fresh air concen- cut-off value compared with other de- tration is measured to be between 106 vices. Equipment with cut-off values and 107 particles per cubic meter. These between 0.65µm and 3.8µm are nor- values are in the lower range of ex- mally used for germ investigations. The pected outside concentrations in the in- usual bacteria size is found to be be- vestigated size range of more than tween 0.3µm to 3.5µm. So the cut-off 0.5µm in diameter. Thus, the engine value has a significant influence on the compressor as the fresh air flow source quality of the test results. does not emit a high amount of particles One hundred and eighty one mea- to the bleed air system. The concentra- surements on germ content were per- tion during cruise is, as expected, well formed during this study. The following below that of the ground outside air. agar plates were used to detect the ● Differences between cabin zones germs: Within the A310 cabin the sensors were ❍ Blood agar - total bacterial germ located at first class (six abreast), econ- counts. omy class non smokers (eight abreast) ❍ Blood agar/CO2-atmosphere an- and economy class smoker. The aver- aerobic germs or germ growth under age concentration of the hatrack and reduced oxygen. floor sensor was taken as reference for ❍ Xylose-Lysine-Desoxycholate comparison with the supply air. (XLD) agar - salmonellae. As expected, the cabin air has sub- ❍ Caseinpeptone-Soyapeptone (CPS) stantially higher contamination parti- agar - thermophilic actinomycetes ❍ cles levels than the supply air (mix be- R2A agar (deficient culture medium) tween fresh and recirculated air) detection of environmental germs in a (Figure 3c). Thus, the main emitters are humid milieu. the cabin occupants. ❍ Nutrient agar - detection of robust On the ground, when smoking is pro- germs in air and dust. hibited, there is just a slightly higher ❍ Sabouraud-(4%-)glucose (SA) agar concentration in the smoking section. moulds (mesophilic and thermotoler- The initial smoke dust contamination of ant). the smokers clothes could be the rea- The detection of airborne viruses is son. During flight, when smoking is not feasible with portable equipment. permitted, the ratio between the mean concentration smoker/non smokers in- Results of the creases. Peak concentration ratios dur- measurements ing heavy smoking phases, e.g. after meals, are significantly higher. The main results of the measurements are: Measuring microbiological MICROBIOLOGICAL ● Differentiation contamination CONTAMINATION The majority of the detected bacteria were non-pathogenic gram positive According to many newspaper articles cocci. there is supposed to be substantial Non-pathogenic aerob spore forming health risk when flying due to a high bacteria were much less prevalent. microbiological contamination and the Micrococci and gram negative bacte- spread of bacteria and other germs ria could only be detected at extremely through the recirculation system. low levels. No case of salmonella was found in Measurement Methods the cabin air. Thermophilic acetino- mycetes (gam positive bacteria, mainly A portable device, different to the pathogen/allergen) were not detected. particle counters described previously, No staphylococcus aureus was found, was used for the measurements of the staphylococcus epidermis was detected microbiological contamination. They in some cases. were performed during A310 and A340 Mould spores were measured in ex- scheduled flights. tremely low concentrations. A slit impactor FH2 was selected for ● Ventilation Air the measurements. The air flow through The ventilation air has a very low cont- the device was 50 litres per minute for amination level due to the high effi- two minutes. The cut-off value of the ciency of the recirculation filters and equipment is 0.65µm. This value is an the contamination free air in high alti- important factor for a comparison of tudes. The geometric mean value for different studies. It describes the diame- the supply air of the A310 cabin was ter at which germs are excluded at 50% found to be 76 Colony Forming Units 26 FAST / NUMBER 20 (CFU) per cubic metre and for the Figure 4 A340 cabin 28 CFU/m3. For compari- son: the recommended germ concentra- Typical progress of bacteria concentration after a peak tion in the ventilation air in hospitals is 3 <50 CFU/m3 for operating theatres and CFU/m <150 CFU/m3 for dispensation rooms, 800 new-born baby wards and intensive care wards. Thus, the ventilation air of 600 the A340 cabin fulfils the recom- mended germ concentration for operat- ing theatres, and even that of the A310 400 cabin with less efficient filters closely approaches the operating theatre level. 200 There is no reason for passengers to be apprehensive about an infection 0 risk due to the ventilation system. 10.58 11.00 11.03 11.06 11.09 11.12 11.15 Measurement time-minutes ● Different Cabin Zones The bacteria concentration is higher in the economy class than in business or Figure 4 illustrates the good perfor- first class. Thus, the main emitters of mance of the A340 ventilation system. bacteria are the occupants. Seven measurements were performed successively to investigate the progress Geometric mean values per flight of the bacteria concentration within a for bacteria are : certain period. The second value shows a sudden increase of the concentration. ● Cockpit during flight Just three minutes later, with the next 0-370 CFU/m3 measurement, the bacteria level is back ● First class (i.m.) in the normal range. This shows the 90-400 CFU/m3 proven effectiveness of the aircraft ven- ● Business class tilation system. 76-443 CFU/m3 ● Expert Evidence ● Economy class The main statements about the results 38-1703 CFU/m3 of the microbiological measurements, ● Galley given by the Institute for Hygiene and 30-1703 CFU/m3 Environmental Medicine, Medical ● Lavatory (i.m.) University of Lübeck (1), are: 20-790 CFU/m3 ❍ “Non-pathogenic cocci and spore ● Outside Geneva airport forming bacteria at maximum levels of (cold, dry air, February 1994) 103-104 CFU/m3 are irrelevant to 140 CFU/m3 health considerations”. ● Outside Abidjan/Ivory Coast ❍ “The only actual health risk is in (hot air, 100% humidity) person to person contact. By sneezing >104 CFU/m3 or coughing the infection is transmit- (i.m.: individual measurements) ted over short distances via droplets.” ❍ “Mould spores in these amounts For comparison, the Institute of therefore are irrelevant to health con- Hygiene and Environmental Medicine siderations.” No ventilation system is of the University of Lübeck, Germany, able to prevent this kind of transmis- analysed the concentrations in other in- sion. door spaces on the basis of a biblio- graphical investigation. Typical mean There is no reason for passengers to bacteria concentrations were found to be apprehensive about an increased be between 500 CFU/m3 and 3,000 infection risk in aircraft when com- CFU/m3. Thus, the detected concentra- pared to other highly occupied tions in aircraft cabin air are in the spaces. lower range or below the figures mea- sured in other indoor spaces. Thus, the supposed health considera- The concentration at the Abidjan, tion published in several newspaper ar- Ivory Coast, airport was detected to be ticles is found to be without justifica- higher (too high for exact detection) tion for Airbus aircraft. than all mean values measured in the cabin. VOC CONCENTRATIONS ● Progress of bacteria concentration Reasons for bacteria peak concentra- While particles - including bacteria tions are sneeze, cough or even move- and other germs - are removed by the ment of the occupants. An efficient recirculation filters, the gaseous com- ventilation system has to secure a fast pounds are not filtered within the re- reduction of the bacteria count. circulation loop. FAST / NUMBER 20 27 parison. They are valid for an eight hours a day, five days a week exposure. For nicotine the short-term limit has also to be considered. The concentra- tion peaks were detected with thermal desorbed tubes, which need only 20-40 minutes measurement time. The follow- ing main compounds with their amounts, admissible concentrations and origins were found: ● Ethanole - The compound with the highest concentration, from 149 to 1780ppb, geometric mean value (GM) 593ppb. Threshold value (MAK) 1,000,000ppb (1,000 ppm). Origin: alcoholic beverages. ● Acetone - Measured concentrations 3 to 236ppb, GM value 24ppb. Suction pump and adsorber tubes Measurement Methods Threshold value (MAK) 500,000ppb. Origin: methabolic product, smoking. The detection of the volative organic ● Toluene - Concentrations between compound (VOC) was performed in 2.3 and 135ppb, GM value 18ppb. parallel to the microbiological measure- Threshold value (MAK) 50,000ppb. ments. An active measurement with a Origin: mainly fuel ingredient, suction pump and adsorber tubes were smoking. used. ● Formaldehyde - Detected amount 3 The proceeding in measuring VOCs to 26ppb, GM value 7ppb. Threshold is highly dependant on the expected value (MAK) 500ppb. Indoor limit compounds and their concentration. To value of the BGA (Health Agency of detect as many compounds as possible Germany) 100ppb. and keep them qualifiable and quantifi- Origin: smoking, cleaning agents. No able, many different types of measure- other aldehydes were detected. ment tubes and suction flows are neces- ● Acetic Acid - Found with 4 to sary. The following tubes are used: 11ppb, GM value 6ppb. Threshold ● Activated carbon tubes (NIOSH value (MAK) 10,000ppb. 100/50mg) with Carbon Disulphide as Origin: meals, cleaning agents. solvent ● Nicotine - Concentrations between ● Tenax tubes (NIOSH 30/15mg) 0.2 and 26ppb, GM value 2ppb. with Hexane as solvent. Threshold value (MAK) 70ppb, short- ● Silica gel tubes (NIOSH 140/70mg) term limit (30 minutes, 4 times during with methanol as solvent an eight hour period) 140ppb. ●ADT-Tenax tubes (175mg) analysed Origin: smoking. with thermal desorption ● Impregnated silica gel tubes (EPA- Progress during different TO-11 300/150mg) with acetonitril as flight phases solvent. When using tubes for solvent extrac- The concentration of particular com- tion the measurement duration must be pounds depends on the flight phase. As several hours. Thus, only mean values the flight dependant concentrations are for concentrations can be found. With measured only during one single flight - an extraction by thermal desorption the as thermal desorption of the test tubes required measurement time can be re- is necessary - the figures can just indi- duced to less than one hour. Then it is cate a trend. Two examples are given: possible to evaluate the concentration nicotine (Figure 5) and the aliphatics progress during different flight phases. (Figure 6). The measurements were analysed by Nicotine was found in low concentra- the Fraunhofer-Institut for Environ- tions during ground periods, when mental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, smoking is prohibited. The maximum Schmallenberg, Germany (2). concentration reached one third of the MAK-value, equivalent to one sixth of Results of the measurements the short-term limit. This extreme case happened in the smoker section of the Sixty-four different compounds were economy class after the meal, when detected, many of them in concentra- smokers generally are smoking. tions too low for quantification. As However, within the non smoking sec- most of the measurements need a pe- tion the nicotine concentration remains riod of several hours, the long-term at very low levels. This shows a good MAK values (Maximal Arbeitsplatz separation between smoking and non Konzentration - Maximum workplace smoking area. Nicotine particles are concentration) are considered for com- largely removed by the particle filter. 28 FAST / NUMBER 20 Figure 5 Figure 6 Concentration progress of nicotine Concentration progress of aliphatics (A340 / LH401 on 18 and 19 July 1995) (A340 / LH401 on 18 and 19 July 1995)

Smoking section Smoking section Particles per billion (ppb) Non smoking section Particles per billion (ppb) Non smoking section 35 Instrument failure 35 Instrument failure 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 Cabin Boarding Lunch AfterSleeping Cabin AfterSleeping empty Take-off lunch empty Boarding Take-off Lunch lunch

Aliphatics (n-hexane, n-octane and indoor air of homes and thus present higher hydrocarbons) are commonly no unusual exposure situation.” detected as fuel ingredients. Thus, they ❍ “Wherever the measured values are found in substantially higher con- could be compared to existing or pro- centrations on the ground than during posed indoor guide values, these val- flight. There was no significant differ- ues were not exceeded in a single ence between the smoking and non case.” smoking sections. ❍ “Wherever the MAK-values were ● Expert Evidence used for comparison, these values A toxicological evaluation of the re- were not exceeded. This is also true in sults done by Prof. Th. Eikmann most of the cases when an appropriate (Institute of Hygiene and Environmen- safety factor of 100 is applied.” tal Medecine, University of Giessen, ❍ “A notable exception is nicotine in Germany) summarised that: the air of the smoker section where ❍ “Most of the substances found in concentrations approaching MAK- cabin air are also present in ‘normal’ concentrations were determined.”

CONCLUSIONS

All evaluated results show neither relevance to health risks nor - with the exception of nicotine in the smoker section - a comfort restriction. That shows the high level of cabin air quality of Airbus aircraft and the sufficient performance of the air conditioning system to keep the air quality at these levels. The following main statements can be given as conclusions of this study: ● In case of using HEPA filters the recirculation air is substantially less contaminated with particles than fresh air, even during cruise. ● The particles are emitted by the occupants, mainly by smokers. ● Bacteria types and concentrations do not represent any health risk. ● The bacteria concentration in the supply air is at the level of operating theatre recommendations. ● Mould spores as measured only in very low concentrations are irrelevant to health considerations. ● The only health risk may arise from person to person contact (droplet infection). ● All detected VOCs are found to be in similar concentrations detected in other indoor spaces or lower and do not influ- ence health and - except for nicotine in the smoker section - comfort. ● The concentrations of VOCs depend on the flight phase due to their origin (e.g. kerosene smell on ground, smoking in flight). ■

We thank Swissair and Lufthansa Technik as well as the Institutes participating for their competent and committed support which were key elements for the successful accomplishment of this study.

References: (1) “Methods and Results of the Measurements of Aerogenic Micro-biological Contamination in Airplane Cabin Air” - not published - Opinion of the Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medecine, Medical University of Lübeck, Germany, December 1995. (2) “Report on VOC Measurements during the Flights Frankfurt-Dallas-Frankfurt on 19 / 21.06.1995 and Frankfurt-New York- Frankfurt on 17 / 19.07.1995” - not published - Fraunhofer-lnstitut für Umweltchemie und Ökotoxikologie, Schmallenberg, Germany, December 1995. (3) “Toxicological Evaluation of Cabin Air Concentrations” - not published - Prof. Dr. Med. Th. Eikmann, Institut für Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, Universität Giessen, Germany December 1995.

FAST / NUMBER 20 29 RESIDENT CUSTOMER SUPPORT REPRESENTATION Mohamed El-Boraï, Vice President Customer Support Services Division Telephone: +33 (5) 61 93 35 04 / Telefax: +33 (5) 61 93 41 01 Jean-Paul Gayral, Resident Customer Representation Administration Director Telephone: +33 (5) 61 93 38 79 / Telefax: +33 (5) 61 93 49 64 Airbus Industrie headquarters 1 rond-point Maurice Bellonte, 31707 Blagnac Cedex France

LOCATION COUNTRY TELEPHONE TELEFAX ABU DHABI United Arab Emirates 971 (2) 706 7702 971 (2) 757 097 AMMAN Jordan 962 (8) 51 284 962 (8) 51 195 ATHENS Greece 30 (1)981 8581 30 (1) 983 2479 BANGKOK Thailand 66 (2) 531 0076 66 (2) 531 1940 BOMBAY (MUMBAI) India 91 (22) 618 3273 91 (22) 611 3691 BRUSSELS Belgium 32 (2) 723 4824 32 (2) 723 4823 BUCHAREST Romania 40 (18) 600 250 40 (1) 312 5853 BUENOS AIRES Argentina 541 480 9408 541 480 9408 CAIRO Egypt 202 418 3687 202 418 3707 CHENGDU Peoples Republic of China 86 (28) 521 6511 86 (28) 521 6511 CHICAGO USA (Illinois) 1 (773) 601 4602 1 (773) 601 2406 COLOMBO Sri Lanka 94 73 2197 / 2199 94 (1) 253 893 DAKAR Senegal 221 201 615 221 201 148 DAKHA Bangladesh 880 (2) 896129 880 (2) 896130 DELHI India 91 (11) 565 2033 91 (11) 565 2541 DUBAI United Arab Emirates 971 (4) 822 519 971 (4) 822 273 DUBLIN Ireland 353 (1) 705 2294 353 (1) 705 3803 DUSSELDORF Germany 49 (211) 941 8687 49 (211) 941 8035 FRANKFURT Germany 49 (69) 696 3947 49 (69) 696 4699 GUAYAQUIL Ecuador 593 (4) 290 005 Ext. 143 593 (4) 293 685 HANOI Vietnam 84 (4) 88 65 018 84 (4) 88 65018 HO CHI MINH CITY Vietnam 84 (8) 84 57 602 84 (8) 84 46 419 HONG KONG Hong Kong 852 2747 8449 852 2352 5957 ISTANBUL Turkey 90 (212) 574 0907 90 (212) 573 5521 JAKARTA Indonesia 62 (21) 550 1993 62 (21) 550 1943 JEDDAH Saudi Arabia 966 (2) 684 2864 966 (2) 685 7712 JOHANNESBURG South Africa 27 (11) 978 3193 27 (11) 978 3190 KARACHI Pakistan 92 (21) 457 0604 92 (21) 457 0604 KINGSTON Jamaica 1 (809) 924 8057 1 (809) 924 8154 KUALA LUMPUR Malaysia 60 (3) 746 7352 60 (3) 746 2230 KUWAIT Kuwait 965 474 2193 965 434 2567 LARNACA Cyprus 357 (4) 643 181 357 (4) 643 185 LISBON Portugal 351 (1) 840 7032 351 (1) 847 4444 LONDON (LHR) England 44 (181) 751 5431 44 (181) 751 2844 LOS ANGELES USA (California) 1 (310) 348 0091 1 (310) 348 8755 LUTON England 44 (1582) 39 8706 44 (1582) 48 3826 MACAO Macao 853 898 4023 853 898 4024 MADRID Spain 34 (1) 329 1447 34 (1) 329 0708 MANCHESTER England 44 (161) 489 3155 44 (161) 489 3240

30 FAST / NUMBER 20 LOCATION COUNTRY TELEPHONE TELEFAX MANILA Philippines 63 (2) 831 5444 63 (2) 831 0834 MAURITIUS Mauritius 230 637 3882 230 637 3882 MEMPHIS USA (Tennessee) 1 (901) 797 6050 1 (901)797 6030 MEXICO CITY Mexico 52 (5) 784 3874 52 (5) 785 5195 MELBOURNE Australia 61 (3) 9338 2038 61 (3) 9338 0281 MIAMI USA (Florida) 1 (305) 871 1441 1 (305) 871 2322 MINNEAPOLIS USA (Minnesota) 1 (612) 726 0431 1 (612) 726 0414 MONTREAL Canada 1 (514) 422 6320 1 (514) 422 6310 MOSCOW Russia 7 (095) 753 8061 7 (095) 753 806 MUSCAT Oman 968 521 286 968 521 286 NAIROBI Kenya 254 (2) 822 763 254 (2) 822 763 NEW YORK USA (New York) 1 (718) 656 0700 1 (718) 656 8635 PARIS (CDG) France 33 (1) 48 62 08 82 / 87 33 (1) 48 62 08 99 PARIS (ORY) France 33 (1) 49 78 02 88 33 (1) 49 78 01 85 PHOENIX USA (Arizona) 1 (602) 693 7445 1 (602) 693 7444 PORT OF SPAIN Trinidad & Tobago 1 (809) 669 1647 1 (809) 669 1649 PRAGUE Czech Republic 42 (2) 2011 4193 42 (2) 316 4275 PUSAN South Korea 82 (51) 971 6977 82 (51) 971 4106 RALEIGH USA (North Carolina) 1 (919) 840 5016 1 (919) 840 5014 ROME Italy 39 (6) 6501 0564 39 (6) 652 9077 SAN FRANCISCO USA (California) 1 (415) 634 4375 1 (415) 634 4378 SAN JOSE Costa Rica 506 (4) 417 223 506 (4) 412 228 SEOUL South Korea 82 (2) 665 4417 82 (2) 664 3219 SHANGHAI Peoples Republic of China 86 (21) 62686671 86 (21) 6268 6671 SHANNON Ireland 353 (1) 705 2084 353 (1) 705 2085 SHENYANG Peoples Republic of China 86 (24) 272 5177 86 (24) 272 5177 SINGAPORE Singapore 65 (5) 455 027 65 (5) 425 380 TAIPEI Taiwan 886 (3) 383 4410 886 (3) 383 4718 TASHKENT Uzbekistan 7 (37) 1254 8552 7 (37) 1255 2878 TEHRAN Iran 98 (21) 603 5647 98 (21) 603 5647 TOKYO (HND) Japan 81 (3) 5756 5081 81 (3) 5756 5084 81 (3) 5756 8770 81 (3) 5756 8772 TORONTO Canada 1 (905) 677 1090 1 (905) 677 1090 TULSA USA (Oklahoma) 1 (918) 292 3227 1 (918) 292 2581 TUNIS Tunisia 216 (1) 750 639 216 (1) 750 855 VANCOUVER Canada 1 (604) 276 3776 1 (604) 276 3548 VIENNA Austria 43 (1) 7007 3688 43 (1) 7007 3235 WINNIPEG Canada 1 (204) 985 5908 1 (204) 837 2489 XIAN Peoples Republic of China 86 (29) 870 255 86 (29) 426 1203 ZURICH Switzerland 41 (1) 812 7727 41 (1) 810 2383

FAST / NUMBER 20 31 Coming in from the cold... Part II

Operating aircraft in extremely cold weather is never easy and it was much more difficult in 1925...

Roald Amundsen with five companions set out for the North Pole in May 1925 in two Dornier Wal flying boats. These aircraft with their large wing-like floats were judged capable of landing on ice as well as on water. They were powered by two Rolls Royce V-12 Eagle engines mounted back to back.

Levelling the ice field to prepare a "runway"

The expedition came to a halt about 250km from the Pole and one aircraft was lost. The crews had to prepare a runway before they could take-off for their return flight. Their problems did not stop there. An aileron jammed forcing them to make a sea landing. Eventually they got back to Norway four weeks after their departure.

The explorers moving blocks of ice to fill up crevasses in their “runway”

The two Dornier Wals on the glacier about 250km from the North Pole

32 FAST / NUMBER 20