HUMAN AND ECOLOGICAL HEALTH IN ASUBPEESCHOSEEWAGONG NETUM ANISHINABEK (GRASSY NARROWS FIRST NATION)

report prepared for the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group

prepared by Patricia Sellers, PhD December 2014

FINAL REPORT

“The government is not a very trusted steward of the land. They’ve had a hundred and forty one years, since we signed the Treaty with them, to prove that they are a good steward of the land…they continue to license industry to extract resources from our land with devastating results...it is all broken trust.”

Chief Roger Fobister, Sr. Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek

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Correct citation for this document:

Sellers, P. 2014. Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek (Grassy Narrows First Nation). Report prepared for the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group. 61 p + appendices.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank members of the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group for the opportunity to do this work. I have learned much and am better for it—I hope that reciprocity is found in its utility. I would also like to thank the group and its colleagues, who procured, borrowed, found, scanned, retrieved, sent, and submitted files and documents as part of the necessary and first centralization process. I thank Anna Sanford for her vital assistance in this step and in the creation of a digital database. I thank everyone who provided feedback on the interim report.

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FOREWARD

The people of Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek (ANA, also known as Grassy Narrows First Nation) were poisoned by mercury released into the Wabigoon-English River system in the 1960s. The source was the uncontrolled discharge of effluent from a chlor-alkali plant upstream at Dryden, Ontario. Since that time, there have been many, many studies on the effects of this discharge on both the river system and the people. The published work of those studies is contained largely within reports and journal articles that date back to the early 1970s.

My task was to review all the available and published work related to human and ecological health with respect to ANA and to provide a synthesis. The bulk of this report is thus two sections: “Human Health Research to Date” and “Ecological Health Research to Date.” I was also asked to identify gaps in the published work and a make a list of recommendations for next steps and/or future studies. The gaps and recommendations are the practical components of this report and, at the request of the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group, are presented first. Throughout the report, and where necessary, I drew from outside literature to provide context and to help propel ongoing or revived discussions.

Readers should be mindful that this report is a reflection of the relevant information available and in published form, and available at the time of writing. What is not included are a) community-based observations, information, and knowledge that are not published, b) studies that are underway or not yet published c) media publications and d) publications not obtainable within the timeframe of this task. As such readers are encouraged, where possible, to supplement, update, or revise this document with relevant information that s/he has access to.

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CONTENTS

FOREWARD ...... iv 1. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 1 For Human Health Initiatives ...... 1 For ecological Health Initiatives ...... 2 For Education and Awareness Initiatives ...... 3 For design and implementation of research initiatives ...... 4 2. GAPS ...... 5 GAPs Research Methods ...... 6 GAPS In Communication, Education and Awareness ...... 8 GAPS In Information and Knowledge ...... 9 Human Health ...... 9 Ecological Health ...... 12 3. HUMAN HEALTH RESEARCH TO DATE ...... 15 Evidence of mercury exposure: blood and hair levels of mercury ...... 15 Exposure and Development of Symptoms ...... 16 Symptoms of mercury Poisoning in Adults ...... 17 Symptoms of Mercury Poisoning in Children and Infants ...... 18 Childhood Development ...... 18 Incidence of Mortality and Disease ...... 19 Health Services ...... 19 Diet ...... 19 Fish consumption advisories ...... 22 Effectiveness of fish consumption advisories ...... 23 4. STATE OF HUMAN HEALTH ...... 25 Community Health ...... 25 5. ECOLOGICAL HEALTH RESEARCH TO DATE ...... 27 Mercury Studies ...... 28 Joint study by Canada and Ontario research teams in the late 1970s ...... 28 Mercury in fish ...... 29 Mercury in crayfish ...... 31 Mercury in sediment ...... 32 Mercury in water ...... 34 Mercury in birds ...... 34 Mercury in many wild foods ...... 35 Studies of contaminants other than mercury ...... 37 Non-mercury contaminants in wild foods ...... 37 Contaminants causing intersex fish in the Wabigoon River ...... 39 Field observations of water quality ...... 40 The Whiskey Jack Forest ...... 40 Traplines ...... 41 Field observations by trappers and hunters ...... 42

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6. STATE OF ECOLOGICAL HEALTH ...... 43 Health of the Water ...... 43 Current levels of sediment mercury and Sediment Water Quality Guidelines ...... 43 Current levels of crayfish mercury and Tissue Residue Guidelines ...... 45 Current levels of fish mercury and Tissue Residue Guidelines ...... 45 Health of the Land ...... 45 Health of The Whiskey Jack Forest ...... 46 Health of the animal populations ...... 47 Contaminants in animals ...... 47 Looking ahead: Linking the Land and the Water ...... 48 Looking ahead: Linking land and water management ...... 49 7. ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT (ERA) AND THE WABIGOON RIVER ...... 50 8. REMEDIATION OF THE WABIGOON RIVER REVISITED ...... 52 Natural recovery ...... 52 The role of Clay Lake in natural recovery ...... 52 The good news and bad news of Clay Lake ...... 53 Early remediation studies and proposals ...... 53 Contemporary context for renewed discussions ...... 54 REFERENCES ...... 56 APPENDICES ...... 62 Appendix A. Map of the Wabigoon-English River system ...... 62 Appendix B. Partial list of publications relevant to pre-natal exposure to mercury ...... 63 Appendix C. Biography of P. Sellers ...... 65

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1. RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations that follow are based on Section 2 (GAPS) of this report. I have limited the number of recommendations to forty, but there are likely others that could be formulated.

FOR HUMAN HEALTH INITIATIVES

1) Conduct a comprehensive health survey. This is necessary for the design and implementation of many other health initiatives;

2) Conduct a diet survey. A diet survey would provide good data for the design and implementation of food programs targeted at increasing the consumption of traditional foods while minimizing exposure to mercury through fish. The patterns of consumption of fish from community-lakes vs. northern lakes, walleye vs. other fish, and wild foods (including fish) vs. market-foods are largely a function of age and income levels (J. Dasilva, pers. comm., Nov. 2014) and food-security programs need to reflect this;

3) Evaluate and expand on current nutrition, and food security programs. Programs targeted at discouraging or encouraging the consumption of preferred fish (for example, walleye) from certain lakes need to reflect the reality that many people do not have the means (boats, trailers, trucks) by which to fish lakes that are away from the community or off the Wabigoon-English River system. All programs need to be culturally inherent so that culture is not further eroded but enhanced;

4) Introduce programs that assist harvesters in accessing targeted sites and/or incorporating more wild foods. These could include, but not limited to, means of transportation, equipment, incentives and subsidies.

5) Collect data among infants on i) probability of exposure through maternal consumption of fish ii) the occurrence of symptoms consistent with mercury poisoning and iii) their development into an beyond childhood;

6) Collect data on the occurrence of neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging among the people of ANA and compare these with a reference community or population;

7) Include biochemically sensitive biomarkers (in addition to or instead of hair and blood) in assessment of mercury exposure. Chan and Mergler (2010, p. 10) describe how the biochemical marker, monoamine oxidase activity (measured in blood platelet samples) can be used as a sensitive indicator of mercury-induced alterations to the nervous system;

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Given the need to understand the effects of low dose mercury exposure at all ages, and that other studies have shown latency between exposure and the manifestation of clinical symptoms, this biochemical testing could become a very effective tool and could be explored as an “early warning system” to be added to ongoing efforts in ANA of reducing mercury exposure;

8) Provide an update on trend data collected by Health Canada. Wheatley et al (1997) provided a 20-year trend in mercury exposure data (blood, hair, and umbilical cord blood data collected by HC). The most recent data collection year in that study was 1996.1 Assuming data collection has continued, these trend lines need to be updated and published to give an updated version of long-term exposure patterns. If data collection has not continued then this should be resumed among consenting individuals; and

9) Amalgamate and analyze all the human health data collected on the people of ANA to date. This could include, but not be limited to, records held by clinics, hospitals, and medical offices and might provide useful information for long-term planning.

FOR ECOLOGICAL HEALTH INITIATIVES

10) Collect data (whole water mercury and water flow rates) necessary for calculation of transport of mercury from upstream (within river and from logged catchment) to downstream sites;

11) Determine the potential and/or study the effects of logging on downstream water quality;

12) Measure and monitor standard water quality parameters (total suspended solids, particulate organic carbon, turbidity and dissolved oxygen) at key sites in the Wabigoon-English River;

13) Collect data on the present-day contribution (if any) of effluent at Dryden to mercury in the Wabigoon River;

14) Determine the temporal trend in sediment mercury in Seguise, Lount, and Separation Lakes;

15) Determine the current level of mercury in surface sediment of the Wabigoon River upstream of Clay Lake. This will be necessary information for assessment of ecological risk and remediation discussions;

16) Determine the levels of mercury in the crayfish of Clay Lake and the south basin of Ball Lake;

17) Establish long-term sites for monitoring of mercury in crayfish and begin data collection;

18) Continue monitoring of mercury levels in fish at long-term monitoring sites;

1 A citation search on this paper (conducted in June 2014) revealed no publication to include the last two decades of data.

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19) Begin long-term monitoring of mercury levels in fish from Garden and Grassy Narrows Lakes and other popular subsistence fishing lakes not yet including in long-term monitoring;

20) Include fish gonad collection during routine fish harvesting in Clay Lake and have gonads analysed for evidence of intersex fish;

21) Evaluate the occurrence of swimmer’s itch and cyanotoxins in Garden Lake;

22) Collect data on the occurrence of symptoms of diseases in targeted forest animals;

23) Update the state of forest habitat and health in ANA’s territory;

24) Establish goals for forest, forest habitat, and forest species renewal and long-term health; and

25) Ensure that any discussion of remediation of the Wabigoon River is comprehensive and robust.

FOR EDUCATION AND AWARENESS INITIATIVES

26) To enhance the awareness of outside researchers of i) the culture of the people of ANA and ii) the historical context in which outsiders and their messages are received, especially the historical relationship between settler governments and ANA;

27) To enhance the recognition, understanding, and acceptance by outsiders that walleye is, and will likely remain, a preferentially consumed fish for cultural, historical, geographical, economical, and gastronomical reasons;

28) Create opportunities for the training of outside scientists in cross-cultural research and in working with Indigenous Knowledge holders;

29) To review and evaluate existing communication strategies regarding the risk and benefits of fish and other wild food consumption and to revise where necessary. Communications need to

a. be culturally appropriate and inherent; b. target reproductive women; c. include communication on the effects of mercury exposure on people of all ages; d. include discussion of the importance of eating traditional foods; and e. be in concert with initiatives aimed at securing alterative nutritious and safe foods for those who fish consumption is dictated by circumstance.

30) To review and evaluate the effectiveness of fish consumption guidelines and revise where necessary to i) ensure that advisories are culturally appropriate and inherent and ii) focus on lake- specific and fish-specific advice for those who choose to heed the advice;

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31) Enhance education initiatives aimed at identifying the wild foods or food combinations safe and beneficial to eat; and

32) To produce plain language summaries of reports (for which none exist) if warranted by the expressed interest of the people of ANA, particularly the Elders;

33) To expand the ANA-literature database associated with this report such that literature not yet captured be included.

FOR DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF RESEARCH INITIATIVES

34) To ensure that future studies in ANA are coordinated, duplication is minimized, and outcomes and benefits to the community are maximized;

35) To ensure the research is community-driven and community-controlled;

36) To engage existing research skills among the people of ANA;

37) To enhance research skills and knowledge among the people of ANA, particularly in the area of environmental monitoring and other areas for which this has underway;

38) To allow for face-to-face knowledge sharing among outside researchers, scientists, government personnel and the people of ANA;

39) To allow for collaboration between Indigenous Knowledge and western science and the acknowledgement of the contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to research outcomes; and

40) To have a community-based research station to coordinate all of the above recommendations.

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2. GAPS

This section lists identified gaps (i.e. what’s missing) in work and research conducted in ANA. I use the word “gap” very broadly to include missing pieces, weaknesses or opportunities that might help to guide further research or work in the community. Some of these are versions of gaps identified by the authors of the literature reviewed. Because the published literature is not up to date in all topics, this means that some of the gaps listed below may have already been addressed or filled.

The gaps are eventually sorted into three categories. The first is Research Methods, which identifies weakness in the ways research has been conducted in ANA. The second is Communication, Education and Awareness, with a focus on communication among people of ANA, among outsiders, and between the people of ANA and outsiders. The third section is Information and Knowledge, which focuses on areas for which more study is warranted. This third section is further divided into two: Human Health and Ecological Health. Table 1 is a summary table of this section.

Table 1. Gaps at a glance Gaps in Research Methods

a) A coherent and coordinated research framework b) Community-driven and community-controlled research c) Culturally inherent and culturally appropriate methods d) The acknowledgement of the value and local authority of Indigenous Knowledge e) Opportunities for government personnel and scientists to engage in face-to-face knowledge sharing with Indigenous Knowledge holders f) Adequate sample size in human health studies

Gaps in Communication, Education and Awareness

g) Opportunities for the training of outside scientists in cross-cultural research h) Awareness of benefits and risks of eating local fish i) Effective (culturally inherent and appropriate) fish consumption guidelines j) A focus on which local fish can be eaten k) Availability of Tolerable Intake Guidelines (as opposed to ppm guidelines). l) Effective risk awareness campaign targeting reproductive women m) Retroactive plain language summaries

Gaps in Information and Knowledge: Human Health

n) Data for assessment of the current state of human health o) The occurrence of fetal and infant mercury poisoning in ANA

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p) The effect of mercury exposure on development of children in ANA q) The effects of low-dose, long-term exposure to mercury among adults in ANA r) The link between mercury exposure and the development of neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging s) Adequate and appropriate diet information

Gaps in Information and Knowledge: Ecological Health

t) Current levels of mercury in the surface sediment of the Wabigoon River; u) An ecological risk assessment for sediments of the Wabigoon River; v) The relative contribution of the Wabigoon River as a source of sediment mercury to downstream basins and/or downstream bioaccumulation w) The understanding of how logging affects water quality in ANA’s territory x) The current contribution of Dryden effluent to mercury in the Wabigoon River y) Data for mercury in whole water samples in ANAs territory z) The temporal trend in sediment mercury in Seguise Lake aa) The temporal trend in sediment mercury in Lount and Separation Lakes bb) Rates of sediment burial of mercury in selected lake basins cc) Mercury levels in the crayfish of Clay Lake and the south basin of Ball Lake dd) Mercury levels in the crayfish at targeted sites throughout ANA’s territory. ee) The status of the sturgeon, moose, and caribou populations in ANA’s territory. ff) The presence or absence of intersex fish in Clay Lake gg) The suitability of Garden Lake for swimming hh) Understanding of reasons for the symptoms of diseases in animals ii) Current state of forest habitat and health jj) Use and occupancy data of ANAs traplines kk) The relationship between patterns in sediment mercury and food web mercury ll) Water quality data in ANA’s territory mm) Data for mercury levels in fish of lakes not included in routine, long-term monitoring

GAPS RESEARCH METHODS a) A coherent and coordinated research framework. There have been different researchers/research teams (government, university, consulting firms, individuals) over the decades working in ANA, each of which had a different topic, agenda, method, style, funding source, professional opinion and communication plan. This piece-meal approach to studies in ANA has lead to some confusion among some people (both within and outside ANA) trying to

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make sense of it all. Evidence for this is the need for this report.2 Such a research framework needs to be rooted in the needs, culture, and history of the people of ANA, and to be flexible enough to respond to changing needs, and respond to the complexity of the linkages between human and environmental health. It most definitely would require stable funding, as piecemeal funding lends itself to piecemeal work. b) Community-driven and community-controlled research. Over the years there has been a shift from the deployment of “parachute” researchers to community-based research, then to community-driven research. This latter approach is the best and needs to continue. It requires the directive, guidance, and approval from the community in all aspects right from the start. Efforts made in this direction have already resulted in positive outcomes, such as i) capacity- building in the community ii) improved relations between outside and community researchers and iii) better research. c) Culturally inherent and culturally appropriate methods. Forty-two years ago in an analysis of the commercial fisheries in northwestern Ontario Edward Rogers wrote

“It is obvious than an economically viable system, which no doubt will need subsidy in part, must be established but within the framework of Ojibwa attitudes, thoughts and values. These must be accounted for and allowed expression if the economic system is to be meaningful to the Ojibwa…” [emphasis added]3

In the subject of Indigenous Knowledge research, Simpson and DaSilva (2009) also emphasize the necessity for the inclusion of culturally inherent and culturally appropriate methods. In part this means the need for research efforts to stem from and be conducted within Indigenous and Anishinabe frameworks. d) The acknowledgement of the value and local authority of Indigenous Knowledge. Simpson and DaSilva (2009) and Simpson et al (2009) highlight the need for western science (and its scientists) to treat Indigenous Knowledge (and its Knowledge Holders) as equals when designing, conducting, or reporting research. This includes an emphasis on the value of the knowledge Elders have, the role they must play in all decision-making processes, and respecting protocol and agreements for distribution of knowledge. e) Opportunities for government personnel and scientists to engage in face-to-face knowledge sharing with Indigenous Knowledge holders. This gap was identified during

2 Interestingly, 40 years ago Dr. Bernstein undertook a similar task (Bernstein et al, 1973) and concluded: “…the federal government’s approach to the special problems of White Dog and Grassy Narrows is fragmented and lacks cohesion” and called for a coordinated effort.

3 Rogers (1972).

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an Elders gathering held in ANA in 2009 (Simpson and DaSilva, 2009). Face-to-face knowledge sharing needs to be based in mutual respect and sensitivity. This dialogue is needed to dispense and clarify misperceptions, establish good working relationships, enhance understanding of both knowledge systems, and enhance opportunities for western science to work for ANA. f) Adequate sample size in human health studies. There are many, many things (that is. variables) that affect human health. That means any human health study needs to include large samples sizes (that is, lots of people) so that the data can be analysed statistically. Some of the earlier studies have been weak in this regard.

GAPS IN COMMUNICATION, EDUCATION AND AWARENESS g) Opportunities for the training of outside scientists in cross-cultural research. Outside scientists working in communities usually do not have the appropriate experience or training to work effectively in Indigenous communities. Face-to-face knowledge sharing opportunities would facilitate this. In environmental research in Canada, the collaboration between Indigenous Knowledge Holders and Scientists is an emerging field and ANA has an opportunity to lead this. h) Awareness of benefits and risks of eating local fish. Evidently some people are still not aware that locally caught fish may not be safe to eat, or that some fish are safe to eat. Any measure to increase this awareness must be done in a manner that does not create fear, allows consumers to make informed choices about the size, amount and type of fish, and augments other efforts and programs targeted at strengthening the consumption of traditional foods and engaging in traditional foodways. i) Effective (culturally inherent and appropriate) fish consumption guidelines. As early as Bernstein et al (1973) concluded that “ways and means to improve communications with the Indian people are necessary to impart knowledge of the mercury situation, to discourage eating fish, and to encourage interest in diet and nutrition.” In a more recent report on the results of an Elders’ gathering, Simpson and DaSilva (2009) found that one of the reasons fish consumption guidelines are not effective is because they are not presented in ways that work for the people. Text-based guidelines written in English and dispersed by an outside government do not work, especially for Elders and Elders who do not read English. j) A focus on which local fish can be eaten. Contemporary reports of mercury levels in fish separate out different fish types in different lakes (Grand Council Treaty #3), and different fish lengths (Chan et al, 2005, Kinghorn et al, 2007, Neff et al, 2012). If warranted, this information can be used to create community-based maps (or other media, possibly a phone app that could be used in the field) that encourage fish-specific, lake-specific, and size-specific fish consumption.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 8 k) Availability of Tolerable Intake Guidelines (as opposed to ppm guidelines). In addition to guidelines based on the level of mercury in fish, guidelines on how many fish and of what size people could safely eat in the course of a week or month would also be useful. This is because exposure is a function of both how much fish is consumed and how much mercury is in the consumed fish. Intake guidelines need to be specific to lakes and fish types, and would be especially useful to people who prepare fish meals. Chan et al (2005) provide the first attempt at this for ANA. l) Effective risk awareness campaign targeted reproductive women. Given that i. the adverse effects of pre-natal mercury exposure on infant and child development are well understood from other studies (Chan and Mergler (2010) cite about 42 publications; Appendix A); ii. the contemporary (verbal) reports of a disproportionate number of miscarriages and babies born with abnormal neurological (such as muscle twitching) or other birth defects; and iii. the contemporary (verbal) reports of some women in ANA eating fish while pregnant and/or nursing,

there seems to be substantial room for improvement on the education and awareness targeting reproductive, pregnant and nursing women (and their food providers) on the importance of a healthy diet and lifestyle, with special consideration for an avoidance of mercury exposure through fish. Such awareness initiatives have to be coupled with food-security programs that offer nutritional alternatives while not eroding the cultural importance and significance of eating fish. m) Retroactive Plain Language Summaries. A need for retroactive plain language summaries and/or verbal presentations of earlier reports exists. This is important for the sake of communication and may be important to those Elders4 playing a key role in guiding future research initiatives.

GAPS IN INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE

Human Health n) Data for the assessment of the current state of human health. The most comprehensive health assessment was conducted in the late 1980s (Postl, 1989), effectively one generation ago and much has changed in ANA since then. Historically, mercury exposure and its

4 At the June 2014 meeting of the ANA-Mercury Working Group one Elder said that her baby was tested in a study 30 years ago but no one told them what the results were and that she still wonders about that. I have heard this comment before from other Elders in other community meetings.

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effects have been a major concern but other diseases or sicknesses, which may or may not be linked to mercury exposure, have since been identified as prevalent (Judy Dasilva, pers. comm.). Health surveys need to keep pace with changes in community health.

A comprehensive health survey could be coupled with efforts at better understanding the effect of mercury exposure. Indeed, the need of comprehensive health surveys in areas affected by mercury exposure was emphasized by Chan and Mergler (2010, p. 27) who write “…many of the health complaints from the affected population have not been properly diagnosed and documented. It is important to have data from comprehensive health surveys in affected areas to have a better understanding of health effects.” [emphasis added]. o) The occurrence of fetal and infant mercury poisoning in ANA. No studies have been conducted in ANA on the effects of pre-natal exposure to mercury and/or on the diagnosis of fetal or infant Minamata disease (Harada et al, 2011) despite the widespread recognition that i) fetuses and infants are considered the most at risk (therefore lower doses required to pose risk) to exposure; ii) infants can show neurological disorders even when mothers have mild or no neurological symptoms (Chan and Mergler, 2010; Harada et al, 2011) iii) the damaging effects of mercury exposure on brain and child development is permanent; and iv) the possibility of mercury exposure contributing to the early onset or rapid development of age-related diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s’ (Dr. Ben Bahr, UNC Pembroke, pers. comm. June 2014); p) The effect of mercury exposure and childhood development in ANA. The requirement for “special surveillance” of high risk moms and their infants was established by Bernstein et al (1973) and the assessment of children in ANA suspected of prenatal exposure was proposed in a report written by Prichard and McIntyre (1980). To date, no ongoing surveillance program among children exposed to mercury prenatally has been referenced in the reviewed publications.

In the only study conducted (Medical Services Branch, 1996, mercury and Child Development), development issues among the children of ANA were identified but the authors were not able to link these to mercury exposure using their methods.5 Tracking child development from birth is the only way to truly study the effects of prenatal and infant exposure to mercury on childhood development and this was not the method used.

Chan and Mergler (2010) cite about 42 publications and four studies (Faroe Islands, New Zealand, Seychelles Islands and the US) that show prenatal exposure of mercury through fish consumption negatively alters child development. In these studies hundreds of children were followed from

5 The Canadian study was retrospectively designed, which is to say it collected developmental and hair data in one sampling year (1995 & 1996), and used umbilical cord data collected in 1978-1990 to construct correlations. The researchers did not track individuals from birth, as was done in the foreign studies.

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birth to three, 9, and 14 years of age. ANA’s population is likely not large enough for cohort studies but individual children could be tracked in a long-term, comprehensive study and compared to a reference community.

The start of a reference list for the effects of pre-natal exposure to mercury can be found in Appendix A. q) The effects of low-dose, long-term exposure to mercury among adults in ANA. We know little about the effects of low-dose exposure over the long-term. Harada et al (2005b) identified this as a gap. Younger members of the neurological study conducted in ANA by Takaoka et al (2014) could be identified and tracked as a means of helping to understand the effects of low-dose, long-term exposure to mercury through food. Any study investigating effects of mercury exposure would have to be comprehensive and include all the known outcomes of mercury exposure (including cardiovascular disease) and account for co-morbidity from other diseases (Chan and Mergler, 2010). r) The link between mercury exposure and the development of neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging. Studies on the neurological effects of mercury exposure in ANA have largely been restricted to symptoms associated with mercury poisoning. As early as the late 1970s, psychosis and dementia were identified as a “late and severe effect of organic mercury intoxication” (Pritchard and McIntyre, 1980). In other studies, mercury exposure has also been linked to Alzheimer’s disease (Fujimura et al, 2009; Dr. Ben Bahr UNC Pembroke, pers. comm.) and in a paper published in 2006, Monnet-Tschudi et al write “…a considerable body of evidence suggests that the heavy metals lead and mercury contribute to the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases and emphasizes the importance of taking preventive measures in this regard.”

Two gaps are a) an understanding of relationship between mercury exposure and neurodegenerative diseases and b) the inclusion of neurodegenerative disease symptoms in disease surveys and assessments6 or other appropriate venues. s) Adequate and appropriate diet information. There has been no comprehensive diet survey conducted for ANA. What is known is that some people eat, to varying degrees, both traditional and market foods. A diet survey will help in the design and implementation of initiatives that encourage food security.

6 Cosway (2001) noted that dementia and psychosis are not among any of the diagnostic criteria used by any of the five national and international agencies.

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Ecological Health t) Current levels of mercury in the surface sediment of Wabigoon River. This has not been determined since 1980. u) An ecological risk assessment for sediments of the Wabigoon River. The limited contemporary data suggest that Wabigoon River sediments between Clay Lake and Dryde exceed guideline levels. v) The relative contribution of the Wabigoon River as a source of sediment mercury to downstream basins and/or downstream bioaccumulation. The mercury in surface sediment is increasing (in the two basins for which it was measured) downstream of Clay Lake. The spatial pattern suggests that the Wabigoon River continues to be a source of mercury-rich sediment to downstream sites. w) The understanding of how logging affects water quality in ANA’s territory. Logging is widespread in ANA’s territory. The wider literature indicates that logging can degrade water quality and enhance mercury in the water and organisms but the effect of logging on lakes in ANA’s territory has not been studied. x) The current contribution of Dryden effluent to mercury in the Wabigoon River. The historical discussions tell us that by 1975, the discharge of mercury was reduced to 1% of its “uncontrolled” value. While the 1% was encouraging, at the time it represented about 5 times natural loading rates (Jackson et al, unpublished manuscript). y) Data for mercury in whole water samples in ANAs territory. There are no current data for mercury and mercury on whole water samples in ANA’s territory. The last data were taken in the late 1970s. While mercury in fish is the main concern from a human health and monitoring perspective, whole water samples are needed in other applications. z) The temporal trend in sediment mercury in Seguise Lake. Seguise Lake is between Clay Lake, where surface sediment mercury is in a decline, and Ball Lake, where surface sediment mercury is on the increase. It would be good to know what is going on in Seguise Lake. If it, too, is in a decline, then this suggests that levels in the sediment in Ball Lake will eventually decline. aa) The temporal trend in sediment mercury in Lount and Separation Lakes. These two lakes are between Ball and Tetu Lakes, both of which show an increase in sediment mercury in the past 30 years. Measurements in these basins would further reveal and confirm downstream- upstream patterns in sediment mercury.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 12 bb) Rates of sediment burial of mercury in selected lake basins. These data can be calculated from dated sediment cores for which mercury is also measured. Rates of burial can be used to estimate how much any one basin is acting as a site of burial of mercury. cc) Mercury levels in the crayfish of Clay Lake and the south basin of Ball Lake. Data for Clay Lake have not been collected since 1980 and data for Ball Lake since 2007. Data collected from Clay Lake should show a decline in crayfish mercury while that for Ball Lake could show a decline, stabilization, or increase. dd) Mercury levels in the crayfish at targeted sites throughout ANA’s territory. Crayfish assimilate mercury very efficiently and excrete it very slowly (Headon et al, 1996), which not only means that they biomagnify mercury from their food, but also that they can be used as an effective bioindicator of food web mercury. Indeed, several investigators have identified crayfish as one of the best bioindicators for reasons related to site-specificity, ease of capture, ease of inclusion in community-based programming, and trophic position (Allard et al, 1989; Parks et al, 1991; Schilderman et al, 1999). ee) The status of the sturgeon, moose, and caribou populations in ANA’s territory. There exist no data on the population of many important animal species. ff) The presence or absence of intersex fish in Clay Lake. The presence of intersex fish in the Wabigoon River at Dryden in 2002, suggests the possibility, or the development of the possibility, for sites further downstream. Although Pollock et al (2010) did not detect intersex fish further (35 – 46 km) downstream of Dryden in 2002, certainly this phenomenon has the potential to develop over time. gg) The suitability of Garden Lake for swimming. Garden Lake is highly eutrophied, subject to blooms of cyanobacteria (a.k.a. blue-green algae), and is used recreationally. Two human health concerns associated with lakes in this condition are i) the development of swimmer’s itch (caused by microscopic flatworms burrowing in skin) and ii) exposure to cyanotoxins (toxins released by cyanobacteria). There is evidence of the occurrence of swimmer’s itch among the children of ANA and of the existence cyanotoxins in Garden Lake. hh) Understanding of reasons for the symptoms of diseases in animals. Hunters, trappers, and elders continue to report seeing signs of diseases in animals. With the main exception of mercury in wild foods and animals associated with the aquatic food web, levels of metals and organic contaminants are low, suggesting that they are not causing the observed diseases. ii) Current state of forest habitat and health. The latest data are about 10 years old.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 13 jj) Use and occupancy data of ANA’s traplines. Only one half the trapline holders participated in the study conducted by Armitage et al (2010). kk) The relationship between patterns in sediment mercury and food web mercury. The degree to which the mercury in the surface sediment contributes to mercury production and bioavailability to the food web of the same basin is not known. Understanding this may be important in predicting levels of food web mercury in those basins showing a change in sediment mercury. ll) Water quality data in ANA’s territory. There are no published, standard surface water quality data for ANA’s territory. My visual observations tell me that this is warranted for key parameters, namely total suspended solids, particulate organic carbon, sunlight, turbidity, and oxygen levels. mm) Data for mercury levels in fish of lakes not included in routine, long-term monitoring. Some of the lakes fished by people of ANA, such as the two that border the community, are not yet included in routine monitoring programs.

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3. HUMAN HEALTH RESEARCH TO DATE

Most of the publications pertaining to health of the people of ANA are in the form of reports (12) or journal articles (9). Table 2 indicates the breakdown by decade of publication and publication type.

Table 2. Number of publications (by decade and type) compiled by the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group that pertain to human health.7 Publication period Reports Journal Articles Other Up to 1980 4 2 2 1981 - 1990 1 0 0 1991 - 2000 1 1 0 2001 - 2010 6 3 1 2011 - present 0 3 0

Most of the publications were before 1980 and after 2000; there were few publications in the 1980s and 1990s.

EVIDENCE OF MERCURY EXPOSURE: BLOOD AND HAIR LEVELS OF MERCURY

At least three different research teams have monitored mercury in hair and blood8 samples over the years. They are Health Canada (originally led by Dr. Wheatley), a team of Japanese researchers (led by the late Dr. Harada) and a team of researchers from McGill University (led by Dr. Chan). Table 3 is a summary of the data collection efforts.

Table 3. Breakdown of mercury exposure data collected in ANA. Data collection year Type of mercury exposure data Publication

1970, 1972-1973 blood Bernstein, 1973 1975 hair, blood Harada et al, 1976 1970, 1972-1973, 1975 blood Newberry, 1977 1975 hair Newberry, 1977 1976 - 1994 (umbilical) cord blood Medical Services Branch, 1996 1976 - 1996 Hair converted to blood values, cord blood Wheatley et al, 1997 1974 - 1996 Yearly hair in the same fishing guide Wheatley et al, 1997 1995 or 1996 Hair of children Medical Services Branch, 1996 2002, 2004 hair Harada et al, 2005b 2003 hair Chan et al, 2005

7 This is a minimum as more have surfaced since the original compilation.

8 Scientists have determined that most (85 – 100%) of the mercury in biological tissue is methyl mercury (Mercury; (Renzoni et al., 1997; Dolbec et al., 2001)).

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Blood

Bernstein et al (1974) report that the average concentration of mercury in blood (among 61 individuals) was 77.4 parts per billion (ppb) in 1970. In their presentation of yearly data, Wheatley et al (1997) show that mercury in blood and (umbilical) cord blood have declined in both ANA and Wabaseemoong Independent Nations (WIN; also known as White Dog) between 1975 and 1996. 9 In ANA, average blood had declined by 70% in that period, with reported levels at 7.5 ppb in 1995. In 1995-1996, 20% of the 103 people surveyed had blood levels between 20 and 100 ppb whilst 80% had blood levels of mercury below 20 ppb. Cord blood also declined in the same period. More recent data have either not been published or are not yet available.

Hair

Harada et al (1976) lumped people from ANA and WIN into two categories: those who ate fish since 1970 and those who did not. The ones who did not eat fish showed hair mercury below 10 ppm from 1972-1975 and the ones who did eat fish showed much higher concentrations. Decades later, Harada et al (2005a) report an average of 2.1 ppm in hair (from 47 people) collected in 2002 and Chan et al (2005) report an average of 1.3 in hair collected from 58 people.

Caution is warranted when extrapolating these numbers to the whole population of ANA. The number of people who submitted hair samples in these most recent studies represent only about 7% of the on-reserve population, and about 4% of the total (on- and off-reserve) population. Moreover, this 7% sample was not representative in terms of age-structure, diet, or occupation.

EXPOSURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF SYMPTOMS

Studies generally show that people who eat more fish containing mercury (i.e. relatively high intake of mercury per unit time) tend to have a) higher mercury levels in their hair and blood; and b) a greater prevalence for symptoms associated with mercury poisoning than those people who do not eat fish or eat less fish (Harada et al, 1976; Cosway, 2001).

The relationship between relatively low intake of mercury (as evidenced by relatively low mercury in hair and blood) and neurological disorders is less clear, particularly among adults. People of all ages with lower exposure may exhibit mild or very subtle symptoms that do not meet minimum assessment criteria (for diagnosis of mercury poisoning) but nonetheless show symptoms that compromise their quality of life. There are also questions about latency (lapse –time between exposure and manifestation of symptoms) for all ages. Among health professionals, it is generally agreed that the most critical years where both high and low exposure is concerned are the early developmental (fetus to child) years.

9 often both ANA and WIN were part of the same studies

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SYMPTOMS OF MERCURY POISONING IN ADULTS10

We know from data being collected by the Mercury Disability Board (MBD) that adults have been diagnosed with having symptoms consistent with mercury poisoning following the 1985 criteria (Cosway, 2001). The only academic team doing similar work is the Japanese research team (led by Dr. Harada), which has a long history and a lot of experience testing for mercury poisoning in both Canada (i.e. in ANA and WIN) and Japan. Table 4 provides a breakdown of available studies.

Table 4. Breakdown of neurological assessment data collected in ANA. Data collection year Publication Notes

1975 Newberry, 1977 Compares neurological data collect in ANA by three different teams 1975 Harada et al, 1976 1976, 1977, 1979 Pritchard and Collects data for both ANA and WIN and McIntyre, 1980 recommends protocol established as general protocol for assessment 1988 - 2001 Cosway, 2001 MBD data for adults 1990 - 2001 Cosway, 2001 MBD data for children 2002 Harada et al, 2005a 2004 Harada et al, 2005b Compares 1975 with 2004 data for 27 WIN and ANA individuals 2010 Harada et al, 2011 2010 Takaoka et al, 2014 The first to show statistically significant comparisons with Minamata disease patients in Japan

Harada et al (2005b) compares data taken in 1975 with that taken in 2004 for the same 27 individuals and shows an increase in occurrence of mercury poisoning symptoms among those 27 during that time period. This included people who showed mild or no symptoms in 1975 (and therefore were not diagnosed) but did in 2004, when they were diagnosed as having mercury poisoning.

Consistent among the Japanese publications is a comparison of the diagnoses and methods for diagnoses between the Japanese researchers vs. the medical team associated with the MDB. For example, Harada et al (2005b) diagnosed 24 people with mercury poisoning, 21 of whom receive compensation from the MDB. Discrepancies between Harada’s evaluation and that of the MDB are attributed to a difference in weight put on the same criterion (Harada et al 2005a, 2011) and, with few exceptions, not the use of different criteria.

10 in this report, “mercury poisoning,” which is used by the people of ANA, is synonymous with “Minamata Disease,” which is what the term the Japanese researchers use.

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The strongest of the Japanese publications is that most recently published. Takaoka et al (2014) tested two groups of people in ANA (Younger and Older) and compared their neurological symptoms, sensory measurements, and subjective complaints to a control group in Japan. People not suffering from any neurological disease or related illness were in the control group.

The main findings of Takaoka et al (2014), which are supported by statistical significance, were that

a) complaints and neurological abnormalities were more prevalent, and sensory measurements were worse, in the two ANA groups (Younger and Older) than in the Japanese Control group; b) complaints, neurological abnormalities, and sensory measurements were similar between the ANA - Older and the Japanese Exposed group (i.e. those exposed to mercury through fish); and c) complaints and neurological abnormalities were more prevalent, and sensory measurements were worse in the Older of the ANA group than in the Younger.

SYMPTOMS OF MERCURY POISONING IN CHILDREN AND INFANTS

Cosway (2001) presents data obtained from the MDB for assessment of children for 12 years (1990 – 2001)11. From these data we know that children in ANA and WIN were diagnosed by the MDB with having symptoms consistent with mercury poisoning.

No published data are available for symptoms of mercury exposure found in infants or in fetuses of ANA. We know from other studies that mercury inhibits fetal and infant development (see review by Chan and Mergler, 2010). The World Health Organization (1990, cited in Cosway, 2001) reports that scientific data show that mercury inhibits fetal brain growth, which results in reduced cognitive and motor abilities and behavioural changes. The degree to which infants are affected is related to how much the mothers are exposed to: low dose in the mothers may lead to subtle changes but high dose in the mothers may lead to infant cerebral palsy.

CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

The only development study on the children of ANA was conducted in the mid 1990s by the Research and Development Team of the Medical Services Branch (MSB) of Health Canada (Medical Services Branch, 1996). The investigators used data collected in one sampling year to establish a mathematical relationship between childhood development and mercury exposure. The investigators confirmed the existence of childhood development problems (based on academic performance, behavior, neuropsychological, and sensory-motor data) but could not confirm that mercury exposure was linked to these problems. Other researchers in other parts of the world studying childhood development and mercury did things differently. In these studies (reviewed in Chan and Mergler

11 using the original assessment form, which was designed in 1985

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(2010)) individual children were tracked and monitored from birth until they were teenagers. The studies show that exposure to mercury in the womb ultimately results in compromised childhood development. This type of study in ANA is identified as a Gap in Section 5 and Appendix A includes studies published after those included in the Chan and Mergler (2010) report.

INCIDENCE OF MORTALITY AND DISEASE

Data on the occurrence of disease and death among the people of ANA can be found in two sources. In her book A Poison Stronger Than Love, Skilnyk (1985) examines incidence of death between the years 1959 and 1978. It clusters the data into 5-year groups, and shows that before 1968, violent (unnatural) deaths comprise about 12% of all deaths whereas after 1968 they comprised about 60% of all death. The occurrence of disease and death among the people of ANA was assessed in 1988 by by a team of investigators led by Dr. B Postl. The report (Postl, 1989) includes data from 1982 to 1987 and provides statistics for several diseases and causes of death. These 27 year-old data do not reflect the current situation in ANA but have value in a) providing guidance for the design of a new community health assessment and b) assessing change in the same health and health service categories since the mid-1980s.

HEALTH SERVICES

Postl et al (1989) provides a summary of the quality and quantity of health services (both visiting and community-based) available to the people of ANA in the 1980s. It highlights the huge discrepancy between the heath service needs of the community and the quality and quantity of the services provided. A new health survey and assessment should also address this discrepancy.

DIET

By the time the fishery was closed in 1970, the people of ANA were already disrupted by flooding, relocation, and a road connecting the community to Kenora (Shkilnyk, 1985). Thus the fishery closure further exacerbated the erosion of the traditional foodways that was caused by these earlier disruptions. A local Elder expressed it this way 41 years ago:

“…All of what we considered good was taken away and now we have to wait for a welfare cheque at the end of the month, which does not cover our needs because of rising food costs. Yes, they promised to replace what we had given up but it is slow in coming. Our lives were disrupted.” 12

12 Community member quoted in Greene, F (1973), A brief history of the people of Grassy Narrows and White Dog Ontario. 5 p. Appendix A of Bernstein et al (1973).

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Specifically for diet, this meant a serious shift from one based in fish protein to one based in market foods available at the local store. This shift away from fish and toward market foods is widely recognized as detrimental for several reasons. Three are listed here.

First, there is the nutritional aspect: the inferiority of the nutritional value of market foods compared to traditional foods has been known for a long time. Bernstein et al (1973) expressed it this way:

“Store-bought foods of dubious quality and nutritional value have largely replaced traditional foods, with a resulting reduction in protein and increase in carbohydrates. From the aspect of child and maternal health, this is perhaps the most serious problem.”

Two generations later, this sentiment continues to be expressed, as evidenced by this comment made during an Elders gathering five years ago:

“White Dog [Wabaseemoog] is right about eating traditional foods. We never heard of diabetes or high blood pressure when we ate good. We were given medicines to help us. …Traditional food in the past served us well. Today’s foods are not good. We have to think that way.”13

Second, there is a cultural aspect. A departure from the harvesting and consumption of traditional foods, such as those associated with fishing and trapping, has also meant a departure from traditional foodways, a complex system embedded in the language, cultures and traditions of which food items are part of this larger system (Simpson and DaSilva, 2009). Opportunities for teaching and expression of culture and identity, which include those of language, sustenance, ceremonies, reciprocity and governance, are diminished when the opportunities to harvest wild foods are diminished.

Third, there is an occupational consideration. Not going out to harvest food has led to a decrease in physical work (and associated fitness) and an increase in idleness and boredom. This was recognized as a problem 41 years ago, as offered by a community member:

“Before, there was always something interesting to do everyday. There was a net to tend and the fish to clean, and that took up a lot of our time. Now there is nothing to do.”14

13 Elder quote from Elders Gathering, March 23-24, 2009, held at Asubpeechoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, cited in Simpson and DaSilva (2009).

14 Community member quoted in La Rusic, I.E. (1973), A report on mercury in the environment in the communities of White Dog and Grassy Narrows: The dietary aspects and problems of communicating with local populations. 18 p. Appendix B of Bernstein et al (1973).

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Today, both market and traditional foods (including local fish) continue to be consumed among the people of ANA. The current patterns of consumption, however, can be demarcated by income (J. DaSilva, pers. comm. November 2014). People with lower income tend to buy (nutritionally low) food at the low-choice community store and supplement their diet (when they run out of money) with wild foods. These wild foods would generally be harvested very close to the community because the same people have limited or no transportation. People who have a higher income also tend to have vehicles, which affords them the opportunity to buy all their food and the ability to buy it in Kenora. For these people, wild foods are “more of a choice rather than a necessity” (J. DaSilva, pers. comm.).

At present, several initiatives to incorporate nutritional market and wild foods into household, community, and school food programs are underway in ANA. Where wild foods are concerned, a challenge is to know which wild foods to include given that mercury levels are still high in preferred fish of easily accessible lakes and that some Elders report of non-fish wild foods being unhealthy (Simpson and DaSilva, 2009). Where market foods are concerned, a challenge is to get nutritional market foods into the community store at prices affordably by those who must shop there.

Diet Surveys

A first attempt at a diet survey in ANA was made in 1973 (La Rusic, 1973). No survey data were acquired but a categorization of people based on the pattern of food intake was. It was acquired from one community member who offered his analysis that the people could be divided into these three categories:

a) those who worked for wages and purchased all their food from the store; b) those who guided, ate fish while guiding, and augmented this with store and bush food (particularly in the winter); and c) the trappers who would eat some store food in summer along with considerable fish and in the winter live almost exclusively on bush food.

While these categories are differentiated based on occupation, today differences in diet among people is primarily based on income, which separates people into two main groups: lower income people who generally eat community-based market and wild foods and higher income people who eat urban market foods (J. DaSilva, pers. comm, Nov. 2014). A diet survey (identified as both a Gap and a Recommendation in this report) is needed so that efforts can be made to ensure food security for all people of ANA.

Chan et al (2005) collected diet information from 87 people in ANA, and calculated nutritional daily intake (g of calories from protein, fat, carbohydrates and alcohol) and fish intake (grams of fish per day). The fish intake data are broken down into four different types of local fish, and into market and local fish. Their data show that the people of ANA eat about twice as much local fish as they do market fish, and that men eat more fish of both types than do the women.

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FISH CONSUMPTION ADVISORIES

Beginning in about 1970 the people of ANA were told not to eat the fish because it was contaminated with mercury. This was the first advisory. Since that time there have been three other formats of fish consumption advisories appearing in the literature.

One advisory is based on pre-determined “safe” levels of mercury in fish. For example, frequent fish consumers are advised against eating fish with mercury levels greater than 0.2 ppm of mercury. The usefulness of this advice requires that consumers also be provided with information of which fish, of which length, and in which lakes are above or below the 0.2 ppm level. These data are available and appear in a few publications that may or may not be accessible to the readership of ANA.

In their “Sport fisherman’s guide to methyl mercury contamination levels in fish,” the Grand Council of Treaty #3 depict images of popular fishing lakes, and superimposed on each lake is a bar chart showing the mercury levels in each fish type. This is a very helpful addition to text-based advisories. The effectiveness of this publication is not known and should be explored.

A second advisory is based on fish length. Most people who eat fish can determine type and size, and so an advisory considering these two parameters for four lakes (in ANA’s territory) was reported by Chan et al (2005). For example, bass longer than 27 – 36 cm in all lakes should be avoided. The exception to this is Clay Lake, in which all fish but the small whitefish should be avoided.15

A third form of advice appears in the maximum number of fish meals per week or month that people could eat (depending on type) and stay within a safe level. For example Chan et al (2005) used a guideline level for mercury intake through food and fish mercury concentrations to calculate how much local fish people of ANA could eat. Their calculations were in response to a question posed by the Elders, which was “How much fish can we eat without the fear of mercury poisoning?” Accordingly, they calculated that people of ANA could eat two pieces of walleye every three weeks or 5 pieces of whitefish every week to stay within an established intake guideline.

Neff et al (2012) also report numbers of fish meals per month but of different fish, namely of yellow perch, sauger, white sucker, and mooneye, which have lower mercury levels than walleye or northern pike. The values are broken down into four lakes in ANA’s territory, and are presented with reference to fish length while staying within guidelines for levels of mercury in fish flesh.

I would not be surprised if taken together, these formats (which have appeared at different times and presented by different groups) have led to confusion among the people of ANA, as was suggested

15 Chan et al (2005) caution eating the top predator fish from most lakes but encourage the consumption of whitefish, which has relatively low mercury. Their aim was to encourage the consumption of whitefish as a means of maximizing the nutritional benefit of a traditional food and of fish while minimizing exposure to mercury through local fish.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 22 almost a decade ago by Chan et al (2005).

EFFECTIVENESS OF FISH CONSUMPTION ADVISORIES

Not all people are aware of the advisories. Recently some Elders exclaimed that they have never seen the guidelines (Simpson and DaSilva, 2009). Similarly, Chan et al (2005) conducted a food safety beliefs survey and 26% of the people surveyed in ANA indicated they did not know whether or not it is safe to eat fish from the area. This suggests that they haven’t seen nor heard of the advisories.

Other people did not believe that the fish were contaminated. Shortly after the first advisory was issued La Rusic (1973) reported that one individual interviewed stated that he would continue to eat fish because he did not believe that they were dangerous. This is still the case among some people, as evidenced by this quote from the Elders Gathering held in ANA in 2009:

“I remember them guidelines, I remember them telling us what fish were good to eat and which were not. I didn’t listen to them, I eat fish always. Everything I caught in my net or what I caught I ate it.” 16

The persistence among some people in eating fish (even with knowledge of the advisories) is likely for a variety of reasons. Here are some:

a) Fish are a traditional food of the Anishinaabeg of ANA, and their harvest and consumption are important for both cultural and health reasons; b) A mercury contaminated fish looks, tastes, and feels like a healthy fish, and observations made during cleaning, cooking, and eating can lead one to conclude that it is perfectly healthy; c) Unwillingness or inability to purchase market food; d) The usefulness (or lack thereof) of the consumption guidelines; e) The confusion caused by the presence of several different guidelines (see above); f) The mistrust of government officials (Greene, 1973; Simpson and DaSilva, 2009); g) The mixed messages from government officials and outside researchers about the safety of eating fish (Judy DaSilva, pers. comm., Nov. 2014); and h) Fishing is a protected treaty right, and assertion of that right is important in cultural and political determination.

It seems that the problems identified long ago surrounding the communication of mercury in fish, consumption advice, and the risk of mercury intake through fish have not yet been fully resolved. Without a doubt communication on fish consumption is complicated but much has been learned and

16 Elder quote from Elders Gathering, March 23-24, 2009, held at ANA, cited in Simpson and Dasilva (2009)

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 23 good advice is offered in La Rusic (1973) and Simpson and DaSilva (2009). Attention in this area is needed and with a special focus on communication with (and for) reproductive women.

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4. STATE OF HUMAN HEALTH

COMMUNITY HEALTH

There has not been a recent survey or assessment of community health of the people of ANA. Given that, there are many unpublished observations of illness in the community (diabetes, infant neurological disorders, Alzheimer’s Disease, cerebral palsy, miscarriages, birth defects, cancer, and heart disease (Judy Dasilva, pers. comm., Harada et al, 2005b, Simpson et al, 2009)). Together, these warrant a community health survey and assessment.

The most recent account of community health is provided by Cosway (2001), who extracted information from Medical History Forms and Neuroassessment Forms in the MDB files (along with other sources of information) to attempt a health status report as of 2000.

The most recent community-based health assessment was published in 1996 (almost 20 years ago) and prepared by the Community Health Planning Division of the Grassy Narrows First Nation Health and Social Services. According to Cosway (2001), that report listed several general problems identified by survey participants. They were: poor family planning, nutrition, housing conditions and recovery from illness or injury as well as pregnancy and violence. Specific health problems included heart disease, strokes, urinary problems, diabetes, gallbladder disease, respiratory illness, tuberculosis, arthritis, mental health, auditory, visual, and neurological problems, digestion, physical disabilities and substance abuse. The very first published community health survey is presented in a report written by Postl et al (1989). The data were collected in or before 1987, making those data 27 years old.17

To date, most of the publications of data collected in ANA focus on mercury exposure and its neurological effects. The latest publication was in 2014 with data that was collected in 2010 and this looked only at mercury poisoning symptoms (Takaoka et al, 2014). It showed that older (46 to 76 years) and younger (16 – 45 years) people of ANA show symptoms of mercury poisoning.

The conclusions of Takoaka et al (2014) contradict Chan et al (2005) who concluded that there is “no general concern” for mercury within the community. The Chan team based their conclusion not on neurological data but on the average values for hair mercury, which was below the 6 ppm risk/no risk value established by the WHO. One can see that the conclusions are different between the two groups primarily because they used different indicators. Irrespective of the use of other indicators, one of the weaknesses of the Chan et al 2005 study was the small sample size. 18

17 They are useful for other reasons. They can, for example, be used as benchmarks for establishing trends or as a resource in designing data collection instruments such as surveys.

18 Hair samples were collected from ~7% of the on-reserve population.

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More recently, and more consistent with the conclusions of Takoaka et al (2014), Chan and Mergler (2010) reviewed studies that examined the effects of fetal and infant mercury exposure on child neurodevelopment and wrote this summary statement:

“Today there is wide consensus that even at low levels of mercury, mercury can affect children’s intellectual and motor development, which is not immediately obvious in children examined individually, but can be observed in population studies”19

Chan and Mergler (2010) provide an extensive review on the subject and their associated bibliography is likewise robust.

19 Chan and Mergler (2010), p. 19

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5. ECOLOGICAL HEALTH RESEARCH TO DATE

Most of the publications pertaining to environmental health in ANA are in the form of reports (22) or journal articles (23). Table 5 provides an approximate of each. There were few publications in the 1990s compared to other decades.

Table 5. The number of publications (by decade and type) pertaining to ecological health among the literature compiled by the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group.20 Publication period Reports Journal Articles Other

Up to 1980 4 7 4 1981 - 1990 2 10 1 1991 - 2000 0 2 0 2001 - present 16 4 9* * plain language summaries of reports

Table 6 provides an estimate of ecological publications by topic. Most of the publications deal with mercury in fish.

Table 6. The number of publications according to environmental health topic among the literature compiled by the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group.21 Topic Reports Journal Articles Other Bioindicators and biomonitoring 0 2 0 birds 0 2 0 crayfish 4 0 5* fish 3 9 0 forest 1 0 1 river geochemistry 0 2 1 remediation & recovery 1 5 3 sediment 5 2 5* whole ecosystem 3 1 0 wild foods 7 0 4* * four are plain language summaries of reports

20 This is a minimum as more have surfaced since the original compilation.

21 Ibid.

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MERCURY STUDIES

Joint study by Canada and Ontario research teams in the late 1970s

During the late 1970s, and as part of a funding agreement between the governments of Canada and Ontario, provincial and federal scientists conducted several studies over the course of two and a half years to assess the degree and effects of mercury pollution in the Wabigoon-English River System. These include experimental studies, which, along with field measurements, help determine plausible remediation strategies. These studies were the first for this this river system, which means they came after the mercury discharge that spanned the 1960s.

The studies included measurements of levels of mercury in sediment, water, fish and other organisms, rates of methylation in the water column and sediment, factors affecting speciation and particle reactivity of mercury, and rates of mercury transport downstream. Several enclosure22 experiments were conducted to investigate clean up and remediation strategies, such as the addition of clay or selenium to the water column (e.g. Rudd et al, 1983; Turner and Rudd, 1983). At the time, relatively little was known about the biogeochemical behavior of mercury and so the Canada-Ontario Wabigoon-English River mercury studies contributed much to the scientific understanding of mercury in aquatic ecosystems.

The findings of the 1979 – 1980 studies are embodied in two reports (Wabigoon-English River Mercury Study Steering Committee (WERMSSC), 1983; 1984) and subsequent journal publications by the contributing authors. The third and final section of the Full Technical Report (WERMSSC, 1984) contains the studies conducted to understand how mercury bioaccumulates in aquatic ecosystems. This section is less useful in a contemporary context because a vast amount has been learned about the behavior of mercury in aquatic ecosystems since.23 The first two sections of the Full Technical Report are the most useful for contemporary discussions. This is for three reasons: a) they contain site-specific historical measurements of levels of mercury in biota, sediment, and water, with which data subsequently collected has been and can be compared to determine long-trends; b) they contain physical and hydrological information about the Wabigoon-English river system and its basins (e.g. basin and channel morphology, stream discharge, water depths) that will be useful to anyone

22 enclosures are in-lake partitions, typically round, that are situated in the lake and use lake water. Multiple enclosures within the same lake allow for sample replication and an experimental control.

23 including but not limited to conditions necessary for the methylation of mercury, the role of oxygen rich/oxygen poor boundaries in controlling demethylating/methylating activities, the relative importance of trophic transfer in food chain bioaccumulation, and the relative importance of internal (such as sediment methylation, growth rates) and external (i.e. in the catchment area, such as logging or fires) processes in determining water column and food web mercury.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 28 resuming monitoring, ecological, or remediation studies and c) they contain discussions of remediation strategies aimed at cleaning up the river.

The Canada-Ontario study provides good benchmark data with which recovery can be measured, particularly for water, sediment and crayfish. In the paragraphs that follow, I incorporate sediment and crayfish data from the Canada-Ontario study as these two parameters were a component of contaminant surveys undertaken by ANA in the 2000s.

Mercury in fish

The first report to demonstrate that fish downstream of Dryden were contaminated (relative to fish of uncontaminated lakes) was Fimreite and Reynolds (1973). The highest concentration was 27.8 ppm and was measured in a northern pike found dead in the Wabigoon River. At the time, several other burbot, northern pike, and walleye harvested from the Wabigoon River and Clay Lake had mercury concentrations exceeding 10 ppm. As of 2010, top predator fish of Clay Lake still had highest mercury compared to other lakes measured, with levels ~ 1.0 – 3.0 ppm—substantially less than the historical measurements but still above guideline levels (Neff et al, 2012).

Since the early 1970s there have been several fish-focused studies and much has been learned about mercury in the fish in ANA’s territory. Table 7 provides a quick glance of available publications. Table 7. Breakdown of publications reporting on levels of mercury in fish. Collection year Water body* Fishes** Publication

19701 CL, WR, BL, TiL, IL, SL, GNL Wa, NP, WS, Bu, RB Fimreite et al, 1973

19711 CL, BL, GNL, SL Wa, NP, WF, WS Scott and Armstrong, 1972

19721 CL, WR, BL Wa, NP, Bu Annett et al, 1975

1972 CL Wa, NP, WF, WS Scott, 1974

1971, 1972, 1976 BL Wa, NP, WF Armstrong and Scott, 1979

1976 - 1984 several NP, YP Parks et al, 1991 20031 CL, BL, GNL, IL, SL, Ti, ML, Wa, NP, WF, LB Kinghorn et al, 2007

1970 – 20101 CL, BL, SL Wa, NP, WF, WS, Neff et al, 2012 YP, Sa, Mo

* CL = Clay Lake, WR = Wabigoon River, BL = Ball Lake, TiL = Tide Lake, ML = Maynard Lake, IL = Indian Lake; SL = Separation Lake; GNL = Grassy Narrows Lake; ER = English River

** Wa = walleye; NP = Northern Pike; WF = whitefish; WS = white sucker; Bu = burbot; RB = Rock Bass; LB = Largemouth Bass; YP = yellow perch; Sa= Sauger; Mo = mooneye

1 Study also included Tetu Lake, which is downstream of ANA’s traditional territory

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 29

What follows is summary based largely on the two most recent publications.

From the studies that include multiple lakes

From Neff et al (2012) we learn that Clay Lake still contains fish with the highest levels of mercury compared to downstream lakes. As of 2010, walleye and northern pike of Clay Lake still had highest mercury compared to other lakes measured. Mercury levels of these fish in the 40 – 45 cm category was 1.0 – 3.0 ppm while those in Ball Lake (north Basin) and Separation Lake have between 0.5 and 1.0 ppm.

Neff et al (2012) also compare mercury levels in fish collected from ANA’s territory (between 2000 and 2010) to similar-sized fish collected in other Northwestern Ontario water bodies. Mercury levels in walleye, northern pike, and whitefish from Clay Lake were well above the reported range for the other water bodies, which means that Clay Lake remains the most highly contaminated lake in northwestern Ontario. In the same fish species from Ball Lake (north basin) and Separation Lake, mercury levels were above the 75th percentile reported for the other water bodies, indicating that although their concentrations have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and are much closer to having guideline levels of mercury, these 3 fish species in these lakes24 remained elevated in mercury as of 2010.

The strength of data provided by Neff et al (2012) is in its capture of long-term trends. Its weakness is in the small number of lakes, for not all the lakes fished by members of ANA are represented. A better representation is by Kinghorn et al (2007), who sampling efforts (albeit only one year) included Indian, Grassy Narrows, and Tide Lakes. From a human health perspective it makes sense that the suite of targeted lakes for monitoring of mercury in fish must include those frequently fished by the people. There are no reports for fish in the south basin of Ball Lake. Nor are there reports for Garden Lake (one of the two lakes bordering the community), which is fished especially by people who do have the means by which to get to other lakes (J. DaSilva, pers. comm, Nov. 2014).

From the studies that include multiple species

From the studies that include multiple species, we have learned that the higher up a fish is on the food chain, the more mercury it will have. Fish-eating fish, i.e. top predators such as northern pike and walleye, have more mercury than fish that eat insects or invertebrates, such as whitefish or mooneye. Top predators generally have concentrations greater than 0.5 ppm whereas insectivorous fish can be below that in some lakes, depending on the size of fish and the lake. Small mooneye, white sucker, whitefish and yellow perch are generally below 0.5 ppm mercury in lakes other than Clay Lake (Kinghorn et al, 2007; Neff et al, 2012).

24 The same species/length of fish from Tetu Lake fell within the range bordered by the 25th and 75th percentile values.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 30

From the studies that include multiple sizes of fish

From the studies that include multiple sizes of fish, we learn that longer fish (within one species) will generally have higher levels of mercury than shorter fish. This is because longer fish tend to be older and heavier, and have spent more time feeding (and retaining mercury) than younger, shorter, or lighter fish.

From the study that included multiple years

The only publication that contains data spanning multiple years is that by Neff et al (2012), who publish long-term trends in fish mercury data collected by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment in partnership with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Data collection began in 1970 for Clay Lake and 1975 for other lakes. Neff et al (2012) present data for Clay, Ball (north basin), Separation, and Tetu Lakes up to 2010 and the highlights are as follows:

a) The mercury levels in walleye, northern pike, and Lake whitefish have declined since the 1970s in all four lakes;

b) the pattern of decline is not the same for all basin-species combinations;

c) in Clay and Ball Lake (north basin), the 2000 - 2010 trend generally shows a stabilizing trend over a slight decline in mercury levels for all three species;

d) as of 2010, mercury in walleye and northern pike in Clay Lake was 1 – 3 ppm; in Ball Lake (north basin) and Separation lakes were between 0.5 and 1.5 ppm;

e) In Separation Lake, the 2000 – 2010 trend show an increase in mercury levels for walleye and northern pike (3-8%25), but not for whitefish;

f) Walleye and northern pike showed a spike in mercury in 2005; the same was not observed in whitefish;

g) No observation of a general change in fish condition (i.e. fatness) over time was made.

Mercury in crayfish

Mercury was measured in the abdominal muscle in crayfish in ANA’s territory in 1971 (Armstrong and Hamilton, 1973), 1979-1981 (Parks et al, 1984, 1987, 1991), 2004 (Sellers, 2005a) and 2007 (Sellers, 2008).

25 Neff et al (2012) did not state this; I calculated this value based on data they present.

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Parks et al (1987) show how the mercury in crayfish from Clay Lake declined during the 1970s. The 1970 average value was 10, 500 (ng/g dry wet) and by 1974 it was 2 000. The data suggest a steady decline since about 1976, with the last reported values being about 800 in 1983. Mercury in Clay Lake crayfish has not been measured since 1983 but it is safe to assume that levels have declined, as was observed in Ball Lake by Sellers (2005a, 2008). Applying the reduction factor of 4-7 times observed in Ball Lake south basin (see below) to the original Clay Lake crayfish data (Parks et al, 1984), I estimate that as of 2007, Clay Lake crayfish values would have been 200-400 ng/g wet wt, or about 35 times lower than the 1970 data and in the same range observed for Ball Lake south basin in 2007. Ongoing monitoring of crayfish mercury needs to include Clay Lake.

Sellers (2005a, 2008) duplicated sampling three sites in Ball Lake of the earlier studies and demonstrated the following:

a) The mercury concentrations in crayfish collected where the Wabigoon River enters AND leaves the south basin of Ball Lake (about 300 – 500 ng/g wet wt) were relatively elevated (and significantly higher than any other sites. These other sites include two receiving water from the English River only (Tide Lake and the north basin of Ball Lake) and two on Grassy Narrows Lake (downstream of Wabigoon-English river confluence);

b) although the mercury in crayfish collected where the Wabigoon River enters AND leaves the Ball Lake were elevated in 2007 compared to English River sites, they were 4-7 times lower than they were in the late 1970s; and

c) it is not known what the recent trend is in crayfish mercury in Ball Lake i.e. if it has stabilized, increased or decreased) since 2007.

Estimates of crayfish mercury in Clay Lake and recently measured crayfish mercury in Ball Lake and other downstream sites are all above tissue residue guidelines for the protection of wildlife consumers of aquatic biota (See section 6).

Mercury in sediment

Changes from up- to downstream

The most recent reports for levels of mercury26 in sediment are provided by Sellers (2005a, 2008, 2009), who sampled surface (0-6 cm) of the sediment at several sites along the English-Wabigoon River system. Some of the same sites were those sampled during the late 1970s (Parks et al, 1984). The most recent data show that the further downstream of Dryden, the lower the mercury is in the

26 Unlike blood, hair, and flesh, the Hg in sediment exists many forms of mercury, the sum of which is considered “total Hg”; only a small proportion of the total Hg in sediments is MeHg.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 32 surface sediment, a pattern that was determined decades earlier (Parks et al, 1984). The most dramatic decline between basins revealed by the 2004 data was between the east and west basin of Clay Lake. The east basin of Clay Lake (0 – 6 cm) sediment had a mercury concentration of about 2 000 ng /g dry wt while the west basin had about 800. This places Clay Lake 2004 sediment above sediment quality guidelines for mercury (see section 6).

Similar samples from Indian and Grassy Narrows Lakes had ~225 ng /g dry wt as of 2004, which is well above normal levels (< 100 ng /g dry wt 27). Sites receiving only English River water (Tide Lake and Ball Lake north basin) and further downstream at Tetu Lake were less than 100 ng/g dry wt (Sellers 2005a, 2008, 2009).

Changes with time at certain sites

Clay Lake. The most interesting mercury story told by the sediments comes from the dated sediment profiles. In Clay Lake, the mercury concentration in the surface sediment has been declining since the 1970s (Lockhart et al, 2000, Sellers, 2005a). As of 2004, surface sediment levels in Clay Lake, though elevated above background by a factor of 8-20, were 3-10 times lower than they were at their peak in 1970. This decline is expected because of the cessation of mercury discharge into the Wabigoon River at Dryden and the burial (with time) of the most contaminated sediment with “cleaner” sediment and whilst this “cleaner” sediment is far from clean, it has resulted in a decline in mercury. As importantly, these same data show that Clay Lake surface sediment mercury concentrations are stabilizing well above (by a factor of 8-20) background levels. This is consistent with trend of stabilization in fish mercury (though elevated) in this lake (Neff et al, 2012).

Parks et al (1984) present 1980 sediment mercury data for 28 sites, for which the average value was 5 880 ng mercury/ g dry wt. The question that remains is: What are the current levels of mercury the surface sediment of the Wabigoon River between Dryden and Clay Lake? Sediments subject to turbulence, such as those of rivers and shorelines of lakes, have different accumulation patterns than deeper lake basins. As such, one cannot assume that the “burial” of mercury over time (as observed in Clay Lake) has occurred in Wabigoon River sediments.

Assuming the mercury in the surface sediments of has declined, however, I estimate that as of 2004, the average value of surface sediment mercury in the Wabigoon River upstream of Clay Lake to be about 600 – 2 000 ng/g dry wt.28 Clearly this estimate need to be replaced with empirical data, but if reasonably accurate, the values place Wabigoon River sediment, at least at some sites, above sediment quality guidelines for mercury (see section 6).

27 example Lockhart et al, 2000; Perry et al, 2005; He et al, 2007; Petit et al, 2010.

28 To arrive at this value, I applied the Clay Lake surface sediment reduction factor (3-10 times) for the same period to the 1980 average value (5 880 ng Hg/ g dry wt).

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Ball Lake. In the south basin of Ball Lake, the mercury concentration in the surface sediment has been steadily increasing. This means that the sediment accumulating at the surface was higher in mercury in 2004 than it was in the 1970s (Sellers, 2008).29 The pattern of increase30 can be best explained by the accelerated erosion, transport downstream, and deposition of (upstream) particles richer in mercury than those already there. If such particles originate within the river system, this can happen during annual high water periods and/or fall overturn (Jackson et al, 1982; Jackson, 1984; Parks et al, 1986; Owens et al, 2009). If such particles originate in the forested part of the catchment, they can be released from the catchment when it is logged (Povari et al, 2003; Eklöf et al, 2014).

Interestingly, the crayfish-mercury in the south basin of Ball Lake (though still elevated above normal) declined from 1970 to 2007 even though the sediment mercury has increased during the same period (Sellers 2005a, 2008). This difference in trends may reflect differences in sampling locations for crayfish and sediment31 or perhaps a difference in response times between sediment and crayfish to changes in mercury coming into the water. Regardless it reminds us of the general and/or site- specific complexity of mercury behavior in aquatic ecosystems (e.g. Kelly et al, 1995; Kannan et al, 1998).

Mercury in water

Mercury was measured in the various fractions of whole-water samples during the Canada-Ontario joint study in the late 1970s (WERMSSC, 1984). Water mercury levels have not been measured or reported since.

Mercury in birds

Three publications report mercury concentration in birds. Vermeer et al (1973) report data from Clay Lakes collected in 1971. Levels of mercury were measured in eggs of herring gulls and in the breasts of 6 other species. The average mercury in breast flesh was highest for the hooded merganser and was 12.3 ppm. Total mercury among species decreased in the following order: hooded mergansers > common mergansers > common goldeneyes > blue-winged teals > mallards > American widgeons.

Annett et al (1975) report on three of the same species of birds collected at Ball Lake in 1972 and showed that the concentrations were lower than samples collected from Clay Lake the previous year. For example, 21 goldeneye ducks had an average Total mercury level of 7.8 ppm (+/- 1.16) at Clay

29 The same is true for Tetu Lake (further downstream; Sellers et. al, unpublished manuscript).

30 The sediment profile shows a gradual, increase in mercury from deep to surface sediment

31 The crayfish were sampled in the shallow, rocky water at the edge of the lake whereas sediment was sampled in the “middle” of the basin below the deep water and where crayfish do not live.

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Lake (Vermeer et al, 1973) whereas 9 had an average of 1.4 (+/- 0.8) at Ball Lake. The authors attributed the lower levels at Ball Lake to being further away from Dryden. They also show that the liver of the birds had higher concentrations (by 2-6 times) than the breast.

Starting in 2001, ANA began collecting many types of wild foods that were then tested for different types of contaminants. The test results for mercury among the birds (collected from several different sites) showed that

a) a large majority of the bird samples were below 0.2 ppm; b) all of the herbivorous bird samples were below 0.5 ppm (and for partridge and geese, less than 0.04 ppm); and c) more often than not, the carnivorous birds (goldeneye and hooded merganser) had levels in their breast below 0.5 ppm (Sellers 2004, 2005b) .

There is not enough overlap (among species and site of harvest) to make direct comparisons between the mercury level in bird between the 1970s and 2000s. However, given that the mercury concentrations in sediment, crayfish, and several types of fish have declined since the 1970s, one would expect the mercury concentrations in birds to be much lower now than they were four or five decades ago, even among the permanent residents.32

Mercury in many wild foods

Beginning in 2001 ANA undertook surveys of contaminants in wild foods collected from their territory, including mercury. The initial survey (Year 1) was 30 samples but subsequent surveys included many more samples. In the third and fourth surveys, Wabauskang First Nation and Wabaseemoong Independent Nation (WIN) also submitted samples.

All of the studies contained tests for mercury, other metals, and organic contaminants. Most of the samples collected in the above studies were of flesh. Some of the studies included organs (e.g. liver, kidneys, or heart) or plant tissue. Table 8 gives a breakdown of the number of samples screened for mercury among the studies.

32 Aquatic birds are migratory. As such, they pick up contaminants from several feeding locations; their contaminant burdens are not reflective of just one feeding location.

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Table 8: A summary of wild food collection efforts for mercury surveys. Total number Study Collection of number Years samples mercury Report 1 2002 30 30 CIER, 2002 2 2004 147 147 Sellers, 2004 3 2004-2005 163* 163 Sellers, 2005b, 2005c 4 2008-2009 162** 162 Sellers, 2010 * this study included samples collected further north than the previous studies and samples harvested by people of Wabauskang First Nation. ** Most of the samples analyzed in this study were harvested by people of WIN

The following are the highlights of the samples collected in ANA’s territory.

Mercury in flesh a) In years 1-4 a total of (30 +147 + 91 + 24 =) 292 samples were collected from ANA’s territory and tested for mercury, most of these were flesh;

b) Mercury was not or minimally detected in land herbivores (this means that if any was there, it was, to varying degrees, less than about 0.04 ppm);

c) Mercury was not or minimally detected in water herbivores;

d) Mercury was detected in the flesh of both land and water carnivores with the highest measured in flesh being among the mink and otter samples (about 2.0 ppm);

e) Among the carnivores, 38% in Year 2, and 19 % in Year 3 had levels below 0.2 ppm;

f) Among the carnivores, about 60% in Year 2 and 48% in Year 3 levels of mercury below 0.5 ppm;

g) Fewer samples were collected in Year 4 but followed the same patterns;

h) The carnivores that were above 0.5 ppm were top predators associated with the water (such as northern pike, walleye, otter, mink, and goldeneye); and

i) The lowest levels among the carnivores were measured in marten (less that 0.04 – 0.24 ppm among 11 individuals).

Mercury in flesh vs. other organs a) When both the liver and the flesh were sampled from the same individuals, there was generally more mercury in the liver than in the flesh.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 36

b) When three tissue types were sampled from four otters in Year 3, from highest to lowest the mercury levels ranked as follows: hair > liver > kidney with the following corresponding ranges: 13 – 49 ppm, 1.8 – 9.3 ppm and 1.0 – 2.6 ppm.

c) Among deer and moose collected nearby in WIN, the kidneys had about 10 times more mercury than the liver; the heart and flesh was again much lower than either of these.

d) The hair from four otters was analyzed for four heavy metals. Levels of cadmium, lead, and arsenic were about 55 times lower than the level of mercury.

STUDIES OF CONTAMINANTS OTHER THAN MERCURY

Non-mercury contaminants in wild foods

Table 9 gives a breakdown of the number of samples screened in each chemical group (other than mercury) among the wild food studies.

Table 9. A summary of wild food collection efforts in contaminant surveys. Number of samples chlorinated organic Total Metals compounds number other semi-volatile (dioxins, furans, Study Collection of than organic PCBs, OC number Years samples mercury compounds pesticides) Report 1 2002 30 30 28 11 CIER, 2002 2 2004 147 147 0 13 Sellers, 2004 3 2004-2005 163* 163 0 85 Sellers, 2005b, 2005c 4 2008-2009 162** 47 - 96 0 60 Sellers, 2010 * this study included samples collected further north than the previous studies and samples harvested by people of Wabauskang First Nation. ** Most of the samples analyzed in this study were harvested by people of WIN

The following are the highlights of the samples collected in ANA’s territory.

Cadmium a) In years 1-4 a total of (30 +147 + 91 + 14 =) 288 samples were collected from ANA’s territory and tested for cadmium; a large majority of these were flesh samples;

b) Most (about 88 – 95%) of the flesh samples had levels that could not be detected (i.e. <0.01 ppm);

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 37

c) When cadmium was detected, this was usually in kidney or liver and was typically less than 1.0 ppm33;

d) Among tissue types harvested from the same animals, the order of cadmium level from highest to lowest is kidney >> liver >>>>> heart = flesh;

e) When measured on the same animal, the levels in the kidneys were 5-10 times higher than the levels in the livers; and

f) The highest values were measured in a beaver liver (11.3 ppm in Year 3) and the kidney of two moose (16.0 ppm in Year 4);

Heavy metals other than mercury and cadmium a) Lead: 83% of the 147 samples screened for lead had no detectable levels. 79% (22 of the 28) that did have detectable levels had values below the Health Canada Guideline of 0.5 ppm; and

b) Lead, arsenic, tin: very few (about 5% in Year 2 and 7% in year 3) of the samples had measurable lead, arsenic and tin but those that did were below the Health Canada guidelines for commercial meat.

Chlorinated organic contaminants a) Semi-volatile organic (SVO) compounds: 28 samples were screened in Year 1 for SVOs, most of which were chlorinated compounds. None had detectable levels of SVOs;

b) Dioxins and furans. 23 samples were submitted (Years 1 and 2) for measurement of 17 dioxins and furans. Very little of any of the 17 compounds were detected among most samples.

Eight samples had enough to calculate Toxic Equivalencies (TEQs). In picogram per gram (pg/g), these ranged from 0.2 for one pike, ~0.5 among four moose, 3.6 for one whitefish and 3.8 for one walleye. All of these are well below the 20 pg/g value established by the World Health Organization (WHO) for safe consumption. The only sample above this was 38 pg/g for one marten collected in Year 1. In year three, 9 marten were sampled and the TEQ for those marten ranged from 0.26 – 0.69 pg/g, suggesting that the one animal collected in Year 1 was older and/or ate more TEQs than the others.

In Year 3, 19 samples of top predators (e.g. marten, walleye, otter) from ANA’s territory were submitted for analyses of 17 distinct dioxins and furans. Very little of any of the 17 compounds were detected among most samples i.e. concentrations were less than 0.1 to 0.4

33 Health Canada does not have a guideline for cadmium in commercial meat

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pg/g (0.0000001 to 0.0000004 ppm). Calculated TEQs ranged from 0.34 to 0.89 pg/g, well below the 20 pg/g WHO guideline.

c) Organochlorine (OC) pesticides and PCBs. In Year 3, 46 of the 61 samples tested for OC pesticides and PCBs were from ANA’s territory. They represented 12 different animal/fish/birds.

Health Canada has a guideline of 5000 nanograms per gram (ng/g) for DDTs and 2000 ng/g for PCBs in commercial meat. The values in flesh samples collected from ANA’s territory in Year 3 for these and other OCs were substantially less than the HC guidelines. For example PCBs in flesh, which were the highest among the OC compounds, ranged from 0.067 ng/g (in one of 6 deer ) to 17.2 ng/g in one hooded merganser. Both PCBs and OC pesticides were higher among carnivores than herbivores. Migratory carnivorous waterfowl (hooded merganser and goldeneye) had the highest levels of PCBs and DDTs in flesh.

Several tissue types were sampled from one otter and showed that OC compound accumulate to greater concentration in organ meat. From highest to lowest, PCBs and DDTs levels ranked as follows: Kidney > liver > hair >flesh. The kidney sample was 10 ng/g and 21 ng/g for DDTs and PCBs respectively, well below the Health Canada guidelines for commercial meat.

Contaminants causing intersex fish in the Wabigoon River

In the fall of 2000, Pollock et al (2010) sampled walleye in the Wabigoon River at two sites downstream of pulp mill effluent (PME) and municipal wastewater (MWW) effluent. They were interested in comparing the gonad size and characteristics of these walleye with those caught upstream of PME and MWW, because both PME and MWW are known to contain endocrine disrupting hormones that can cause intersex fish and reproductive failure.

They found that compared to the reference (upstream) site, female walleye collected within 4-5 km downstream of the PME had larger ovaries. This difference was statistically significant. Male walleye collected at the same time had significantly smaller testes. These observations are consistent with that of Hewitt et al (2005) who also found female white suckers with unusually large gonads. They are also consistent with what is being revealed in other studies on the occurrence and effect of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) on populations of fishes and frogs (Kloas et al, 2009; Sebire et al, 2011).

Of the 46 walleye examined, one male and three females from this same site were hermaphroditic i.e. the male testes had oocytes and the female ovaries had spermatogonia. Pollock et al (2010) cite two earlier studies that also observed these abnormalities in walleye collected from the Wabigoon River. Drawing from the literature, they explore the possible contribution of hypoxia (low oxygen

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 39 levels) with PME and/or MWW contributing to the development of intersex fish in the Wabigoon River. Pollock et al did not find abnormalities in fish collected further (35 – 46 km) downstream.

Field observations of water quality

There are no contemporary data for water quality. Some water quality data were collected during the study conducted by the Canada-Ontario Mercury Study Steering Committee (presented in Parks et al (1984)). The data would have been collected after the mercury was discharged into the river and before widespread and systemic logging in ANA’s territory.

I had several opportunities to observed water quality from a boat while sampling many of the lakes in ANA’s territory. The water seemed unnaturally high in particulate matter (aka total suspended solids) for water in this region. This is concerning because of associations one has with suspended particles, such as contaminants, reduced availability of sunlight and visibility, increased rates of respiration, and lower levels of oxygen. Given all the changes to the land and the water in ANAs territory over the years, and given that changes to the land affect downstream waters, a survey of basic water quality parameters in ANAs territory and a comparison of the data with water quality guidelines is warranted.

My observations of Garden Lake, which is one of the two lakes bordering the community of ANA, lead to me to conclude that it is highly eutrophic (i.e. contaminated with nutrient pollution). I observed a substantial and gross cyanobacterial bloom34 during the summer of more than one year. The fact that I also witnessed this in the month of October is an indication of its extended seasonal occupation. A cyanobacterial bloom is never a good thing from either an environmental, ecological, or human health perspective. From a human health perspective, cyanobacteria produce toxins, which at critical levels can be a health threat if the water is used as source for drinking water and/or swimming.35 Certainly the reports of children getting “sores” from swimming in this lake36 indicate that the water quality of Garden Lake is both an environmental and a human health issue and suggest the need for attention.

THE WHISKEY JACK FOREST

Henschel and Pearce (2007) use numerical and spatial data to assess the health of the Whiskey Jack Forest (WJF)37 in the context of current and future logging practices and in accordance with eight

34 my field observations were confirmed by identification using microscopy

35 cyanobacterial blooms are often the reason public beaches are closed during the summer.

36 an Elder told me this during the ANA-Ontario Mercury Working Group meeting in June (2014), adding to my long-held concerns about the condition of Garden Lake.

37 The WJF one of 49 Forest Management Units of the Ontario Government

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 40 sustainability indicators, compliance with Ministry of Natural Resources forestry rules, and standards developed by the Forest Stewardship Council. The reader is referred to their report for a presentation of their data and to Section 7 of this report for summary of their assessment of forest health. The authors make seven major recommendations aimed at reversing negative ecological trends and optimizing a sustainable forestry practice.

In 2010, KBM Forestry Consultants published an Independent Forest Audit for the Whiskey Jack Forest for the 2004-2009 period. They identified serious weaknesses in both the planning and the implementation of the plan (for example, the use/inclusion of Natural Benchmarks and of moose shelter patches, to name a few of many.) They conclude that the model forest for the Forest Management Plan (FMP) and the natural forest described in the FMP are inconsistent.

Traplines

There are 41 traplines in ANA’s traditional territory, the collective outer boundary of which fall within the boundaries of the Whiskey Jack Forest (WJF). This means that logging and its effects occur in trapline areas. Indeed, about 15% of two traplines in the northern part of the WJF have been clear- cut (Henschel and Pearce, 2007).

The boundaries of the 41 traplines are the same today as they were in 1947 38 (Armitage et al, 2010). As of 2010, thirty of the 41 traplines (73%) were held by people of ANA; 2 were held by people of WIN and 9 were held by non-Anishinaabe people. In the past, the ANA band government purchased a trapline to allow for its transfer to a band member. Such actions are consistent with goals of the Trapper’s Council of ANA, one of which is to repatriate traplines and keep them under community control (Armitage et al, 2010). There is no initiative within the Ontario Government that would result in the repatriation of traplines to the people of ANA.

Use and occupancy spatial data were also collected (using “map biography” methods) from ANA’s trapline holders and then mapped. Seven maps (Maps 4 – 10) are of the use of the traditional territory whereas five maps (Maps 11 – 15) are of the occupancy. These maps appear as part of a report, the authors of which (Armitage et al (2010), acknowledge that gaps in the data exist because only half of the trapline holders participated in the study. The authors recommend efforts be made to fill in data gaps.

38 1947 was the year of implementation of the registered trapline system managed by the Government of Ontario

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 41

Field observations by trappers and hunters

One of the things that initiated the contaminants in wild foods study were the repeated observations made by trappers and hunters of disease and sickness among animals. Symptoms include unusual spots, textures, or colors of flesh and organs, declining fitness and populations of some fur-bearing mammals, and strange animal behaviours (Simpson and DaSilva, 2005). The contaminant studies suggest that the sicknesses observed are not directly related to chemical contamination or, more specifically, not related to the group of contaminants included in the studies. Further investigations as to the cause of sickness among animals are needed. Further sampling efforts need to include better documentation of the symptoms and pathological examinations of affected tissues for cancers or other diseases suspected to cause the observed symptoms.

In addition to sicknesses among moose, the people of Grassy have also noticed a decline in numbers. There are fewer moose and caribou in ANA’s territory now than there used to be and a decline in moose has been particularly noticed in the past 10 years (J. DaSilva, pers. comm. Nov. 2014).

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 42

6. STATE OF ECOLOGICAL HEALTH

HEALTH OF THE WATER

Health assessments are possible when observations are compared to reference values. Sometimes these are historical, background, or “normal” levels. Other times they can be established guidelines. Two guidelines used in Canada that overlap with existing ecological data available for ANA’s territory are:

a) the sediment quality guideline for the protection of aquatic life. This can be applied to the most recent sediment data; and

b) the tissue residue guideline for the protection of wildlife consumers of aquatic biota. This can be applied to the most recent crayfish data. 39

Because of the important role sediment plays in facilitating the bioavailability of mercury, and because sediment quality guidelines are used in Ecological Risk Assessments (ERAs), I will begin this section with a comparison of the most recent sediment data to available guidelines.

Current levels of sediment mercury and Sediment Water Quality Guidelines

At the time of the Ontario-Canada Wabigoon River Study (late 1970s, early 1980s), sediment quality guidelines did not exist. Since, then, the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) established sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life such that the guidelines are used not only to i) assess sediment quality, ii) set targets for long-term ecosystem health, and iii) develop site-specific, management objectives (CCME, 1995).

The CCME developed two effect levels (i.e. concentrations) for mercury in sediment (CCME, 1999): TEL and PEL (defined below). Environment Canada and Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Envrionnement et des Parcs de Québec (EC and MDDEP) adopted and expanded on these to accommodate the range of pollution conditions that exist in Quebec sediments (EC and MDDEP, 2007). Using the same methods as the CCME, they established an REL, OEL, and an FEL. The combined five sediment quality guidelines are presented in Table 10.

39 water quality guidelines also exist but there are no water quality data to apply to them.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 43

Table 10. Sediment quality guidelines used in Canada. Sediment mercury concentration guideline (ng mercury/ g dry wt) Guidance narrative Rare effect concentration (REL) 94 Benchmarks for preventing Threshold effect concentration (TEL) 170 contamination/adverse effects and maintaining healthy populations Occasional effect concentration (OEL) 250 Value above which adverse effects are anticipated in many benthic species; threshold value governing the management of dredged sediment disposal; Probable effect concentration (PEL) 486 Value above which adverse biological effects is expected; used to provide guidance for remediation decisions; value above which in depth analysis of advantages vs. disadvantages of remediation should be undertaken; Frequent effect concentration (FEL) 870 Value used to provide guidance for remediation decisions; the level above which adverse effects are anticipated in most benthic species; indication that the site should be remediated; above which open-water disposal prohibited & other management option should be sought.

Clay Lake: In 2004, the surface sediment values in Clay Lake were measured to be 2 000 (west basin) and 800 (east basin) ng/g dry wt. Combined, this places them above the FEL guideline established by the EC and MDDEP. The FEL level can trigger “yes” to the question “is there adverse ecological risk” and thus initiate remediation.

Wabigoon River upstream of Clay Lake. The mercury in the surface sediment (as revealed by one sediment core) of Shallow Lake (a shallow, open-water area associated with a bend in the Wabigoon River) was 2 200 ng/g dry wt in 2008. This value, and my estimated values for upstream sediments of 600 – 2 000 (see Section 5 above) also situates the Wabigoon River sediments above the FEL level.

Ball Lake, south basin. The mercury in the surface sediment of south basin of Ball Lake as of 2007 were about 320 ng/g dry wet, placing them between the OEL and PEL levels.

Grassy Narrows and Indian Lakes. The mercury in the surface sediment of Grassy Narrows and Indian Lakes as of 2004 were about 125 – 250 ng/g dry wt, placing them between the TEL and OEL levels. The level of mercury in uncontaminated sediment typically considered <100.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 44

It is important to keep in mind that the trends in mercury levels in surface sediment are different Clay Lake vs. two downstream lakes. In Clay Lake they are stabilizing but downstream in the south basin of Ball Lake and in Tetu Lake they are increasing. The increasing trends are best explained by the addition of mercury-enriched particles from upstream and upland sources, though the relative contribution of each of these has not been estimated. Regardless, it means that the south Basin of Ball Lake and mostly likely all other downstream basins have the potential to graduate from TEL and OEL levels to a PEL level over the long term.

Current levels of crayfish mercury and Tissue Residue Guidelines

There is a guideline level of mercury in tissue of aquatic organisms that is the benchmark for the protection of wildlife that consume those organisms. It is 33 ng/g wet wt (CCME, 2001). The average mercury in the abdominal muscle of the crayfish collected from the Wabigoon-English River system (between 2004 and 2008) ranges from 500 (Ball Lake, south basin) to 70 (Tetu Lake).40 This places all the crayfish well above the guideline level of 33, but those collected at Tetu Lake within the normal range for the region (Sellers, 2011). Crayfish are efficient at bioaccumulating mercury (Headon et al, 1996) and are eaten by many other animals (otter, mink, fish, herons, turtles). As such, changes in crayfish mercury signal changes in mercury transfer to their predators. It is not known what mercury levels adversely affect the individual crayfish or their populations.

Current levels of fish mercury and Tissue Residue Guidelines

We do not have data for mercury levels in small fish and therefore cannot assess them relative to the 33 ng/g wet wt guideline. We know that larger fish have mercury levels much higher than this (see Section 5). The literature would need to be consulted to determine what level of mercury adversely affects individual fish or their populations.

HEALTH OF THE LAND41

Since the poisoning of the water with mercury from the mill in Dryden in the 1960s, assaults on environmental health have expanded to include upland (i.e. “land”) areas of the watershed where there has been substantial removal of the trees by clear-cut logging, habitat and trapline fragmentation from clear-cuts, logging roads, and power transmission lines, and the application of herbicides associated with tree plantations and transmission line management. Documented

40 There are no recent data for Clay Lake

41 Readers are referred to earlier pages of this report for specifics of and exceptions to these general statements.

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 45 ecological health effects associated with these land-uses can be found in assessments of forest health and management. Below is a presentation of the most recent of these.

Health of The Whiskey Jack Forest

Henschel and Pearce (2007) evaluated the health of Whiskey Jack Forest. Their overall conclusion is that the forest is in bad shape and, at the time (c. 2004), there was a forest sustainability crisis. Observations that led them to this assessment include but are not limited to:

a) The WJF is excessively fragmented by 807 kms of logging roads;

b) There are few intact patches of forest, upland habitat corridors and riverine habitat corridors;

c) The WJF is experiencing and will experience unnaturally low levels of old growth;

d) The WJF no longer has useful woodland caribou habitat as a result of logging;

e) Areas identified by forest managers as marten “cores” (patches of forest suitable for marten habitation) do not actually contain suitable habitat;

f) Abitibi Consolidated Inc (ACI) generally complies with operational rule to protect current environmental values but violates government guidelines designed to protect marten habitat; and

g) The protected areas network within the WJF is incomplete.

The authors make seven major recommendations aimed at reversing negative ecological trends and optimizing a sustainable forestry practice. Given that their data are about 10 years old, an updated spatial analysis of land use and type in the WJF is recommended. It will be necessary not only for accurately tracking trends in forest habitat and health but identifying key sites for analyses of the effects of catchment disturbances on associated aquatic ecosystems.

In 2010, KBM Forestry Consultants published an Independent Forest Audit for the Whiskey Jack Forest for the 2004-2009. They identified serious weaknesses in both the planning and the implementation of the plan proposed by the forestry industry and their assessment led them to conclude “forest sustainability, as assessed through the Independent Forest Audit Process and Protocol, will not be achieved unless corrective measures are immediately taken…” KBM Forestry Consultants directs twenty-one recommendations to forest managers as part of their 2010 report.

Between these two documents it is clear that there is a serious decline in forest health in the Whisky Jack Forest attributable to forest removal and management. Moreover, there is potential for it to deteriorate even more without remediation incorporated into current Forest Management Plans. The forestry practices outlined in the most recent Forest Management Plan (Whiskey Jack Forest – 490

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Final Plan Phase 1 2012 – 2022 available at http://www.efmp.lrc.gov.on.ca/eFMP/), slated to be implemented in 2015, suggest that in the future there will be fewer or no patches of old growth forest, fewer or no patches of marten or woodland caribou habitat, increased fragmentation of all forest habitat, depletion of upland and riverine habitat corridors, altered forest micro-climate, and altered drainage patterns. All of these are indicative of degraded health.

Health of the animal populations

One of the things that initiated the contaminants in wild foods study were the repeated observations made by trappers and hunters of disease and sickness among animals (see section 5). Both habitat and individual health affect numbers and a decline in both leads to a decline in populations. Indeed, the people of Grassy have also noticed a decline in numbers of moose and caribou, and particularly of moose in the past 10 years (J. DaSilva, pers. comm., Nov. 2014). There have been no population studies of animals of concern in ANAs territory. Population data need to be included as a benchmark of forest health.

Contaminants in animals

Generally speaking, and with few exceptions, the wild foods contaminant studies suggests that the animals of the forest have had low exposure to the contaminants selected for study. With the exception of a) mercury in samples collected from top predators of aquatic ecosystems and b) cadmium in kidneys and livers of certain animals, most of the animals tested in ANAs territory had relatively little or no detectable amounts of the other contaminants (chlorinated organic compounds, VOCs, metals – see Section 5) for which measurement was attempted.

The effect of current exposure to mercury on the reproduction or behavior of animals and fish in ANA’s territory is not known.

Although comparison data are very limited, there is some suggestion (with three exceptions listed below) that the contaminants in the wild meat of ANAs territory are somewhat similar to those measured in wild meat harvested from other regions of Canada.42 The exceptions are of i) mercury in the flesh of carnivorous fish and otter, in which case the data suggest that ANA’s territory show higher levels (Sellers, 2005a; Neff et al, 2012) ii) mercury in the liver of mink, in which case the data suggest that ANA’s territory show lower levels (Sellers, 2005b), and iii) OC pesticides in the flesh of walleye, in which case the data suggest that ANA’s territory show lower levels than they are in Lake Winnipeg (Sellers, 2005c).

42 No assumption is made about whether or not these other regions are contaminated.

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LOOKING AHEAD: LINKING THE LAND AND THE WATER

Watershed and upland disturbances, particularly in a region dominated by Precambrian Shield bedrock (where water tends to flow off rather than through the land), have strong potential to alter the ecology and food webs of the streams, wetlands, rivers, and lakes receiving run-off water. This is particularly the case when the size of the disturbance is relatively large compared to the size of the receiving water body. Given the history and occurrence of logging in ANA’s territory, this is an activity that has undoubtedly contributed to degraded downstream water quality, as has been shown in many studies elsewhere in the boreal.

Several studies in the past two decades have investigated the degree to which logging in the boreal and subsequent site preparation for tree planting affect mercury movement within catchments. Logging has been a common disturbance throughout the catchments of ANA’s territory in the past few decades but the effect on downstream ecosystems, including mercury transport to lake, has not been studied. What follows are brief summaries of some of studies conducted elsewhere in the boreal on the effect of logging and fire on downstream mercury in lakes. There are others than need to be eventually incorporated into this discussion, I include it because I believe it will be necessary to address upland disturbances in a long-term water quality plan.

Logging and downstream mercury. One of the first studies to suggest extensive logging activities increases mercury levels in aquatic biota was Garcia and Carignan (2000) who studied boreal lakes in Quebec. Since then, several studies have shown that logging (Garcia and Carignan, 2005; Desrosiers et al, 2006; Garcia et al, 2007; Bishop et al, 2009) and associated site preparation for planting (Eklof et al, 2014) significantly contribute to enhanced export of mercury to downstream boreal ecosystems and aquatic food webs lakes when compared to reference (unlogged) lakes.

The effect of logging in ANA’s territory on downstream mercury has not been studied. Given the extent of logging and the numbers of lakes, the potential for logging to influence mercury dynamics (directly or indirectly)43 in lakes should be further investigated. This could and should include lakes that are used for fishing by the people of ANA in the northern part of their territory and/or in the English River upstream of Ball Lake. Lakes that are part of river systems behave differently than lakes that are not.

Fire and downstream mercury. A few studies have also investigated the effects of forest fire on downstream mercury export and bioaccumulation in aquatic food webs but the data are not as consistent as they are for logging. For example, Garcia and Carignan (2000) examined northern pike in burned vs. reference boreal lakes and found the mercury levels between them were not significantly different. Garcia and Carignan (2005) examined several species of fish and found comparable mercury levels between burnt and reference lakes. Garcia et al (2007) showed the same

43 directly by exporting mercury and indirectly, for example, by affecting oxic/anoxic boundaries in bottom waters

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 48 for zooplankton with added statistical significance. Kelly et al (2006), however, working in alpine lakes, showed significantly enhanced fish mercury accumulation due to burning. They hypothesize that fire characteristics (including proportion of catchment burn and severity of burn) will influence this difference among fire-affected lakes.

LOOKING AHEAD: LINKING LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT

Forest Management Plans include measures for the protection of water quality. What is interesting from a “downstream” (i.e. water quality) perspective is what those measures actually are. One of them is to look at the relative number of inspected forest operations compliant/non-compliant with “prescriptions” developed for the protection of water quality and fish (see FMP-9 of the current FMP (Whiskey Jack Forest – 490 Final Plan Phase 1 2012 – 2022)44. These prescriptions seem to include only upland measures (such as riparian reserves, implementation and maintenance of water crossings, and incidence of erosion of unstable slopes), none of which actually measure water quality or fish habitat. It seems reasonable to suggest, therefore, that if the stated objective of forest management practice is to “protect water quality and fisheries habitat,” then the prescriptions needs to include a measure of some aspect of water quality and/or fisheries habitat or both. This would bring together forest and water quality management, and begin the creation of a watershed approach to resource use and water protection in ANA’s territory.

44 available at http://www.efmp.lrc.gov.on.ca/eFMP/

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7. ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT (ERA) AND THE WABIGOON RIVER

Ecological risk assessment is a process that evaluates the probability for adverse ecological effects occurring as a result of exposure to contaminants or other stressors.45 The assessed risk, along with other information, is then used in management decisions, such as whether or not to remediate a site, or what the best remediation practice might be. ERAs are typically conducted after areas or situations of concern are identified. Usually ERAs are conducted for sediments and soils.

Below I will outline the basic steps in an ERA, and indicate where existing data for ANA’s territory fit in. This section of the report is in response to the question “Do we have enough data/information to conduct an ERA, and, if not, what kind of data do we need to collect?”

There are three steps in a typical ERA used to assess the ecological risk of contaminated sediment.

Step 1 of an ERA identifies stressors of that could cause adverse effects and initial screenings of the levels of the stressors in the sediment are conducted. These levels are then compared to reference conditions and/or guidelines (such as those provided by the CCME) and the comparison (i.e. greater or less than) determines progression to step 2.

This step has been completed for ANA with existing data. The stressor is mercury, and the sediment data show that both basins of Clay Lake, one upstream site on the Wabigoon River, and an estimate of the current levels of mercury in the Wabigoon River between Clay Lake and Dryden are above the FEL (frequent adverse effect level) established by the EC and MDDEP (2007; See Section 6 above). In the ERA used in the St. Lawrence Action Plan 2011-2026 (MDDEP and EC, 2013), sediments that exceed the FEL level trigger the decision for remediation and whether to do so by sediment containment or removal (as opposed to open water disposal), effectively ending the ERA process for such sites.

With the exception of one sample from one site in 2008, the concentration in the surface sediments of the Wabigoon River upstream of Clay Lake has not been measured since 1980. Updated data are needed for a current assessment of sediment quality.

Step 2 of an ERA identifies how exposure of the contaminant is likely to occur (that is, form or route) and to assess what types of adverse effects may occur under this exposure. This step is usually accomplished by determining three things: a) the toxicity of the sediment according to standardized tests, b) the impairment of the benthic invertebrate community structure and c) the potential for biomagnification of the contaminant. The results in these categories determine (yes or no) progression to step 3.

45 Canada-Ontario Decision-Making Framework for Assessment of Great Lakes Contaminated Sediment

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With respect to a) and b), standardized sediment toxicity tests and assessment of benthic invertebrate community structures have not been conducted at any sites in ANAs territory. With respect to c) we know that mercury has bioaccumulated in crayfish (and likely other benthic invertebrates) and fish, and the predators of these. Moreover, we know that the mercury in these (at some sites along the Wabigoon-English River) is elevated relative to reference sites and or tissue residue guidelines. The potential for bioaccumulation has been realized, we know how exposure has occurred (through the food web), and we know the effects on humans of eating mercury contaminated fish. ERA professionals need to decide if this is enough to proceed to step 3 in the absence of benthic community assessments and standardized sediment toxicity tests. If these are determined necessary, they would need to be conducted for selected sites where the levels of sediment mercury warrant such assessments.

Step 3 of an ERA is to conduct further assessments, using several lines of evidence,46 in order to estimate the incidence and severity of adverse effects. An estimate of the probability of risk is presented and discussed and, depending on this estimate and other factors, management actions are required or not required.

Given that a) Clay Lake and probably several upstream sites are well above FEL levels of sediment quality guidelines (see Section 6); b) some scientists concluded long ago that the mercury in contaminated surface sediments along the river will continue to be a sources of mercury for bioaccumulation (Jackson, 1984; Parks and Hamilton, 1987); c) preferred fish, sediment, and crayfish at surveyed sites remain elevated (half a century after the discharge of mercury began) with respect to both background and guideline levels; and d) that people have been adversely affected for a few generations as a result of eating the fish, it seems reasonable to suggest that limited further data are needed to complete this step of an ERA, at least for the portion of the Wabigoon River between Dryden and the outflow of Clay Lake. In other words, there is probably enough information for ERA professionals to make at least a provisional statement about the level of ecological risk posed by the sediments in the Wabigoon River. I predict that with updated sediment mercury data, ERA professionals would select “yes” to the question “Do the sediments pose ecological risk?” If so, the questions then focus on risk management and/or remediation goals for this section of the Wabigoon River.

46 lines of evidence can include but are not limited to field observations, laboratory studies, model predictions, relevant literature, professional judgment

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8. REMEDIATION OF THE WABIGOON RIVER REVISITED

NATURAL RECOVERY

To date there is no record that the three recommendations for remediation proposed 30 years ago (discussed below) were implemented. This means that only “natural recovery” of the Wabigoon- English River system has been underway since 1970. There is ample evidence of recovery in fish, sediment, and crayfish mercury at several sites along the river. But, given that mercury levels have not yet returned to normal levels at affected sites, earlier predictions that natural recovery alone would mean sustained levels in fish for decades have been realized. 47,48

The contemporary discussion of the effects of natural recovery needs to focus on recent trends in stabilization and/or increase in mercury levels in some parts of some lakes. Stabilization trends exist in Clay Lake sediment mercury and top predator fish in Clay Lake and other lake basins. In Clay Lake, the sediment mercury has is showing a stabilization trend at a level 8 to 20 times background levels (Sellers, 2005) whereas the latest reports of top predator fish mercury in this lake (Neff et al, 2012) are at a level, possibly a stabilizing one, that is 2 – 15 times above consumption guideline levels (depending on which guideline is the reference). Stabilization of both surface sediment mercury and fish mercury, where they occur, suggests localized steady state conditions, the duration of which cannot be known but like all trend data, are important in predicting ecosystem recovery.

THE ROLE OF CLAY LAKE IN NATURAL RECOVERY

During the time of the mercury spill into the Wabigoon River at Dryden, there was no on-site settling pond49 to “treat” the chlor-alkali effluent before it was discharged. This means that raw effluent was dumped directly into the Wabigoon River. Mercury-enriched particles became part of the sediment all along the Wabigoon River such that mercury levels were extremely elevated above background levels (Parks et al, 1984)). The first lake basins to receive mercury-enriched particles were those of Clay Lake. As such, they became a settling pond and scavenged much of the mercury from the water flowing through its basin, thereby preventing it from movement further downstream. Estimates of

47 page 386 of Jackson (1984): “Natural processes alone would take and excessively long time (long, that is, compared with the lifetimes of the people whose health and economic well-being have been adversely affected by the mercury pollution).”

48 page 327 of Parks et al (1984): “mercury concentrations in adult walleye and northern pike will remain well above background levels for the foreseeable future, if no remedial measures are undertaken”

49 a settling (retention) pond traps particles so that they are not released downstream. Retention ponds are standard primary treatment for any particle-rich effluent

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 52 the percent of the discharged mercury that ended up in the sediment of Clay Lake (as of 1980) range from 25 to 77% (Jackson, 1984; Parks et al, 1984). The staggering levels of mercury buried deep in sediment of Clay Lake (Lockhart et al, 2000; Sellers, 2005) support this.

THE GOOD NEWS AND BAD NEWS OF CLAY LAKE

The relatively good news of Clay Lake, apart from the fact that mercury levels in fish and sediment have declined over the years, is offered by the sediment and is twofold. First, that that the mercury buried way deep in the sediment of Clay Lake is not available for methylation or bioaccumulation in the food web (unless of course, it is brought to the surface of the sediment). Moreover, Clay Lake continues to act as a settling pond for some fraction of the particles in the water passing through its basin, thereby preventing their travel further downstream.

The relatively bad news, in addition to the fact that mercury levels in fish and sediment remain elevated above natural levels, is also twofold. First, the most recent sediment data (2004) place Clay Lake sediment above threshold values that trigger further testing and the exploration of management options (such as open-water or on-land disposal -- see section 6). Second, two sites downstream of Clay Lake show a trend of increase in mercury in surface sediment. This suggests the movement of mercury-enriched particles from up- to downstream over time. The origin of sediment experiencing re-location could be anywhere along the Wabigoon River, including Clay Lake and further upstream. Whether or not they contribute to food web mercury in their “new” lake has not been determined, but the spatial sediment trends have relevancy in predicting long-term recovery of the river system.

EARLY REMEDIATION STUDIES AND PROPOSALS

A component (Section 8) of the report prepared by The Steering Committee of the Canada-Ontario Wabigoon-English River Mercury Study is a discussion of remediation strategies. Remediation options were explored in the context of the understanding and prediction that natural recovery of the system to acceptable levels would take several decades. They were also explored in the context of field and experimental data collected as a means of identifying remediation options. The report discusses six options for remediation. The three that were not investigated in detail and were not recommended are:

i. to flush the contaminated sediment further downstream, using natural or accelerated river flows; ii. to mix contaminated (surface) with uncontaminated (deeper) sediment, such that result is surface sediment with lower mercury; and iii. to divert the Wabigoon River, such that the most contaminated portion (upstream of Clay Lake) is isolated and is replaced by a new river channel.

The three that were investigated in more detail and were recommended in this order are:

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i. dredge, remove, and isolate contaminated sediment from the river, thereby reducing the mercury available for accumulation in food webs; ii. cover contaminated sediment in Clay Lake with clean sediment (thereby mimicking natural sedimentation processes), which would bury the contaminated sediment and minimize mercury feedback; and iii. semi-continuous and ongoing suspension of clean sediment at selected sites along the river to scavenge and store mercury (mobilized/released from upstream deposits) in the sediment downstream

Re i) Removal and confinement of river sediments between Dryden and Clay Lake. In particular, Parks et al. (1984) recommend dredging of the 62 km reach of the Wabigoon River between Dryden and Hwy 105 crossing. Before making this recommendation, the authors a) discuss the short-term (in situ) and long-term (downstream) effects of accidentally or incidentally re-suspended, mercury-enriched sediments. Jackson (1984) also cautioned of a temporary aggravation of the mercury problem induced by dredging but emphasizes the importance of sediment removal (particularly mercury contaminated wood fragments) upstream of the Wainwright Dam.

Re ii) cover contaminated sediment in Clay Lake with clean sediment. Parks et al (1984) point out that this option would only work if dredging upstream occurred. Jackson (1984) further expand on this option and suggest injecting uncontaminated sediment (from Wabigoon Lake/Eagle River) near Dryden and allow natural flow and sedimentation cover remaining sediment. They discuss ways of preventing the clean sediment from settling out behind the Wainwright Dam before it can reach target sites, such as Clay Lake.

Re iii) semi-continuous and ongoing suspension of clean sediment at selected sites along the river. Parks et al (1984) point out that this option needs further investigation, particularly in the form of field trials, and that it hinges on the degree of mercury enrichment in the water column at selected sites. Rudd et al (1983) and Parks and Hamilton (1987) provide more discussion of this option.

CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT FOR RENEWED DISCUSSIONS

Any renewed discussion of remediation of the Wabigoon-English River needs to

a) include the people of ANA and their Treaty rights;

b) consult the joint Canada-Ontario report (WERMSSC, 1984), which includes summaries of reports commissioned by engineering firms to investigate practical feasibility of options;

Human and Ecological Health in Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek, December 2014 54

c) be mindful that ecological and pollution contexts for the earlier proposals have changed50;

d) respond to an update on the mercury levels in the sediment of the Wabigoon River and compare the data to that acquired in 1980 and to sediment quality guidelines;

e) be evaluated in the context of contemporary understanding of mercury behavior and cycling in aquatic ecosystems, such as processes affecting mercury mobility, transport, methylation, sediment accumulation and bioaccumulation; and

f) be evaluated in the context of the ecological risks associated with proposed remediation strategies.

50 Particles accumulating as sediment declined in mercury over time, and while these were not “clean” sediment particles, they are “cleaner” particles than the previous ones and their addition lowered the mercury in surface sediment by dilution. “Natural recovery” is accomplishing, in part, what the addition of clean sediment would have accomplished.

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REFERENCES

Allard, M. and P.M. Stokes. 1989. Mercury in crayfish species from thirteen Ontario lakes in relation to water chemistry and smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) mercury. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 46: 1040-1046.

Annett, C. S., F.M. D'Itri, J.R. Ford, and H.H. Prince. 1975. Mercury in fish and waterfowl from Ball Lake, Ontario. J. Environ. Qual. 4: 219.

Armitage, P. D. Fobister, T. Kejick, V. Foster and R. Collier. 2010. The land is where we come from. Report to Asubpeechoseewagong Netum Anishinaabek (Grassy Narrows First Nation). 145 p.

Armstrong, F. A. J. and A.L. Hamilton. 1973. Pathways of mercury in a polluted Northwestern Ontario lake. Pp. 131 – 156. In P.C. Singer [ed.] Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural Waters. Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A. MAP OF THE WABIGOON-ENGLISH RIVER SYSTEM

Map of the Wabigoon-English River system copied from Kinghorn et al (2007).

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APPENDIX B. PARTIAL LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELEVANT TO PRE-NATAL EXPOSURE TO MERCURY

Burbacher, TM, Grant KS, Mayfield DB, Gilbert SG, and Rice DC. 2005. Prenatal methymercury exposure affects spatial vision in adult monkeys. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 208: 21-8

Boucher, Olivier; Bastien, Celyne H.; Saint-Amour, Dave; et al. 2010. Prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs affects distinct stages of information processing: An event-related potential study with Inuit children. Neurotoxicol. 31: 373-384

Cao, Yang; Chen, Aimin; Jones, Robert L.; et al. 2010. Does background postnatal methyl mercury exposure in toddlers affect cognition and behavior? Neurotoxicol. 31: 1-9

Gandhi, Dinesh N.; Panchal, Govind M.; Dhull, Dinesh K. 2013. INFLUENCE OF GESTATIONAL EXPOSURE ON THE EFFECTS OF PRENATAL EXPOSURE TO METHYL MERCURY ON POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT IN RATS CENTRAL EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH Volume: 21 Issue: 1 Pages: 30-35

Grandjean, P.; Landrigan, P. J. 2006 Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals . LANCET Volume: 368 Issue: 9553 Pages: 2167-2178

Grandjean, Philippe; Landrigan, Philip J. 2014. Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity. LANCET NEUROLOGY Volume: 13 Issue: 3 Pages: 330-338

Grandjean, P; Weihe, P; White, RF; et al. 1998. Cognitive performance of children prenatally exposed to "safe" levels of methylmercury. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH Volume: 77 Issue: 2 Pages: 165-172

Johansson, Carolina; Castoldi, Anna F.; Onishchenko, Natalia; et al. 2007. Neurobehavioural and molecular changes induced by methylmercury exposure during development NEUROTOXICITY RESEARCH Volume: 11 Issue: 3-4 Pages: 241-260.

Jurewicz, Joanna; Polanska, Kinga; Hanke, Wojciech. 2013. Chemical exposure early in life and the neurodevelopment of children - an overview of current epidemiological evidence

ANNALS OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE Volume: 20 Issue: 3 Pages: 465-486

Lam, Hugh Simon; Kwok, Ka Ming; Chan, Peggy Hiu Ying; et al. 2013. Long term neurocognitive impact of low dose prenatal methylmercury exposure in Hong Kong . ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL Volume: 54 Pages: 59-64

Li, Yong-Jin; Fang, Qing; Zhang, Chun-Xia; et al. 2005. Effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure on learning and memory ability of mice and ultrastructure of hippocampus neurons in mice Wei sheng yan jiu = Journal of hygiene research Volume: 34 Issue: 3 Pages: 284-6

Llop, Sabrina; Lopez-Espinosa, Maria-Jose; Rebagliato, Marisa; et al. 2013. Gender differences in the neurotoxicity of metals in children . TOXICOLOGY Volume: 311 Issue: 1-2 Pages: 3-12

Myers, GJ; Davidson, PW. 2000. Does methylmercury have a role in causing developmental disabilities in children? ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES Volume: 108 Supplement: 3 Pages: 413-420

Myers, GJ; Davidson, PW; Shamlaye, CF. 1998. A review of methylmercury and child development. NEUROTOXICOLOGY Volume: 19 Issue: 2 Pages: 313-328

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Newland, M. Christopher; Paletz, Elliott M.; Reed, Miranda N. 2008. Methylmercury and nutrition: Adult effects of fetal exposure in experimental models. NEUROTOXICOLOGY Volume: 29 Issue: 5 Special Issue: SI Pages: 783-801

Onishchenko, Natalia; Tamm, Christoffer; Vahter, Marie; et al. 2007. Developmental exposure to methylmercury alters learning and induces depression-like behavior in male mice TOXICOLOGICAL SCIENCES Volume: 97 Issue: 2 Pages: 428-437

Radonjic, Marijana; Cappaert, Natalie L. M.; de Vries, Erik F. J.; et al. 2013. Delay and Impairment in Brain Development and Function in Rat Offspring After Maternal Exposure to Methylmercury TOXICOLOGICAL SCIENCES Volume: 133 Issue: 1 Pages: 112-124

Schoeman, Katherine; Bend, John R.; Hill, Julie; et al. 2009. Defining a Lowest Observable Adverse Effect Hair Concentrations of Mercury for Neurodevelopmental Effects of Prenatal Methylmercury Exposure Through Maternal Fish Consumption: A Systematic Review THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING Volume: 31 Issue: 6 Pages: 670-682

Sorensen, N; Murata, K; Budtz-Jorgensen, E; et al. 1999. Prenatal methylmercury exposure as a cardiovascular risk factor at seven years of age EPIDEMIOLOGY Volume: 10 Issue: 4 Pages: 370-375

Tatsuta, Nozomi; Nakai, Kunihiko; Murata, Katsuyuki; et al. 2012. Prenatal exposures to environmental chemicals and birth order as risk factors for child behavior problems ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH Volume: 114 Pages: 47-52

Thurston, Sally W.; Bovet, Pascal; Myer, Gary J.; et al. 2007. Does prenatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption affect blood pressure in childhood? NEUROTOXICOLOGY Volume: 28 Issue: 5 Pages: 924-930

Valera, Beatriz; Muckle, Gina; Poirier, Paul; et al. 2012. Cardiac autonomic activity and blood pressure among Inuit children exposed to mercury . NEUROTOXICOLOGY Volume: 33 Issue: 5 Pages: 1067-1074

Watanabe, C; Yin, K; Kasanuma, Y; et al. 1999. In utero exposure to methylmercury and Se deficiency converge on the neurobehavioral outcome in mice . NEUROTOXICOLOGY AND TERATOLOGY Volume: 21 Issue: 1 Pages: 83-88

Weihe, Pal; Hansen, Jens C; Murata, Katsuyuki; et al. 2002. Neurobehavioral performance of Inuit children with increased prenatal exposure to methylmercury. International journal of circumpolar health Volume: 61 Issue: 1 Pages: 41-9

Weiss, B, Clarkson, TW, Simon W. 2002. Silent latency periods in methymercury poisoning and in neurogenetive disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 110 (S5): 851-854.

See also the many references of pages 31 & 32 of Chan and Mergler (2010)

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APPENDIX C. BIOGRAPHY OF P. SELLERS

Patricia Sellers is an associate professor in the Department of Biology at the University of North Carolina (Pembroke). She teaches field courses in environmental science and biology and her course responsibilities include Freshwater Ecosystems and Watershed Management, Pollution Ecology and Field Microbiology. She also serves as the part-time executive director of the Lumber River Conservancy.

Patricia specializes in water quality, effects of pollution, and mercury biogeochemistry. Since 2002, Patricia has worked with First Nations in northwestern Ontario (on the Wabigoon-English River System) and Eastern Manitoba. These community-driven research projects include surveys of sediment, crayfish, and wild foods for mercury and other contaminants, and are examples of Indigenous Knowledge and ecological science working together.

Patricia was educated in lake and watershed ecology at the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario and at the University of Manitoba and received her PhD in 1997. She is a third-generation Canadian with English and Scottish ancestry. Her hometown is Lac du Bonnet, Manitoba.

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