Printing Machinery.” by EDWARDARNOTT CLOWES

242 CLOWES ON PRINTING PIACHINERY. Winutes of

Associate Members-continued. LORENZOGATT. EDWARD HENRY Stud.PAGE, Inst. C.E. GEORGE GREEN. GEORGE HENRY PEACE. WALTER GEORC~EGRIFFITHS. HENRYETIENNE PELLEREAU, Stud. AUGUSTUSHAGHE. Inst. C.E. WALTER HERBERTHUTTON, Stud. Inst. PERCY LENSROOPER, Stud. Inst. C.E. C.E. ARTHURJAYES RUSSELL, Stud. Inst. ERNESTIVE, Stud. Inst. C.E. C.E. HUGH ROWLAND JACKSON. GIORGIOCONSTANTINO SCHINAS, D.Sc. JOHN AMBROSEMCPEERSON. WILLIAMARCHIBALD SCOTT. JOHN WADDINQTONMms. ROBERTSHARPE, HENRYCAPNER MARES. HARRY SNELL. ALFRED MONROYi%rONTANARO. GOTFRED MIDGLEY TAYLOR,Stud. Inst. WILLIAYOXTOBY, Stud. Inst. C.E. C.E.

Associate. FREDERIC HUNGERFORD BOWMAN,DSc., F.R.S.E.

(Paper No. 2200.) ‘‘ Printing Machinery.” By EDWARDARNOTT CLOWES. THEHAND-PRESS. THEuniversal law of development and progress in nature, withthe survival of the fittest, is strikingly exemplified in the history of Letter-pressPrinting Machinery. The little hand-press of four hundred years ago has developed into the huge power-press of to-dayby successive andsequential stages. In the middle of the fifteenth century, printers possessed an appliance which would print one side of asheet of foolscap only; at the presenttime theyhave an apparatus that prints, on both sides, asheet as large as that of The Times newspaper.The former worked at the rate of less than 200 impressions per hour; the latter gives 12,000 perhour. Yet it is possible to trace the gradual evolu- tion of the one from the other. Printing machinery has engaged the attentive study, at least during the present century, of some of the best mechanics and the boldest inventors, eventuating in practical successes of the first importance. In order to estimate aright the conditions of the problem the elements which presented themselves may be recalled. There was the surface to be printed from-one containing designs of letters or pictures in relief. This was to be covered with a pigment, or ink, sufficiently thin to coat even the finest lines of the design,

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 243 and sufficiently tenacious to betransferred to paper. There is, thirdly,the apparatus by which theink may be impressedon the paper, that is, the pressor machine. It is a common error to assume that the inventor of typography was the inventor of the letter-press. Whoever he was-and the most recent discovery seems to confirm the claim of Gutenberg-he had a press ready to his hand. The invention of types is altogether external to that under consideration; but the first printer, haring the composite “ forme ’’ of movable types, had to decide upon the best plan of communicating the ink upon their surface to the sheets. Printing, in the wider sense, is older by more than half a century than typography; for the makers of the block-books, so called because pages or portions were cut on blocks, were printers. Some of their printing was done by rubbing the back of the sheet, when laid on the inked block, with a burnisher orfrotton, as wood-engravers now “ prove ” small blocks. But others of these printswere undoubtedly made by a press. The principles and construction of the press employed by Gutenbergare not known. Thereis nopicture in existence of the presses of Gutenberg, Fust, Schoeffer, or their contemporaries, ortheir immediate successors. These men, or one of them, at least, commenced printingabout the year 1450; the earliest representation of apress is dated 1507. There is inthis a simple screw, with a long pin for a lever. The head of the press andthe table bear the pressurebetween them. The transverse piece between the screw andthe platen, or impressing-surface, wascalled the “hose,” and its object was to steady the down- ward movement under pressure. Thetype forme is laidon a table,” which is run in and out, under the platen, by means of girths or bands, a drum, and a handle. The principle involved is the use of a flat board or plate moved parallel to itself, and so broughtto press on aforme of typelaid upon a hard surface parallel to themoving board. There were two practicaldifficulties : in the securing of‘ an equal distribution of the pressure from the central point of stress ; and the preservation of the parallelism of the moving plane with the type forme. The difficulties were such that, as they increasod with thesize of the platen or moving plane, only sheets of the size of about half’ a sheet of demy, that is, 174 by 11 inches, could be printed at one pull ” of the lever ; even upto the beginning of the presentcentury. In printing larger sheets, the forme was moved a little further on, and another pull given. In an illustration contained in a little German book descriptive R2

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 244 CLOWES ON PRINTINGt MACHINERY. [Minutes of of various trades, of the date 1568, two workmen are engaged: one is inking theforme by means of leather “ balls” ; the other is laying a sheet on the tympan. Above the tympan there is a frame called the ‘‘ frisket,” covered with paper, which is cut away in those places that would else cover the type. What remains keeps the sheet from being soiled by those parts of the forme which, although unavoidably inked, are not intended to print. An interesting pictureof a mediavilprinting-office at Niirnberg, 1733, shows not only the pressmen, but the type-setters or com- positors, and the correctors or readers, at work at their several occupations. Thekind of presshere illustrated was, with very slight modifications, in general use for about three hundred years.

The firstimprovement of whichthere is anyaccount was ’ made in Amsterdam about the middle of the seventeenth century. This was the Blaew Press,” the platen of which was more rigid than the previous one; and a contrivancewas added by which the platen raised itself automatically when the bar was returned to its place. Whenthe advantages of theBlaew press came to be acknowledged,the press was adopted everywhere, and continued in general use up to the beginning of the current century. There is an old press of this construction in the Patent Museum, South Kensington. The first really great improverof the printing-press was Charles Mahon, third Earl of Stanhope. He abandoned the nearly straight barby which the screw of the oldwooden presswas turned, andadopted a system of linksand levers, by means of which the approach and withdrawal of the platen were accelerated, and themaximum of leverage, andconsequently of pressure,was obtainedwhen the forme and theplaten came into contact. Above all, the press was made entirely of iron.Previous presses had been constructed of wood; excepting the screw, the bed (which was usually of stone), and some less important parts. They werethus very cumbrous, and could not resistheavy strains. Inthe new press, Stanhopewas enabled to use a platen of double the ordinary size. The Stanhope Press consisted of a heavy cast-iron frame in one piece, screwed to a wooden cross as a base. It was furnished with rails,along which the type-carriagewas run underthe platen by means of a rounce and bands. The descent of the platen was caused by a screw worked by a peculiar combination of levers, 80 arranged as to actwith progressively increasing leverage until the platen reached the types. The range of the handle was regulated by a movable stop ; and consequently also the pressure

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings. J CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 245 exerted on the types. With this press about two hundred impressions could be taken per hour. This presswas never patented, and press-makers largely availed themselves of the freedom to imitate it granted by the patriotic earl. In theRut,hven Press of 1813, theStanhope levers acted directly upon the margin of the platen, and not at the centreas had been the case previously. Theheavy and moving parts were placed asnear the base as possible, with a view to stability. Provision was made for a ready and accurate parallel adjustment of theplaten with the type. The type- surface, instead of beingplaced upon a running carriage, as before, was placed upon a stationary platform, provided with the

FIG.1.

usual apparatus to receive the sheets and convey them to their proper position on the face of the types. Thus the Ruthven Press may be regarded as the original typeof the “platen machine.” In 1817, Clymer, an American,patented the“Columbian” Press. He discarded the screw, which was the central feature of previous presses, and derived the cc power-multiplying principle from the component parts being so arranged that by the moving power of the handle they were brought from various angles of inclination,which they formed when the press was at rest, to parallels andright-angles, when it was in motion.” TWOlevers were connected by a rod with the handle, in itself a lever. The

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 246 CLOWES ON PRINTING BXACHINERY. [Ninutes of platen was hung to a bolt sliding between vertical guides. The platenwas counterbalanced by a leverhaving an adjustable weight-shaped like an ea.gle, the American emblem, raising it automatically.There was a neatand ingenious provision of a stop-screw in the handle, by means of which the length of the rod of the lever could be adjusted, and its pressure or ‘‘ the pull,” so varied that either the slightest or the greatest pressure could beobtained, according tothe requirements of the forme. The extended range of the bar thusprovided, and the generally greater strength of the workingparts of the press, rendered itvery efficient, and to this dayit is a favourite press. Another press of the period was the Cogger Press, introduced about 1820. Here are the Stanhope levers again, but the platen is restoredautomatically to its normal position, by means of springs, instead of weights.

The ‘I Albion ” Press of Mr. R. W. Cope, was brought out about 1823. The screwwas discarded, the pressurebeing gained by forcing an inclined bar of steel into the direct line of pressure. By this movement, the platen was forced down, and the impres- siontook place at the moment the piece of steelwas brought into a vertical position. On thereturn of the bar, theplaten was raised by a helical spring fixed on the head of the press. The Columbian andthe Albion are nowalmost theonly ‘‘ Hand-Presses ” manufactured. But they have been superseded, for all but exceptional work, by Machines,” the origin of which it is now necessary to trace. In 1790, a patent agent, who was aIso an inventor, and a writer on mechanicalsubjects, but not apractical printer-William Nicholson-took out a patent of a very remarkablecharacter ; in which he foreshadowed nearly every fundamental element of the mostadvanced machines of the present day. The following is an abstract of the patent :- Formes, plates, types, or originals to be used for printing, are made, and fastened with screws, wedges, orother methods, to the surface of a cylinder. The ink is applied upon the face of the type by causing the surface of a cylinder smeared with the ink to rollover the formes, or else the formes are caused to apply themselves to thecylinder. It is necessary that the colouring matter be evenly distributed over the surface of the cylinder; for this pnrpose three or more smallcylinders, called distributing-rollers, are applied longi- tudinallyagainst the colouring-cylinder, so thatthey may be turned by the motion of the latter.

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING IKACHINERY. 247 All the impressions are performed by the action of a cylinder, that is to say, the paper intended to be printed upon (previously damped if necessary) is caused to pass between two cylinders, one of which has the type-forme attachedto its surface, and the other is faced with cloth Gr leather, and serves to press the paper so as to take an impression. Otherwisethe cylinder with the paper wrappedround it is caused to roll along theface of the forme previously coloured. The method bywhich sheets of paperare taken upand carried round the impression-cylinder and then released, is also described. It appears thatthe followingimportant suggestions were proposed inthis patent, all of whichhave, since the date of thepatent, been broughtinto successful practice, although no machinewas ever constructed inits entirety according to the patent :- l. The inking of the forme by means of long rollers, instead of the ‘‘ balls ” previously inuse. 2. The distribution of ink upon these rollers by means of subor- dinate rollers. 3. The ink-duct at the end, with its roller supplying a small but regular quantity of fresh ink at each revolution. 4. The inking of the forme, and its passage beneath a revolving impression-cylinder infixed bearings. 5. The return of the forme to be inked without touching the impression-cylinder; and 6. (which is perhaps the most interesting of all) the idea of fixing plates round a cylinder, instead of printing from thc flat. To keep the treatment of the subject within moderate limits, .&is Paper is confined strictly to machines for ordinary one-colour letter-prcss printing, omitting altogether any notice of bank-note, cheque, railway-ticket, or lithographic machinesof any description, or apparatus forfeeding in or takingaway the sheetsfrom machines. The various machines are classified : a “ root ” machine of each class is described, and the featuresof improvement which have characterised its successors are briefly indicated. In the first class are platen machines, in which the platen or impressing surface is flatas distinguished from cylindrical. In the second class is the single-cylinder machine-a cylinder impressing a forme of type on a flat bed, and printing on one side only. Inthe third class, double-cylinder, or perfecting machines,

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 248 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of whichprint at one operation on both sides of thepaper; or whichprint the paper perfect "-on both sides of thesheet before it is removed. In the fourth class, rotary machines, in which the impressing as well as the printing surfaces are revolving cylinders.

CLASSI. About the year 1803, Frederick Konig commenced his experiments at Suhl, in Germany, with a view of rendering the hand-, pressmore nearlyautomatic. His leading idea was toperform the inking by means of leathern rollers, and to propel the typeforme backwards and forwards underneath them. His ideas were extremely crude, and they hadreference to an improvedhand- pressrather than to a machine. Konigwas undoubtedly, as is generally admitted, the inventor of the first machine ever made ; butthat machinewas no sudden discovery. It was butthe development of a cumbrous and clumsy expedient. Failing to receiveencouragement in other parts of Europe, Honig came to London in 1806, and having secured financial assist- ance, hecontinued his experiments. In 1810, hedesigned and patenteda new Platen Machine. This was agreat advance on the previous machine. The screw was retained as the means of pressure. Thedistribution of theink was improved,and the forme passed under two rollers instead of one roller. The inking apparatus consisted of several cylinders vertically arranged, ahove which was an ink-box, through a slit in which the ink was forced by a piston, so as to fall upon cylinders, by which it was distributed.The inking-cylinders were perforated tubes of brass, through the perforated axles of which steam or water was introduced, so asto moisten their felt-and-leatherclothing. The tympan was raised automatically, and was hinged to a coffin or bed for the forme, not as in previous presses, but so as to present its back to the press-head whenthrown up. Themachine waa drivenentirely by a steam-engine or otherprime mover. The machine was a failure, although two thousand copies of a book wereworked off. The radicalmistake inthe designwas the retention of the screw to actuate the platen. So far as the Author is aware, the Platen Machine was first successfully introduced by an engineer, a Mr. Brown, though it was not patented. It was working in 1830, and was capable of printing a sheet 20 by 30 inches. The platen machine resembled the hand-press, with this important difl'erence, that while it had

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 249 only one impression-surface, it had two coffins, two inking-tables, twotympans and friskets, andin factwas a double press, in all respects save that of theplaten orimpression-surface. The platen wasworked by a connecting-rod fixed t.o a cross-beam andcrank, which was actuated from atransverse shaft underneath in the centre, with the coffins, which carry the formes and ink-tables, on either side, and the ink-ducts being fixed at each end of the framing.The tables or coffins wereworked from a large iron drum situated under one of the tables, which revolved in one direction only, and was circularly grooved at each end. At a certain pointeach of the8e grooves wasdirected into others, travelling the lengthof the drum. Above this drum, a slide ranupon parallel bars, extending far enough to allow of both ends being connected with it in the followingmanner. Underneath each coffin was a pin secured by a strong spring, and by the agencyof a striker this pinwas let down into one of the slots, at each end of the slide; by this means the end, as it is called, or one-half of the machine was carried to the centre, where the impression-surface or platen descended upon it. This arrangement enabled the two ends of the machine to be working at the same time; or, when one end only was working, the machine attendant might be preparing or making ready the other end. The tympans and friskets lay at an angle above the coffins on slides or bars, and underneath werc the inking-rollers. The sheets were laidon from boards overthe tables, and close up to the friskets. The arrangement for feeding the machine was the same as that of the hand-press, the white paper being laid to marks or corks, and the perfecting being performed by the use of points fastened to the frisket, so that when the sheetwas taking the impression for printingthe first side, t,heymade slight punctures in the ~niddleof the paper where the fold would fall. When the other side was to be printed, the sheets Pdto be placed so that the pointsshould justenter the punctures already made. Inthis way,what wasknown as good registerwas ensured, namely, one set of pages being printed exactly on the backs of the other set of pages. Soon after the introduction of this machine, other machines of a similartype werebrought out. These include theNapier; the Scandinavian machine, which only had one end like a press, and which was patented in 1838, by Holm and Barrett; and one by Hopkinson and Cope, in 1851. Theprincipal advantages of the Napiermachine arethat many moreimpressions canbe obtained per hour, owing to t,hesubstitution of knucklejoints

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 250 CLOWES ON PRINTING NACHINERY. [Minutes of for the crank-shaft used in other machines; that the forme cau be twice rolled before taking the impression ; and that a clutch is used for moving the ends to and fro, insteadof the pin and slot.

CLASS11. Theleading characteristic of the single-cylindermachine is, that the typeforme is laid on a flat bed ; and that it passes under a rotating cylinder on which the paper to be printed is attached, and thus receives the impression. In 1811 FrederickKonig invented and patented the first single-cylinder machine.’ The novelties in Konig’s patent of 1811 were :-the adoption of acylinder for giving the impression, a train of superposed cylinders or rollers, two of which had end-motion, for distributingthe ink, and the use of tapes to carry the paper. To move the type-bed to and fro, Konig adopted the knuckle- joint and tumbling-pinionas now used. In the absence of grippers, a continuous motion to the cylinderwould not allow of feeding the sheets ; hence he adopted the intermittent or stop-motion for the cylinder. To accomplish this a peculiar train of gearing was employed. On the outer end of the cylinder shaft was placed a horn- gear, which divided the circle into thirds ; and directly below, a pinion, to which wasbolted a sector, moved the cylinder one-third of a revolution at each full turn made by itself. Thus t,ime was afforded to feed the sheet to one of the three blankets, which waa done by points fastened thereon, in imitation of the hand-press. The modernglue- and treacle-composition had not yet been discovered, andleather inking-rollers were used. Even ifsuch

Were it the object to trace the history of the printing-machine, it would be necessary to inquire how far KGnig was indebted to Nicholsonfor the ideas which actually led to the invention of the first steam-press ever made, but as this Paper relates merely to the mechanical development of the subject, it is only necessary to point out that itwas in theyear 1811 that all modern progress finds its origin. A somewhat angry discussionon this point has been in progress during the past two years. Mr. Th. Goebel of Stuttgart wrote in 1883 his ‘‘ FriedrichKonig unddie Erfindung der Schnell-presse. Ein biogaphisches Denkmal,” in which he claimed for the subject of his biography the entire and independent invention of the machine. Mr. WilliamBlades, the biographer of Caxton, on the other hand, maintains that, in 1810, KGnig applied to Nicholson to take outa patent for his invention, and that he then heard of the specification of 1790: that Konig immediately abandoned the principle of his previous machines, and adopted the cylinder as suggestedby Nicholson. Throughout Europe, however, Goebel’s theory is almost universally accepted.

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING NACHINERY. 251 rollers had been efficient, it was difficult to supply them with an even flowof ink. The ink-boxwas a verticalcylinder with a hole at the bottom, about 4 inch in diameter, and fitted with an air-tight piston, depressed by a screw, which forced the ink out on to two hardrollers, between which it was distributed, and from which it was furnished to the othercylinders. Mr. John Walter, of !Z%e Times, engagedKonig to undertake the manufacture of a double-cylinder machine which should ‘print two copies of a forme of the newspaperon one side. This was completed in 1814, and on the 28th of November of that yeara newspaper was for the first time printed by machinery. These improvements werenot patented. They wereprobably all in the direction of increase of speed, which was obtained by feeding at the two ends of the machine simultaneously. The forme of type was, by means of a rack,made to pass under two cylinders,round which the sheets of paperwere wrapped, andfirmly fixed in position by means of tapes. The inking was on the system already described. These machines printed eighteen hundred impressions per hour, and worked The Times for several years. In 1818, Mr. Edward Cowper invented several important improvements in printing-machinery. Firstly, aflat distributing- table on which theink wasuniformly distributed, by rollers having an end-motion as well as rotary-motion, andinking- rollers having a simple rotary motion. The end-movement of the distributing-rollers was produced by inclines on the edges of the table,acting on rollers on the “waving-frame ” carryingthe rollers. The ink was supplied to the table in verysmall quantities, at intervals, by a rollerwhich vibrated between a metal roller supplied with ink (and having a metal straight-edge to remove any surplus)and the distributing-table, to which the small quantity of ink was communicated each time that the vibrating- roller touched it. This patent is memorable for the first suggestion of the hand- inking roller,made with a composition first used for printing by Donkin and Bacon in 1813, and the distributing-table, since universally used for hand-presses. Up to this time, the types had been inked by means of pelt balls," involving much labour to the pressman. The sheets were fed in by the Drop-bar feeding arrangement; that is, a revolving steel bar, on which are fastened two disks, or bosses, about + inchlarger than the bar. Thebar is fixed immediately above the receiving-drum of the machine. The disks can, by means of screws, beshifted to any position along the

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 252 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. minutes of rod, so as to suit the sheet to be printed. The revolving motion is communicatedby the tapeswhich pass round it. To the rod is fixed a short arm, which hasa tumbler at its end. This tumbler rests on a wheel with a dip, which causes the drop-bar to fall upon the paper,laid to a frontmark on the receiving-drum. By this means the sheet is run into the machine. Mr. Edward Cowper was called in by Mr. Walterto perfect Konig’s machine, and he improved it in many important particu- lars, amongst others by taking away theold inking apparatus and putting in his own, and simplifying the machine by the removal of many wheels, introducing parallel motion and in other ways altering it. Shortly after, a new machine was constructed by Applegath and Cowper for printing The Times newspaper. The forme of type was

.-. FIG.2.

DROP-BARFEEDING ARRANGEMENT. passed backwards and forwardsunder four paper cylinders, the paperbeing printed atthe alternate cylinders,and thetypes receiving ink from twoapparatus similar to that already described, the ink having been first distributed on a flat inking- table. The machine was suppliedwith paper by fourfeeding boards, at each of which a boy stood to feed in the sheets. Two boys stood on the floor and two on a raised platform ; four other boys beingconveniently placed at the ends of the machine to receive theprinted sheets. Forthe purpose of supplyingthe sheets to the machine the “heap” of paper was placed at one end of the feeding-board, the boy drawing forward the top sheets by rubbing or stroking them in with a paper-knife. Each sheet was thusbrought in advance of that below, until the edge of the topmost sheet projected beyond the board, and lodged on a wooden rollerfurnished with tapeswhich constantly revolved. It had

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 253 no effect on the edge of the sheet until, at the proper time the drop-bar arrangement came into operation, and the paper immediately entered the machine between the two sets of tapes, and was carried by them round the paper-cylinder, where it received the impression. Thetapes and sheet continued their progress until they arrived at the place where the taker-off stood, and there the tapes separated, and the sheet fell into the handsof the boy. This machine printed about five thousand per hour on one side, each sheetbeing about four times the size of the old newspapers printed in the daysof Konig. About theyear 1830Mr. Dutartre, in conjunction with Mr. AristideDerniame, brought together details in the construction of his machine which, up to that time, had not been embraced in any one single-cylinder machine. It wascapable of printing a sheet 20 inches by 30 inches on one sidefor each revolution of the machine. The bearings of the cylinderare adjustable vertically to regulate the pressure, by means of two screws, one screw above and one below the bearings, in slotted pedestals, as in Cowper’smachines. On the upper side of the cylinder, when in the position of rest, there is a longitudinal opening 3 or4 inches wide, in which are lodged the grippers, as invented by Napier in 1823, which pull the sheet round the cylinder; and at another opening below these are two rods or rollers, one rod to hold the linen which lies next to the cylinder, and the other to hold the blanket by which the overlays are covered. It may here be briefly explainedthat linen is placed next to the cylinder because the overlays will not readily adhere to its naked surface. Overlays, to improvevarious defects of the impression, caused by different heights of the type, imperfect plates, and also to make up for a certain amount of give or wear of the machine, for plain work consist of what is known as patching up the low parts and cutting away the high or hard parts of the impression, and making it as level as possible. The overlays when prepared are, with the aidof paste, fastened to the linen,so that they meet the impression exactly on the parts required. The blanket is then placed round the cylinder, and the sheet tobe printed is conveyed on the blanket tomeet the forme. The gripper is a bar, which is supported in bearings at theends of the cylinder. One end of it is crankedand carries a small friction-roller, which runs round over fixeda eccentric or cam whilst the printing-cylinder revolves ; and communicates to the bar, and consequently to the grippers, the alternating movement causing themto close in order totake the sheetforward, and to open

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 254 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. minutes of to let it pass out, then close to pass under the laying-on board, and, lastly, open again for a new sheet offered to them by the feeding-inlad. The table on which the forme tobe printed from is securcd, andthe slab on whichthe ink is distributed, aresupported on sliding-bars. On the oft’ side of the table and slab is bolted a toothed rack corresponding to the cylinder-wheel into which it works, thus moving the cylinder round as it travels along. The reciprocalmovement is communicated tothe table and slab bya crank- and connecting-rod motion. At the lower part of the machine, and at the other end from where the delivery of the printed sheets takes place, is the driving-shaft from which the motion istaken by a pinionwhich gears into a wheel on the principal shaft of the machine, by which the crank-motion is worked. The ink-box or ductoris placed above the slab, and is worked bytoothed gearing from the counter-shaft.. The supply of ink to the first roller is regulated by the adjustment of a cast-iron knife,” by means of screws. The knife is formed in section like the letter L, the lower limb of which is brought to a knife-edge, whichis set up against the roller,or eased off to admit of the proper supply being administered. The knife forms withthe near side of the roller atrough forholding the ink. Thearrangements for distributingthe ink are exceedingly good: a vibrating-roller takes a supply of ink from the ductor; it then descends to a slab, leaving a thin layer of ink upon it ; the distributing-rollers are placed across the slab in an oblique direction giving them an alternative and lengthwise motion, by whichmeans theink is equallyspread over the slab. The inking-rollersget their supply from the slab,and immediately impart it tothe forme. Thisinking apparatus is the same as Applegath and Cowper’s of 1823. The laying-on board, on which is placed the paper to be printed, is abovejust the printing-cylinder, and the taking-off board is below it, aome distance further back. The sheets are laid to marks, and as with the hand-press, it is found necessary to havepoint-holes to secure good register, an arrangement is made for working points on this machine, one of which is placed on the cylinder itself, and the other under the laying-on board. Tapes are used to prevent the sheetfrom leaving the impression, and to convey it towards the taking-off tables; they are placed on small pulleys fixed on rods, the first of which is close to the top of the cylinder near the grippers, the secood near the tablo that contains the formes close to the cylinder, and another just behind the cylinder, above which there is a wooden roller;and, lastly, at the end of the machine there is another

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Prooeedinga.] CLOWES ON PRINTING YACEINERY, 255 wooden roller,which delivers thesheet to the taking-off ta.ble. In 1835, theBelper Machine, inwhich the type-table was stationary and the impression-cylindermoved over it, was invented by Mr. Edward Norris. It was not generally adopted, as it was open to t.he objection that, with movable cylinder-bearings, much less strengthis given to the impression thanis possible ina machine where thecylinder-bearers are fixed. In 1850, Mr. Thomas Main introduced the Main Machine. The machine had a ‘‘ rocking ” or “ tumbling ” cylinder-that is, one that didnot completely revolve, butstopped in its course, and then reversed its motion : presenhg the appearance of rocking. The delivery was to a board on the other side of the cylinder, but on a little higher level. This machine wa.s built as a single- feederand as a two-feeder. Nearlyall two-feeders now have cylinders on the Mainprinciple. Thegreat advantage of the tumblingcylinder over thestopping cylinder lies in the rapid delivery of which it is capable. In 1852, Mr. Stephen Soulby patented the UlverstonianMachine on the same principle as the Belper, but, like the Belper, it was not a success, and for the same reason. In 1858, Mr. William Dawson introduced the Wharfedale Machine, with a rising feed board like the Main, and an improved brake-motion, which, being connected with the striker, clamps the underside of the fly-wheel, thusstopping the machine almost instantaneously upon its being struck off. This was the original of the various machines by different makers now sold under the name of U Wharfedales.” It was built as a single-feeder and as a two-feeder machine, with a tumblingcylinder on the Main principle. In 1859, Mr. SamuelBremner patented the Belle Sauvage Machine. This was a sto.pping-cylinder machine, made witha tripping lever, so contrived that the type-table could travel whilst the cylinder was stationary. It was built, for the sake of extra strength, with two spur-wheels, twopinions, two connecting-rods, and two traverse-wheels ; with further improrements, by which it acquired a greater degreeof solidity, for the purpose of printing largeengravings. The machine is alsomade a two-feeder machine. In 1874, Mr. B. W. Davis and Mr. John Parsons introduced the GraphicMachine for working illustrationsand best bookwork. By the improvements effected, greater speed was attained, with equally good work ; the sheets were delivered with the printed

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 256 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. minutes of side up at the same side as that at which they were fed in. The machine rests ona cast-iron foundation-bed, to which the side frames are secured; the middle cross-frame is placed under the cylinder, and for the first time a broad centre impression-rail is introduced, although this wasincluded in theBelle Sanvage patent for improvements, which was taken out in 1865. The GraphicMachine also comprised a novel methodof stopping the cylinder and preventing it from “ overrunning,” and a new arrangement of feed-boards whereby they had motion imparted to them direct from the cylinder, thus dispensing with the usual cams andlevers used whenworking from the crank-shaft. In this way the machine was simplified, whilst a slower and steadier motionwas communicated tothe feed-boards, beingimparted to themwhen the cylinder arrived at the slowest part of its revolution. A similarmachine was brought out lately, and was called the X’ewsum AngleAmerican Letterpress Machine. One-sided machines are used for nearly all thebook-work printed in America. In the largeprinting-establishments in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, perfecting-machinesare exceptional. The machines principally employed are supplied by the Messrs. Hoe, and are very strong, beingmade to suit the requirements of what is technically known as hard-packing printing, exemplified in the monthly magazines of ‘ Harper ’ and ‘ The Century,’ for which a speciallyprepared paper is made, known as soft-sized paper. The cylinder is largein diameter,giving a longtraverse to the forme, which clears six inking rollers. It is fed in the usual way. This machine has superseded the American Xdams Platen, which,like the Scandinavian,has only one end:the difference being that, instead of the platen descending to give the impression, the bed ascends to theplaten, which is stationary.

cuss 111. ’ In 1814, on the completion of his two-feeder one-side Times machine, Eonig took out a patent for “ a certain principle and a mechanical apparatus foundedthereupon, by means of which the sheet, after being printed on one side, is conveyed to a second forme, there to be printed on the other side.” This machineresembled twosingle-cylinder machines placed with their cylinders towards each other. The sheet was conveyed from one cylinder to the other by means of tapes, the track of the tapes resembling a horizontal m;in the course of its track, the sheet was turned over, and a different side presented to the second

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 257 cylinderto that whichencountered the first. Thissystem has becnfollowed in perfecting-machinesever since Konig brought outhis machine. Atthe first cylinder, the sheet received the impressionfrom the first forme, and at the second cylinder it received the impression from the second forme. The rollers were at first covered with leather, which never answered the purpose well, but they were subsequently covered with the composition of treacle and glue as in other machines. This machine printed seven hundred and fifty sheets on both sides, equal to fifteen hundred impressions, per hour. In 1818 Nr. Edward Cowper inventedthe use of continuous double tapes or strings ; and conveying drums to carry the paper from the first printing-cylinder to the second to be printed on the opposite side, thus securing the paper from shifting or creasing, as it frequently did in Konig’s Machine ; also a feeding apparatus, called a web feeding machine, as described below. There are three modifications of the feeding apparatus of these machines-the web and the drop-bar by Cowper, and the gripper by Napier. In the web machine the paper is fed in by means of a web, or series of wide tapes, which lie upon the laying-on board. A small drumstands directly under the board, andto it the tapesare fastened. On the off-side of the spindle is aseries ofcogs, resembling somewhat a quarter of a toothed wheel, or a sector, with a long wooden arm fastened to the under-side. A stud is fixed on the cylinder-wheel of the inner forme, and when it comes into a certain position the stud glides on the surface of the arm, thus bringing the cogs on the drum into gear with it similar set on the cylinder-wheel. By this motion thedrum rotates a part of its circumference, and moves the web, or tapes, in the same direction. The sheet, having been laid to a back mark on the tapes, is propelled between two revolving rollers, and is thus taken into the machine. A driving-shaft is placed at theback of the machine, onwhich are fixed the fast and loose pulleys or drums; it extends to the centre of the machine, where by bevel-gear and an upright spindle the tables and coffins are worked. The rack is attached to the underside of the table, and is supported at each end by bars or slides, sufficient room being allowed for it to move freely horizontally from one side to the other, being driven from the upright spindle by 8 pinion. The rack is controlled by the “parallel motion” (Fig. 3) which is attached to it, and to the tables, thus causing the rack to move parallel. The tables are supported by a set of pulleys on [TEE INST. C.E. VOL. LXXXIX.] S

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 258 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of each side of the machine, those directly under the cylinders being larger and stronger than the others, in order to bear the strainof the impression. A very important detail is to be noticed in the largeor impression-cylinders. The surfaces of theseare of two different radii at different parts, the part that travels inwards to give the impression being of a largerdiameter than the other portion, so that when the forme returns it passes underneath the smaller part of the cylinder: the type or forme would otherwise touch the cylinder on its return. Two, or in some cases four, pins are inserted at the ends of the impression-part of the cylinder upon which the blankets are fastened by means of bars, to which they are sewn. On the shaft of each cylinder is a large wheel ;

FIG. 3.

7 .-rf

5 h.lZ 6 , Q ? P 9 a SF- RACKAND "PARALLELMOTION." these wheels gear into each other, and receive motion from a cog- wheel on the driving-shaft, the cylinders havinga contrary motion. Two drums, known as intermediate-drums, are placed between and just above the impression-cylinders;these acquire their motion from one of the cylinders which carries a wheel for that purpose, and one of them, the register-drum, can be raised or lowered by screws, so thatthe sheetcan be hastened or delayed togive theregister. Endless tapes bind the sheet to the cylindcrsand intermediate-drums, and convey the sheet throughthe machine tothe delivery-boardbetween the cylinders.Ductors for hold- ingthe ink are placed atthe ends, andthe ink is supplied from themto the inking-table by means of avibrator, which conveys it to the table. Rollers working endways distribute the

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING IACHINERY. 259 ink on the inking-table before it meets the inking-rollers, which intheir turn distribute it over the forme. Theductors are worked by gut-bands from the shaft of the impression-cylinder. A second, or ‘‘ set-off blanket ” is sometimes used; it is wound on two spindles sunk in the second cylinder. In 1823, Mr. Augustus Applegath conceived and patented the ingenious idea of placing the distributing-rollers at an angle across the distributing-table, so that they might run endways of themselves. This class of machine has been muchimproved to suitthe requirements of the times. The size has beenconsiderably increased, and the working parts that have to bear the greatest

FIG.5. __-----__ ~.__--__ -.. ,I \S I,

FIG.4.

CROSS SECTION LONGITUOINAL SECTION. THERISING AND FALLINGCYLINDER ACTION. Scnle, + inch= 1 foot.

strain, such as the bevel-wheels, the upright spindle, pinion, and rack-ends, are in many cases made of steelinstead of cast-iron as formerly. The pulleys on which the tables run have been so placed as to give a better support to the tables and coffins, and a gripper-drum is used in place of the web or drop-bar : the difficulty with the web being that having to fly the sheet on, there was often, especially with thin paper, a great chance of it creasing. Withthe drop-bar andthe web machines therewas a chance of the lay of the sheetbeing a little wrong,owing to the vibration on the machine as the sheets went in. In 1824 David Napier’sDouble GripperPerfecting Printing Machine was first supplied to Mr. T. C. Hansard, under the S2

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 260 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of title of the Nay-Peer Printing Machine. It hadtwo new features :-(l) the rising and falling cylinder action, illustrated, in Figs. 4 and 5, which permits the employment of small continuously-rotatingcylinders ; (2) the double-gripper movement, illustrated in Fig. 6, which, arranged in combination with rising and falling cylinders, not only permits the use of small cylinders continuously rotating, but enables them to be placed close together, and dispenses with tapes to conduct the sheet. In Fig. 6, A A',represent the two printing cylinders, A down in position for printing, and A' raised to escape contact with the forme on its return journey. Theirbearings are supported on impression-rods a, which are guided tothe side-frames of the

FIG.6.

DOUBLE-GRIPPERMOVEMENT.

machine at a', and attheir lowerends inparts fixed to the side-frames, the portions of whichare marked B; C arestuds fixed in frames B, on whichare fitted freely toggles D. The lower ends of these gear with rocking-levers E, which are seated in cross-pieces F, adjustable to height on rods a. Links G connect together the rocking-levers E, so that when actuated they raise the one cylinder and lower the other simultaneously, the rising of the cylindersbeing, however,permissive, so faras the toggle- action is concerned, as it is performed by the reaction of the springs atthe lowerends ofrods a. Wheneither cylinder is loweredfor printing,the studs C fixed to the framestake the strain of the impression,and, inthis case, the toggle-jointis straightened,as shown in the parts actuating cylinder A. The

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.1 CLOWES ON PRINTING ~YIACHINERY. 261 movements transmitted to the toggle-partsfor raising and lowering thecylinders are obtained from the driving-spindle H, in its rising and falling action, consequent upon the spur-pinion at its end gearing into a toothed rack H1, now above and now below in its working, tocause the go-and-come movement of the type-tables to which the rack is fixed. This rising and falling of spindle H is permitted by a universal joint at H2, and assisted by studs at the ends of the rack, and guide-quadrants, in amanner well known. The frame I, centred at I', and having a bearing on the spindle H at P, rises and falls with the spindle, and to this frame is attached connecting-rod J, which joints with lever E, fixed to me of the rocking-levers E. In Fig. 6, A A' are the printing cylinders, B B' the grippers, ranged on rods C C', working in bearings D D', fixedacross longitudinal openings in the cylinders, which allow free play for the grippers B ; E E' are pinions on ends of rods C C, which gear with toothed segments on wheels F F'; these are furnished with pins'G G', on which are friction-rollers H H'. The wheels F F' work free on studs fixed to D D' ; I I' are fixed inclines, J J' are moving inclines, and K K' are inclines free on fixed pins L L', and resting on stops M M'. Tumblers N N' work on stud-pins fixed to D D', and have friction-rollers at their other end, which fall into stop-notches in wheels F F', by the action of springs 0 0'. Pinions P P' gear with wheels Q Q', and through cranks R R', and connecting-rods S S', actuate the inclines J J'. The front edge of the sheet is laid by hand to marks, or paper slips, attached to the feeding-board, a smoothing-stick being used, and projectrc over the centre of cylinder A about 2 inch, orsufficient for the grippers to take holdof. When the roller H, carried by pin G on wheel F, arrives at the entrance to the race between inclines I and K, the grippers commence their closing action, and by the time theroller has reached the end of the race, the incline I has caused it to alter its position to that indicated by dotted lines, and the connection between the wheel F and pinion E has caused the grippers to close at T, after having described the path U, and so grip the sheet, which is carried on with the cylinder for half a turn, when it meets the first forme of type at T', and is printed on the one side, and passes on until it arrives at theposition indicated in full linesin the Figure, the grippersstill holding it as in itsfirst circuit ; after theclosing of the grippers theroller H has met with no obstruction, the incline J having been withdrawn to the position of the dotted lines by the crank R, and connecting- rod S, actuated by wheel and pinion Q and P, and the jointed

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 262 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. pinutes of incline E having been raised out of the way by theroller H in its passage. When the position indicated in full lines in the Figure is arrived at, the rollerH is just entering the race formed by the inclines I and J, and by the action of incline J on roller H, the grippers B are opened, describing the pathU', and release the sheet to the grippers B' on cylinder A', whichare at the same time closing by the action of the incline J', and which complete their closing when the roller H' has passed to the dotted circle at the end of the incline J'. The sheet thus passes to cylinder A', with the printedside against a blanket covering the cylinder,and, revolving with it, meets the second forme of type at T2, and is perfected orprinted on the second side. The release of the perfectedsheet takes place when the roller H arrives atthe entrance to the racebetween inclines I' K', when incline I' causes the roller to alter its position to that indicat.ed in dotted lines at the end of the race, by which time the grippers havedescribed the path V, and become fully opened. In the succeeding revolution of the cylinder the grippers remain open, the incline J' being *ith- drawn to theposition of the dotted lines, SO as not to act to close the grippers, and the incline K' being raised by the roller H' in its passage. The path of the grippers in closing to take the sheet from the grippers of cylinder A is shown at W, the action being given by incline J' against roller €1' every second revolution of the cylinder, About the year 1850 Mr. Norman modified the Anglo-French machine, which had been introduced in France by Mr. Rousselet. This is a modification of the Napier Machine, which it excels in regard to the inking arrangements, and the facilitiesfor preventing cc set-off." The tables,having a longertravel than other machines, the rolling is better,the whole of the inkers,four in number, completely clearing the forme. The set-off sheet apparatus is an arrangement for feeding in a sheet of paper, called the set-off sheet, with each sheet to be printed, which it meets entering on the second cylinder, and passing round withit, prevents the inkon the printed side of the paper "setting-off" on the cylinder, and from it to the following Bheets. This keeps the work clean and clear, and enables the finest book-printing to be produced. When the machine is used for ordinary work the set-off apparatus is dispensed with. The rate of printing is about one thousand sheets per hour, on both sides, for book-work generally ; but, when the set-of apparatus is employed, the speed is about eight hundredsheets per hour. It was first manufactured in Englandby Messrs. Hopkinson

and Cope, in 1858, andthe rack and upright spindle wassub- stituted for the mangle-rack by Messrs. Dryden and Ford in 1866. In 1884, Davis’s perfecting-machine(Plate 5, Fig. 10) was brought out. The object aimed at in this machine is to dispense with as muchintermediate gear as possible. Thecylinders are driven immediately by the tables, and a simple crank-action gives them an even motion, consequently there is no knock at the end of therun, but a slight pause and an easy Ieturn.The great strain experienced in all perfecting-machines that have to throw the rack over with every revolution of the machine is obviated; andthe single rack and universal joint as used on the Anglo- French Machine are dispensed with. Thus, room is made for the introduction of a central bearing under the middle of the forme- table, giving greater solidity to the impression. The machine is fed by grippers in the ordinary way, and can be worked with the set-off apparatus in thesame way as theAnglo-French.

CLASSIV.-ROTARY MACHINES, IN WHICH THE IMPRESSING AS WELL AS TEE PRINTING SURFACES ARE REVOLVING CYLILVDERS.

In 1790 William Nicholson patented, but never made, a machine which foreshadowed nearlyevery fundamental element of the most advanced machines of the present day. In 1813, Messrs.R. If. Bacon andBryan Donkinobtained a patent for a machine of a novelprinciple. Thetypes were fixedon a revolving four-sidedprism. The ink wasapplied by one roller,which rose andfell with the irregularities of the prism. The sheet of paperwas wrapped on another prism, so, formed as to meet the irregularities of the type prism. But, the inking apparatus was very defective, and no good work could be produced by it. The patent, nevertheless, contains the first reference to composition-rollers, afterwards adopted by Cowper, with- outwhich rapid and satisfactory machine-printing would not have been practicable.Reference hasalready beenmade to the wooden cylinders, covered with leather, that were used by Eonig fordistributing the ink and inking the forme.Messrs. Bacon and Donkin proposed that these accessories should becovered orclothed with“glue, so prepared as to lessen its tendency to become hard by exposure to the air, or to become soft by the application of oil or printing ink.” In 1816, Mr. Edward Cowpertook out a patententitled,

‘LA Method of PrintingPaper for PaperHangings and other purposes.” The invention consisted in‘Lcurving or bending stereotype plates, and printing with the same.” His method was to take a mould in plaster of Paris from the blocks or types, and to casttherefrom a plate inthe usualmethod practised by stereotypefounders, with the alloy used forprinters’ types or stereotype plates.” Theplate washeated and laid uponsome softsurface face downwards, andthe two were then passed under a cylinder, the degree of pressure employed producing the curverequired. Such curved plates were afterwards fixed upona cylinder by means of catches. This cylinderrevolved under inking-rollers, which alternately ran on the naked cylinder, and on the stereotype-plates fixed on a part thereof. Colour was supplied to these rollers from other rollers, that distributed the ink on a large distributing-roller fed by a vibrating-roller from a metal cylinder against which the colour lay. After the stereotype-plates had received the colour, they came in contact with the paper on the paper-cylinder, which revolved in contact with, and pressed against, the plates. This machinewas for continuous sheets, or long sheets of paper-hanging. In 1835, Sir Rowland Hill patentedimprovements. He proposed to use tapering types which were to be fixed on a printing- cylinder; this was never carried out successfully. The ink was appliedcontinually and without intermission from the surface of a slow-revolvingcylindrical roller, upon which it hadbeen previously spread by an ink-trough and ductor. The paper was to besupplied in continuous rolls, damped bybeing passed betweenwetting-cylinder.a The method of printingwas described as being similar to that of the calico-printing-machine. The improvementswere said to beapplicable tothe plan of printing with stereotype-plates, bent to a cylindrical surface and fastened around a type-cylinder, after Mr.Cowper’s method. In 1842, Mr. M. S. Beach patented a cylindricalrotary machine with folding apparatus. Its principal defect seems to have been that it requiredthe use of Hill‘s tapering types.These inventors pointed out the direction in which progress was possible, but they do not seem to have made machines for sale. In 1848, Mr. Applegathinvented a machine, the cylinder of whichwas about 5 feet 6 inches in diameter, andvertical. On this the type was fixed, and the inking arranged as in the previous machines. Around the type-cylinder were placed eight other vertical cylinders, each about12 inches in diameter, or about ith of the type-cylinder in diameter.These were the paper-cylinders,”

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRMTINNCIMACHINERY, 265 each of which was furnishedwith a feeding apparatus, whereatone boy laid on the sheets, and another boy took them off. The feeding apparatus was very peculiar, its object being to convey the sheet from its horizontal position on one of the feeding- boards to its vertical position on the paper-cylinder. Over each of the eight cylinders wasa sloping desk, uponwhich a stock of unprinted paper was deposited. At the side of the desk stood the layers-on, who pushed the sheets towards the fingers or grippers of the machine. These grippers seizing upon a sheet, first drew it down in a vertical direction between tapes on the eight vertical frames, until its horizontal edges corresponded with the position of the forme of type on the printing-cylinder. Arrived at thisposition, its vertical motion was stopped by a self-acting apparatus provided in the machine, and it began to move horizontally, and was thus carried towards the printing-cylinder by the tapes. As it passed round this cylinder it was impressed upon the type and printed. It wasthen carriedback horizontally by similartapes on the other side of the frame, until it arrived at another desk where the taker-off awaited it. The grippers were now disengaged from it, and the taker-off received it and deposited it upon the desk. This movement went on without interruption ; the moment that one sheet descendedfrom thehands of the “layer-on,”and, being carried vertically downwards, began to move horizontally, space was left for another sheet, which he immediately supplied, and in this manner he delivered to the machine at the average rate of two sheets every five seconds, and the same delivery taking place at each of the eight cylinders, sixteen sheets were delivered and printedevery five seconds, whichgives a speed of aboutnine thousand six hundred per hour. Thetype was of the ordinarykind, and was fixed on a block of iron, theinner side of whichfitted the side of the cylinder. Theouter surface of the block was formed intoflat surfaces, corresponding in width and number with the columns of the newspaper. The surface of the forme, therefore, made a portion of a polygon, on which account the middle part of the column would give but a faint impression; but as the difference between the chord and the arc was very trifling, this was com- pensated for by pasting a few slips of paper on the paper-cylinder. It is stated that no difficulty was found in producing an equal impression. In 1847 a patent was taken out by Mr. W. Newton for a rotary machine, in which single sheets were used, for ordinary movable type fixed on to the cylinder by column rules and screws. ,

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 266 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of In 1849, Mr. F. W. Bodmer brought out the remainingnecessary factor in web-printing-thedamping of the paper inthe roll during its passage through the press. It appears, from these notices, that all the essential principles of rotary printing were discovered before the year 1850 :-the printing, the inking, the bendingof plates, the folding and taking-off; the web of papes, the means of cutting it and of damping it.

In 1857, The Times adopted an American press, called the type- revolving printing-machine ” (Plate 5, Fig. l l), manufactured by Colonel Richard M. Hoe, of New York, which was like Applegath‘s vertical machine, but horizontal. The sheets were taken straight in by grippers,and after being printed were conveyed out by tapes, deposited by self-acting ‘‘ flyers ” upon tables or fly-boards, there being as many of these attached to the machine as there were impression-cylinders, thereby dispensing with the assistants required in working previous machines to receive and pile up the sheets. The inkwas contained in a fountain placed beneath the main os type-cylinder, and was conveyed by means of distributing-rollers tothe distributing-surfaceon the maincylinder. Thissurface being lower, or less in diameter than the forme of types, passed by the impression-cylinder without touching. For each impression- cylinder there were two inking-rollers, receiving their supply of ink from the distributing-surface of the maincylinder. These rollers rose and inked the forme as it passed underthem, and fell to meet the distributing surface. The manner of fixing the type on the cylinder was that already described in the patentof 1847. The speed of these machines was limited by the ability of the feeders to supply the sheets, and for all practical purposes a man could not feed-in more than from thirty to thirty-two sheets per minute. It wasfound thatthe complicationcaused by having ten differentfeeders was a great objection. The stoppageswere frequent, the waste of paper excessive, and the risk of accident tothe machine and materialformidable. The working cost, as may be imagined,’ was extremely heavy. Up to this time rotary machines had printed on one side of the sheet only ; and it was felt at theTimes oEce, that until the printing-press was simplified, so as to be availablefor printing on both des, by one operation, a roll of paper which would require no “laying-on,” the most important results derivable from stereotyping pages had not been secured. The difficulty was to provide a press which should not

only print from the reel, cut and deliversheets separately, but which should also distribute the ink satisfactorily under the new conditions ; which should have the most ample provision possible against “ set-off ” ; which should have rollers that would not give trouble by softening or melting ; andwhich should damp the paper before printing it. The Times now required to be printed by four huge machines, each demanding combined action of from fourteen to sixteen hands to work it. In 1840 a rotaryweb-printing-machine was at work in New Pork. A patentin England was takenout by the inventor, Mr. J. A. Wilkinson, in 1859 ; a working model was shown at the InternationalExhibition of1862. According tothe patent, the types were to be set up in a curved composing stick, and were secured on the cylinder by “movable clampedsegments.” The paper was supplied as a roll or web, and damped in the machine before beingprinted. This patent seems to haveborne fruit in the machinesubsequently known as the“Bullock ” andthe “ Walter Press,” the former of which was patented in 1863 by Mr. WilliamBullock, of Philadelphia, U.S.A. His firstmachine was completed in 1865. On his death, in 1868, the patents passed into the handsof a company, who improved the machine. In 1869 it was introduced into England. The merits claimed for the Bullock Press were simplicity and compactness. There was a very small number of cylinders, and no tapeswhatever, grippers only being used. The paper,however, was cut before printing and was a source of derangement. This was obviated by cutting the paper subsequently after printing.

In 1862, the construction of theWalter web-printing-press was undertaken by Mr. John CameronMacDonald. the present Manager of TheTimes, aided by Mr. Joseph Calverley, the Chief Engineer. In 1866, a machine was completed which gave satisfact.ion to its inventors. The machine was patented at the end of that year, and though several additional patents have since been taken out with reference to certain movements, t’he general arrangement of the press is substantially what it was then. It is about 19 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 7 feet high. Plate 4, Fig. 3, shows the mechanicalarrangements. P is a continuous roll of paper wound upon a spindle. Each roll used in printing TheTimes is about 8,000 yards inlength, and weighs 800 lbs. The paper is passed from the roll over a tension-roller, and then over damping-cylinders, by which it becomes thoroughly wetted onboth sides. It next passes over other rollers, whichserve to

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 268 CLOWES ON PRINTING NACHINERY. pinutes of complete the saturation of the sheet by pressing the water into it as it bears against the surface of the rollers. The damping is done by hollow cylinders,perforated withsmall holes. These are covered withblankets and suppliedwith steam by means of a small pipecthe steam condensing on the blankets through the perforations in the cylinder. After having been thus rendered thoroughly damp, the paper passes betweentwo small rollers, and is thus squeezed. It then goes tothe printing appliances. Fourlarge cylinders, T, E, E, T, are arranged one above the other. The two outside ones, T and T carry the stereotype-plates, while the middle ones, E and E, are the pressing-cylinders; these latter being covered withblanket arranged speciallyfor that description of work. Each of theprinting-cylinders receives stereotype-plates of the pages of matter to be printed. The side edges of each plate are held in dovetail recesses, the recess for holding one side of the plate being formed in a projection at the centre of the cylinder, and the holding for the other side of the plate being two adjustable clips. Fixed stops are also attached to the cylinder, against which one of the ends of the plates is placed, and the plates are thus held firmly on the cylinder and prevented from moving. The paper,after passing between the rollers, is ledbetween the upper printing- and pressing-cylinders, when one side of it is printedupon; it isthen passed betweenthe two pressing- cylinders, E and E, and afterwards between the lower pressing- and the lower printing-cylinders, E and T, when it receives an impression upon the other side. Provision is here made for taking up the set-off by means of a smooth metalcylinder pressing against the lower impression- cylinder, andlicking up the superfluous ink on the covering thereof, while any accumulation of set-off on this metal surface is preventedby a rubbing-bar affixed to its circumference on the side opposite that in contact with the impression-cylinder. After having thus been printed on both sides, the paper passes to the cutting-cylinders, C C. The machinery is so adjusted that a knifecatches the paperexactly between the sheets, and, the paper being held hard on each side by a spring-bar, cuts it in two, all but a couple of tags near each end, which are left for the purpose of pulling the sheet on between two sets of running tapes, untilit is caught by a pair of smallrollers, which are driven at a greater speed than the rest of the machine. These immediately tear the sheets apart where they have been all but separated, and thetapes hurry on whatis now a completely

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. 269 printed newspaper up an inclined plane, at thetop of which they carry it down an oscillating-frame, which moves like a pendulum, so exactly that it delivers a paper precisely at each end of its short swing on to the face of another set of running tapes, which carry it downwards on their outward face by the mere force of contact. Betweenthese tapes a frame, like a huge comb, swingsback- ward and forward, catching up one delivered paper at every motion a,nd flinging it down on a board, behind which a boy sits to watch and adjust the sheets as they fall. The current of air raised by the motionof this frame suffices to holdeach succeeding sheet against the tapes along which it moves. Thus two boys and the man whoattends themachine supplyall themanual labour required. Recently,folding apparatus, comprising two, three, or four folds, as required,have been applied tothe machine, without entailing any diminution of speed. In 1867, Mr. Rippolyte Marinoni invented the machine which bears his name, with the object of providing for the Paris Petif Journal, a press that should produce at least thirty-six thousand copies per hour of a four-page paper printed on both sides. It was introduced into England by the proprietorsof The Echo. Two copies of the journal were printed on one sheet, and these were afterwards severed. The speed secured on one machine was 10,000 revolutions per hour; stereotype plates were fixed on the surface of two rotating cylinders, and the sheets of paper were fed in by six layers-on at six different positions on the machine. The impressing-cylinders and the paper were so nicely adjusted, that the sheets fed in by the six feeders followed each other in an almostcontinuous stream, only aboutan inch apart. After the sheetshad passed over andunder the printing-cylinders they weredivided by tapes into two streams, one stream passing to theright and theother to the left. Each of theseagain was divided into an upper and a lower stream, and the four streams of sheets were deposited by hinged flyers on four receiving-tabbs, whence they were removed at intervals in piles. Aseach sheet formed a double journal, it was cut into two by a rotating cir- cularknife parallel to the medj.al line of the machine. Manual labour was thus required for the feeding-in or laying-on the white paper, but not for delivering it and depositing it on the feeding- boards. Thestereotype plates wereinked by two inking-rollers actingalternately during eachrevolution of the type-cylinder. Subsequently, Mr. Marinoni was induced, by the success of web- printing machines, to apply the principle to his machines, and to discard altogether the sixfeeding-boards with their six workmen.

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 270 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of In 1870 Mr.George Duncanand Mr. AlexanderWilson invented the VictoryMachine (Plate 5, Fig. 13). The end of the web of paper is led over small rollers down to the first impression- cylinder, when it is printed on one side, and it then passes on to the second cylinder, and the reverse or blank side is brought, into contactwith and printed by the stereo-plateson the second type-cylinder. The web, thusprinted onboth sides, runsalong until it comes tothe cylinder which contains the knife which cuts the sheet from the web. By a clever arrangement it receives its first fold atthis moment. Fromthe cutting-cylinder it is carried by a knife to the grippers attached to the second folding- cylinder, where it receives an additional fold. It is then delivered upon 3 swinging-frame to aseries of folding-knives,which are arranged in duplicate on either side of the machine, each set of knives receivinga paper alternately from the swinging-frame. In this way, the deliveringpower of the frame is doubled, and the folded papersare deposited at a rate of abouttwelve thousand per hour in two receiving-boxes at the furtherend of the machine from that atwhich the web is mounted. All these varied operations have been carried on, and sheets 30 by 40 inches have been printed and folded at the rateof two hundred per minute. In 1871, Messrs. J. Foster and Sons introduced a movable type web-rotary-machine, which they named the Prostonian. As in Mr. Newton’s invention of 1847, the type is held on the type-beds on the same principle as the keystone of an arch, each column-rule being supposed to representakeystone. The rules, made of steel, are secured by dove-tailedgrooves in the bed itself. The locking-up is effected by means of screws atthe foot of each column, An additional screw influencesone of two inclincd planes working together, which tighten up the columns laterally. The object in working from movable type is the saving of the expense of stereotyping and the saving of time; the formes being ready tobe printed the moment theyare lookedup. In 1880 they introduced their Standard, a very compact and solid machine for working from stereo only (Plate 4, Fig. 4). The paper is conveyed from the reel, and gets its first printing from the upper cylinder; it then passes down for the second printing, and on to the drum whichcontains theknife; after being cut it proceeds tothe folder. In 1872, Mr. Pardoe and Mr. Davis patented their Whitefriars Machine (Plate 4, Fig. 5). It is built for printing periodicals, with or without cuts. There are four cylinders arranged round a semi- circular frame. The two centre drums areused for the impression,

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Proceedings.] CLOWES ON PRINTING. MACHINERY. 271 while the outside cylinders receive the plates, which are not cast in a curvilinear form but are bent. The laying-on boards are directly above the cylinders, and, by means of a drop-bar and tapes, the sheet is passed over andunder each impression-cylinder, and carriedunderneath to the flyers. Theinking arrangements, though simple, are effective, a largedistributing-drum being employed in addition to a series of wavers. The forme is inked by four rollers, each of which is self-supplying, and works directly from the ink-drum. The machine is made to print from a continuous roll of paper or from separate sheets. In 1873, Messrs. Hoe ofNow Yorkintroduced their rotary machine, somewhat on the same plan as others, but with several alterationsin detail (Plate 5, Fig. 12). Theroll of paperwas placed immediately above the type-cylinders, which were fitted to a horizontal frame. The second impression-cylinder was of three times the diameter of the first, and, unlike the latter, which was parallel with thetype-cylinder, was placed underneath. The object of makingthis cylinder larger was to obviate the set-off, the impressionbeing given on three different portions. The sheet having been printedby the inner forme,passed underthe cylinder to the outer, and thence between two cutting-cylinders, whichwere of the same diameter as the type-cylinders. Theknife did not completely sever the sheets, thecutting being effected as in previous rotary machines. The sheets then travelledover a drum having a slightlygreater circumference than the length of the paper, and when any desired number of sheets were gathered, they were directed by a switch down the flyers and deposited on the taking-off-board. A plan for divid- ingthe sheets intoquires was adopted. Upon the delivery of every twenty-seven sheets-three deposits of nine-the table was slightly moved by cams to the right or to the left, as might be most convenient; the quires being thus made to overhang each other could be easily separated as required. The inking apparatus consisted of two drums parallel to eachother, and they were each provided with aseries of vibratorsand wavers. These were placed inthe horizontal side-frame, on the same level as the type-cylinders. The speed was on an average at the rate of fourteen thousand perfect sheets perhour. In 1873 Marinoni brought out a new rotary machine (Plate 4, Fig. G), which has completely superseded the six-feeder machine already referred to. The construction is simple. Four cylinders are arranged immediately one above each other. The two centre ones are the impressing-cylinders, the stereo-plates being fixed on the

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 272 CLOTVES ON PRINTINGMACHINERY. pinutos of top and bottom ones. The inking appliances are at the top and bottom, near the plate-cylinders, and consist of ductors provided with rollersand dist,ributors/ the latter having a lateral longitudinal motion, imparted by cams. The sheets, after being printed, are collected together on two gathering-drums, and pass between .the cutting cylinders; and, when five sheets have been gathered, a set of tapes on a vibrating-frame moves out and directs them on the flyers, which deposit them on the laying-on-board. The average speed is at the rateof ten thousand perfect copies per hour. In 1876 Mr. William James Ingram, assisted by the late Mr. James Brister, introduced a web-rotary machine (Plate 4, Fig. 7) for printing illustrated newspapers. Cutsor engravings require much more careful inkingthan letterpress formes, and the ordinary inking arrangements, which answcr very well for the one, give but very imperfect impressions from the other.Previously, too, it had been found almostim- possible to obtainsatisfactory impressions from stereo-plates of cuts of thesharp curve required to correspond toprinting- cylinders of theordinary size. In order to overcome these difficulties, the inventors increasedconsiderably the diameter of the printing-cylinder to which the plateswere to beadapted. They were thus enabled to place on the same printing-cylinder two, three, or more copies of the cuts, so that while the speed of the large and small printing-cylinders is the same, the latter one containsonly plates of letterpress,which rotate two or more times for every revolution of the large cylinder. The impression- cylinder,which acts in conjunction withthe large printing- cylinder, is also correspondingly increased in size, and rotates at the same surface-speed. Theinking apparatus includes an increased number of inking- and distributing-rollers, so that the engravings may be thoroughly well inked. The ink, as usual, is transferred by avibrating-roller from the ductor or fountain- roller to the first distributing-cylinder, from which it is taken by two rollers. It is then deposited on a second distributing-cylinder, to which the lateral motion is given. The ink is thereby evenly distributed over the surface of the second cylinder, from wllich it is transferred by other rollers to two other distributing-cylinders, in contact with which four inking-rollers rotate and take there- from the ink, which they transfer to theprinting-surface. Messrs. Hoe, of New York, have during the last twenty years been every year improving their rotarymachines. Referring back to the account of their machine, p. 271, the next step was to make amachine that would print two eight-

page sheets, me Times size, at one revolution of the type-cylinder. This was called adouble-width machine, and wasmuch more compact than any previously designed. It was about 5 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 24 feet long, including the folding attachment. The type- and impression-cylinders were arranged in pairs very nearly as in the ordinaryperfecting-press, withthe important exception thatthere were double sets of stereotype-plates-the whole of ajournal being cast in duplicate. The speed of this machinewas about double that of the HoeMachine previously described, and it could deliver about twenty-six thousand papers per hour perfectly folded in piles standing upon edge like a row ofbooks. The most recent of Messrs. Hoe and Co.’s machines seem altogether fabulous inthe ext,ent of theiroutput. One machine prints from type with a double web of paper; it turns out either four-or two-page newspapers, delivering them unfolded at the rate of twenty-four thousand per hour. Another is a single-web type-printing-machine, printing four-page newspapers, and delivering them unfolded at the rateof fifteen thousand per hour. Another prints from stereotype an eight-page or a four-page newspaper, delivering unfolded at the rate of fourteen thousand eight-page, or twenty-eightthousand four-page papers per hour. Another is asingle-web machine, printing twelve-,eight-, or four-pagesheets, folded threetimes to quarter-page size, and delivering them at the rateof thirteen thousand per hour. Another is astereotype-printing-machine for eight-, ten-, or twelve-pagenewspapers, delivering them folded toeither half page or quarter-page size, at the rate of twenty-fourthousand per hour. For ten-page and twelve-page papem, the inset of two or four pages is printed on a supplementary machine inside, andis then directed to and folded with the main web of paper. Another is a stereotype-printing-machine that prints eight-page newspapers,delivering them folded toeither half- or quarter- page size at the rateof eleven thousand per hour. It also delivers two-, four-, eight-,or sixteen-page sheets unfolded. A four-page paper like TheEcho would be turned out at the rate of nearly fifty thousand per hourby this apparatus. And another is a machine that would print and deliver folded, an eight-page paper like The Stundurd, at the marvellous speed of twenty-five thousand per hour. Anothermachine constructed in 1862 for printing illustrated journalson therotary principle is that of theAugsburg Machine Works (Germany). An Americantechnical journal statesthat the improvementswere invented and patented in [THE INST. C.E. VOL. LXXXIX.] T

Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 274 CLOWES ON PRINTING MACHINERY. [Minutes of theUnited States, and subsequently adopted bythe Augsburg manufacturers;the inventor being Mr. H. J. Hewitt, of New York. The Augsburg establishment wasfounded in 1840, and was for many years the propertyof a nephew of Frederick Konig. The Augsburg Machine (Plate 5, Fig. 9) prints the celebrated illustrated Stuttgart serial Ueber Land und Meer, at the rate of three thousand five hundred sheets per hour perfect. It is worked on dry paper,super-calendered. The set-off paper is rolled like the printing-paper.After passing through the machine it is dried, and can be oftener used in this rotary than can ordinary set-off paper,for a similar purpose, iuan ordinary perfecting- machine. The chief difficulty experienced, is to get good curved electros ; butthis is notinsuperable, and English specimens, shown at theInternational Inventions Exhibition, indicate the high degree of perfection to whichthis branch of electrotyping has been brought. The Author has no personal knowledge of the machine ; consequently he is unable to give a reliable descriptionof it. One feature of the subject must be referred to in conclusion. Machinery hasundoubtedly debased certainindustries. The machine-laces of Nottinghamare vastly inferior to the patient handwork of theIrish orBelgian lace-maker.Machine-made furniture is not equal in artistic effect to mediaeval examples, produced by the chisel, hammer, and saw of the cunning craftsman. But in regard to printing, the conditions are about the reverse, as the newspaper of to-day is incontestably better printed than that of a century ago, worked off by thelaborious process of the hand- press. In alltechnical requirements popular literature is in printing superior to that of the last century. The impression is clearer, the inking moreuniform. Whatever somepeople may say, in their adulation of the productions of the mediaeval printers, there are books now issuedfrom the press whichsurpass in nearly everyvaluable characteristic the most belauded achievements of the Aldi, the Estiennes, or, coming down later, of Basker- ville,Bulmer, Bodoni, andthe Didots. Improvements instyle have gone handin hand with improvements in methods, and the development of printing-machinery has beena.s satisfactory in its results, from an cesthetic, as from an engineering point of view. The wonderful progress made during the past seventy or eightyyears has promoted, to adegree which it wouldbe impossible to realize, the freedom, the prosperity, the intelligence, and thehappiness of the nation.

The Paper is accompanied by numerous diagrams, from which Plates 4 and 5 and the Figs. in the texthave been prepared.

APPENDIXES.

TABLE I. SPEEDS. The Stanhope Press (one side of the sheet) ... 200 per hour. The Columbian Press...... 250 ,, Cowper's Single-Cylinder...... 1,200 I, ,, Two-Feeder ...... 2,400 ,, Cowper and Applegath's Four-Feeder Times machine 5,000 ,, 19 ,, Nine-Feeder ,, 1> 16,000 ,, Hoe's Four-Feeder ...... 8,000 ,, WalterPress ...... 10,000 ,) Hoe's new Rotary ...... 10,000 ,,

TABLE 11. PROCESSESINVOLVED m PFCINTINQA SINGLE SIDE OF A SHEETOF PAPER. On a cylinder-machineOn a rotary web-- By the hnnd-press. withjyers. machine. 1. Inkingthe roller .... Automatic ... 2. Inking the. forme .... Automatic ... 3. Laying the sheet on the tympan Laying the sheet . 4. Flyingfrisketthefolding and ... it down forme.on the . .} Entirely automatic,. 5. Runningthein forme underthe) Automatic thepaper unreel- platen ...... ing by machinery ; 6. Taking the impression by de-) Automatic also damping, cut- pressing theplaten ... ting and folding. 7. Running out theforme. .. Automatic ... S. Lifting the tympan and frisket Automatic ... Automatic ... 9. Releasingit on the bank. the sheet .... and placing) l

TABLE 111. CHRONOLOGICALSYNOPSIS. A. HAND-PRESSES. YEAR. The oldestknown press ...... 1507 Improvedpress ...... 1568 BlaewPress ...... 1650 StanhopePress ...... 1800 RuthvenPress...... 1S13 Clymer's Colnmbian ...... 1817 Cogger Press ...... 1820 Cope's ' Albion' ...... 1823 T2

B . MACHIXES. I. Single Machines. printing one side only :- Y EAE . Hiinig‘s first Cylinder Machine ...... 1811 .. Two-Feeder ...... 1514 Applegathand Comper’s Times Machine ...... 1827 Dutartre Machine ...... 1830 Belper ...... 1835 Main ...... 1850 Soulby’s Ulverstonian ...... 1853 Dawson’s Wharfedale ...... 1858 Bremner’s Belle Sauvage ...... 1859 Harrilds’ Improved Main ...... 1867 Bremner’s Improved BelleSauvage ...... 1863 Parson’s Graphic Two-Feeder ...... 1874 Newsum. Wood. and Dyson’s Anglo-American ....l884

I1. Perfecting-Machines :- Konig’s ...... 1814 Cowper’s ...... 1818 Cowper and Applegath’a ...... 1823 NapierGripper ...... 1824 Napier Reciprocating Cylinder ...... 1828 Anglo-French ...... 1850 Dryden’s Anglo-Freoch ...... 1560 Dsvis’s Perfecting ...... 1885

I11 . Platen Machines :- KSnig’s ...... 1804 .. Screw Platen ...... 1810 Brown’s Platen ...... 1830 Napier’s ...... 1832

IV. Rotary Machines :- Nicholson’s projects ...... 1790 Bacon and Dookin’s Prismatic Machine ...... 1813 Cowper’s curved stereo machine ...... 1816 Applegath’s VerticalCylinder ...... 1818 Hoe Lightning Press ...... 1857 Bullock Web Machine ...... 1865 Walter Press ...... 1866 Marinoni Single Sheet machine ...... 1867 Victory Web Printing and Folding ...... 18i0 Foster movable typeRotary Web ...... 1871 Hoe Rotary Web ...... 1873 MarinoniRotary Web ...... 1873 Ingram Rotary Web ...... 1876 Whitefriars Rotary for Single Sheets ...... 1872 Hoe’s recent machines ...... 1885 Augsburg Machine ...... 1862 [DISCUSSION. Downloaded by [ University of Southern California] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Fi(l : .l .

-_ L

COWPER'S TWO -CYLINDER MACHINE. COWPER'S PERFECTING MACHINE. FOSTERMACHINE.

WALTER MACHINE.

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