Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of The

National Science Foundation

Twenty-Eighth Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1978 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $3.25 Stock Number 038-000-00407-7 Letter of Transmittal

Washington, D.C.

DEAR MR. PRESIDENT:

I have the honor to transmit herewith the Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1978 of the National Science Foundation for submission to the Congress as required by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950.

Respectfully,

Richard C. Atkinson Director, National Science foundation

The Honorable The President of ihe United Slates

Contents

Page

Director's Statement vii

Mathematical and Physical Sciences, and Engineering 1 Physics 2 Chemistry 6 Mathematical and Computer Sciences 10 Engineering 16 Materials Research 21

Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences 29 Astronomy 31 Atmospheric Sciences 39 Earth Sciences 45 Ocean Sciences 51 Polar Programs 56

Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences 61 Physiology, Cellular, and Molecular Biology 62 Behavioral and Neural Sciences 67 Environmental Biology 69 Social Sciences 73

Science Education '77 Science Education Resources Improvement 77 Science Education Development and Research 81 Scientific Personnel Improvement 86 Science and Society 91

Applied Science and Research Applications 97 Problem Analysis 98 Integrated Basic Research 98 Applied Research 99 Problem-Focused Research Applications 101 Intergovernmental Science and Public Technology 105

Scientific, Technological, and International Affairs 109 Policy Research and Analysis 110 Science Resources Studies 112 NSF Planning and Evaluation 115 Information Science and Technology 116 International Programs , 118

Appendices A. National Science Board, NSF Staff, Advisory Committees and Panels 121 B. Patents and Inventions Resulting from Activities Supported by the National Science Foundation 138 C. Financial Report for Fiscal Year 1978 140 D. National Research Center Contractors 143

DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT vii

Science: New Pathways and New Promise

t is with continued confidence in the state 1978 an instrument combining a wide bore of science in the Nation that I present this magnet with a Fourier transform spectrometer I Annual Report of the National Science was ready for detailed studies of large, Foundation. complex biomolecules. The year saw half of The report documents progress in the many the 27 scheduled radio antennas at the Very areas of science and engineering supported by Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico already in the National Science Foundation through its operation; their resolving power matches that system of grants and contracts. In 1978 the of the largest optical telescope in existence. progress was noteworthy. New programs Even familiar instruments were put to new linked efforts at universities, major research uses. That versatile scientific tool, the laser, centers, and private industry. Basic research, glues together chemical compounds, parts research in applied science and science applica­ isotopes, and is being used in attempts to tions, and science education continued to move induce nuclear fusion. Last year, in a light- forward. scattering experiment using a laser, chemists The importance of basic research to the were able to measure the growth of cholester­ Nation is clear. Our understanding of funda­ ol microcrystals, a phenomenon of obvious mental scientific principles—and the skill with relevance to such medical problems as gall­ which we apply them—affect both our produc­ stones. Another laser confirmed an important tivity and our economic status in the family of theory of Albert Einstein. A third annealed nations. Not only technical innovations, but semiconductors in a new process of great also many social benefits, derive directly or potential for electronics manufacturing. indirectly from our grasp of what the uni- verse> our planet, and life are all about. The various branches of science liberally The record has been good. Through freely borrowed instruments and techniques from exercised creativity, fiscal strength, and superb each other. The findings they produced management systems, the United States has advanced theories in seemingly unrelated long led the world in agricultural, industrial, scientific fields. Studies last year at the cellular and military innovation. To remain strong in a level, for example, opened up new vistas in changing world environment, we know we both plant pathology and the neurosciences. must continue to make full use of our The view of all sciences as increasingly one scientific research and development potential. science does not suggest an actual regrouping We have the resources to do so. In many of the different disciplines. But it has greatly scientific pursuits, instruments of great power enlarged our capacity for important discovery. and precision now perform hitherto impossible With new instrumentation, improved compu­ research tasks. During the past year advanced ters, and better communication systems, X-ray detectors speeded up the mapping of the scientific research in 1978 broadened our crystal structure of enzymes, and by the end of understanding of natural phenomena. The viii DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT

scientific quest for the origins of Ufe, matter, watery places where some sort of food chain has and the universe itself went unabated. Search­ not yet been confirmed is under the Ross Ice ing the galaxies for stars in different stages of Shelf, krill, a shrimplike crustacean, continues to their life cycles, astronomers determined the receive attention as a food resource in Antarctica. youngest found so far to be a mere 2,000- We know that new knowledge will affect year-old child. And they pinpointed the most how we live in the future. And although we likely location of a supermassive black hole, in cannot predict the future with real certainty, the constellation Cygnus. we nevertheless are becoming better able to While astronomers probed the skies, geolo­ chart possible directions as an aid in our gists and oceanographers drilled under the planning. Moreover, by examining the process ocean, through the Ross Shelf in Antarctica, of innovation and the impacts of scientific and and into the Earth's volcanic surface to find technological development, we are gaining in out how our planet evolved. Atmospheric understanding the consequences on our physi­ scientists, concerned with the envelope of cal and social environments. NSF-supported gases that surrounds the Earth in the tropos­ studies in this far-reaching area will serve as a phere, took important steps toward under­ basis for U.S. policy positions at the United standing its chemistry. They also came closer Nations Conference on Science and Technology to being able to predict the gigantic electrical in August 1979. At the same time, in smaller but discharges of the aurora borealis in the polar no less important studies related to domestic atmosphere. policy, the Foundation is supporting inquiries into how to improve services of the U.S. This was clearly pure science—yielding us Government at the Federal, State, and local knowledge we would store for unknown levels. future use. In other instances—such as re­ The Nation requires highly qualified scien­ search on the properties of materials like tists to perform this valuable and needed superconductors, polymers, and glass—basic research. The Foundation, which is also research attracted attention because its poten­ responsible for ensuring a continuing cadre of tial for industrial use was evident. scientists and engineers for the future, is There was also food. People involved in the concerned that the possibility of a tightening , production or nutritional content of food academic job market may be dissuading some watched with interest research in biology and good students from preparing for science the various marine sciences. Cell biologists are careers. In 1978, NSF expanded its science attempting to learn how membranes regulate education programs at a level critical to the ions that flow across them, since this youngsters making decisions about their process appears to establish patterns of growth future study courses—junior high school—and and might even be used to control disease. Last continued efforts to encourage more women, year, a research team discovered that the flow of minorities, and the handicapped to enter a current of calcium across cell membranes helps science careers and to perform scientific control biological development. On a different research. It also continued its effort to increase level, studies of coastal upwelling—the rise of public understanding of what modern scien­ nutrient-rich cold waters from the ocean's tists do, why they are doing it, and what they bottom to the surface—could help predict the are learning. distribution of plants and animals along the The pages that follow in this report recount continental shelf. And while one of the few in detail more new and continuing undertak- DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT ix

ings in research and education. The individual Above all, they demonstrate the need for strong programs reflect both the spirit of our times Government support so that science may and the legislation that shapes the National function efficiently in the interest of the Nation Science Foundation as a Government agency. both now and for the times to come.

Richard C. Atkinson Director 2 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

as well as in several aspects of engi­ ect. The proposals are submitted on capabilities of the investigators to neering. However, there are also more behalf of these investigators by their carry out that research. During fiscal subtle, but equally important, inter­ institutions, primarily colleges and year 1978 some 7,900 research pro­ actions between different subfields of universities, to one of 47 research posals were received and evaluated by mathematics; between mathematics, programs in the mathematical and more than 30,000 reviewers. These engineering, and the physical sciences; physical sciences, and engineering. resulted in 4,044 awards for research and between chemical subfields such as Proposals are reviewed by members of support to more than 5,000 scientists organic and inorganic chemistry. It is the "peer" community (drawn from and engineers. In addition, more than anticipated that this trend will con­ academic, industrial, and government 4,700 graduate students had an oppor­ tinue in those areas where improved institutions) who are expert in the tunity to study and carry out research scientific progress can result. corresponding areas. The principal under the supervision of many of the Obviously, the style in which re­ criteria for evaluation are the scientific Nation's best scientific and engineer­ search is conducted varies according to merit of the research proposed and the ing researchers. the specific needs of each discipline. The spectrum of support provided by NSF across the programs in mathe­ matical and physical sciences, and en­ Physics gineering ranges from individual re­ search projects to major facilities involving large numbers of investi­ In its search for the fundamental plex, usually beyond the capability of a gators. Most of the awards are made to laws governing matter and energy, the single university to handle. Conse­ individual or small groups of faculty discipline of physics operates over a quently, the predominant mode of re­ who, together with their graduate stu­ range of scale that encompasses the search is that of university-based dents and postdoctoral associates, most elementary and minuscule con­ groups gathering data at centralized, carry out projects in their own labora­ stituents of matter—subnuclear national facilities, such as Department tories. This mode of operation forms quarks and leptons—and the largest of Energy-supported facilities at Fer- the traditional backbone of fundamen­ aggregation imaginable—the universe. milab, Stanford Linear Accelerator tal scientific and engineering research Physicists seek to incorporate all phe­ Center, Brookhaven National Labora­ in the Nation's universities. At the nomena across this range into a sin­ tory, and Argonne National Labora­ same time, the essential requirements gle, self-consistent interpretation—a tory, and the NSF-supported Cornell of some disciplines for major facilities, unified theory—based on detailed Electron Storage Ring. Frequently, a such as high energy physics accelera­ knowledge of the fundamental forces single experiment will be so complex as tors, and the increasing cost, sophisti­ acting upon components of the micro- to require collaborations among cation, and capabilities of modern re­ and macroworlds. groups from several universities and search instrumentation, require The pursuit of this goal is through from the laboratories themselves. alternative institutional arrange­ experimental and theoretical research Experiments may take years from con­ ments for their most effective use. in various subfields of the discipline: ception through data gathering and NSF therefore supports a number of elementary particle physics (some­ analysis to publication of results. national user facilities, including the times referred to as high energy phys­ Nuclear science explores nuclear Synchrotron Radiation Facilities at ics); nuclear science (which encom­ structure with particle probes that Stanford and Wisconsin, the National passes intermediate energy physics reveal the positions and motions of Magnet Laboratory at MIT, the Micro- and nuclear physics); atomic, molecu­ neutrons and protons in nuclei and fabrication Facility at Cornell, and the lar, and plasma physics; and gravita- uses the nucleus as a laboratory to N*tionaL-Ce^H-t&i^f-0r—Compu-t-at-iori-in-—^ttowl-physics:- - " "study- symmetry and conservation Chemistry at Berkeley. In addition, The type of research necessary to laws and strong and weak forces. NSF supports several regional instru­ gain new knowledge varies from one Experiments are performed on acceler­ mentation facilities at different uni­ subfield of physics to another. In ele­ ators of energies somewhat lower than versity locations and 13 interdiscipli­ mentary particle physics, which in­ those used for elementary particle nary materials research laboratories. volves the search for new subnuclear physics research. There is a trend to­ states of matter, experimentalists ward use of centralized facilities for Unsolicited research proposals are study the interactions of high energy experiments in the energy range of initiated by individual or groups of particles impacting on fixed targets or about 100 MeV (million electron volts) scientists and engineers who wish to in colliding beams in accelerators. Ac­ to 1 GeV (billion electron volts). This undertake a particular research proj­ celerator facilities are large and com- range represents the generally ac- MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 3

cepted lower energy limit for elemen­ were made up of combinations of three vacuum state, a region in the vicinity of tary particle physics research. NSF fundamental point-size particles called the quarks is created in which tunnel­ supports a national facility, the Indiana quarks. During the intervening 15 ing processes are no longer permitted. University Cyclotron Facility, for re­ years the number of proposed quarks The existence of a phase of matter out­ search using light ions of energies has been expanded from three to five side the quark region in which tunnel- about 200 MeV. Lower energy acceler­ or more, but it is still possible to under­ ings continue to occur and another ators generally fit easily into a univer­ stand particle properties in a remarka­ phase, without tunneling, near the sity environment and can be operated bly simple fashion in terms of the quarks gives rise to an effective in­ as in-house facilities primarily used by quark composition of the particles. ward pressure that traps the quarks in­ a local research group. Nevertheless, a free quark has never side this interior region. This picture is Atomic, molecular, and plasma phys­ been observed, even in the ultra-high- remarkably similar to a very success­ ics and ground-based gravitational energy accelerators at Fermilab in Illi­ ful model of quark confinement sug­ physics experiments are usually of a nois and CERN in Geneva. This has led gested a number of years earlier by scale that fit within a university labor­ many physicists to speculate that per­ Kenneth Johnson and collaborators at atory and can be pursued by small haps quarks are more or less perma­ the Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ groups of faculty, research associates, nently trapped inside elementary par­ nology. However, the MIT model in­ and students. Lasers have provided a ticles. Until recently this idea, al­ cluded a "pressure," added in a very ad revolution in the capability for precise, though shared by many physicists, had hoc fashion rather than derived from fundamental measurements on atoms not been shown to follow directly from first principles. and molecules, and they promise to the widely accepted model of elemen­ This progress towards an expla.na- provide a new generation of detectors tary particle interactions—so-called tion of quark confinement in terms of for gravitational radiation as well. quantum chromodynamics. However, quantum chromodynamics is gratify­ Theoretical physics is the explora­ over the past several years, work by ing, but one would also like to have tion of a conceptual, mathematical Curtis Callan and David Gross at some direct, detailed experimental evi­ framework within which the results of Princeton University and Roger Da- dence that quantum chromodynamics experiments are interpreted and new shen at the Institute for Advanced is indeed the correct theory of elemen­ experiments are suggested. This work Study has done much to clarify the tary particle interactions. Striking evi­ is pursued primarily by individuals mechanism of "quark confinement." dence of this kind has come very re­ working alone or in small groups, al­ They have shown that in the theory cently from an experiment at CERN. though certain cross-subfield prob­ of quantum chromodynamics, the This experiment explored reactions in lems may require concerted efforts "vacuum" (the state of matter that which a neutrino, an especially simple from a large number of theorists work­ exists in the absence of quarks) is particle not made of quarks, penetrates ing together. One of the most exciting actually an enormously complex a proton (or neutron), which presuma­ developments of recent years is the object—a superposition of many dif­ bly is made of them. What happens to emergence of hints that phenomena ferent states with identical energies the neutrino in such a reaction is a previously considered separately, such but differing mathematical properties. direct measure of the way in which a as the strong, electromagnetic, weak, One can imagine these different vac­ proton is made up of quarks and of the and gravitational forces, can be de­ uum states as mountain villages, each manner in which these quarks interact scribed in a few, unified theories. of which is separated from its neighbor with one another. Physics has continuously contributed by high mountain peaks. In classical The recent experiment focused on new fundamental understanding of physics it would require a great ex­ the changes in the quark composition matter at all levels of aggregation to penditure of energy to travel from one of the proton as one probes ever other fields of science and has provided village to another, but quantum me­ smaller and smaller regions inside it the underpinnings for many current chanics permits an occasional direct with the neutrino. Some 5 years ago advances in science and technology. route between villages by travel David Gross and a student, Frank Wilc- through the mountain. zek, at Princeton, and independently The existence of such a direct route David Politzer, then a graduate stu­ Quark Confinement is usually described by the term "tun­ dent at Harvard, did work which led to In 1963, Murray Gell-Mann and neling." Tunneling processes connect­ the detailed predictions of quantum George Zweig at the California Insti­ ing different vacuum states are taking chromodynamics for these changes. tute of Technology proposed that the place continuously at localized points The new experimental results agree properties of elementary particles— in space and time. However, the impressively with these detailed pre­ neutrons, protons, pi mesons, etc.— Princeton theorists have suggested, dictions. This agreement lends support could be understood if the particles when quarks are now added to this not only to the general characteristics 4 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

of quantum chromodynamics but to bang model of the universe. The the­ important use in such accelerators as it some of the rather specific assump­ ory suggests that the cluster hierarchy has in some other electrical equipment. tions of this theory as well. pattern would naturally develop as a Because of the lack of electrical resis­ Determining whether the picture of result of the gravitational instability of tance within the accelerator, the cur­ elementary particle structure sug­ the expanding universe. Thus it ap­ rent can be drawn steadily without the gested by quantum chromodynamics is pears that we may understand part of need to pulse the beam to permit the the correct one will require a great deal the enigma of the clustering of matter accelerator to cool between pulses. of additional theoretical effort, but the and can analyze the process by which it This feature of a steady beam cur­ stakes are high, and it is possible that happened. rent has been much desired by nuclear we now have a glimpse at the underly­ The results so far are mainly a stim­ physicists who want to count two or ing structure of matter. ulus for new lines of research. There more particles ejected from beam is still sharp debate on the amount of targets. Use of the intermittent beams, Cluster Hierarchy mass needed to drive the instabihty. with their high, instantaneous count­ This has the wider implication that, if a ing rate during each beam pulse, The large-scale distribution of mat­ high mass is manifest here, it might greatly increases the chance that mea­ ter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies also be enough to make the universe sured coincident events actually are has long been considered an important eventually stop expanding and collapse caused by unrelated reactions in the but tantalizing clue to the nature of the back to another big bang. The debate target. universe. It is the fossil evidence of the will be resolved by more detailed analy­ In the superconducting electron Un- way the universe has been behaving, sis of the theory of the instability and ear accelerator at the University of but what does it mean? Recent work by by more detailed examination of galaxy Illinois, the accelerator itself is kept at P. J. E. Peebles at Princeton University motions. This latter project is now in only 2 degrees above absolute zero to has revealed that the galaxy clustering progress at several observatories and induce the superconductivity. In order has a remarkably simple pattern and should yield an invaluable insight into to capitalize on the qualities of the one that seems naturally to arise by the process of cluster formation. accelerator, the beam of electrons is gravitational instability, the tendency Once we are convinced we under­ recirculated through it (several times, for small disturbances to grow in a stand the process, we will arrive at the via an array of beam pipes), gaining uniformly expanding universe. puzzle of how the universe started about 11 million electron volts on each Data on the distribution of galaxies expanding and how the instability was pass. The final beam, up to 66 MeV in have been accumulated by astrono­ first triggered. Neither effect is pre­ energy with the present system of mers for the past several decades, but dicted in general relativity theory. recirculating magnets, is then available only with the development of high Rather, the expansion traces back to a for experimental nuclear physics. A speed computers was it possible to sift singularity analogous to a black hole. second stage, recirculating through through all the data and see that there The search for a more fundamental another such accelerator, is under con­ is a simple underlying statistical pat­ theory that will tell us what these sideration. This would produce a beam tern: a clustering hierarchy. The gal­ singularities mean is one of the deepest energy of 280 MeV. (Much of the basic axies tend to appear in clusters, the problems in modern physics. It is by development of the superconducting clusters are grouped in clusters of tracing clues like galaxy clustering that linear accelerator has been carried out clusters, and so on out to a scale of we hope to be guided to this most at Stanford University where a some­ some 50 million light-years; on scales fundamental theory. what similar superconducting electron larger than that, the clustering con­ facility is in operation.) tinues but appears to be blending into Illinois Superconducting An important experiment was re­ a homogeneous distribution. Electron Accelerator cently completed at the University of There is no division between levels Illinois facility by researchers from of this hierarchy, so the pattern is not Particle accelerators providing the Illinois and Argonne National Labora­ particularly evident to the eye. It is beams used for nuclear physics re­ tory. It used the photon (electro­ detected by statistical methods adapted search are much like very special elec­ magnetic quanta) beams that may be from those used in the fundamental trical sources, with voltages measured produced with the high quality elec­ theory of a plasma (a gas of atoms and in millions of volts and currents mea­ tron beam to investigate the aspects of free electrons of the sort that would be sured in millionths of amperes. The the nucleus in which behavior like a used in a fusion power reactor). This phenomenon of superconductivity, in quantum mechanical liquid drop is ex­ same theory can be adapted to describe which the electrical resistance of spe­ hibited. Elastic and inelastic photon the process of formation of the cluster­ cial materials becomes zero at suffi­ scattering at the energies chosen are ing in the uniformly expanding big- ciently low temperatures, has found an dominated by the giant dipole reso- MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 5

Illinois Electron Accelerator. The large insulated tank contains the University of Illinois superconducting linear accelerator. Lloyd Young Is one of the developers of this facility. The vacuum piping in the foreground allovi/s the beam to be recirculated through the accelerator to raise its energy to 66 MeV.

nance, a very large-scale oscillation of there is no preferred "direction" or pertise in experimental and theoretical the nucleus in which the neutrons "velocity" in space with respect to physics. move one way and the protons in the which others are in some sense in The JILA experiment locks one laser opposite direction to maintain the motion. An equivalent statement is to an optical cavity, the length of which same nuclear shape. Since the inelas­ that the speed of light is the same in all is a constant number of wavelengths of tic scattering chosen involved a vibra­ directions. The classic experiment of the laser light. The entire assembly— tional mode of the nucleus in which the Michelson and Morley in 1887 that of laser and cavity—can be rotated at a neutrons and protons move together verified this actually predated Ein­ rate of one turn each 10 seconds, while to change the shape of the nucleus, the stein's work. Relativity theory, how­ the light is fed out to be compared with experiment investigated the coupUng ever, gave a powerful new interpreta­ the light of another stabilized laser between two major but rather differ­ tion to the experiment beyond fixed in the laboratory. It is thus pos­ ent degrees of freedom. The results Michelson's original result: proving sible to compare a length standard are not in quantitative agreement with that space was isotropic to a precision oriented in a variable direction with a the predictions of a standard nuclear of 3 parts in 10 billion. This was later similar but fixed length or time stan­ model, and nuclear physicists must re­ improved in 1930 to 3 parts in 100 dard. Were space anisotropic, the ro­ fine their concepts to account for the biUion, using the same methods. tating standard would vary as its di­ new data. There was no further improvement rection in space was changed. in this experiment until the advent of No effect was noted, and a new the laser. The first experiment using upper limit—4,000-fold improvement Isotropy of Space Revisited this new technique improved the accu­ over the previous experiment—was racy by a factor of three. The further set. Expressed in another (but equiva­ Einstein's Theory of Special Relativ­ potential of the method was assessed lent) way, the results gave a null result ity underlies the structure and at the Joint Institute for Laboratory of 12 X10-7 times the effect expected if achievements of modern science. One Astrophysics (JILA) at the University there were an all-pervasive "ether" key assumption embodied in it is that of Colorado, and a program was in­ that carried light rays and the Earth space is isotropic in the absence of itiated there in 1971 by John Hall, were moving with respect to it (as was strong gravitational fields: that is. taking advantage of JILA's broad ex­ pictured in 19th-century physics). 6 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

This result is currently the most tress our basic theoretical view of the iment, and instrumentation into the fundamental confirmation by direct universe, while any positive result industrial arena. The basic research measurement of Einstein's model of would require a rethinking of this training available in our universities the space-time continuum as the "ar­ view. In addition, the technical im­ has been shown over the years to be an ena" in which physics takes place. Hall provements made during this work excellent source of personnel to staff plans to continue his search for any make it possible to test other critical as­ our industrial, governmental, and aca­ small residual "preferred reference sumptions in physics with much im­ demic laboratories at all levels. The system" effects by another order-of- proved sensitivity, such as the fre­ four topics which follow can scarcely magnitude increase in sensitivity. Im­ quency shift of a moving atomic clock do justice to the vitality of the proved null results will further but- or the isotropy of the speed of light. discipline, but illustrate a few of the ways in which basic research in chemistry is solving both theoretical and practical problems.

Chemistry "Snapshots" of Unstable Intermediates Chemistry is enjoying one of the of alternate synthetic methodologies most exciting periods of its existence. is the most convincing argument that Understanding the mechanisms of The intractable problems of prior years the original process proceeds in the chemical reactions is one of the funda­ are yielding to intense efforts built on manner deduced from prior experi­ mental goals in chemistry and has advances in theory, experiment, and mental or theoretical evidence. The many implications in other disciplines. instrumentation. New molecules with creation of new compounds further Complex organic reactions frequently preconceived structures and pre­ provides a powerful scientific method proceed through the intermediacy of dictable physical properties are being for the testing of hypotheses gener­ elusive molecules whose high reactiv­ produced. Further, the synthesis of ated from allied theoretical or experi­ ity makes them exceedingly short new compounds, or of previously mental results. The convergence of lived. known compounds to which recently knowledge and hypotheses from many Among the new spectroscopic tech­ developed strategies have been ap­ subdisciplines of chemistry, and from niques that have been invented for plied, is imposing heavy demands on allied disciplines, is leading to signifi­ developing a "picture" of the structure instrumentation designed to analyze cant advances in our understanding of of such very short-lived species are the products of chemical reactions. In the synthesis, structure, and function chemically induced dynamic nuclear turn, the sophistication of modern of molecules in a wide variety of living polarization (CIDNP) and nuclear instrumentation is posing a tremen­ systems and industrial processes. magnetic resonance (NMR) of photo- dous challenge to the chemist, for Basic human needs are continuously excited triplet states. In the former whom investigation of virtually every translated by chemists into research technique one takes advantage of the detail of composition, structure, and challenges; advances in chemistry pro­ fact that certain reactions involving, chemical dynamics is now possible. It is vide a basis for social and economic among other things, the interaction of almost as if a magic eye is part of the ar­ improvement for all of mankind. Thus nuclear and electron spins, proceed senal of the chemist. Even the micro­ chemistry stands at a pivotal position through paramagnetic intermediates scopic pathways of chemical reactions among the many science and engi­ and are influenced by paramagnetic are now being unraveled by the chem­ neering disciplines, translating the re­ nuclei such as hydrogen-1, fluorine- ist. sults of curiosity-motivated research 19, or carbon-13. The time scale of the All of this progress would not be into 'solutions for problems in such interaction between electron and nu­ possible without advances in other diverse areas as pharmaceuticals, clear spin is very short—on the order disciplines such as quantum electron­ energy resources, synthetic fibers, and of one-billionth of a second; the infor­ ics, optics, computer science, and engi­ pest control. In effect, chemistry has mation imprinted on nuclei by the spin neering. Yet the chemist stands alone become the interdisciphne. interaction persists for seconds, as as the architect of new molecular Additionally, the chemical industry either emission or enhanced absorp­ structures. When a chemical process is in the United States is direct bene­ tion in the NMR spectrum of the pro­ thoroughly understood, it is possible ficiary of basic research at the universi­ ducts, and can be extracted by the for the chemist to devise a number of ties, as a steady stream of young CIDNP technique. The technique has, alternative pathways to synthesize scientists, excited with new ideas, to a large extent, been developed by G. the end product. The successful design carry novel strategies in theory, exper­ L. Closs of the University of Chicago; it MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 7

gated involves electron transfer in ex­ cited states. This electron transfer has to occur within the very short lifetime of the excited state. Once the electron transfer has taken place two radical ions are formed, which can be detected by CIDNP or other paramagnetic re­ sonance techniques. If these ions could be separated, they would be a source of chemical energy in the form of oxidiz­ ing and reducing potentials which could be used to form new chemical bonds. This process takes place during photosynthesis in green plants and bacteria in which Ught energy is con­ verted to chemical energy by a charge transfer mechanism. The resulting ox­ idizing and reducing substances are kept apart, so that the reverse reaction does not occur. Using the techniques described above, Closs and his research group are trying to gain an under­ standing of what might prevent the back reaction in vitro. Their research has involved photosynthetic pigments as well as some specially synthesized model compounds closely related to the photosynthetic reaction center in CIDNP and NMR. Gerhard Closs and his colleagues at the University of Chicago are green plants. New insight has been using new spectrographic techniques to study electron transfer in excited states. This phenomenon is central to photosynthesis and could, if better understood, be a possible gained, and this difficult problem is be­ source of chemical energy. ing pursued vigorously at the present time. has proven to be an extremely versatile tional spectroscopy such as electron Metal Ions and Proteins tool in the study of radical and photo­ spin resonance or infrared or Raman Shape Biological Processes chemical reactions. spectroscopy. Thus, structural infor­ The study of photoexcited triplet mation can be obtained using tech­ "Bioinorganic chemistry," the study states by NMR is also based on the niques usually applied to convention­ of metals in biological systems, is a interaction of nuclear and electron al, stable molecules. rapidly growing research activity. spins. In this case, the information is Among the reactions studied by Nearly a third of all enzymes require a contained in the shape of the NMR these techniques are transformations metal ion for their function, and stud­ lines for the molecules undergoing involving carbenes, radicals, biradicals, ies of "biological" metals will increase photoexcitation. From an analysis of and radical ions produced by charge our understanding of the biological the line shapes, it is possible to deduce transfer processes. All of these highly role of both common inorganic ele­ the electronic structure of the triplet reactive species are paramagnetic and ments such as calcium, sodium, and state molecule. lend themselves to investigation by iron, as well as biologically necessary In addition, extensive use has been magnetic resonance methods. Espe­ trace elements such as chromium, mo­ made of matrix isolation, in which a cially successful have been studies on lybdenum, and selenium. From a study reactive intermediate is created at very biradicals, intermediates thought to be of such systems we will also learn to low temperature (4.2 degrees K) via a involved in many reactions. Although mimic enzymatic reactions, such as the photochemical reaction in an inert their existence had been postulated for highly selective oxidation of hydro­ matrix. Since the molecule has no a long time, their high reactivity made carbons, which could have important partner with which to react, it will them very elusive. industrial apphcations. persist and can be studied by conven­ Another series of reactions investi­ Specific proteins modify the chemi- 8 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

cal and physical properties of a metal in tein site in the absence of the natural "model compounds" with those of the ways that often have no counterparts protein. naturally occurring hemoproteins. among simple chemical systems; the Recently, James CoUman's research With proper treatment, for instance, effort to understand the modification group at Stanford University and a iron porphyrin can become such an of a biological metal by its protein is a number of other investigators, in­ analog. recurring theme of bioinorganic re­ cluding T. G. Taylor of the University Both hemoglobin (the oxygen- search. One strategy for studying this of California, San Diego, J. E. Baldwin carrying, red pigment in blood) and the question is to prepare simple analogs of of the Massachusetts Institute of closely related myoglobin (which gives a metallo-protein active site. Compari­ Technology, C. K. Chang of Michigan beefsteak its red color and serves to son of structural, physical, and chemi­ State University, and D. H. Busch of store oxygen in muscle tissue) bind cal properties of such analogs to those Ohio State University, have prepared oxygen "reversibly." That is, there is properties of "biological metal" may and characterized synthetic analogs of no net change in these hemoproteins reveal the manner by which the pro­ the active site in the oxygen-carrying when oxygen is subsequently re­ tein affects the metal site. This re­ hemoproteins, hemoglobin and myo­ moved. Oxygenated heme complexes search involves the design, synthesis, globin. These investigators have com­ are unstable and should decompose by and isolation of a synthetic analog pared the structure and diverse spec­ reducing the oxygen molecule to water whose properties mimic the active pro­ tral properties of these synthetic and oxidizing (rusting) the iron atom. They do not. Simple iron-porphyrin compounds, however, do decompose rapidly in air. But by chemically constructing a pro­ CH3 tective enclosure (a "picket fence") on one side of an iron porphyrin, this decomposition is prevented, so that crystalline iron-oxygen complexes can be isolated and their structures studied using X-rays. A large number of physical-chemical measurements, drawn from infrared, Raman, mag­ netic circular dichroism, nuclear mag­ netic resonance, and Mossbauer spec­ tra, for example, show that these synthetic analogs are remarkably sim­ ilar to oxygenated hemoglobin and myoglobin. The oxygen affinity of natural myo­ globin is quantitatively mimicked by the "picket fence porphyrins." Hemo­ globin's attraction for oxygen is more complex. In the lungs, hemoglobin binds oxygen strongly. But at the lower oxygen concentration found in tissue, hemoglobin binds oxygen less strongly, permitting complete transfer of oxygen from hemoglobin in the blood to myoglobin for storage and use in the tissue. To accomplish this transfer, the affinity of the hemo­ globin tetramer (four-unit polymer) dramatically decreases as two of its A mimic for liemoglobin. This synthetic chemical is known as a "picket fence" subunits release oxygen. This strange dioxygen complex because an "enclosure" bordering an iron-porphyrin group property, called "hemoglobin coopera- prevents it from decomposing in the presence of air. In this way the simple compound acts like the biologically important heme complexes and can be used for study of how tivity," is essential to hemoglobin's proteins and metals interact in living systems. physiological function. The Stanford MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 9

group has shown that the iron's oxy­ Light Scattering: Shape While light scattering is usually a gen affinity is exquisitely sensitive to and IVlovement of Large weak process, the critical region pro­ the position of an imidazole group— IVlolecules vides an important exception. The crit­ quantitatively supporting a previous ical region of a fluid is the range of observation by Nobelist Max F. Perutz It has long been known that irregu­ temperatures and pressures at which of Cambridge University. X-ray analy­ larities, or inhomogeneities, in an the liquid and gas phases are losing sis at Northwestern University reveals otherwise uniform medium can scatter their identities, becoming indistin­ the structural effects of stress induced light. That is, they can change the guishable. Experimentally, this region in this low affinity iron-oxygen com­ direction of propagation of light travel­ is characterized by very strong light plex. The Stanford chemists have also ing through the medium. For example, scattering. In fact, fluids in their criti­ discovered a solid "picket fence" com­ this is the reason that the sky is blue. cal region are opalescent, or milky plex that binds oxygen cooperatively in The scattering ability of the atmos­ looking. Careful light-scattering meas­ a manner remarkably similar to hemo­ phere depends on the wavelength of urements have yielded much informa­ globin. It is hoped that a structural the light, and blue light is scattered tion on structure and dynamics in this analysis of this cooperative synthetic more strongly than red. The red por­ region of temperature and pressure. analog may further clarify hemoglobin tion of sunlight comes to us more or An interesting example comes from cooperativity. less directly, in a straight line from the the work of George Benedek, a pioneer Finally, it has been observed that the Sun. If it were not for this scattering, in this area, and his group at the Mas­ synthetic "picket fence porphyrins" the sky would be black, except near the sachusetts Institute of Technology. bind carbon monoxide much more Sun. This explanation was made quan­ These workers are using the light- strongly than do hemoglobin and myo­ titative by the British scientist. Lord scattering technique to study mixed globin. This observation has led to the Rayleigh, in the 19th century. micelles of bile salts, lecithin, and cho­ suggestion that amino acid groups Scientists have developed the tech­ lesterol. Micelles are small colloidal near the carbon monoxide lower their nique of light scattering to study the aggregates that form in certain solu­ affinity by "tilting" the CO group away size and shape of macromolecules in tions when the concentration of solute from its "natural" geometry, while not solution, of inhomogeneities in the is increased. These particular micellar affecting the oxygen, which is nor­ atmosphere, and a host of other prob­ solutions are of special interest be­ mally bent. Thus, nature has carefully lems. In the past decade a revolution cause the materials are found in bile. shaped the oxygen-binding protein has occurred in the field as a result of Benedek and his group have measured cavity to maximize oxygen affinity the laser, which is a very intense and the size and shape of these micelles as a while minimizing the attraction for spectrally pure light source. function of the particular bile salt. An poisonous carbon monoxide. Carbon Light scattering is generally a weak exciting aspect has been the study of monoxide is not only a modern pollu­ process, so that an intense source, a the rate of cholesterol microcrystal tant (cigarette smoke, auto exhaust, long measurement time, or very sensi­ formation from supersaturated solu­ charcoal fires) but also occurs naturally tive detection is needed. The high in­ tion. These microcrystals may be when an organism discards worn out tensity of a laser source enabled scien­ viewed as incipient gallstones, so the heme groups. A prediction from this tists to make normal light-scattering physiological interest is clear. hypothesis has recently been verified measurements much more accurately A second example is from the work in Cambridge by a study of hemo­ and conveniently than previously. In of the group of Robert Pecora at Stan­ globin mutants lacking one of the in­ fact, lasers have almost completely ford University. This research group is terfering amino acid groups. Thus far replaced conventional light sources for using light scattering to study the the "tilted CO" group has not been scattering experiments, and the spec­ rotational motion of small molecules, modeled. tral purity of laser sources enables a both in the pure liquid and in solution. Research of this sort requires nu­ completely new kind of scattering An interesting result of these studies is merous collaborative interactions be­ experiment to be performed: inelastic that the mean rotational dynamics of tween many kinds of scientists and scattering, which arises because the small molecules in solvents whose cuts across traditional subdivisions light wave can actually exchange small molecules are nearly spherical appears (i.e., inorganic, organic, and physical amounts of energy with the scattering to be successfully predicted by a ver­ chemistry) as well as wider areas of medium. Measurement of the inten­ sion of classical hydrodynamics. This is science (i.e., chemistry and physiol­ sity of the scattered light as a function a surprising result, since hydro­ ogy). As modern science becomes in­ of the shift in wavelength can be ana­ dynamics is a theory developed to creasingly complex, such collabora­ lyzed to give important information apply to objects much larger than the tion between diverse scientists will about the details of molecular motions solvent molecules. In fact, the experi­ become ever more necessary. in fluids. ments show that the theory also ap- 10 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

plies to molecules of the same size as very similar—near the critical point of cial. The systems studied by the Cor­ those of the solvent. The reason for the phase equilibrium—the thickness nell group are, in principle, similar to this is not understood, and a number of of the interface can approach the the oil-water-surfactant systems, but theoreticians are trying to understand wavelength of visible light (about are more amenable to quantitative why it happens. The experimental 1,000 molecular diameters). study and are thus better testing light-scattering work gives direct veri­ Interfacial thicknesses have most grounds for theory. fication of the existence of the phe­ commonly been measured by the tech­ Just as ordinary two-phase equili­ nomenon. nique of ellipsometry—measuring the brium terminates at a critical point As technique develops and instru­ ellipticity of light reflected from art where the two phases become identi­ mentation improves we expect to see interface. A long-sought goal has been cal, so three-phase equilibrium termi­ more and more new information and to determine the detailed spatial varia­ nates at a tricritical point. At any new insights revealed by light-scat­ tion of composition as one goes from temperature, the range of composition tering studies. Then we can probe one phase, through the interface, to in which three phases coexist is more deeply into the detailed dynamics the other phase. bounded by two critical end points of molecules in condensed phases. The interface is necessarily the seat (each the critical point for the equili­ of inhomogeneity between the two brium of one pair of the phases), which otherwise homogeneous phases it sep­ approach each other as the tempera­ The Border Between Two arates. The excess free energy due to ture approaches the tricritical point. States of Matter that inhomogeneity is called the inter­ The Cornell group studied the three facial tension, and manifests itself as a interfacial tensions from critical end In the past two decades there have force that resists increases in the area point to critical end point. The varia­ been remarkable advances in our of the interface. (When one of the tion of the tensions between the two understanding of phase transitions: phases is a vapor, that tension is often critical end points is in accord with processes such as the condensation of a called the "surface" tension of the liq­ theory. One of the three tensions van­ vapor to a Uquid, the separation of a uid or solid with which the vapor is in ishes at each critical end point, and previously homogeneous solution into equihbrium.) It is the most readily near that point is the range of "ultra- two distinct liquid phases on cooling, measurable property of an interface, low" tensions that is of practical impor­ or the spontaneous magnetization of a and also the one of greatest practical tance in surfactant technology. The magnetic material. Commonly, phases importance. Cornell group established that, what­ coexist in equilibrium, when the The Cornell group is concerned with ever their separate values, the largest transition between them is arrested the relationship between the tension tension is always the sum of the two while some of both are present; for of an interface and its structure. Their smaller, and predicted theoretically example, a liquid may be in equilibrium recent work has been directed to three- that the interface of highest tension with its vapor in a closed container, or a phase equilibrium with three different has a structure nearly identical to that magnetic solid may be made up of interfaces. Examples of practical im­ of the bulk third phase. In a collabora­ domains of opposite magnetization. It portance occur when the three phases tion with W. W. Webb of Cornell, is the interface between two such are oil, water, and surfactant, as in Widom's group is now testing that con­ separately homogeneous phases in tertiary oil recovery, where knowledge clusion by ellipsometric studies of that equilibrium that is the subject of study of the three interfacial tensions is cru- unique interface. by the research group of Ben Widom at Cornell University. The interface between a liquid and its equilibrium vapor is often referred to as "the surface of the liquid," but it is Mathematical Sciences just as well a bounding surface of the vapor; an interface belongs equally to the two phases that it separates. Ordi­ Mathematics originated in humani­ physical sciences and technology, and narily an interface is very thin. We go ty's early attempts to master prob­ these in turn have been the wellspring from the interior of one of the bulk lems of commerce and agriculture. of much mathematics. Thus, there has phases to that of the other over a From that time, it has continued to play developed on the one hand a discipline distance of just two or three molec­ an important role in our culture and of mathematics qua mathematics (or ular diametei:s. But that is only so has in turn been constantly enriched pure mathematics) and on the other when the two phases are very distinct; by it. In particular, it has played an hand the applied mathematical scien­ when, by contrast, the two phases are essential role in the development of the ces, or the study of the applications of MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 11

mathematics to specific classes of prob­ pology. There can be no doubt that this Minnesota; Donald Cohen and Paco lems. For either of these broad areas, great movement will continue as Lagerstrom, Caltech; J. M. Greenberg mathematicians over the years have mathematics continues its search for and Stuart Hastings, State University developed a variety of tools. form and pattern. of New York, Buffalo; Nancy Kopell, Mathematical analysis began with A second major theme now slowly Northeastern University; and L. N. the invention of the calculus in the emerging, and perhaps also destined to Howard, MIT. 17th century and continues to attract become one of mathematics' major Much of the mathematical work in more mathematicians than any other developments, is the use of the compu­ this subject has dealt with hypotheti­ single field. Some continue to work on ter in mathematical research. It serves cal systems that exhibit spontaneous, classical problems with techniques that as a tool for testing conjectures, it self-excited, spatially homogeneous would not have surprised an 18th- suggests mathematical problems, and oscillations. Investigators have suc­ century mathematician; others bring it has highlighted the concept of algo­ ceeded in demonstrating that such to bear tools from modern algebra and rithm in the solution of problems. systems support spatially inhomo- topology. Geometry runs the gamut geneous solutions that exhibit the from differential geometry, which has target patterns and rotating spiral applications in relativity theory and Applied Mathematics waves observed in the laboratory general field theory, to the study of experiments. planes having only finite numbers of The development of complex spatial Also of interest was whether such points (which has, among other appli­ patterns in fluids capable of both react­ patterns could be sustained in excita­ cations, relevance to the design of ing and diffusing has interested scien­ ble media such as nerve tissue or some magnetic core memories for compu­ tists since Alan Turing demonstrated preparations of the BZZ reagent. ters). The field of foundations com­ the role this phenomenon may play in Such media have the property that, in prises mathematical logic, with ob­ morphogenesis. Recently, much atten­ a spatially homogeneous or well vious relevance to computing tion has focused on a particular chemi­ stirred process, they always return to machines, and the axiomatic theory of cal reaction, the bromination of ma- equilibrium. It has recently been sets, the apparent paradoxes of which lonic acid in the presence of cerium- shown that such systems support have stimulated some of the finest four ions. This reaction, identified rotating spiral waves and that such mathematics of the 20th century. with the names B. P. Belousov, P. N. waves will emerge if sufficiently large Algebra and topology are inextricably Zaikin, and A. M. Zhabotinskii, all inhomogeneities (concentration gra­ mixed; tools from each have been ap­ of the U.S.S.R., has many intriguing dients) are present initially. An inter­ phed in the other, and the quest for experimental features. Certain homo­ esting feature of this analysis was the further tools has then inspired geneous, well stirred preparations of interplay of the diffusive and kinetic substantial advances in the field being the BZZ reagent function as a chemical mechanisms of the system. For excita­ applied. Modern algebra is concerned oscillator. These same preparations, ble media, the diffusive terms (typical­ with the study of mathematical struc­ when placed in a thin petri dish, tend to ly a dissipative mechanism) act as a tures such as groups, modules, and organize themselves into stable target- destabilizing influence for points close rings. These structures, and tech­ like and rotating spiral patterns that to equilibrium, and it is this fact that niques involved in their study, are used oscillate indefinitely. Experiments allows the spiral patterns to emerge to provide insight into other areas of with these reactions have been de­ and persist. mathematics such as algebraic geome­ scribed by chemist Arthur Winfree of Interest in spiral structures of a try, theory of vector spaces, and Purdue University, who has served as a completely different kind has been the number theory. Topology is, so to real catalyst to applied mathematicians focal point of other projects in applied speak, a refined kind of geometry that interested in such problems. mathematics. C. C. Lin and Alan is concerned with geometric properties Over the past several years NSF's Toomre of MIT have been working on that do not depend on distance or an- applied mathematics program has basic mechanisms for maintaining spi­ gle. underwritten much of the significant ral structures in galaxies. This project One of the great themes of mathe­ mathematical research done in this has sought to bridge the gap between matics today is the growing synthesis area of reaction-diffusion systems. what is called the WKBJ and global- of its parts. Insights from harmonic Grantees working on such problems mode approaches in the study of spiral analysis turn out to be useful in com­ have included]. F. C. Auchmuty, Indi­ density waves in galaxies. Some spe­ binatorics, methods from topology are ana University; fohn Evans, University cific and easily understood full-scale needed in solving problems in differen­ of California, San Diego; Paul Fife, modes in a large and plausible class of tial equations, and number theory re­ University of Arizona; D. G. Aronson disk galaxies are now predictable as a quires methods from analysis and to­ and Hans Weinberger, University of result of their work. 12 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

Quillen on the Serre M. P. Murthy and Jacob Towber, true value of the parameter being esti­ Conjecture at the University of Chicago and mated. DePaul University, respectively. Since this true value will be un­ In 1955, the noted French mathema­ known in practice, theoreticians often • Finally, in February 1976, the tician J. P. Serre posed an important work in terms of "risk," the loss aver­ problem was solved completely by problem that has had considerable in­ aged over all possible situations. Some Daniel Quillen of MIT, using fluence on the development of the field "estimators"—formulas for computing many ingenious ideas and some of commutative algebra in the past 20 an estimate from data—give a smaller deep results of algebraic geome­ years. The problem, generally referred risk than others. The smaller the risk, try. It was for this, and other work to as Serre's Conjecture, can be stated the better the estimator. in a wide variety of important in the following manner: if f^.fz, . . . If the problem is multivariate, in­ areas of algebra and algebraic to­ and^i,fe, . . . & are polynomials in n volving the estimation of many para­ pology, that Quillen was awarded meters, the risk takes into account variables such that figi + figi + ... the prestigious Fields Medal by the +f^gj. = 1, then there is an r x r matrix of each of the appropriate contributions, International Congress of Math­ polynomials with first row (fi,/,,. . ./,) but for the result to make sense in ematicians in 1978. and determinant 1. This problem, practice all of the components of loss have to be "paid out of the same though mathematically simple and Quillen's research was partially sup­ pocket." For example, if the problem straightforward in appearance, proves ported by an NSF grant; in addition, involves one person investing in stocks to have very important consequences, Bass, Murthy, and Towber are cur­ on several exchanges, one company particularly in algebraic geometry. rently receiving support under NSF insuring automobiles in several towns, Many contributions to the solution grants, and Serre and Seshadri have or one agency trying to assess pollu­ of the problem have been made. A few occasionally received NSF support for tion nationwide, this combining of of the more significant historical devel­ visits of extended duration to U.S. risks makes sense. In an example in­ opments include: institutions. volving financially unrelated compo­ • In 1958, C. S. Seshadri, an Indian James-Stein Estimation nents the combined risk would be diffi­ mathematician in Paris, proved cult to interpret. the result for n = 2. A result in the abstract theory of In many common situations the • In 1960, Serre himself showed estimation, which was originally sample mean (simple average of the that the validity of the problem for viewed by many as a mathematical data) is the best estimator of the mean n = 3 had an extremely important curiosity, has recently been refined of the population from which the data consequence in algebraic geome­ and expanded so that it is beginning to were taken. If two population means try (i.e., that every curve of genus have a great impact on the way apphed are to be estimated, the best procedure 0 or 1 is a complete intersection). statistics is done. is to compute the sample means separ­ Estimation theory is one of the old­ ately as estimates of their respective • In 1964, Hyman Bass of Columbia est branches of mathematical statistics. population means. If three or more University showed the conjecture In recent decades some aspects of esti­ populations are involved, the same to be true whenever r > n. mation have been studied in the frame­ procedure could, of course, be fol­ • In 1973, following a period of in­ work of decision theory, in which it is lowed. But the surprise is that in esti­ tense activity, three young Soviet assumed that the loss that is suffered mating three or more population mathematicians, A. A. Roitman, from making an incorrect estimate can means this straightforward procedure V. N. Suslin, and L. N. Vaserstein be stated in monetary terms. With the is no longer best. The combined risk is contributed significantly to im­ most common loss function, "squared reduced, often greatly, by using a more portant extensions, including the error loss," the loss is proportional to complicated estimator for each popula­ cases n ^ 4. Some of this work the square of the difference between tion mean. This involves not only the extends independent joint work of the estimate (based on data) and the mean of the data directly pertinent, but

Disease distribution. As reported in the May 1977 Scientific American, measurements of the incidence of blood disease in 36 El Salvadorean cities showed individual city rates ranging from 65 percent below the national average to 30 percent above. However, treatment of the data by the method of James-Stein estimation, which considers the uncertainty associated with each city's measurement and the overall pattern of the measurements, alters the estimate of true disease prevalent in each city. James-Stein estimators are now finding use in many fields, including public health and insurance. (From "Stein's Paradox in Statistics" try Bradley Efron and Carl Morris. Copyright© May 1977 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved) MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 13

Local Deviations from the El Salvador National Average in the Incidence of the Disease Toxoplasmosis

Geographic Distribution of Samples 14 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

also data relating to all the other popu­ areas. In both cases the complicated long ago by Isaac Newton, Karl Fried- lations. scaling formulas seemed artificial at rich Gauss, and Adrien Legendre and The existence of such improved es­ the time because of the lack of theore­ use methods that were easily accessible timators was anticipated in papers tical justification. In retrospect, the to these great classical figures. published by Herbert Robbins of Co­ formulas derived empirically in these Further, combinatorics has been af­ lumbia University in 1952 and Charles two cases are seen to be very close to fected just as much, and the computer Stein of Stanford University in 1956. the James-Stein formulas. influence here has been strengthened In 1961, Wallace James and Stein (both In recent years the ideas in the by the fact that many of the central at Stanford) gave an explicit formula. James-Stein-type estimators are used algorithm design and analysis prob­ Acceptance of James-Stein estima­ to a vast variety of situations and to the lems of computer science are combina­ tors might have been more rapid if it estimation of parameters other than torial in nature. Thirdly, the possibility had been more widely known that population means. Spectacular im­ of performing extensive symbolic com­ researchers in at least two applied provements in the accuracy of estima­ putations by computer has revived the fields had already proposed procedures tion are often achieved when the study of constructive methods in alge­ somewhat like them, based strictly on James-Stein type estimators are used bra and deepened understanding of empirical grounds. As early as 50 years in place of traditional ones. A few of techniques for carrying out even such ago psychologists had discovered they the many areas of successful applica­ classical processes as polynomial fac­ could get a more useful profile of pa­ tion of this now burgeoning area of torization. rameter estimates for a whole group of new statistical methodology are analy­ With respect to directions of re­ subjects by a complicated scaling of sis of public health, insurance, energy search, clear trends include a surge of high test scores downward and low resources, and accident data. The de­ activity in theoretical computer sci­ test scores upward, even though this velopment of methods that will allow ence (particularly the concept of com­ may distort estimates for some individ­ application of these ideas to other putational complexity), heightened in­ ual subjects. And in the 1950's a similar areas, including inventory control and terest in the study of data base kind of ad hoc scaling turned up in the experimental physics, is the subject of organization and, with the develop­ interpretation of insurance claims data research now being conducted by ment of submicrometer technology, for setting rates in a complex of market mathematicians in several institutions. the opening of remarkable opportuni­ ties for research in computer systems ranging from theoretical study of com­ plexity and the logic of computing sys­ tems to design issues and applications. Computer Science Applicative Programming Computer science has drawn many and APL; and (4) notions and tech­ of its most fundamental concepts from niques drawn from matrix theory have Semiconductor technology has made mathematics. As pointed out recently been absorbed wholesale by computer the processor and memory compo­ in the writings of Jacob Schwartz of science and have been fundamental to nents of computers cheap. To take New York University, this heritage of the design of many high efficiency al­ advantage of this technology in order ideas has accelerated greatly the devel­ gorithms. to increase speed, it is natural to try to opment of computing as a practical On the other hand, the young field subdivide tasks so that different pro­ activity. Examples are easy to cite: (1) of computer science has begun to exert cessors can act simultaneously on dif­ the computer industry could not have a profound influence on some of the ferent independent subtasks. But it is developed as swiftly as it did without most significant branches of mathe­ soon discovered that many subtasks the principles of Boolean algebra cre­ matics. This influence is bound to need to communicate; decomposition ated in the 19th century; (2) program­ deepen as computer science matures. A into independent subtasks is not easy, ming found its universal possibili­ first and most obvious area of influ­ especially in the traditional step-by- ties and its limits laid out at its very ence is in numerical analysis, which has step mode of programming character­ beginning, in the work of Alan Turing been revolutionized by the advent of istic of such languages as FORTRAN and Kurt GSdel; (3) renaissance alge­ the computer, in connection with or COBOL. bra and 19th-century work on matrix which dozens of new methods of nu­ A new programming style, applica­ algebra contributed essential concepts merical calculation have been devel­ tive programming, is closely related to and notations to the development of oped. Surprisingly, some of these new conventional mathematical practice, the computer languages FORTRAN methods relate to areas worked over which is free from this cross-com- MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 15

munication problem. Ir\ mathematics, a time-stream computer. Applicative ing the time and expense of travel, function is an operator that creates a languages should be models of compu­ through a new technology called "com­ correspondence between a set of ar­ ters having a different organization puter-based-conferencing," (CBC). guments and a set of function values. (presumably multiple-processor) and In a CBC system, the computer is the The function is said to be "applied" to responding to primitive operations center of a communication network. It its arguments to determine its values. quite different from those in tradi­ provides facilities for storing and for­ The value obtained in any evaluation tional computers. Gyula Mago at the warding messages between scientists, depends only upon the definition of the University of North Carolina is search­ for structuring conferences among function and the specific choice of ing for such organizations and for groups of scientists, for providing arguments, not upon the environment effective primitive operations. For ex­ computerized "notebooks" in which in which the evaluation is performed. ample, the fact that the main memory users can develop joint papers and The evaluation may be made anytime of an applicative computer is not ad­ monographs, and for making available the proper choice is known, and the dressed in the traditional way leads to a public "bulletin boards" for general value can be saved until needed or the need for operations to structure and announcements and comments of in­ evaluation may be postponed until the restructure data for efficient access. terest to all members of a network. By value is needed. Also, the natural parallelism of these providing such information-handling In programming, algorithms play a languages often requires the same pro­ services, the computer can mediate a role analogous to functions in mathe­ gram to be applied to many distinct long-term, continuous discussion matics. The applicative style of pro­ data sets or requires that different among researchers.. Participating gramming takes advantage of that programs be applied to the same data scientists enter the system at their analogy to make the intrinsic inde­ set. In either case, multiple copies of convenience, read their "mail," send pendence of various parts of a calcula­ expressions are prodiiced requiring any comments they might have and, tion apparent. As a result, apphcative operations to distribute the expres­ perhaps, peruse the bulletin board for programming languages have consid­ sions appropriately through the sys­ any new items of interest. The system erable potential for expressing paral­ tem. keeps track of what they have or have lel processes using multiple processors. Applicative languages and corre­ not seen and stores complete trans­ For example, Daniel Friedman and sponding computers are far from com­ cript. Past items can be recalled by a David Wise of Indiana University re­ mercial use. Commercial organiza­ variety of searches based on date, cently have obtained insights relating tions can rarely afford to pursue such content, topic, or other facts any user program structure and data structure. ideas. Yet, efficient use of processor might remember about the message. In their work, a set of values (even parallelism may be the final resort for Researchers at the New Jersey Insti­ infinitely many) can be specified by an increased speed when the Hmits im­ tute of Technology and at the Insti­ expression telling how to evaluate any posed by the laws of physics are ap­ tution for the Future (IFF) in Menlo element, but the evaluation can be proached in device and circuit design. Park, Calif., have been studying the suspended until particular elements One can expect the theories of appli­ design and structure of CBC systems, are needed for a subsequent calcula­ cative programming to influence the as well as investigating their impact on tion. The system itself should have the architecture of future generations of scientific users. The IFF group is par­ responsibility of anticipating where computers, since these theories offer a ticularly interested in CBC as a way to values will be needed and of scheduling useful programming style for a engage dispersed interdisciplinary processors to provide values on sched­ processor-rich computing environ­ groups in the construction and valida­ ule. The programmer should not need ment. tion of large-scale computer models. to be concerned with such issues. The New Jersey group is looking at languages for the design and structur­ Different strategies might be used, de­ Computer Conferencing pending on the availability of proces­ ing of specialized CBC systems tailored sors and the advantage of preevalua- Timely communication among to achieve specific goals among scien­ tion as compared to the possible cost of scientific researchers is becoming in­ tific groups. These goals may take such generating values that will not actually creasingly difficult. An article may forms as setting research agendas, be needed. take a year or more, from the time it is testing computer programs, or eval­ Programming languages can be submitted, to appear in a journal. Re­ uating scientific reports. Much needs viewed as models of the computers for searchers in the same field may be to be discovered not only about the which they are used to express pro­ widely scattered, and travel funds are basic design of messaging systems but grams. Traditional languages, such as limited. Some computer scientists are also about changes in the behavior of COBOL or FORTRAN, are models of exploring the use of the computer to their users. the traditional single-processor/single- augment communication, while reduc­ The experimental success of the pro- 16 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

jects SO far in deriving useful commu­ system based at the University of Wis­ and energetics has provided new tech­ nications systems for scientists has led consin. The experience of this group niques for fabricating membranes and to the formation of Theorynet, a group may well lead to the formation of even characterizing catalysts. It has also led of computer science theoreticians more extensive communication ex­ to fundamental understanding that linked with one another over a CBC periments among computer scientists. will aid in the a priori design of mem­ branes and catalysts to accomplish spe­ cific tasks, including catalysts impreg­ nated on membranes to facilitate Engineering product separations. Basic studies on the kinetics and transport processes in biochemical systems have yielded re­ NSF's engineering program sup­ dynamic load conditions. Topical areas sults that will enhance our capability in ports basic research with the purpose to benefit from this new experimental using renewable resources. Recent ad­ of adding new knowledge of engineer­ approach include dam safety, earth­ vances in instrumentation have shed ing principles and physical phenomena quake engineering, mining and drilling new light on the thermal convection important to the solution of technolog­ operations, and in situ energy recovery mechanisms in various geometries ical problems. The research is basic in systems. In fluid mechanics, significant relevant to fire detection, solar energy the sense that the search is for theoret­ progress has been made toward the collection, thermal energy storage, and ical and experimental knowledge ap­ understanding of the structure of tur­ coohng of nuclear reactors. Inter­ plicable to large or general classes of bulence. In particular, the vortex collegiate cooperative research on neu­ problems and useful over a relatively structure within a turbulent spot has tron properties has resulted in proce­ long timespan. Although engineering been resolved using laser-Doppler dures for benchmarking transport investigators are ordinarily driven by a techniques. Also, new models of the measurements and for analyzing geo­ perceived application of their research, slow, viscous-dominated motion of metrically complex neutron-radiation often entirely unexpected applications micro-organisms have been developed. shielding problems. Development of result from this type of basic research. In sohd mechanics, further studies on rapid-response thermal, optical, and The performers of this research are the fracture of materials are being photoacoustic probes has been making concentrated among the 14,000 undertaken, with emphasis placed on significant contributions delineating members of engineering faculties in fast fracture, plastic-crack propaga­ the particle behavior in fluidized beds the 773 doctorate-granting university tion, and propagation of parallel cracks useful for coal combustion and gasifi­ engineering departments. Addition­ in hot, dry rock. These phenomena are cation as well as food and ore process­ ally, research is being encouraged by particularly important in the design of ing. special programs in industry under pressurized pipelines and geothermal In electrical sciences and analysis, which both direct support and support energy-extraction systems. Also, two research is progressing in a variety of for collaborative university-industry recent workshops have identified the areas. In submicron engineering, the efforts are provided. importance of research in robotic ma­ pace of work is picking up at the Na­ In order to respond to the huge nipulators, and investigators in me­ tional Research and Resource Facility diversity of topics and areas repre­ chanical sciences are now directing for Submicron Structures, started in sented by basic engineering research, some of their efforts to this important 1977 in cooperation with Cornell Uni­ NSF's engineering programs are or­ problem. Also continuing are funda­ versity. Workshops and open house ganized into 13 areas grouped into mental studies in erosion and transport sessions have acquainted the research three sections. Research is supported of sediment; diffusion, dispersion, and communities with the facilities and in four major disciplinary areas (civil, biological interaction of pollutants; hy­ services. This activity is important mechanical, electrical, and chemical drology and water resources; flow in because of the economic importance of engineering), as well as in a score of underground aquifers; and experimen­ the semiconductor integrated circuits other related disciplines. Inter­ tal acoustics. Two recent workshops industry and also because of the addi­ disciplinary efforts are encouraged, have identified research needs in water tional opportunities foreseen in In engineering mechanics, the and waste water treatment systems science and over a broad range of engi­ groundwork has been laid for the and also in conducting large-scale field neering. Related submicron research development of a very large geotechni- experiments in environmental engi­ ranges over a wide variety of topics, cal centrifuge to be used in the verifica­ neering. Studies in these areas have such as inorganic resists for electronic tion of analytical predictions of the been initiated at a modest level and are device fabrication, molecular beam epi­ behavior of earth and earth-structure expected to increase in the future. taxy for ternary semiconductor devi­ systems under a variety of static and Research in engineering chemistry ces, studies of niobium Josephson junc- MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 17

tions, of submicron Josephson weal; carrying out automated counting of rock bursts and, ultimately, earth­ links, of phenomena in chemical sen­ asbestos fibers in air or an improved quakes. sors, of soft X-ray lasers, of transient method for obtaining estimates of geo­ It has already been established that it spectroscopy of laser-annealed inter­ logical reserves. Other research—such is possible to make electrical contact to faces, of modeling and optimization in as in multiuser computer network rocks and ceramics by a variety of submicron device fabrication, and of communications, computer-aided de­ techniques, from conductive epoxy to surface acoustic waves and integrated sign, production and test methodolo­ hammered-in phonograph needles. optics devices. In the matter of inor­ gies, complex systems, and control Electrical currents at the level of 10 " ganic resists, research results obtained theory—is of fundamental nature and ampere have been observed as the to date are likely to have a large impact also of basic importance to the develop­ rocks are stressed; the resulting cur­ on circuit fabrication techniques. Sim­ ment of technology. rent patterns can be used to predict the ilarly, if chemical sensors can be incor­ location of ultimate failure. In some porated in actual microelectronic devi­ cases, it is possible to work with rock ces, remote sensing and environmental Prefracture Phenomena of cores that have significant residual monitoring efforts will all benefit ap­ Rock stress and to predict where failure preciably. would occur when the load is Other major efforts in electrical Understanding how rock responds increased. sciences and analysis span basic re­ to stress in terms of the movement of It has also been established that the search in communications, automa­ absorbed water and ions from regions signals are due to two phenomena. tion, bioengineering, complex systems, of compression to those of tension is When the load is suddenly increased, and operations research. In all of these, the primary objective of a research there is the usual piezoelectric signal. a pervasive feature is the increasing project being carried out at the This dies away due to leakage through use of computers and of other special­ University of Ari;zona. Stuart A. the rock, but there is a residual, stress- ized digital system information pro­ Hoenig of the Department of Electri­ related current which we associate cessing structures for implementing cal Engineering is studying the elec­ with migration of absorbed water and the desired algorithms and functions. trical phenomena associated with sodium ions. This current is greatly Typically, some of the research re­ stress in rock and ceramic materials; increased when the rocks are saturat­ sults find direct application, such as he theorizes that this electrical effect ed with water; at the same time, the providing an improved method for can be used to predict underground piezoelectric current disappears.

Seismic signals I Failure 1 of rock.

0.5 1.0 Time from start of test (in hours)

Simulating a rockburst. Wtien stress is steadily applied to an instrumented rock sample, measurements of seismic data, surface electrical microcurrent, and electron emission current are closely correlated. The seismic signals are caused by micro-fracture and are predicted by an earlier jump in surface current. Warning devices that measure surface current rather than seismic signals may lead to greater safety for workers in mines. 18 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

In more recent studies, the effects of The most recent laboratory effort at Microscopes for very slow increases in stress to simu­ the University of Arizona has been Microstructure late the situation that occurs before an devoted to proving that the surface earthquake or rock burst have been currents are indeed due to the stress- New techniques with microscopes examined. Typical results have shown induced migration of water and asso­ exploiting many wavelengths of radia­ excellent correlation between the sur­ ciated ions. For this experiment, a rock tion beyond normally visible light have face current, electron emission, and slab is stressed and the current meas­ been opening window after window on the seismic data. The periodic bursts in ured at grain boundaries and in the the microworld. The objective of re­ the seismic signal, generated by micro­ center of the grains, over an area of search being conducted by Robert W. fracture in the specimen, are matched constant stress. It is clear from the Hellwarth at the University of South­ by bursts of electron emission and experiments that the current at the ern California is to open a window to jumps in surface current. Surges noted grain boundaries is much higher than exploit the nonUnear optical properties in surface current that occur just be­ that from the crystals, as would be the of materials for novel infrared and fore fracture are of the type that have case if diffusion were taking place. It is optical microscopy. Two important been observed in the seismic signals felt that this is at least a partial verifica­ methods have been devised. The first from a mine instrumented to predict tion of the stress-induced migration uses overtones (second harmonic) of rock bursts. theory. illuminating light, as the overtones are

+ 5

Point B (grain boundary)

(within black biotite grain) Point E (within quartz grain)

Cause of surface currents. A laboratory experiment in wtiicti a carefully instrumented slab of granite was stressed stiows much higher surface currents at the mineral grain boundaries than within the grains. This result supports the theory that surface currents result from stress-induced migration of water and other mobile constituents of the rock and helps explain the chain of events that occurs before a rock fractures. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 19

generated by certain materials, to ob­ serve the microstructure of transpar­ Optical Focal ent crystals. Such microstructure is viewing plane invisible to conventional microscopy. assembly In the second method, visible images of microstructure are formed by using the nonlinear refractive index present in all materials. The basic principle of a nonlinear optical microscope may be understood by analogy to the familiar ordinary microscope. When a crystal is illumi­ nated in an ordinary microscope, the illuminating beams are refracted or absorbed by the microstructure: inclu­ sions, imperfections, inhomogeneities, Laser and strains in the sample. Lenses cap­ illuminator ture and refocus the surviving light to form an image of the microstructure in the eye or on film. However, some microstructure neither refracts nor absorbs light under ordinary circum­ stances. An example of such structure are the Seeing the invisible. (Above) A new kind of microscope uses an infrared laser for clusters (domains) of barium titanate illumination and observes overtones, or harmonics, of the light generated within the molecules that are aligned antiparallel sample. (Below) A thin crystal of "perfect" barium titanate, when seen with this (180°) to the rest of the molecules in microscope, reveals rod-shaped domains invisible to ordinary light. These domains the crystal. These domains refract and respond to electric fields and have possible applications to computer memories. The absorb light identically as do the other nonlinear optical concepts involved in the new microscope are also important to image and signal processing. 20 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

molecules and do not alter the course lithographic process that is used in small feature size needed for future of any light beams. However, these making integrated circuits and other microcircuits. In addition, by broaden­ domains exhibit quite different nonli­ applications when precise patterns ing the range of materials that can be near optical effects from the surround­ must be replicated on a surface. In the used for resist, it should be possible to ing crystal. For example, the second case of the integrated circuits, the avoid certain chemical interactions harmonic (one-half the illuminating patterns correspond to the regions that can have a deleterious effect on wavelength) generated in the 180° over which certain materials are to be the electrical properties of devices be­ domain is 180° "out of step" with the diffused into the surface of a semicon­ ing fabricated. The lithographic proc­ light generated in the surrounding ductor to make transistors or the re­ ess being investigated by Chang does crystal; such light rays are easily gions over which a metallic layer is to not involve any oxygen-containing refocused to create magnificent im­ be plated to make transistor inter­ compounds, for example, so that oxi­ ages of the domains. connections. A number of different dation of metals can be avoided. This When Hellwarth directed an in­ patterns are needed to make a single factor may prove to be of particular frared laser beam into a perfect crystal integrated circuit. The patterns are importance in the fabrication of super­ of barium titanate in its ferroelectric formed in a special coating (called a conductive devices that use niobium phase at room temperature, micro­ "resist") by exposing the material to films that are very sensitive to oxida­ scopic green stria (small rodlike do­ light. This is done through a mask that tion. mains) became visible due to the re­ contains an original version of the In a series of experiments intended fraction of the second harmonic of the pattern to be replicated. The altered to quantify properties of the material, laser frequency. This crystal, when resist material is then selectively re­ the University of Pennsylvania group viewed through an ordinary micro­ moved from the exposed regions to has been replicating gratings in the scope, had revealed no structure with facilitate such processes as diffusion inorganic resist. The sensitivity of the conventional optical illumination. Now and metal deposition. resist is examined by exposing it to that the domains have been made vis­ What Mark Chang and his group at different intensities of ultraviolet light ible without surface treatments, their Pennsylvania have shown is that cer­ and by illuminating the resist with a behavior under applied fields, strains, tain inorganic compounds can be used laser beam during plasma etching. As and temperature gradients can be eas­ as resist materials. Working with the grating is etched into the resist, the ily studied. amorphous compounds of arsenic and laser beam is diffracted. The diffrac­ Unfortunately, only certain types of sulphur (AS2S3), they have succeeded tion efficiency of the grating provides microstructure generate harmonic in demonstrating both the exposure quantitative data concerning etch rates light readily. Hellwarth has proposed and the selective etching steps in the and exposure sensitivity. So far, the and verified another form of nonlinear lithographic process. Their most im­ inorganic resist parameters are not as effect (nonlinear refraction), which all portant contribution has been to show good as those of the long established types of matter possess, to generate that the material could be etched with polymers used in wet processing tech­ images of otherwise invisible struc­ the aid of a plasma discharge in what is niques. However, in recent experi­ ture. This effect makes use of the fact termed dry processing. This means ments, Chang's group has added a that the light-bending power of a me­ that chemical etchants whose use in­ silver overlay to the inorganic resist dium changes under high-power laser creases fabrication process difficulties and produced a greatly enhanced dif­ illumination. Images formed by nonli­ are not needed for the inorganic re­ ferential etching rate between opti­ near refraction can be restorations of sists. cally exposed and unexposed regions. images that have been badly altered The significance of this research hes But this was done using a wet process, while propagating through distorting in the potential new options it provides and new methods for improving the media. This capability is completely for fabrication of future generations of resist properties must be found. outside the range of conventional mi­ electronic devices with identifiable fea­ croscopes. tures well below the 1-micron dimen­ Indirect Fractional sional range. The As^Sj resist is depos­ Solidification: Microfabrication ited by evaporation rather than by spreading a liquid, as is done presently. An Energy-Efficient Researchers at the University of This means that covering a step or Separation Process Pennsylvania have demonstrated a other feature on the surface may be new microfabrication technique that easier to accomplish. It should also be Removing salt from seawater and may affect future methods for making possible to use thinner resist films. The catalyst poisons from chemical feed­ electronic devices and other struc­ thinner the resist film, the easier it is to stock, distiUing petroleum into its var­ tures. The technique is part of the define patterns that have the very ious fractions, purifying waste water MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 21

for reuse, and extracting minerals these problems. Their initial studies tubes, and the temperature differential from ores and proteins from cheese had shown that the low actual effi­ required in heat reuse is obtained by whey are all examples of separation ciency was caused by the solution en­ maintaining the two sets of tubes processes. All of these industrial chem­ trapped in the interstitial voids in the under two different pressures. The ical processes would be rendered use­ crystalline solid formed on the vessel refrigeration energy input thus re­ less if the reaction products could not walls; the cost factors were associated quired is only 5 to 10 percent of that be separated from the reacting mixture with mechanical removal of the crys­ necessary without the heat reuse. and from one another. talline solids, low heat transfer rates, The fractional solidification concept Conventional separation processes and inadequate heat reuse. To solve is useful both in accomplishing a high are highly energy-intensive because of these problems Cheng designed a nov­ degree of separation of concentrated the large amount of latent heats re­ el multiconduit freezer-melter with solution (the dendritic deposit ap­ quired to break molecules away from two sets of quarter-inch tubes that are proach) as well as in superpurification homogeneous mixtures; it has been alternately used as freezer and melter of a dilute solution (the smooth deposit estimated that separations operations so that, while freezing operation is approach). The New Mexico group's account for 75 to 80 percent of the conducted in one set of tubes, melting current research is emphasizing the energy consumed in a typical process is in progress in the other. A great analysis of these two fractional crystal­ plant. In 1976 a conservative estimate energy saving is realized by effectively lization processes in order to provide a put energy consumption by distillation reusing the heat released in the freez­ guide for determining the range of operations alone at lO^^ BTU—3 per­ ing operation for supplying the heat operating conditions for any desired cent of the total national energy con­ needed for melting in the neighboring separation. sumption. A 10-percent reduction of this energy requirement, either by an alternate procedure or by improving the efficiency of the distillation pro­ cess, would mean a savings of some Materials Research! 100,000 barrels of oil a day, or $500 million annually. Fractional solidification is such an Materials research seeks to advance for Small-Angle Neutron Scattering alternative. It separates a liquid mix­ fundamental and conceptual knowl­ at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ture into relatively pure components edge and understanding of materials These facilities, which are all expected by crystallizing selected components through the study of the properties to be in operation by 1980, will serve a based on differences in freezing points. that govern their physical, chemical, broad spectrum of investigators in Basically, the fractional solidification and mechanical behavior. In recent science and engineering drawn from process consists of three functional years considerable effort has been the disciplines of biology, chemistry, steps: (1) a freezing step in which the made to provide the materials com­ physics, electronics, and materials. feed solution is partially frozen by munity with new, sophisticated re­ Although the materials research removing the heat of crystallization; search equipment. In the past year, not supported by NSF is devoted entire­ (2) a washing step in which the solid only has equipment serving the needs ly to improving the understanding formed in the freezing step is purified of individuals or small groups been of fundamental principles, a number by washing it free of adhering solu­ provided, but construction has begun of investigations have provided in­ tions; and (3) a melting step in which on four major projects: the expansion formation potentially important to the purified sohd is converted to a liq­ of the synchrotron radiation facility at technological progress. For example: uid product by supplying the heat of Stanford University to increase the Superconducting, A-15-structure fusion. However, the process also U.S. capability in providing a tunable compounds with high transition has some serious disadvantages which source of hard X-rays; the construc­ temperatures are very brittle; their have prevented its widespread apphca­ tion of the 1-GeV (billion electron brittleness has made difficult their tion. They are: (1) low actual separa­ volts) Aladdin storage ring at the development into technological tion efficiencies; (2) high equipment University of Wisconsin, where soft materials—windings for super­ and operating costs; and (3) opera­ X-rays and vacuum ultraviolet radia­ conducting magnets, for instance. tional difficulties. tion will be available to users; the Hence, there is interest in obtaining Chen-Yen Cheng and his chemical installation of a very high energy X- high critical- or transition-tempera­ engineering research team at the Uni­ ray source at the Cornell High Energy ture superconducting materials that versity of New Mexico have made Synchrotron Source; and the develop­ are ductile. G. W. Webb at the Univer­ major advances toward overcoming ment of the National Research FaciUty sity of Cahfornia, San Diego, has 22 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

found, from his basic phase diagram thyl chromophores in the latter, Mora­ abrasion-resistant structural glasses. studies, that it is possible to quench wetz was able to demonstrate not only One of the most important and yet gram quantities of the niobium- that there was interpenetration, but most difficult problems in surface aluminum alloy, NbjAl, into a ductile also the extent to which it took place. science is the determination of the body-centered cubic (bcc) structure. These findings have some favorable bond-length of an atom adsorbed on a While in the bcc structure, it can be imphcations for the development of solid surface. The question has impor­ cold-worked and then converted by polymer mixtures, a subject of consid­ tant implications for catalysis and cor­ annealing to the brittle but supercon­ erable interest in connection with the rosion studies involving oxygen and ducting A-15 structure. Other investi­ recycling of plastics. other light elements. Metallic corro­ gations had shown that Nb, Al could be Glass is closer in composition to the sion results in an estimated annual loss prepared in the body-centered cubic Earth's crust than is any other syn­ to the U.S. economy of $70 billion. structure by splat quenching from the thetic material, and hence comes from Joachim Stohr at the Stanford Syn­ liquid state, but only as a very fine a virtually unHmited source. Further, chrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL) grained material. The important aspect the energy required per unit volume to has observed Extended X-ray Absorp­ of these early results is that this spin­ melt glass is only a ninth as great as tion Fine Structure (EXAFS) from sur­ off from basic studies of materials may that required to produce aluminum. face atoms, a process that provides a open the path for large-scale techno­ Since the work in 1920 of A. A. Grif­ direct measure of the atom-to-surface logical application of these supercon­ fith, who recognized that the mechani­ bond length. (EXAFS is a powerful ducting compounds. cal weakness of glass was not an intrin­ technique by which the interatomic Fluorescence is rapidly becoming a sic property, but rather due to the distances between an atom and its near powerful tool in the study of polymers. existence of superficial stress-con­ neighbors can be measured with high Because the energy transfer processes centrating flaws, considerable pro­ accuracy. By detecting the rate at in fluorescence require that light- gress has been made in realizing some which electrons are given off from the absorbing groups of the molecules of the potential strength of glass as a sample when monoenergetic X-rays (chromophores) be in a specific spatial structural material. are swept through the characteristic arrangement with respect to each The most promising approach for X-ray absorption edge of the surface other, the photochemical behavior of bulk glass seems to be the development atom, EXAFS can be observed.) Stbhr, polymers can be an enormously useful of residual compressive stresses on the of the SSRL staff, measured the rate at method in the investigation of the surface that will diminish the possibil­ which photoelectrons are given off by behavior of polymer chains. Herbert ity of a net tensile stress operating to oxygen adsorbed on an aluminum sur­ Morawetz of the Polytechnic Institute extend flaws. Many methods exist for face as the incident X-ray energy is of New York has recently used a varia­ achieving this residual stress, but ion- swept through the characteristic ab­ tion of this method—nonradiative energy exchange strengthening yields the sorption edge of oxygen. He observed transfer—to study the complex prob­ highest stresses and, hence, is the most the EXAFS oscillations and was able to lem of determining the extent to which interesting if one wishes to optimize determine the oxygen-aluminum dis­ polymer chains interpenetrate each the mechanical properties of glass. tance. The EXAFS in the study was other. It is known that the excitation The disadvantage of usual ion- clearly related to the surface atoms; energy of a chromophore can be trans­ exchange strengthening is that it is a electrons from atoms in the bulk un­ ferred over distances up to 50 ang­ slow process. However, A. R. Cooper dergo many interactions on the way to stroms if the emission spectrum of a at Case Western Reserve University the surface and cannot escape the crys­ "donor" chromophore overlaps that of has found that, utilizing a moderate tal. an "acceptor." Thus, light absorbed by electric field to drive the exchanging It has long been known that lithium the donor can be emitted by the accep­ ions into the glass, he can greatly re­ additions to aluminum and its alloys tor, and the efficiency of this transfer duce the treatment time and energy result in much increased strength but is a measure of the distance between cost while producing a layer of nearly simultaneously reduce the toughness the two. uniform compressive stress. Further­ and seriously decrease fatigue life. Morawetz used this technique to more, even after mild abrasion, which This is due to the segregation of measure the ways in which chains of usually degrades the strength of a hthium-rich intermetalUc compounds polymethyl methacrylate intertwine brittle material, such treated glass during conventional ingot solidifica­ with a chemically close relative known maintains a fracture strength three or tion. Such segregation was known to as methacrylate-butyl acrylate copoly­ four times as great as the yield be minimized—and in some cases mer. By introducing about 1 percent of strength of low-carbon steel. Discov­ suppressed—by increasing the solidifi­ anthryl chromophores in the former ery of the new treatment thus paves cation rates by, for instance, splat and the same concentration of naph- the way for preparing stronger. quenching from the melt. N. J. Grant MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 23

and coworkers at MIT have roller- transport of gases over metals is im­ surfaces. It now remains to explore quenched such lithium-containing al­ portant for a better understanding of surface diffusion systematically in loys directly from the melt to thin foils such surface reactions as heterogene­ order to establish the material parame­ with quenching rates up to 100,000 ous catalysis and corrosion. ters affecting transport in chemi­ degrees Centigrade/second, some Gert Ehrlich and students at the sorbed layers and to examine systems seven orders of magnitude higher than University of Illinois at Urbana have of more direct interest for catalysis and those common in conventional prac­ perfected a technique that makes such corrosion. tice. These foils were then extruded to measurements possible. In their me­ fully dense rods, the extrusion process thod, the single crystal plane to be providing complete densification. studied is cooled to cryogenic tempera­ Electron Spin-Polarization Microstructural characterization of tures and exposed to a molecular gas on a Nickel Surface the product confirmed the major im­ which adsorbs, without dissociation, provement in the quantity of the inter­ over the entire surface. To form a For many years, since the first meas­ metallic compounds precipitated, espe­ localized deposit of atoms for diffusion urements of spin-polarization at the cially in the size and distribution of the studies, a selected portion of the sur­ surface of a magnetic metal, there has precipitate, at 1 percent and 3 percent face is heavily irradiated with a low been a serious discrepancy between lithium concentration. In one of the energy beam of electrons. The electron theory and experiment and a conse­ alloys (2024, 4.5-percent copper, 1.6- beam dissociates adsorbed molecules, quent barrier to research programs percent magnesium) the resulting forming a deposit of atoms in the de­ important to catalysis and chemisorp- properties were found: (1 yield (at 1- sired shape. The molecular gas which tion studies. The field emission results percent strain) and ultimate (maxi­ has not been irradiated can be removed found a polarization qualitatively dif­ mum) strength levels were both by gentle warming, leaving behind a ferent from that predicted by elec­ increased by some 50 percent; (2) well defined, localized deposit of che­ tronic energy band theory. In fact, the elastic and shear moduU were in­ misorbed gas. The electron beam, at experiments showed that the emitted creased by some 20 percent and the reduced current levels, is then used to electrons had a total spin-polarization density decreased slightly, significant­ monitor diffusion from this initial de­ opposite to that theoretically predicted. ly improving the strength and elastic posit. As the electron beam scans This discrepancy was confirmed by parameters per unit weight—an im­ across the surface, the Auger spec­ further experiments using techniques portant structural characteristic; (3) trum of the surface layer is recorded to of photoemission (done at the Tech- the fatigue stress for a life of 10 yield the concentration profile of the nische Hochschule in Zurich, Switzer­ million cycles increased by 65 percent; diffusing gas. Such measurements, land) and tunneling (done at the Na­ and (4) ductility remained at accepta­ taken at different times and tempera­ tional Magnet Laboratory under the ble levels, although some decrease was tures, serve to define the entire diffu­ direction of R. H. Meservey and co­ observed corresponding to the sion process. workers). increased strength. The first direct measurements were Recently, Leonard Kleinman and co­ of nitrogen on the surface of a tung­ workers at the University of Texas sten crystal. The spreading of such a have shown by means of parameter­ Diffusion of Gases on deposit has been measured at a series ized thin-film calculations involving up Single Crystal Planes of temperatures. These experiments to 47 layers of atoms that extra elec­ revealed that a barrier of 21 kilocalo- tronic states are predicted to occur at Considerable progress has been ries per mole opposes the hopping of the surface of a nickel crystal, which made during the past decade in charac­ nitrogen atoms over the surface plane. can explain the anomalous spin rever­ terizing the structure and properties of The desorption energy of nitrogen sal in the photoemission results. When chemisorbed layers on single crystal from the same tungsten plane was the actual electron spin-polarization is surfaces. One important aspect of che- determined to be 79 kilocalories per calculated as a function of incident misorption on metals—diffusive trans­ mole, indicating that motion of atoms photon energy, the results are in quan­ port in such layers—has not been ad­ parallel to the surface is easily com­ titative agreement with experiments dressed successfully in the past pared to excursions away from the on a face (called 100) of a nickel because of significant experimental surface. crystal. Kleinman's initial calculations, difficulties. Surface diffusion is, how­ These measurements have estab­ however, showed a discrepancy for a ever, of considerable fundamental and lished the power of this electron beam different face (called 111) of the nickel applied importance: Diffusion can pro­ technique. They suggest that motion crystal. vide insights into the properties of the over low index planes occurs more A possible source of this discrepancy gas-metal bond. Information about the rapidly than over atomically rough was indicated in the results of a related 24 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

experiment by D. E. Eastman of IBM calculation, the discrepancy on the Characterization of and coworkers, using the facilities of (111) face was resolved. The IBM/Wis­ Lattice Defects the Wisconsin Synchrotron Radiation consin experiments also gave the first by High Resolution Center. Their observation of the measurement of the temperature de­ angle-resolved photoemission spec­ pendence of the exchange splitting in a Electron Microscopy trum of a nickel surface gives the first ferromagnetic metal. This showed a All structural metals, alloys, and direct measurement of the momentum variation intermediate between that ceramics are polycrystalline aggre­ dependence of the energy band struc­ predicted by the localized and itinerant gates—i.e., they contain grain ture of a crystal. One of the results to (i.e., energy band) models. boundaries. The important engineer­ come out of this investigation was an All of these results are significantly ing properties—such as strength, fa­ estimate of the difference of energies changing the way in which the surface tigue life, and corrosion—are strongly between electrons of opposite spin electronic structure is pictured. Since dependent on the properties of grain (exchange splitting). The estimate was the magnetic transition elements like boundaries. Work by scientists at significantly smaller than the theoreti­ nickel are often used as catalysts, these Carnegie-Mellon and Cornell Univer­ cal prediction. new developments will have a strong sities prom.ises answers to many unre­ When Kleinman used Eastman's impact on future theoretical and solved questions concerning atomic measured exchange rather than the experimental work on chemisorption structure and concomitant properties theoretical value as a parameter in his and catalysis. of grain boundaries in metals.

Lattice defects. A 10-degree misorientation in alignment of lattice planes across a grain boundary in gold is magnified 8 million times (left) as a result of a new observational technique. A drawing (right) identifies the grain boundary (broken line) and the terminations of nine individual lattice planes (dots). These terminations accommodate misorientation between grains and are important to materials' properties such as strength and vulnerability to fatigue. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING 25

Through collaboration of C. L. ied boundary layer angle on the thin light and dark contrast patterns super­ Bauer at Carnegie-Mellon and S. L. gold film remained. It was examined (at posed on the grain boundary. Advan­ Sass at Cornell, terminations of indi­ Cornell) by high resolution electron tages of the technique are that many vidual lattice planes within especially microscopy. The Cornell electron mic­ types of grain boundaries may be pre­ prepared thin films of gold have been roscope, at the Materials Research selected for study and subsequently observed by an electron interference Laboratory central facility there, pro­ produced in an edge-on configuration technique termed lattice imaging. Ter­ vided the necessary high level of reso­ in bicrystaUine films of thicknesses mination of lattice planes occur fre­ lution. that satisfy necessary diffraction and quently in crystalline solids in order to Among the results: A 10-degree mis­ contrast conditions. accommodate misorientation between orientation of lattice planes across a grains. They also define the precise grain boundary (oriented diagonally) Laser Annealing of position of a grain boundary. Grain in a thin film of gold was revealed at a boundaries of specific orientation were magnification of 8,000,000, and termi­ Ion-Implanted obtained (at Carnegie-Mellon) by va­ nation of lattice planes and position of Semiconductors por deposition of gold onto sodium the grain boundary were readily dis­ chloride bicry.stals having preselected cernible. Such terminations represent Ion implantation is a powerful tech­ grain boundary orientations. The gold lattice defects, called dislocations. nique for producing the necessary p-n microlayer copied the grain boundary Through careful quantitative analysis, junctions in semiconductors. The im­ angle of the substrate; when the sub­ these defects may be characterized plantation in silicon of impurities such strate was dissolved in water, the cop­ precisely and subsequently related to as boron or arsenic is done by injecting high energy ions of these elements into surface layers of the semiconductor. However, this implantation causes damage to the semiconductor's crystal lattice, leaving dislocation, stacking faults, and point defect clusters which act as undesirable traps for holes and electrons. A high temperature thermal annealing step is conventionally used to remove this damage, but some de­ fects remain and, often, the electrical properties are degraded by the thermal anneal. J. F. Gibbons and his colleagues at Stanford University, together with scientists in other laboratories, have devised laser annealing techniques whereby the damage of the implanted layer is removed without changing the impurity profile. The Stanford group, beginning in January 1976, pioneered annealing with scanned continuous wave (CW) lasers. This removes dam­ age but does not melt the surface as happens when a pulsed laser is used. Scanning CW systems also have sev­ eral other advantages over pulsed sys­ tems: (1) the CW laser beam is free of hot spots and other technical defects . . 'd- ' 3,500 A that can cause variability in results, and (2) a scanning system readily per­ Advanced semiconductors. A nevi^ly developed laser annealing technique for removing mits annealing of selected areas on a crystal defects in semiconductor materials promises great advantages over conven­ large wafer, an advantage that can be tional annealing by heat. This transmission electron micrograph shows how the laser removes damage (which shows up as dark spots) in boron-implanted silicon. of great interest to integrated circuit 26 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND ENGINEERING

manufacturers. Gibbons found, for percent of the electrical activity and a annealing is expected to lead to signifi­ botfi boron-implanted silicon and carrier mobility equal to the theoretical cant future improvements in the de­ arsenic-implanted silicon, that scan­ value. sign and fabrication of high-perform­ ning CW laser annealing not only re­ The lack of diffusive redistribution ance transistors, integrated circuits, moved damage but also preserved 100 of the implanted ions during CW laser and solar cells.

ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 29

Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences

SF's programs in the Astronom­ Table 2 ical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences* Fiscal Years 1976, Transition Quarter N Ocean Sciences provide sup­ (July 1-Sept. 30, 1976), 1977, and 1978 port in selected disciplines to increase our knowledge of the physical envi­ (Dollars in Millions) ronment, both on Earth and in space. The overall objectives of the various Fiscal Year 1976 Transition Quarter Fiscal Year 1977 Fiscal Year 1978 programs are to obtain new knowledge Number Number Number Number encompassing the broadest possible ot of of of scope of natural phenomena in the as­ Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount tronomical and atmospheric sciences; 201 $ 11.13 70 $ 4.67 222 $ 13.48 227 $ 15.65 0.06 -0- -0- -0- -0- -0- -0- to provide greater understanding of Solar Eclipse Support 1 Atmospheric Sciences ... 237 14.91 49 2.82 276 17.66 295 20.15 the physical, chemical, and biological Global Atmospheric composition of the Earth; to develop 68 3.81 10 1.00 67 4.46 69 5.28 Climate Dynamics 31 1.98 16 1.00 59 3.97 70 4.31 further insight into the nature of the Earth Sciences 296 15.29 117 4.23 325 16.26 442 20.67 ocean and the interaction taking place Ocean Sediment between the human and marine envi­ Caring Program 5 11.83 1 3.50 4 12.80 5 13.40 320 15.65 89 4.54 322 17.70 351 19.00 ronments as human activities become International Decade of increasingly involved with and depen­ 179 15.42 26 3.38 190 17.16 234 18.37 dent on the oceans; and to advance our Oceanographic Facili­ ties and Support 70 16.01 14 1.00 69 18.39 70 20.81 knowledge of the environment and re­ U.S. Antarctic sources of the Earth's polar regions. Program 106" 49.58— 89'* 13.43 115" 45.29 132" 48.45 Arctic Research NSF is responsible for the U.S. Ant­ 46 3.62 7 1.30 58 4.62 78 5.34 arctic Program, through which the Total 1,S60 $t58.29 488 $40.87 1,707 $171.79 1,968 $191.43 United States supports the goals of the •Excludes National Research Centers Antarctic Treaty and maintains a U.S. "Science Awards. Excludes operations support awards. "'Includes $18.0 million for procurement of two ski-equipped aircraft presence in Antarctica as an accom­ paniment to its international coopera­ SOURCE: Fiscal Years 1978, 1979. and 1980 Budgets to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations (Quantitative Program Data Tables). tion in scientific programs. In this con­ text NSF has the overall management national astronomy observatories. tronomy during the past year were the responsibility for planning, funding, Many of the world's largest and most discoveries at Kitt Peak National Ob­ and implementing the program. advanced telescopes are located at servatory of a star soon (2,000 years) The Foundation is the predominant these observatories. Scientists com­ after its birth and the 300,000-year-old source of support for ground-based pete for free observing time at the gaseous remains of a supernova in astronomy in the United States. This national observatories, enabling as­ our galaxy; new instrumentation de­ support is provided through research tronomers at universities without velopments to increase the capabihties grants to academic institutions and research telescopes to undertake of existing telescopes; and the opera­ contracts with consortia and single major research programs. tion of half of the 27 antennas of the universities for the operation of five Among the significant events in as­ Very Large Array, already the world's 30 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

Table 3 cial epochs to the origin of diamonds. Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences Real-time measurement of continental National Research Centers drift may soon be possible through a Fiscal Years 1976, Transition Quarter promising new technique originally (July 1-Sept. 30,1976), 1977, and 1978 developed for astronomy. Very Long

(Dollars in Millions) Basehne Interferometry, initiated by MIT astronomers in 1967, can now be used to precisely measure wide distan­ Fiscal Year 1976 Transition Quarter Fiscal Year 1977 Fiscal Year 1978 ces between points on the Earth. The National Astronomy and Deep Sea Drilling Project continued in Ionosphere Center $ 4.05 $ 1.10 $ 3.90 $ 5.48 1978, and as a result of drilling across Kitt Peak National Observatory 8.40 2.16 8.70 9.13 the Mariana Trough, the active Mari­ Cerro Tololo Inter- ana Arc, and progressively deeper into Amencan Observatory 3.45 0.90 3.50 3 SB the Mariana Trench to the east, we National Radio Astronomy Observatory 21.55 3.50 21.80 22 14 now have evidence that something National Center for similar to seafloor spreading has oc­ Atmospheric Research 23.83 4,84 23.04 24 90 curred behind the active island arcs. National Scientific Balloon Facility * • • 1,77 The broad and complex nature of the Sacramento Peak oceans dictates that research in the Observatory ** ** 0.80 1,30 marine sciences consist of multidisci- Total $61.28 $12.49 $61.74 $68.60 phnary approaches that will examine •Included under the National Center for Atmospheric Research In previous years, closely interrelated processes and "NSF assumed funding responsibility for Sacramento Peak Observatory in fiscal year 1977, phenomena from the perspective of a SOURCE: Fiscal Years 1978, 1979, and 1980 Budgets to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations total oceanic system. NSF's research (Quantitative Program Data Tables). programs in oceanography are playing a major role in providing the basic most powerful and precise radio inter­ the intensity of major auroral activities understanding of oceanic processes ferometer (and, in its present stage of about 2 hours before they begin; sig­ that will enable us to predict, and per­ completion, having a resolving power nificant progress in the detection of haps to control in some measure, the equivalent to that of the largest optical downbursts in and around major air­ oceans' influence on humankind. In­ telescopes). Advances in instrumenta­ ports and cities, which can result in vestigations in marine chemistry tion and improved facilities achieved improved safety in aircraft takeoffs have pointed to a much stronger link during 1978 will undoubtedly have a and landings; and a new capability for between marine sediments and the profound effect in the coming years on investigating upper atmosphere dy­ ocean's nitrogen cycle than was pre­ the productivity of both optical and namics with the most powerful radar viously supposed. In the living resour­ radio astronomy. yet constructed for studying the prop­ ces program of the International Dec­ The Foundation supports research erties of the upper atmosphere and ade of Ocean Exploration, analysis in the atmospheric sciences through ionosphere at high latitudes. The radar has revealed important information on grants to U.S. academic institutions was assembled as a key component in plant and animal distributions in a and contracts for the operation of the the IMS to study that part of our coastal upwelling ecosystem. The National Center for Atmospheric nearby space environment controlled oceanographic facilities and support Research in Boulder, Colo., a nation­ by the Earth's extended magnetic field. program conducted in 1978 an in-depth al research center dedicated to large- The earth sciences are now at the study of the present status and future scale atmospheric research projects. point where a great deal of knowledge requirements of oceanographic instru­ International cooperation in atmos­ exists about certain features of the mentation for the Nation's academic pheric research by the U.S. scientific Earth and where new instruments institutions having marine science pro­ community is fostered through Foun­ capable of unprecedented precision grams. Also, concurrent with that dation support of the Global Atmos­ permit reaching to the limits of the study, a comprehensive inventory of pheric Research Program and the In­ environment. Though the theory of oceanographic instrumentation and ternational Magnetospheric Study plate tectonics presently dominates the shipboard equipment was carried out (IMS). Important research results dur­ science, NSF support of geology ranges to assess the maintenance and utiliza­ ing 1978 include discoveries in solar widely, from the measurement of rates tion pohcies and procedures for these terrestrial studies that will enable of erosion to the history of organic costly facihties purchased with public forecasting both the occurrence and evolution, and from the causes of gla­ funds. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 31

About half of the U.S. support for tica revealed one type, which fell to present incomplete form, the VLA has arctic research is provided through Earth in great numbers during prehis­ demonstrated the power of radio inter­ various disciplinary programs of NSF toric time, with characteristics consis­ ferometry to produce radio wave "pic­ and half through the Arctic research tent with the possibility that it could tures" of galaxies and gaseous nebulae. program, which is concerned primarily have provided material making possi­ The number of visiting scientists with environmental and resource- ble the emergence of life. Cruise using the National Astronomy and related investigations. The Founda­ number 17 of the research ship Mas Ionosphere Center (NAIC) 1,000-foot- tion's year-round program of research Orcadas, operated jointly by the U.S. diameter (305-meter) radio/radar an­ in Antarctica, which is related to global and Argentine Governments, was tenna in Puerto Rico has tripled in the scientific problems, is the principal under way through September in the last 3 years. The recently upgraded expression of U.S. national pohcy in Scotia Sea for biological research di­ surface of the antenna makes it possi­ the antarctic region. This year an rected primarily toward ecosystems ble to perform high resolution radar analysis of meteorites found in Antarc- analysis. mapping of nearby planets at a fre­ quency of 2,380 MHz (megahertz). A third of the research at NAIC is de­ voted to radar backscatter study of the upper atmosphere. Astronomy During fiscal year 1978 NSF and the Association of Universities for Re­ search in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., The Foundation is the lead Federal These two telescopes were used exten­ signed a 5-year contract for the opera­ agency for ground-based astronomy in sively by visiting scientists in fiscal tion of Sacramento Peak Observatory the United States; its activities are year 1978 for studies of very faint (SPO) in New Mexico as a national managed through grants for research stars, nebulae, and galaxies. Discover­ facility available to visiting scientists. by individual scientists and through ies at KPNO included a star soon after The SPO tower telescope is well the operation of five National Astron­ its birth (at 2,000 years, the youngest known for its ability to produce high omy Centers. In the past year under star known) and the discovery of the spectral and spatial resolution observa­ the grants program, 227 principal in­ 300,0G0-year-old gaseous remains of a tions of the Sun. These observations vestigators representing 65 universi­ supernova in our galaxy. have been essential in the effort to ties and other institutions received The National Radio Astronomy Ob­ understand the causes of solar storms, awards for research in the areas of servatory (NRAO) 36-foot-diameter sunspots, and the variabiHty of solar solar system astronomy, stellar sys­ (11-meter) telescope in Arizona is the radiation that affects our climate on tems and motions, stars and stellar world's most sensitive millimeter wave Earth. evolution, galactic and extragalactic instrument. It is at these millimeter NSF also supports research at sev­ astronomy, and astronomical instru­ wavelengths that many interstellar eral excellent university and private mentation development. molecules of astrophysical interest observatories. In April 1978 astrono­ The majority of U.S. astronomers emit their spectral signatures. Most of mers from the California Institute of hold positions at universities that do the 45 molecules known to date to exist Technology and Hale Observatories not have research quality telescopes. beyond our solar system were disco­ discovered three more rings around Many of these scientists are neverthe­ vered since 1967 with this heavily used the planet Uranus, bringing the total less able to regularly conduct excellent telescope. Many are organic varieties, number to eight. Uranus' rings are research by traveling to the National such as ammonia and ethyl alcohol; the not directly observable; it was neces­ Astronomy Centers. There, periods of two most recent detections by NRAO sary to use infrared techniques at an observing time are available, without are NO and the radical C4H. excellent observing site to detect the charge, on a competitive basis to quaU- The newest major astronomical telltale change in intensity of a faint fied scientists. Many of the world's instrument in the United States is the star that passed behind the rings. The largest and most advanced telescopes Very Large Array (VLA), now under observations were made with the 2.5- are located at these observatories. construction by NRAO in New Mex­ meter-diameter du Pont telescope lo­ The 4-meter optical telescopes at ico. With half of its 27 antennas operat­ cated at the Las Campanas Observa­ Kitt Peak National Observatory ing, it is already the world's most pow­ tory in Chile. (KPNO) in Arizona and Cerro Tololo erful and precise radio interferometer. At the Owens Valley Radio Obser­ Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) It can now achieve a resolving power of vatory in California, a set of three in Chile are among the world's most 1 arc-second, equivalent to that of the small, identical millimeter wave tele­ powerful visible light instruments. largest optical telescopes. Even in its scopes are under construction. When 32 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

completed, the three antennas will empowered to modify current Radio Evidence for a permit high resolution observations of Regulations and the Table of Fre­ Supermassive Blacic Hole interstellar molecular clouds, mole­ quency Allocations. As the first truly cules in galaxies, and the births of comprehensive conference to do so in stars. 20 years, it has the potential for mak­ Two groups of astronomers, using ing significant changes in the alloca­ recently developed instruments at the Radio Spectrum tions. The outcome of the conference Hale Observatories and at Kitt Peak l\/lanagement is expected to have a large impact on National Observatory, have reported telecommunications and radio science evidence for a dark compact mass in The Foundation assigns radio fre­ throughout the world. the center of the giant elliptical galaxy quencies for the support of operations The development of position papers M87. The mass has all the characteris­ at the various National Astronomy for the U.S. delegation to the confer­ tics of a black hole containing about Centers and also provides for use of ence is being undertaken by the Fed­ five bilhon times the mass of the Sun. the spectrum by grantees engaged in eral Communications Commission, Since the 1960's, scientists have specu­ research activities such as radio and the Interdepartmental Radio Advisory lated that such superm.assive black radar astronomy and meteorological Committee (IRAC), and the National holes may be energy sources for the remote sensing. In addition, NSF is Telecommunications and Information extremely powerful processes that oc­ working with other U.S. Government Administration of the U.S. Depart­ cur in quasars, radio galaxies, Seyfert agencies in preparation for the forth­ ment of Commerce. The NSF contri­ galaxies, BL Lac objects, and similar coming World Administrative Radio bution is made primarily through the but weaker events in more normal Conference, which will consider the IRAC. galaxies. Large amounts of energy are projected requirements for spectrum NSF also participates in an interna­ known to be produced in very small allocations for radio astronomy and tional technical advisory capacity volumes in these objects, a pheno­ other services to the year 2000 and through the Consultative Committee menon hard to explain with normal beyond. This conference, to be con­ on International Radio and in delibera­ astrophysical energy sources. Since vened in late 1979 by the International tions of the Union of International black holes are compact and quite effi­ Telecommunications Union, will be Radio Science. cient in converting mass to energy.

Unseen component. Left—Galaxy M87, as photographed by Jerome Kristian and James Westfall using the Hale Observatories' 200-inch telescope, shows a jet extending away from the galaxy's center. Right—With the aid of a computer, P. J. Young "subtracted" the light representing the main body of the galaxy. What remained was the jet and an unexpected bright spot at the galaxy's center, which indicates additional, unseen mass there. Astronomers believe this may be a supermassive black hole. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 33

they are very attractive from a theo­ servers from the Hale Observatories, Optical Bursts From an retical point of view. University College, London, KPNO, X-Ray Burst Source The direct detection of a black hole is and the University of Victoria, British difficult since it emits no light and is Columbia, Canada. They obtained The original discovery of X-ray very small. Detection depends upon high resolution spectrograms at a sources in space that exhibit the phe­ observations of indirect effects, such number of places in the galaxy, using a nomenon known as X-ray bursts took as the effect of its gravitational field on device known as the image photon place in December 1975. Since that nearby visible masses. For example, counting system. The spectrograms time more than 30 such sources much smaller black holes (several solar were used to determine the velocity (known as "bursters") have been iden­ masses) have been postulated as the dispersion, which arises from the mo­ tified. All are located in the plane of our origin of X-rays from such sources as tions of stars within the galaxy and is a Milky Way galaxy, the majority of Cyg X-1; the evidence consists largely measure of the mass distribution. The them within 35 degrees of the galactic in the effect of the unseen mass upon a data show a sharp increase in velocity center. At least two of the sources are visible binary companion. dispersion toward the center of M87, located in globular clusters (a spherical The Galaxy M87 is a prime candidate not seen in other galaxies, which clustering of about 100,000 stars), and for a massive black hole search for a points to the existence of an excess three of the sources have been identi­ number of reasons. It is one of the mass at the galaxy's center. fied with faint blue stars. brightest members of the Virgo clus­ By combining the Palomar and The mechanism that produces the X- ter, the nearest of the great galaxy KPNO data, astronomers can describe ray flux is not known. The X-ray burst clusters, and, at a distance of about 60 the mass distribution of M87 in a way rises to peak intensity within a few million light-years, it is one of the that is independent of galaxy models; seconds and lasts several seconds to nearest of the giant elliptical galaxies. they assume only that the visible stars minutes. The bursts are emitted at Moreover, it is a radio source with very obey the basic laws of dynamics under almost regular intervals, ranging from small components, an X-ray source, the gravitational influence of what­ hours to days. At least eight sources and contains a well-known jet emanat­ ever masses may be present. emit a persistent but variable X-ray ing from the nucleus, suggesting the The result leads to the conclusion flux. It has been suggested that the expulsion of matter or energy. that the nucleus of M87 contains a burst sources are either neutron stars The first of the new observations dark, compact mass. The total mass or black holes of stellar mass. was made by observers from the Hale within the central 1 arc-second (300 One faint blue star identified as an Observatories and the Jet Propulsion light-years) of the galaxy is 5 billion optical counterpart of an X-ray source Laboratory, using the 1.5-meter (60- times the mass of the Sun. This mass is is known as MX31735-44. Because the inch) and the 5-meter (200-inch) tele­ no more than one-tenth as bright as detection of bursts in other parts of the scopes at Palomar Mountain. They the stars that make up the rest of the spectrum (radio, infrared, or optical) examined the distribution of light from galaxy; it has a mass-to-light ratio of at could place significant limits on the the stars in the galaxy, using silicon- least 60 to 1, in solar units, while the physical conditions at the source and intensified television detectors that rest of the galaxy has a ratio of 6 to 1. provide tests of various models, as­ have been adapted to astronomical use. All of the existing data are consistent tronomers at Cerro Tololo Inter- The investigation found a bright, with the presence of a central black American Observatory monitored this sharp "spike" of light at the center of hole of several billion solar masses. stellarlike object optically with the 1.5- the galaxy, and a less obvious but very Furthermore, if such a black hole is meter telescope for 3 days during June important excess of light within the present, it could produce enough 1978. Simultaneous X-ray observa­ central 10 arc-seconds of the nucleus. energy by consuming stars and stellar tions were made with the orbiting X- This excess light in the central region debris to fuel the radiation in the jet ray observatory SAS-3, which main­ cannot be explained by otherwise suc­ and in radio and X-rays. tained continuous pointing to keep the cessful theories of elliptical galaxies, While the observations do not object centered in the field of view of which assume that the galaxies are conclusively confirm the existence of a its X-ray detectors. made up entirely of stars moving supermassive black hole at the center The result was a confirmed correla­ under their mutual gravitational at­ of M87, they are the best evidence for tion between an optical and X-ray tractions. The new observations indi­ such an object so far. Whatever the burst. Analysis of observing data cate that there must be an additional nature of the compact dark mass, it is shows that the optically detected burst unseen component of M87 located at very pecuhar compared with normal must come from an emitting region its center. galaxies. In many ways a black hole is located within 1 to 2 light-seconds of Other observations were made with the most plausible explanation of the the X-ray source. The region itself the 4-meter KPNO telescope by ob­ observations. must be less than 1 to 2 hght-seconds 34 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

(about 300- to 600,000 kilometers) in extent. 550 These results do not, by themselves, ehminate any proposed models. The results do show, however, that if the X-ray burst source is in a binary (two- star) system, the companion of this Optical bursts measured at strange source is either shielded from Cerro Tololo Inter-American its X-ray emission or, if unshielded, Observatory in the sufficiently separated from it so that wavelength range of 3,100 its optical emission is small. This dis­ to 5,500 angstroms. covery of simultaneous optical and X- (Counts per second) ray bursts from these very strange objects paves the way for further si­ multaneous observations as astrono­ mers seek a physical explanation of these objects. 350

New Constraints on Phiysical Laws and IVIatter in the Early Universe

The detection by two astronomers X-ray bursts measured by satellite In the energy from the University of Pittsburgh and range of 5 to 10 KeV. the National Astronomy and Iono­ (Counts per 0.83 second) sphere Center in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, of an extremely faint dip in the contin­ uous emission spectrum of the quasar 1331+17 confirms that our physical "constants" have indeed remained un­ changed over at least two-thirds of the age of the universe. In addition, the observation, made at Arecibo in March 1978, is unique in providing a direct measurement of an unexpectedly high 40 temperature in the hydrogen gas re­ sponsible for the observed adsorption. These observations indicate the high X-ray bursts measured by probabihty that an intrinsic rather satellite in the energy than chance relationship exists be­ range of 2.5 to 5 KeV. tween the emitting and absorbing (Counts per 0.83 second) 20 -I material, in spite of the redshift differ­ ence between them. Both results have far-reaching consequences for our un­ derstanding of the early universe. Quasars are the most distant known objects in the universe. These highly luminous, extremely compact systems 60 produce copious quantities of both optical and radio radiation. Shortly UT Time In Seconds after the discovery of quasars, it was after 08:21:52 on June 2, 1978 noted that many quasar spectra, when observed with high dispersion optical ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 35

spectrographs, contained large olet ground-state lines of neutral hy­ universe. It seems that physics in the numbers of strong, narrow absorption drogen into the visible, revealing an era of quasar and galaxy formation was features in addition to the bright emis­ extraordinary amount of neutral hy­ very much like our physics of today. sion lines characteristic of lower dis­ drogen in the optical spectrum. As­ persion quasar spectra. The redshift of suming a typical neutral hydrogen spin these absorption systems was most temperature of 100 degrees Kelvin, the Solar Oscillations often significantly less than that of the scientists predicted an easily detectable emission spectrum. The reasonable 20-percent absorption dip. The line did According to a generally held view, interpretatioi\ was that the quasar not show up quite so easily; after 10 the outer atmosphere of the Sun is emission had encountered some inter­ hours of integration in late March a 2- heated by sound waves that are gener­ vening matter between the quasar and percent dip became clearly discernible. ated in the solar convection zone just the observer on Earth. Serious objec­ While extremely faint, the line was below the solar surface. These sound tions were raised when the frequency readily confirmed during a second ob­ waves are probably generated with a of occurrences and multiplicity of the serving run in May. fairly broad range of periods. Because absorption redshifts were found to far The detection was well worth the of a resonance in the solar convection exceed that predicted on the basis of considerable effort invested, an effort zone, sound waves with periods near 5 such chance encounters. which is better estimated when the minutes would build up to substantial In an attempt to resolve this and negative results on another half-dozen amplitudes near the surface of the Sun. other questions related to the quasars' objects in the same program are Most of this wave energy should be optical absorption lines, astronomers included. The astronomers calculate trapped in the resonant cavity of the began to search for their counterpart spin temperature of the gas about convection zone, but some of it escapes radio absorption lines. The task has not 1,000 degrees Kelvin, much higher and contributes to the heating of the been easy, and the new absorption line than expected of material randomly chromosphere. detected in 1331+17 is only the third encountered along the line of sight, but In order to test this idea, and to positive detection at high redshift. The plausible if the absorbing gas is physi­ determine how much sound wave task is made significantly more diffi­ cally related, and affected by, the enor­ energy can escape, two scientists from cult because the highly redshifted mously luminous quasar itself. the University of Colorado measured spectra place the expected lines far This result is in itself astrophysically wave propagation in the layers just from the usual observing frequencies significant, and could only be deter­ above the visible solar surface. The in the protected radio astronomy mined for a quasar absorption line observations were made at Sacra­ bands. Consequently, much of the system of sufficiently high redshift mento Peak Observatory's (SPO) Solar work must be done at remote sites and that both the excitation ground state Vacuum Telescope using the echelle after commercial transmissions have and the electron spin transition are spectrograph and diode array. For sev­ ended for the night. Instrumentation simultaneously observable, a condition eral spectral lines that originate at for the 1331+17 search included con­ satisfied by neither of the previous two different layers of the solar atmos­ struction of a 12-meter-long line feed radio absorption line objects. But the phere, they monitored the Doppler for the hydrogen line, which is nor­ findings have even greater import for shift and brightness of each line as mally found at 1,420 MHz but in this our physical understanding of the functions of time. From these observa­ case redshifted to 511 MHz. The wide early universe. This is because the tions they deduced the velocity of band tunable receiver was provided by measurement of the optical and radio phase propagation and the difference the University of Pittsburgh. redshifts for the same element permit in phase between brightness and veloc­ In some ways 1331+17 was an un- stringent hmits to be set on any varia­ ity. hkely candidate, being some ten times tion in the ratio of the physical con­ Simultaneously with the SPO obser­ fainter at radio wavelengths than the stants that determine the optical and vations, similar ones were made from preceding two successful absorption radio wavelengths of the spectral lines. the Orbiting Solar Observatory line sources. However, its redshift is These limits can now be extended back launched by the National Aeronautics sufficiently high to move the ultravi­ to nearly two-thirds of the age of the and Space Administration. A Univer­ sity of Colorado instrument on OSO-8 was used to observe time series pro­ Correlation. Simultaneous observations in June 1978 with the Cerro Tololo Inter- files of the silicon II resonance line at American Observatory's 1.5-meter telescope and the orbiting X-ray satellite SAS-3 1,816 angstroms, while a spectrograph produced these records of simultaneous "bursts" from a star in both the X-ray and of the Laboratoire de Physique Stel- optical regions of the spectrum. This first measured correlation of X-ray and optical bursts will help astronomers understand the physical cause of the heavily studied X-ray laire et Planetaire was used to observe bursts. the core of the magnesium II resonance 36 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

line. The magnesium line is formed higher in the solar chromosphere than any other line that can be observed from ground-based telescopes. Thus the space observations were used to extend the range of the ground obser­ vations. The experiment was carried out suc­ cessfully during one week in February 1978. Preliminary analysis of the data showed that, indeed, the 5-minute oscillations propagate upward in the region just above the photosphere and that their amplitude decreases expo­ nentially with heights as they give up energy to the atmosphere. An estimate of the wave flux available to heat the atmosphere has not yet been made, and further analysis of the data is planned to determine the amount of energy that is deposited in the atmos­ phere at each height. When this amount of energy is compared with the radiative and conductive energy losses from these regions it will be possible to decide whether the 5-minute oscilla­ Stellar birth. Kitt Peak National Observatory's 4-meter telescope was used in the tions contribute a substantial fraction identification last year of the youngest star ever identified—probably less than 2,000 of the energy to the upper layers of the years old. Sun.

had to wait for the development of notable events. The nascent star be­ Youngest Star infrared astronomy. In 1966, BN was gins a sweeping reorganization of the found to be a bright infrared source, gas and dust surrounding it. The Until November of 1977, an object even though it is invisible to the eye. contraction stops; heat from the new famiharly known as BN (Becklin- Because it is located in a large molecu­ star causes the cloud to start expand­ Neugebauer) was surmised to be a lar cloud, the same cloud that includes ing outward. If the star is hot enough, collapsing prestellar object. But new the Orion Nebula and the Trapezium its ultraviolet light will ionize the gas discoveries with the Fourier Trans­ cluster of hot young stars, it was pre­ within an ever-increasing radius. Nu­ form Spectrometer (FTS) at Kitt Peak sumed to be a young object. Finding its clear fusion begins to convert hydro­ National Observatory's 4-meter tele­ exact stage of development, however, gen to helium and to produce the scope indicate that BN is a full-fledged was a more comphcated puzzle. energy that maintains the star in a star, the youngest yet identified. Its The clues to the puzzle's solution lay stable configuration for most of its status was confirmed by KPNO staff in the match between BN's observed lifetime. who developed the FTS and its infrared properties and the predicted sequence These insights were applied to BN. It detectors, together with a visiting ob­ of events in star formation. Before the was immediately known to be too server from the Massachusetts Insti­ birth of a star, a dense protostellar young to have ionized a large volume tute of Technology. They estimate cloud of gas and dust undergoes a slow of gas, because it does not show the that BN may have reached stardom collapse by self-gravitation. As it col­ radio emission that would be charac­ less than 2,000 years ago, well within lapses, its density increases and its teristic of such a region. The remaining recorded history. gravitational energy is converted to question, then, was whether BN is still The birth could not be observed heat. When the core density, pressure, contracting or has reversed its col­ optically, though, because BN is still and temperature become very large, lapse. In other words, is gas moving deep within the thick cloud of gas and the object is no longer a simple cloud; it toward BN or away from it? dust from which it has been formed. has acquired all of the characteristics of It was first discovered that BN is The discovery of such brand-new stars a star. This era of birth is marked by immediately surrounded by an ex- ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 37

panding shell of ionized hydrogen; this tor with a surface expected ultimately the University of Cahfornia, San estabhshed that BN must be a star to be more than 10 times as accurate Diego, where he has been a professor emitting the ultraviolet radiation (smoother) than the old reflector and of physics since 1962. needed to excite the gas. Second, it was the installation of a high power S-bandi As a national center, KPNO facilities discovered that the cooler cloud out­ radar system with a sensitivity more were used by 363 visitors, including 73 side the ionized region is also expand­ than 1,000 times greater than that of students, from 70 domestic and 19 ing. Previous radio observations of this the old UHF system. Less obvious have, foreign institutions during fiscal year cloud had established its radius to be been the construction of high quality 1978. Telescope time is divided so that 1.5 trilUon kilometers. By dividing this receiving systems for radio frequen­ 60 percent is assigned to visitors and 40 radius by the observed expansion cies not previously usable with the old percent to scientists on the KPNO speed of 850-million kilometers per reflector and the installation of new staff. Visiting astronomers undertake second, KPNO observers were able to data acquisition and processing equip­ programs encompassing the entire derive an age for BN of approximately ment. These have been accompanied field of astronomy—from cosmology 1,800 years. Although 1,800 years is a by enormous progress in developing to solar physics. KPNO's success de­ long time by human standards, BN is new observational techniques and pends on the creative interaction be­ still in its "babyhood" as a star. computer programs especially suited tween visiting and staff astronomers. for general visitor use and by a steady In addition to carrying out observatory increase in visitor use of the Arecibo research programs, the resident staff National Astronomy and telescope for high quality research. In of astronomers, engineers, and various fiscal year 1978, 35 percent more vis­ Ionosphere Center support personnel contribute to pro­ itors used the facilities than during the grams designed to ensure that KPNO previous year. Of the total observing is meeting the needs of the visiting The National Astronomy and Ionos­ time available in this period, more than astronomers. This responsibility in­ phere Center (NAIC) is centered 73 percent was used by visiting re­ cludes planning and developing new around the world's largest radio/radar searchers. The number of visitors has instruments and data reduction tech­ telescope, the 1,000-foot-diameter more than tripled in 3 years and almost niques. (305-meter) fixed spherical antenna, quadrupled over the past 4 years. located near Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Op­ An integral part of the KPNO in­ erated by Cornell University under strumentation development program contract with NSF, NAIC is the Na­ is to apply the most advanced technol­ tion's premiere facihty for advanced Kitt Peak National ogy to astronomical instrumentation. research in radio and radar astronomy Observatory The observatory activities include de­ and in ionospheric physics. Facilities velopment of two-dimensional optical and support services are available, free Kitt Peak National Observatory and infrared detectors, large diffrac­ of charge, on an equal and competitive (KPNO) is operated by the Association tion gratings, auxiliary instruments basis to visiting scientists from all over of Universities for Research in Astron­ for existing telescopes, and engineer­ the world. omy, Inc., under contract with NSF, ing designs for telescopes of the fu­ A major new facility for atmospheric from headquarters in Tucson, Ariz. ture. research at the Arecibo Observatory— The observatory's basic programs sup­ Several instruments brought into the high power, high frequency trans­ port the operation of 13 telescopes at a use during fiscal year 1978 underscore mission facihty—is presently under mountaintop site 90 kilometers (50 the recent emphasis on modern detec­ construction and should be ready for miles) from Tucson. Many of the tele­ tors. A new "video camera" makes use use during 1979. This facility—four scopes, including the Mayall 4-meter of a vidicon tube for photometric ob­ transmitters delivering a total of 800 telescope, are used for daytime in­ servations of extremely faint two- kilowatts to an array of log-periodic frared observations in addition to a dimensional star fields. In the "high- antennas—will be used principally for wide variety of nighttime observa­ gain video spectrometer" a digital ionospheric heating experiments and tions. The McMath complex of three detector multiplies the speed of photo­ the investigation of parametric insta- telescopes, designed primarily for solar graphic spectroscopy by more than an bihties and nonlinear processes in the observations, is used frequently for order of magnitude. The "CID camera" ionospheric plasma. nighttime studies of planets and stars. incorporates a silicon diode detector Over the past several years, a major In October 1978 Geoffrey Burbidge array for use with several instruments upgrading and scientific reorientation became the new director of KPNO, at the McMath telescope. These recent of the telescope and research programs fiUing the position left vacant by the projects could not have been realized have taken place. Most conspicuous retirement of Leo Goldberg in October without the parallel development of have been the resurfacing of the reflec­ 1977. Burbidge comes to KPNO from computer hardware and software. One 38 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

of KPNO's priorities is to make these dent scientific staff in developing ob­ with the original delivery schedule. research tools of current astronomy, servational capabihties. Each scientific Work continues on several antennas to which were unheard of 10 years ago, program or project area and scientifi­ install subreflectors, feeds, receivers, accessible to the entire astronomical cally oriented observatory activity has and cryogenic refrigerators. The community. a staff astronomer or support scientist number of interferometer base lines designated as scientific adviser. CTIO has been increased from 21 to 66. The also has a nonresident scientific pro­ longest base hne (distance between Cerro Tololo Inter- gram which enables the observatory two antennas) available increased from American Observatory director to offer temporary appoint­ 5.2 to 11.5 kilometers, allowing an ments to scientists from other institu­ angular resolution of better than an Cerro Tololo Inter-American Ob­ tions. These people conduct their re­ arc-second. Under a contract awarded servatory (CTIO) is operated by the search using the CTIO facilities and for the Phase V trackage construction, Association of Universities for Re­ interact with both the resident staff 21.9 kilometers of double wye track search in Astronomy, Inc., under con­ and visiting scientists for the mutual will be laid, completing over half the tract with NSF. Located on the Chilean benefit of all concerned. Appointment required VLA track. The final 21 an­ slopes of the Andean Cordillera, ap­ periods may range from a few weeks to tenna foundations will also be com­ proximately 480 kilometers (300 miles) several months, depending on the pleted under this contract. The com­ north of Santiago, CTIO is a center for amount of time the visitors can be pletion of several new buildings has research in ground-based optical as­ absent from their home institutions permitted occupation of the second tronomy in the Southern Hemisphere. and on the availability of housing in La visiting scientists quarters, a library- The dark sky and stable air mass of the Serena. office building, a garage, and the addi­ mountaintop site some 64 kilometers Recent major accomphshments by tion to the cryogenics facility. (40 miles) inland from the coastal city the CTIO staff resulting from this At the Green Bank site, a Mod Comp of La Serena provide near ideal observ­ emphasis have been the consolidation 11-25 computer was installed at the 91- ing conditions for the eight telescopes of the Cerro Tololo data processing meter (300-foot) telescope to allow there. These include a 4-meter reflec­ computers in one location for access by data analysis to proceed simultane­ tor that is the twin of the KPNO a single, shared network; installation ously with observations. The 18 to Mayall telescope. of new vidicon detectors and related 26.5 GHz (gigahertz) maser receiver In fiscal year 1978, CTIO facihties image processing equipment; and the developed at the NASA-sponsored Jet were used by 129 visiting scientists, development of infrared capabihties. Propulsion Laboratory has been used including 14 students, from 45 U.S. extensively on the 42-meter (140-foot) and 18 foreign institutions. At least 60 telescope and performs extremely well percent of the available observing time in every respect. Additional K-band on the telescopes is assigned to these National Radio Astronomy masers have now been built at Green visiting astronomers, with the re­ Observatory Bank and will be used to improve re­ mainder being assigned to the CTIO ceiver performance on all telescopes in scientific staff. The National Radio Astronomy Ob­ the 1- to 26-GHz range. The Mark III The research programs carried out servatory (NRAO), operated by Asso­ Very Long Baseline recording system at CTIO emphasize unique Southern ciated Universities, Inc., has its head­ developed jointly with NASA has been Hemisphere objects such as the Magel­ quarters in Charlottesville, Va. successfully tested on an experiment lanic Clouds, nearest neighbor galaxies Observing stations are located in the using the NRAO 42-meter telescope to our own Milky Way system; X-ray radio quiet zone at Green Bank, W. Va., and the Haystack antenna. A second sources, a new class of celestial objects at the Very Large Array (VLA) site system is now being built for use at lacking optical identification; globular near Socorro, N.Mex., and, for mil- other sites. A deformable subreflector star clusters, probably the first gravi- hmeter-wave observations, on Kitt has also been built on the 42-meter tationally bound mass concentrations Peak near Tucson, Ariz. telescope to improve efficiency at short to form; and Baade's "window," a re­ During the past year at the VLA, wavelengths. Initial results show that gion of low obscuration toward the which is nearing completion, the level the astigmatism caused by antenna dust-shrouded center of the Milky of operation for scientific research deflections can be corrected. Way. The galactic center itself, over­ increased from 39 to 55 percent. The head at CTIO, is also of great interest number of antennas in use at one time At the Kitt Peak site, the 36-foot (11- because of its dense concentration of has increased from 7 to 12, and by the meter) telescope has been provided gas and short-lived bright stars. end of 1978 the 20th antenna of the with a sunscreen to protect it from CTIO has evolved as an organization required 28 was planned to be accepted solar healing and to allow daytime that makes particular use of the resi­ from the manufacturer in accordance observations of galactic objects. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 39

NRAO has continued its development trolled by an IBM 1800 computer. SPO digitized each second. The instrument of receivers for the wavelength region will monitor the brightness of several is 20 times faster than the old micro­ of 1 to 3 milhmeters. A cooled receiver planetary satellites and asteroids in photometer at SPO. with a harmonically pumped mixer will order to search for solar-induced varia­ A prototype of a new instrument for be in regular use next year for wave­ tions in brightness, especially short- measuring small systematic velocities lengths near 1.5 millimeters. Work is term fluctuations. In addition to this on the Sun is being developed at SPO. now beginning on a cooled mixer for primary purpose, SPO will offer a The instrument, designed as a Fourier the 2-millimeter region. limited amount of observing time to tachometer, employs a scanning Mi­ David Heeschen ended his 15-year the general astronomical community chelson interferometer with a local directorship of NRAO on September for synoptic stellar photometry. wavelength reference. The sensitivity 30, 1978, and returned to scientific During the past year a new fast of the instrument has not been deter­ research at NRAO. Morton Roberts, a microphotometer has been put into mined as yet but it has been designed to long-time senior scientist at NRAO, service for the use of SPO visitors. The measure velocities on the Sun the succeeds him. microphotometer is designed to do order of 10 meters per second and less. In the past year 314 visiting scien­ master scans of both standard 35- and The instrument will be used to meas­ tists, representing 90 institutions, 70-millimeter frames. Controls allow ure the slow circulation of the solar used the NRAO telescopes. The 36- any portion of the frame to be dig­ atmosphere, differential rotation, and foot millimeter-wave telescope con­ itized, with up to 7,500 data points global pulsations. tinues to be heavily oversubscribed. While the telescope is limited in both sensitivity and resolution, investiga­ tors successfully detected the long- sought nitrogen oxide molecule NO, and the carbon chain radical C4H. Atmospheric Sciences

Sacramento Peak NSF's atmospheric sciences program pheric Research Program (GARP) and Observatory supports research on a wide range of the International Magnetospheric subjects—the physics, chemistry, and Study (IMS). Sacramento Peak Observatory dynamics of the Earth's upper and Basic research support is provided in (SPO), operated under contract with lower atmosphere; the relationship of the following areas. The aeronomy the NSF by the Association of Univer­ physical processes in the troposphere program funds laboratory, theoretical, sities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., and stratosphere to the general circu­ and field studies involving processes of offers unique instruments and facili­ lation of the atmosphere and the physi­ ionization, recombination, chemical ties for advanced research in solar cal basis of chmate; climate processes reaction, photoemission, and trans­ physics and related disciphnes. The and variations; and smaller scale, port. The atmospheric chemistry pro­ SPO facilities are located at an eleva­ shorter term phenomena leading to gram supports laboratory, field, and tion of 2,760 meters (9,055 feet) in the greater knowledge of weather. Ah modehng efforts for both the tropo­ Sacramento mountains of south- these studies complement the sphere and stratosphere. The experi­ central New Mexico. The facilities are mission-oriented research carried out mental meteorology and weather mod­ available to all qualified scientists; tele­ by other agencies. ification program supports field-ori­ scope time is allotted on the basis of The Foundation also supports the ented research on weather, including scientific proposals, which are re­ development and operation of the Na­ potential applications to weather mod­ viewed by external referees. Approxi­ tional Center for Atmospheric Re­ ification; the meteorology effort in­ mately half of the available time is now search (NCAR), a national research cludes all aspects of dynamical and being allocated to nonstaff members. center devoted to large-scale atmos­ physical meteorology. The solar ter­ On June 19,1978, SPO began opera­ pheric research projects conducted in restrial research program is concerned tion of a 1.2-meter (48-inch) Newto­ cooperation with universities and with studies of the highest extent of nian reflector at Cloudcroft, N.Mex., other organizations. NCAR maintains the Earth's atmosphere and the near- under the terms of a 1-year agreement major facihties for computing and for Earth space environment, interplane­ between NSF and the U.S. Air Force. ground-based and aircraft observa­ tary medium, and the solar atmo­ The reflector was used previously as a tions. NSF also supports the participa­ sphere. The GARP program supports sateUite-tracking telescope. It has a tion by the U.S. scientific community research in universities, with current three-axis mount, very fast slew rates, in international scientific research en­ emphasis on completing the analysis of and precise absolute pointing con­ deavors such as the Global Atmos- data from the GARP Atlantic Tropical 40 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

Experiment and carrying out the Mon­ industry. Douglas D. Davis of the our ability to predict the effects on the soon Experiment (MONEX). The ch­ Georgia Institute of Technology is the quality of the atmospheric environ­ mate dynamics program supports project director. In 1978 a second series ment of freon compounds, nitrogen studies of climate data assembly and of aircraft experiments was conducted, and sulfur oxides, and carbonaceous analysis, simulation and prediction of again using the NCAR Electra research combustion products. climate, and chmate change impact aircraft. In 1977 and 1978 the flights 45,000 assessment. covered more than miles over Prediction of Aurora the latitude range 70° N. to 57° S. and between 95° W. and 165° E. longitude. One of the most important and vis­ Atmospheric Chemistry The GAMETAG flights have pro­ ible manifestations of the interaction Measurements of the distribution duced a remarkable data base on the between the Earth's and the Sun's of trace gases and aerosols in the distribution of trace gases and aerosols atmosphere are the aurora borealis, or troposphere are a major objective of in the troposphere. For many species "northern lights." Notwithstanding research in atmospheric chemistry. they yielded the first measurements their beauty, the aurora borealis cause These measurements are now provid­ over a large geographical area and over problems by disturbing the polar ion­ ing the first data in which the a range of altitudes. Ultraviolet solar osphere and disrupting radio commun­ concentrations of many atmospheric flux, relative humidity, temperature, ications and causing navigational diffi­ constituents are measured simultane­ pressure, and wind velocity measure­ culties. Radar facilities and satellite ously with the solar flux that drives ments were made simultaneously with performance are also affected by the photochemical reactions among them the chemical measurements. electromagnetic disturbances. When and with the meteorological parame­ The detailed results of this project such disturbances are very intense, ters important in determining the are an important first step in the ac­ they even induce spurious currents in global distribution of trace species in cumulation of knowledge about the powerhne systems, particularly in the atmosphere. natural troposphere; this knowledge Canada and the northern United The 1977 Annual Report discussed will lead to an understanding of natu­ States, where violent auroral displays first-year results from Project GAME- ral and anthropogenic sources and occur. TAG (Global Atmospheric Measure­ sinks of gases and aerosols in the at­ However, some of the operational ments Experiment on Trace Aero­ mosphere, their transport processes, problems of such facihties could be sols and Gases), a collaborative effort and the photochemical interactions avoided if a reliable forecast could be among scientists from six universities, among them. Such knowledge of the issued. Communication centers would the NCAR research staff, and private atmosphere will substantially improve then have enough time to plan for

Project GAMETAG. This laser-induced fluorescence detector (left) aboard NCAR's Electra research aircraft (right) measures concentrations of the chemical species OH, which is a key to the atmospheric lifetimes of many trace gases and which interconnect several photochemical cycles. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 41

blackouts and program around the disruptions that will be caused by au­ roral activity. It now appears that scientists at the University of Alaska's Geophysical Institute will soon be able to forecast accurately when the aurora wiU occur in the polar region and how intense they will be. The Alaska re­ search team's work builds on 20 years of study of the Earth's electromagnetic environment by space physicists in the Summer (Jun, Jul, Aug) United States and other countries. Scientists now know that the aurora are gigantic electrical discharge phe­ nomena—hke huge neon signs— from 60 to 300 miles high in the polar atmosphere. This discharge is driven by a powerful natural generator in the sky, providing as much as 100 billion watts—more than 100 times the total annual U.S. electric power consump­ tion. This celestial generator, the mag­ Fall (Sep, Oct, Nov) Winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) netosphere, is formed by the interac­ tion of the solar wind, a hot gas Urban effects. Trends of regional precipitation from 1931 to 1976 for ttie Chicago area streaming from the Sun, and the and three regions around it show how actual precipitation differed from what would be Earth's magnetic field. expected. The largest anomalies occurred in winter and summer; net annual regional increase in precipitation as a result of the urban center is calculated to be about 2.5 It has long been known that solar inches. and auroral activity are generally correlated. As a result of this research we now understand the basic physics Chicago. These occur primarily in the fects produce an increase beyond the that controls the efficiency of the gen­ summer season (being greatest in the city in the warmer months and a de­ erator. Thus, the intensity of auroral south-central part of the city) and crease in the colder months, a fact not activity is controlled by a combination represent about a 15-percent increase found in previous urban investigations of three factors: the solar wind's speed, in that season over the past 46 years. A of the Chicago area. and both the magnitude and orienta­ winter increase of about 10 percent is Average rainfall patterns, based on tion of the magnetic field carried by the also evident; the trends in the city heavier short duration (1 day or less) solar wind. during the spring and fall transition rainstorms during 1949-74 in the Chi­ On the basis of these results it is seasons are so near the climatologically cago area, strongly indicate localized possible that the third International expected value as to be considered of influences on the precipitation distri­ Sun-Earth Explorer satelhte, now in no consequence. The net precipitation bution. Heaviest storm rainfall occurs position in the solar wind, will send change over the 46-year period reveals over the city center when the more back data enabling accurate forecast­ an increase of 2.5 inches in the annual well organized (squall line and cold ing of both occurrence and intensity of rate in the Chicago urban area. In the front) heavy precipitation systems oc­ major auroral activities about 2 hours near downwind area, the urban- cur, but not when unorganized sys­ before they start. industrial influences appear to have tems produce regionally heavy rains. diminished precipitation in the colder Influences appear greatest when a months of the year and enhanced them squall line produces the rain. When Urban Effects on Weather in the warmer months. storm systems move from the north- In general, consideration of these wesL a secondary rainfall high is found Recent studies of seasonal and an­ trend patterns supports the concept of in northwestern Indiana, indicating nual precipitation around the southern local, urban-related increases in pre­ that urban effects may have extended end of Lake Michigan for 1931-76 have cipitation over Chicago, particularly in well beyond the city center. indicated the presence of apparent lo­ summer and winter. It also appears The results of this study are in close cal urban anomalies in precipitation in likely that local urban-industrial ef- agreement with the results from the 42 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

recent METROMEX (Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment) studies for St. Louis. That is, the urban influ­ ence on rainfall is greatest when well organized synoptic conditions are pro­ ducing heavy precipitation. The Chi­ cago area project is being directed by Stanley Chagnon of the University of Illinois, who was also involved in the earlier St. Louis research. The appear­ ance of an average maximum over the center of Chicago, as opposed to east of the center of St. Louis, may be due to the greater size of Chicago and the longer fetch for storm.s m.oving across the metropolitan area. These results suggest the potential for transferabil­ ity of the METROMEX results about rainfall distribution and synoptic weather types.

Downbursts from Thunderstorms

At 4:0.5 p.m. on June 24, 1975, East­ Dangerous weather. A downburst, a local avalanctie of rapidly descending air from a thunderstorm, was implicated in the tragic 1975 crash of an airliner at New York's ern Airlines Flight 66, coming in for a Kennedy Airport. Subsequent research to assess the incidence of downbursts showed landing, hit the approach lights 730 that they leave characteristic damage to vegetation, as in this wooded area (above) in meters short of the runway at John F. northern Wisconsin following a July 4, 1977, downburst. A subsequent field Kennedy International Airport in New experiment. Project NIMROD (below), in mid-1978 observed at least ten downbursts in York City. A total of 122 persons were the Chicago area in a 2-month period. killed and 12 others were injured. The cause was attributed to severe wind Project NIMROD Network (•)NCAR Doppler Radar shear—an abrupt change in direction O CHILL. Doppler Radar May 12-June 30, 1978 ° Glenview and speed—that the plane encoun­ O Non-Doppler Radar • NCAR Automatic Station tered. A meteorological investigation ' ISWS Rain Qage of the accident by Ted Fujita of the o ^O'HARE o Anemometer University of Chicago revealed that Northern Illinois University o „ the fatal wind shear was caused by an „ „ » • ° ° avalanche of air that descended from a L00P(t.S2 thunderstorm just to the north of the airport. Such a storm is referred to as a "downburst." An avalanche of de­ o Argonne National Laboratory scending air bursts out as it hits the ground surface. In 1976 Fujita, work­ YORKVILLEi ing on the assumption that strong downbursts result in permanent dam­ age to corn, trees, and possibly struc­ tures, began a large-scale search for downburst damage. He and his asso­ ciates found and photographed effects OMMO (NWS) of strong winds from downburst cen­ ters at various locations—such as corn ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 43

fields in Illinois and Wisconsin forests. in climate theory is to determine how and paleoclimatology met to exchange Some downbursts were only 1 to 2 much of climate variability is due to ideas on the problem of climatic varia­ miles across with an estimated active random, as opposed to nonrandom, bility and to provide scientific guidance life of less than 5 minutes. causes. for future studies. As a consequence of that successful Significant progress on this problem research, three agencies—NSF, the is being made as a result of recent work National Aeronautics and Space Ad­ by Klaus Hasselman and coworkers at Global Atmospheric ministration, and the National Oceanic the Max Planck Institute, who con­ Research Program and Atmospheric Administration- structed a quantitative stochastic cli­ supported a fact-finding experiment mate model that predicts key statistical Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction on downburst phenomena over the properties of the paleochmatic, or During the Monsoon western suburbs of Chicago in May long-term record. U.S. scientists have Since 1975 NSF has supported and June 1978 under the name of Pro­ been quick to recognize the importance oceanographic research in the Arabian ject NIMROD (Northern Jlhnois Me­ of this theoretical breakthrough in Sea as a precursor to the oceanographic teorological Research on Downburst). chmate research and have devised component of the Monsoon Experi­ One of NIMROD's major objectives is experiments to test Hasselman's ment (MONEX), the field phase of to determine meteorological charac­ model. which will occur in fiscal year 1979. teristics of downbursts in an attempt Initial results by John Imbrie and his MONEX is a subprogram of the inter­ to devise both methods and equipment colleagues at Brown University, using national Global Atmospheric Research capable of detecting downbursts in and paleochmatic data from deep sea cores, Program (GARP). A major objective of around the major airports and major show significant agreement between MONEX is to understand the complex metropolitan areas. observed and predicted time series of interactions between the southwest At least ten downbursts were suc­ climatic data. Imbrie is studying the monsoon winds and the mixed upper cessfully documented during the change in abundance patterns in ma­ layers of the Arabian Sea. experiment by Doppler radars and the rine organisms preserved in ocean The Arabian Sea is of interest scien­ automatic surface observation sta­ cores as a sensor of past sea surface tifically because it is the only large tions, operated by the National Center temperatures. Analysis of cores from body of water in the Northern Hemi­ for Atmospheric Research, while one the Santa Barbara Basin off the coast sphere that cools during the monsoon of the SMS weather satellites was of California, interpreted in terms of period from May through July, a period photographing the network area. past temperatures, has revealed a of intense net solar heating in that Some of these downbursts reached unique paleochmatic record. These region. Since the Arabian Sea lacks a speeds of 60 miles per hour and lasted ocean cores are thickly laminated and polar region to remove the excess heat, for several minutes. NIMROD data, can be resolved to intervals of every 50 an intriguing question is, "Where does which are being investigated, revealed years for the past 7,000 years. When the heat surplus go?" The disposition that there were more downbursts in the reconstructed paleotemperature of this thermal energy from the Ara­ thunderstorm areas than expected. By record for this core is analyzed by bian Sea has been shown to be impor­ virtue of their small dimensions (1 to spectral statistical methods, the ran­ tant for the development of monsoonal 10 miles) and short life (1 to 30 min­ domly caused part of the temperature rains over India. Thus, a MONEX ob­ utes), most downbursts had previously variability can be identified and ma­ jective is to try to understand how the escaped detection by ordinary weather thematically described. It is in this way Arabian Sea and the southwest mon­ radar. For instance, a downburst on that the observed paleochmatic data soon winds interact to produce the May 29, 1978, occurring 8 miles conform to the model predicted by the observed coohng and monsoon rain. southwest of Chicago's OITare Air­ stochastic theory. The results of these The cooling of the surface layers port, would not have been detected if studies will eventually greatly improve appears to be due to a combination of there were no NIMROD network. the feasibihty of climatic forecasts. cold water that is brought to the sur­ Continued progress requires better face along the East African and Ara­ understanding of the complicated sta­ bian coasts, deep mixing of the surface Climate Dynamics tistical procedures involved in spectral layers, and the direct cooling at the analysis. To this end, a major work­ surface through evaporation. Some On time scales of seasons or less, a shop on statistical modeling and spec­ clarification of these complex pro­ large part of the variability of climate tral analysis was organized in fiscal cesses was gained for the first time can be caused by random interactions year 1978 by the National Center for during this past year by results from a between the atmosphere and oceans. Atmospheric Research. Leading ex­ project directed by Walter Duing of the But a long-term fundamental problem perts in statistics, climate modeling. University of Miami. Duing has been 44 ASTRONOMICAL. ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

continuously monitoring the Somali ganized, deep, vertically developing mospheric Research, a consortium of Current, which runs along the west­ systems. While these cloud clusters 43 U.S. and 2 Canadian universities. ern boundary of the Arabian Sea and is occur frequently, only a few develop NCAR's research mission centers on strongly affected by the monsoon wind into hurricanes. One of his objectives selected problems in atmospheric system. Despite the importance of this is to classify the clusters into those that science of national and international current to seafarers for nearly 2,000 develop and those that do not develop importance and scope, and the devel­ years, until recently there existed no into hurricanes. opment and provision to users of single continuous time series from a Atmospheric data for the tropics, unique research services and facilities. modern recording current meter. except for that collected during organ­ Within the context of these mis­ A first long-term current meter re­ ized experiments like GATE, are sions, five general research objectives cord obtained by Duing from the re­ scarce. For that reason. Gray expanded guide the planning of specific NCAR gion indicates that the classical picture his available data base by combining programs: (1) better weather predic­ of a direct oceanic response to the the GATE data with 10 years of storm tion, (2) better understanding of cli­ forcing of the wind may be greatly data that he has analyzed from both matic trends and their causes, (3) in­ oversimphfied. It turns out that some the tropical Atlantic and Pacific creased knowledge about severe or the key features of the record are Oceans. His analysis technique permit­ storms to improve prediction and not related to fluctuations of the wind ted him to combine and sort the exten­ warning and permit evaluation of pos­ field, but are more likely related to sive data base into "typical cloud clus­ sibilities for modification, (4) improved large-scale oceanic eddies propagating ters" that develop into hurricanes and understanding of solar processes and northward along the coast. Neverthe­ those that do not. Gray computed a their influences on the interplanetary less, these measurements have demon­ measure of the horizontal rotation for medium, and (5) trends in and influen­ strated that the local winds greatly various levels between 0.5 and 12 ki­ ces on air quality. affect the seasonal variation of the lometers in the tropical atmosphere in Research during the past year in­ Somah Current. Thus, 1 month before which the cluster was imbedded. His cluded the "first echo" studies, which the large-scale onset of the southwest analysis showed large differences be­ deal with the initial development of monsoon, the Somah Current direc­ tween the vertical variation of this precipitation in thunderstorms as re­ tion reverses to a northeastward direc­ rotation measure for the two cases. In vealed by the appearance of radar tion. fact, the vertical variation of the rota­ echoes. These studies are necessary to The implications of these findings tion in the region of developing storms deduce the growth histories—the are important to the problem of pre­ was two to four times as large as in the microphysical events and the trajec­ dicting the behavior of the southwest environment of nondeveloping clus­ tories—of the first precipitation parti­ monsoon. Genuine improvements can ters. No other parameters that Gray cles that form in convective cloud occur only when the interactions be­ analyzed appear to be significantly turrets. tween the ocean and atmosphere in different in the two cases. Another important project, concern­ that region are understood clearly Gray concludes that the strongest ing the effects of thermal pollution, enough for successful modeling and influence on hurricane development is was a computer simulation of the heat simulation. It is anticipated that the the structure of the rotational charac­ input of a projected U.S. East Coast observations obtained during MONEX ter of the tropical environment in "megalopohs," a giant urban area re­ will further clarify the controlling which the cluster is moving. Because leasing heat to the atmosphere at the mechanisms of these interactions. large-scale rotation is a quantity that is same rate as Manhattan Island. In the routinely forecast in numerical mod­ simulation, precipitation increased New Potential Indicator of els. Gray's finding has the potential of over the megalopolis in general, but Hurricane Development improving the prediction of hurricane since the evaporation rate also development. increased, soil moisture content on the William Gray of Colorado State Uni­ western edge of the megalopolis versity has been analyzing data col­ tended to decrease, indicating that a lected in the eastern tropical Atlantic National Center for supercity of the future may induce region in the summer of 1974 during Atmospheric Research greater aridity in nearby regions. The the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experi­ regional effects did not appear to exert ment (GATE), a regional project of the The National Center for Atmos­ any influence beyond the region or in Global Atmospheric Research Pro­ pheric Research (NCAR) and the Na­ other parts of the Northern Hemi­ gram. He has been examining the de­ tional Scientific Balloon Facility are sphere, but the scientists caution that tailed structure of "cloud clusters"— operated under contract with NSF by further investigation is required to intense tropical storm regions of or­ the University Corporation for At­ delineate all the possible climatic im- ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 45

Atmospheric chemistry. Scientists from the University of Michigan and the National Center for Atmospheric Research build and test equipment at NCAR's Mesa Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, for use in studying the solar photolysis of nitrogen oxides in the troposphere.

pacts of sucfi thermal pollution. variability, since that has implications resources wisely for our benefit and In research on atmospheric chemis­ for the terrestrial chmate. for our very survival. Research in the try, scientists from the University of NCAR facilities made available to earth sciences is predicated on the Michigan, working in collaboration the atmospheric science community principle that the more we know about with NCAR scientists, found that the include its computing facihty, with one our spaceship the better we utihze it equilibrium among nitrogen dioxide, of the world's largest and fastest com­ without courting its and our own ex­ ozone, and nitric oxide in the tropo­ puters, a CRAY-1, and associated tinction. sphere, long thought to exist, may not equipment helping hundreds of scien­ In view of the great dependence of in fact exist. If true, this would indicate tists yearly in both modeling and data modern society on natural resources, the activity of other chemical species analysis. NCAR also operates a fleet one might expect that the major prob­ previously thought unimportant and of four instrumented aircraft and sup- lems of the structure and composition would require a rethinking of the se­ phes large radars, automated data- of the Earth would long ago have been quences of reactions now used in mod­ gathering systems, and technical solved, and that present work would be els of tropospheric chemistry. expertise to groups doing field experi­ mostly concerned with the details of Other NCAR and NCAR/university ments. The National Scientific Balloon how such things as the concentration research programs during the past Facihty, located in Palestine, Tex., sup­ of ore deposits, the accumulation of year were concerned with understand­ plies launch crews and engineering petroleum, and the movements of ing convective storms and other severe support to scientists whose experi­ ground water fit into the general laws. weather phenomena, with the physics ments are flown on large, high-altitude In fact, this is not true. Despite the of the upper atmosphere, and with balloons. These experiments are in great amount of excellent work that solar physics. A particularly important infrared or high energy astronomy, at­ has been done and the tremendous area of solar research has been solar mospheric science, and other fields. amount of knowledge that has been accumulated, we do not really know why the continents are where they are, how they originated, how mountain Earth Sciences ranges are formed, how earthquakes are related to volcanoes, or even whether the Earth is heating and ex­ The Earth is a spaceship, limited in possible habitat for the billions of hu- panding or cooling and contracting. size and limited in its total resources. man beings who ride it. We must. But we are making progress, and For the foreseeable future it is the only therefore, both conserve and utilize its some of it is spectacular. In the past 48 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

equivalence, the cornerstone of the 2-month cruises (legs). These legs have from the influence of continental theory of general relativity. cored every major ocean basin except masses. the Arctic. From the beginning, the Legs 56 and 57 in late 1977 involved Ocean Sediment Coring world scientific community has dis­ the drilhng of a transect of the Japan Program played tremendous interest and coop­ Trench. Results of that drilhng showed eration with respect to the project. that there is much more depression of The Deep Sea Drilling Project Many scientists from outside the Uni­ the ocean crust there than had been (DSDP) has been funded by NSF since ted States have made contributions previously envisioned. Evidence sug­ 1966 as the major part of the ocean both as participants aboard the Chal­ gests that during early Cenozoic time sediment coring program. The funda­ lenger or as members of the several (some 50 million years ago), Honshu mental objective of the DSDP, the advisory panels. Island projected much further east­ exploration of the Earth's surface The International Phase of Ocean ward into the Pacific than at present. beneath the ocean, is met initially by Drilling (IPOD), begun in October Five sites drilled in the northern Philip­ drilling and coring sediments and rocks 1975, has furthered this spirit of coop­ pine Sea contributed to a better under­ in the ocean floor. The University of eration, and IPOD presently receives standing of the complex tectonic his­ California manages the project for the $1 million annually from each of five tory of this area, where earher geo­ Foundation, and Scripps Institution of foreign countries, including the Soviet physical mapping had indicated a Oceanography is responsible for the Union, Federal Republic of Germany, simple origin of symmetrical scientific program. Global Marine, United Kingdom, France, and Japan, spreading. Inc., does the actual drilling and coring for its operational costs. Legs 59 and 60 comprised an east- operations using its drilhng ship Glomar In fiscal year 1978 the Challenger west transect across a series of ridges Challenger. operated in the area of the Western and trenches bounded on the east by Operations for DSDP commenced in Pacific Ocean. Intensive drilling was the Mariana Trench. This transect August 1968, and as of mid-September done in areas with historically active represents the culmination of years of 1978, 705 holes had been drilled by the tectonic signatures, of particularly old planning to examine in detail, with Challenger at 465 sites in a series of 61 ocean sediment, and in sediments far closely spaced drill sites, a tectonically

South Pacific drill cores. Leg 60 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project retrieved samples of rocks from the region w/here the Pacific and Asiatic plates collide. Left—Geologists Anatoly Sharaskin of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences and Patricia Fryer of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics check the color of recovered material aboard the Drilling Vessel Glomar Challenger. Right—Also aboard ship, Timothy Francis of the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences in Reading, England, and Seiya Uyeda of Tokyo's Earthquake Research Institute measure the dissipation of heat in drill core material recovered near the Mariana Trench. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 49

active ocean margin at its colliding practical maximum for this technique, sodes and provides one the best dated border. The results of this drilling gave since one of the diamonds actually sequences of Late Pleistocene multiple evidence that, at this point of collision underwent plastic flow during one of glaciation known. The culminations of between the Pacific and Asiatic plates, the experiments. This phenomenon- the four glacial events have been dated part of the overriding plate is being flow in a diamond—had not been ob­ at approximately 20,000, 55,000, subducted or carried under rather served before. 135,000, and 250,000 years ago. Glacial than, as had been suspected, being Because the diamond anvils are drift from the youngest icecap can be plastered onto the adjacent subducting transparent, the samples under pres­ traced almost continuously around the slab. sure can be observed visually and also 4,205-meter peak at the 3,500-meter Leg 61 was designed as a single hole, can be heated to temperatures as high level. Outwash fans from earlier glaci- multiple-entry site into older Mesozoic as 1,500 degrees C by laser beams. In ations extend to elevations below rocks in the Nauru Basin north of the addition, samples may be studied by X- 2,500 meters, near the level of the Caroline Islands. Older sediments ray diffraction and a variety of spec­ saddle between Mauna Kea and the away from the influence of adjacent troscopic techniques, allowing deter­ neighboring volcanic piles of Mauna continental masses were sought here mination of crystal structures and Loa and Kilauea to the south. in order to examine a particularly various chemical and physical proper­ An unusual feature of the volcanic- intriguing interval in the Mid-Creta­ ties. glacial buildup is the presence of glassy ceous (about 65 million years ago). surfaces and pillow structures in basalt The distinctive black shales of this se­ Glaciation on Mauna Kea associated with the two middle glacial quence, which occur in several places sequences, indicating volcanic erup­ in other ocean basins of the world, may Worldwide fluctuations of tempera­ tions beneath the glacial material. represent a worldwide period of rela­ ture during the Pleistocene Epoch (the Some cinder cones, of which there are tively low oxygen in the deep ocean most recent period of geologic time) approximately 300 on the upper slopes, basins. Such an event would have con­ resulted in episodes of continental and show evidence of having been built siderable bearing on present ideas of alpine glaciation and changes in the into lakes as much as 150 meters deep. the origin and accumulation of hydro­ temperature, volume, and characteris­ The last icecap had disappeared by carbons in the deep ocean. tics of the world's oceans. Estimates of about 9,000 years ago, shortly after the the duration and absolute amounts of withdrawal of the major continental cooling during the glacial cycles have ice sheets elsewhere. The presence of been based on dating of glacial depos­ Advances in High-Pressure those icecaps on Mauna Kea indicates a its, calculations of variations in snow Research lowering of the ancient snow line by lines at various places where glacial many hundreds of meters below pres­ High-pressure research made a sig­ deposits are found, and determinations ent levels. Such episodes probably nificant advance in the past year at the of oxygen isotope variations in glaciers coincided with the maximum extents Geophysical Laboratory of the Carne­ and in fossil marine organisms from of continental glaciation. Calculations gie Institution of Washington with the deep-sea cores. based on extent and thicknesses of attainment of a static pressure of 1.7 An unusually good record of multi­ glacial deposits give the equilibrium- megabars in a diamond anvil pressure ple Late Pleistocene glaciation is found line altitudes for the successive periods cell. This pressure, equivalent to that near the summit of Mauna Kea on the of refrigeration and provide a record of encountered in the Earth's lower man­ island of Hawaii. Geological studies by climatic fluctuations during the past tle, had previously been attained only scientists from the University of 250,000 years. during the passage of explosive shock Washington show that icecaps occu­ waves through experimental mate­ pied the summit of Mauna Kea four These climatic variations shown by rials. As a result, it is now possible to times during the past 250,000 years. the equilibrium profiles show a close directly observe phase chemistry of Glacial moraines and outwash deposits correspondence with climatic fluctua­ minerals at conditions of pressure and are interbedded with lava flows and tions inferred from studies on the temperature approaching those at the layers of pyroclastic material (tephra) isotopic composition of foraminifera boundary between the Earth's mantle erupted during the last phases of the (tiny marine organisms) from deep-sea and core. volcanic activity that built the moun­ cores of the equatorial Pacific region. The experimental technique consists tain and that ended about 4,500 years The volcanic and glacial record of of placing a sample between two pre­ ago. Mauna Kea thus provides an indepen­ cisely aligned cut diamonds which are Dating of the volcanic rocks by ra­ dent check on the accuracy of the ma­ pressed together. The 1.7-megabar dioisotope methods allows a close rine isotope chronology for the late pressure attained may represent a bracketing of the ages of glacial epi­ Pleistocene. 50 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

X Puu Makanaka

Dated rock samples

54,900 ± 8,500

^oUahu ^ (4,206 meters)

C ^^113,000 ± 15,000 Lake Waiau

130,000 ± 7,000

V Limit of Kuupaliaa \ Glacial Drift

85,000 ± 13,000 '-''^'^ °f Kauia Glacial Drift 88,000 ±15,000

273,000 ± 30,000

Waihu Glacial Drift // 375,000 <^ ,' ± 50,000 • Hale Poiial

PohafeJioa I Ranger • Station 19°

45' }

5 kilometers

155° 30' ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 51

operations are all influenced by the marine environment and all have an impact on it. From a practical stand­ point, NSF's basic research programs provide the basic understanding of oceanic processes necessary for the long-term management of these influ­ ences and impacts. The Foundation supports basic oceanography through two research programs and a program for ship op­ erations. Oceanography project sup­ port makes over 300 grants each year to permit individual scientists to study basic problems in physical oceanogra­ phy, marine chemistry, submarine ge­ ology and geophysics, and biological oceanography. The International Dec­ ade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) sup­ ports large-scale, long-term multidisci­ plinary projects, often with foreign Hawaiian glaciers. Geologic mapping around the summit of Mauna Kea volcano has participation. Four IDOE programs— defined the extent of separate ice caps that formed there during the most recent Ice environmental forecasting, environ­ Ages (left). The dating of associated volcanic rocks of comparable ages, such as the mental quality, seabed assessment, and cinder cone and lava flows in contact with the boulders of a glacial moraine in the photo above, has permitted precise dating of the glacial sequences. living resources—fund research on the ocean's role in climate, food produc­ tion, energy, minerals, and pollution management. Ships and other facilities and equipment to carry out these re­ search projects are supported by the Ocean Sciences oceanographic facilities and support program, which provides two-thirds of the total support for the 29 research The Fouttdation's ocean sciences ways with the atmosphere, with the ships of the academic fleet. This pro­ programs develop fundamental know­ sea floor, and with the bounding gram also upgrades these ships and ledge about the oceans and the ocean shorehne. facilities based on continuing review basins by supporting a broad spectrum As our understanding of the oceans and evaluation of ship performance of basic research dealing with physical, has broadened, so has the need for and material conditions and through chemical, geological, and biological research with increased scope. Because the design and construction of replace­ processes. These processes control the of this, a growing portion of NSF's ment ships. composition and motions of ocean wa­ research is multidisciplinary, looking ters, the nature and distribution of at several closely interrelated pro­ marine life and chemical species, and cesses and/or components from the Nitrification and the character of the sohd earth beneath perspective of the oceanic system as a the sea. For many of these processes whole. Denitrification in Marine there is still much to be learned by Concurrent with this evolution of Sediments studying them in relative isolation ocean sciences has been an increase in from the rest of the ocean. However, marine-related activities and growing One of the major chemical cycles in the ocean is, in fact, a complex dynamic public recognition of the relevance of the marine environment involves ni­ system of water, living organisms, the oceanic environment. Such activi­ trogen, which exists in nature in a dissolved chemicals, and sedimentary ties as fisheries, chmate prediction, number of chemical forms. Some of particles that interact within the ocea­ deep-sea mining, marine environmen­ these forms are major nutrients for the nic system. In addition, they and the tal pollution, exploration for oil and gas biosphere while others are better ocean as a whole interact in important on the continental shelves, and naval known as potential atmospheric poUu- 52 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC. EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

tants. As a result, the mechanisms and sediments at a station in Puget Sound, Interspecies Competition in processes that control nitrogen com­ Wash., that are inconsistent with that IVIarine Communities pounds and their distributions in the classical model. While the concentra­ marine environment represent a major tions of interstitial nitrate, nitrite, and Study of marine organisms and the problem area in marine chemistry. ammonia there did generally decrease communities they form has led to de­ One specific process important to with increasing depth, unexpected velopment of many fundamental con­ maintaining the amounts and availabil­ maxima were present at intermediate cepts in biology. During the past de­ ity of nitrogen in the ocean is the depths. The ammonia concentrations cade studies by Robert Paine at the diagenesis, or alteration, of nitrogen also generally increased with depth, University of Washington and others compounds in sediments. James Mur­ but, again, a minimum in concentra­ demonstrated that intense interspecies ray at the University of Washington is tion was observed at intermediate competition for space was the most studying the chemistry of interstitial depths closely corresponding to those significant factor in structuring the waters of marine sediments, with em­ for the nitrate and nitrite maxima. intertidal community of attached orga­ phasis on the nitrogen cycle, as a direct Because there is little or no sulfate nisms that cover rocks and other hard attack on this problem of nutrient reduction at depths of 25 to 30 cen­ surfaces along the margins of temper- alteration and regeneration. Denitrifi­ timeters, denitrification must be the are oceans. In these intertidal areas cation (any chemical reaction that re­ dominant microbial process in this re­ species diversity is relatively lov^. In sults in the reduction of oxidized or gion. Consequently, there must be a addition, the competition is hierarchi­ fixed nitrogen compounds) in seawater nitrate source operating in these sedi­ cal and its outcome is very predictable. having low oxygen content has been ments to balance diffusional losses. Each species holds a fixed position in an identified as a major sink for fixed That source would have to be biochem­ overall ranking of competitive abihty, nitrogen from the world oceans. Al­ ical in nature, since nitrate is not pres­ and a species of higher rank will always though a thorough investigation of ent in any marine mineral phases. displace species of lower rank unless denitrification in marine sediments in The results of this research, while restrained by an outside influence such general has not been made, the role of preliminary, could have far-reaching as a predator or storm damage. This denitrification in the sediments be­ implications. There is clear evidence of relatively simple competitive system of neath the low oxygen waters in the vertical zonation of the nitrification/ the temperate rocky intertidal was eastern tropical North Pacific Ocean denitrification process, with a strong widely accepted as a model for all ben­ has been estimated to be minimal. If suggestion that the mixing of intersti­ thic marine communities. this minimal estimate is assumed to be tial and oxygenated bottom water More recently, however, research by the usual case, nitrogen-containing could result from irrigation by bur­ Jeremy Jackson and Leo Buss of Johns compounds that manage to reach the rowing benthic organisms. It also ap­ Hopkins University has demonstrated surface sediments through detrital set­ pears that a horizontally continuous that this single model of competitive tling would be degraded according to layer could be formed where the popu­ relationships in marine communities is the classical picture, where bacterial lation density of organisms is high far too simple and is inadequate to deal oxidation of that sedimentary organic enough so that the fields of influence with a diverse subtidal community matter quickly uses up dissolved oxy­ of the individual organisms overlap. such as a tropical coral reef. Jackson gen. This irrigation mechanism could re­ and Buss examined competitive rela­ At that point, when the concentra­ present a significant means of chemical tionships among the roughly 300 spe­ tion of oxygen falls to near zero values, communication between bottom water cies of cheilostome ectoproct bry- nitrate is then used for the oxidation of and accumulating sediments. If such a ozoans that occupy about half the organic matter. And, when interstitial process is indeed active and wide­ cryptic, or hidden, surface area of Ja­ nitrate has been completely utilized, spread, it presents the possibility that maican coral reefs. These bryozoans sulfate reduction then becomes the marine sediments may be a more im­ are the common lacelike colonies found dominant microbiological process. portant nitrogen sink than has pre­ encrusting hard surfaces like rock, Under normal steady state diagenetic viously been thought and, conse­ driftwood, and shells throughout the conditions these processes would pro­ quently, play a significant role in the world oceans. duce smoothly changing profiles of nitrogen cycle in the oceans. Just as Competition between these cryptic nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia concen­ importantly, it points out the very coral reef bryozoans usually occurs as trations versus depth in the sediments, substantial effects that biological pro­ encounters along the perimeters of showing no intermediate maxima or cesses may have on chemical reactions colonies. Through careful attention to minima. in sediments and on chemical transfers colony morphology and orientation, Murray and his coworkers, how­ across the sediment-seawater inter­ Jackson and Buss classified the encoun­ ever, have recently obtained data from face. ters as a frontal, flank, or rear attack ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 53

and found that the encounters could major share of the metallic ores, and an that remains after the reef has been result in one of three outcomes: (1) one unusually sensitive and legible record altered by various geologic processes. colony can win and overgrow the of Earth history. Modern-day carbo­ If successful models of the carbonate other, (2) both colonies cease to grow nate margins have long been looked at margins are to be developed, then and coexist along the boundary, or (3) in order to gather clues to the locations knowledge of modern processes is es­ the colonies fuse into a single colony. and contents of ancient margins buried sential. No simple, hierarchical pattern of in geologic sections. Moreover, mod­ The shallow margins consist of competitive advantage among the bry- ern margins are valuable in their own reefs, shoals of carbonate sands, bare ozoan species emerged from these right as the sites of industry, tourism, rock outcrops, buried rock ridges, fos­ studies. Instead, the competitive rela­ and aquaculture, as well as being cen­ sil or nonactive sand bodies, and com­ tionships formed a network pattern in ters of shipping. Residential pressures binations of these elements. Sea level which, for example, species A may on margins like Florida, the Virgin fluctuations over existing topography usually outcompete species B, and spe­ Islands, and the Bahamas have made set up feedback loops where one kind cies B may usually outcompete species storm effects, beach stabilization, of barrier generates a new type of C, but species C may often outcompete coastal erosion, and ground water re­ barrier. Successive sea level events species A. Furthermore, numerous as­ serves items of intense environmental build complex stratigraphic histories, pects of colony morphology and concern. and deeper deposits are formed as reef growth affected the outcome of com­ Modern carbonate margins occur and lagoon sediments are transported petitions. The direction of attack and around the world at low latitudes; their to the adjacent basins. the condition of the antagonists were ancient counterparts are found world­ Until recently the processes by found statistically correlated with the wide and span the entire geological which the unconsolidated carbonated pattern of outcomes. Thus, the out­ depositional record. While studies of sediments become lithified or ce­ comes of most competitions were un­ fossil reef complexes are valuable, they mented together were largely un­ certain, and changes in the community can only reveal the geologic structure known. Recent work by Robert Gins- composition were unpredictable. This complex competition network found among the cryptic coral reef bryozoans appears to exist among many other groups of sessile (permanently at­ tached) colonial organisms. Conse­ quently, network competition may be the norm for the ocean, and the simple hierarchical competition of temperate rocky intertidal may be the exception. Our exploitation of the environment for food and shelter has frequently had serious consequences, simply because we have not understood the role of competition in nature. Manipulation of the ecosystem has often resulted in a gross elimination of competition, with attendant secondary problems. It is through this kind of innovative study of small segments of the ecosystem, even apparently esoteric segments, that a concise picture of the workings of an unexpectedly complex system will be formed.

Carbonate Reefs Ocean bottom reef. At a deptti of 1,050 meters (3,450 feet) the research submersible Alvin photographed this 2-meter-high cliff of bedded chalk near the Great Bahama Fossil reef complexes and carbonate Bank. Such deep-sea limestone is formed over millions of years out of sediments being platforms contain more than a third of transported into the depths from the shallovi/, coastal areas. The processes by viihich the world's reserves of petroleum, a limestone reefs grow are important to understanding the formation of oil deposits. 54 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

berg and Wolfgang Schlager of the International Decade of ture, tectonics, and vulcanism along University of Miami and Conrad Neu­ Ocean Exploration the East Pacific Rise. Although a mann of the University of North Ca­ number of submersible studies of ridge rolina has developed a more detailed As part of the International Decade crests have been undertaken in recent understanding of these processes. of Ocean Exploration's environmental years, project RISE will be the first They are studying the reefs by direct quality program a new project, SEA- study of a ridge crest with a medium observations and sample collection REX (Sea-Air Exchange), has been in­ spreading rate. In this respect it will from research submersibles. Data itiated to study sea-air exchange pro­ provide a valuable contrast to studies from the submersible dives are com­ cesses. Its specific objectives are: (1) to of slow-spreading ridges such as the bined with seismic profihng results, measure atmospheric fluxes of se­ Mid-Atlantic Ridge, studied during the drill samples from the reefs, and sedi­ lected heavy metals, manmade organic earher FAMOUS (French-American ment samples from the adjacent ocean compounds, and naturally occurring Mid-Ocean Undersea Studies) project. basins. One significant result of these organic compounds; (2) to identify the Prior research along this section of investigations is the discovery that two sources for these substances in the the East Pacific Rise had identified an major types of hthification occur—sea­ marine atmosphere; and (3) to investi­ area near 21° N. latitude as a prime floor and burial hthification. gate mechanisms of exchange of these candidate for the RISE project. In larra- Seafloor hthification produces substances across the sea/air interface. ary and February of 1978 the French crusts or layers of cemented rock that The first field studies in the SEAREX submersible Cyana made 21 dives in the are rarely more than 10 feet thick. project will take place in the western area. Three U.S. scientists participated However, the process is very fast on a Pacific on Eniwetok atoll, whose re­ in the French diving program. Perhaps geologic time scale, less than 100,000 moteness makes it ideal to evaluate the the most striking difference between years, which enables the seaward- global extent of anthropogenic pollu­ the RISE and FAMOUS areas is in the facing reef cliffs to maintain steep tants. An instrumented tower will be character of the basalt erupted onto slopes and provide a foundation for erected there to sample atmospheric the sea floor. In the FAMOUS area the further reef development. In contrast, fallout under both wet and dry condi­ basalt formed entirely as pillows, while burial diagenesis requires tens of mil­ tions. In addition to measuring the in the RISE area the divers were sur­ lions of years to produce thick perva­ rates of material falling or washing out prised to find extensive "lava lake" sive sequences of chalk and limestone. of the atmosphere, SEAREX investiga­ deposits of rather smooth, featureless Thus the structure and shape of mod­ tors will examine the chemical compo­ basalt. ern reefs and platforms are controlled sition of wind-generated sea sprays, a Although a major goal of the French by rapid hthification processes, but the mechanism by which metals and or­ program was to locate hydrothermal ancient equivalent deposit may appear ganic materials are transferred from vents such as those found on the Gala­ as a thick sequence of chalks and lime­ the sea surface to the atmosphere. pagos Rift in 1977, no active vents stones. Field work for the final phase of the were located on this segment of the These geologic models are now be­ Geochemical Ocean Section Study East Pacific Rise. On one of the last ing tested by additional geochemical, (GEOSECS) was completed in the past Cyana dives, however, a large field of structural, and field observations. year with water sampling at 52 sta­ dead clams was discovered. Since the Many details of the processes of depo­ tions in the Indian Ocean. These sam­ Galapagos study showed that such sition, hthification, and erosion of car­ ples will be analyzed for nutrients, extensive ridge crest faunal communi­ bonate platforms are still imperfectly metals, and particulate material. Preli­ ties surround hydrothermal vents, hy­ known. Although the cause of the minary calculations of the carbon diox­ drothermal circulation in this area rapid seafloor hthification of carbo­ ide pressure in surface water show probably ceased within the past few nate sediments is still unclear, it is that the Indian Ocean, like most of the years. quite clear that the process has a major Pacific and Atlantic, is a source of In March and April of 1979 the U.S. effect on the development of potential atmospheric CO2. research submersible Alvin will return reservoirs beneath carbonate banks. Supported by the seabed assessment to the 21° N. area to concentrate on The significance of a two-stage devel­ program, scientists from a number of geophysical investigations of the ridge opment of carbonate margin structure U.S. institutions are collaborating with crest. Using Alvin's impact hammer as and maintenance is only beginning to French scientists in a study of the East an energy source, ocean bottom seis­ be appreciated now. This may require Pacific Rise near the mouth of the Gulf mometers will be used to study struc­ reexamination of concepts developed of California. Project RISE (Rivera ture of the top few hundred meters of to explain the migration, entrapment, Submersible Experiment) wiU use both the oceanic crust. Magnetic and grav­ and alteration of organic material in­ French and U.S. research submersibles ity measurements will also be made corporated in reef structures. for detailed investigations of the struc­ from the submersible. ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 55

Ocean currents. As part of tfie North Pacific Experiment, changes in equatorial currents—which are linked to global weather patterns—are being studied intensively. This record shows results of remote temperature sensing along a north-south flight path between Hawaii and Tahiti (each contour represents a constant temperature). Boundaries of the major tropical currents are shown at the top.

In the environmental forecasting Initial results of the study indicate From CUEA studies off northwest program's NORPAX (North Pacific that the large-scale current systems in Africa and Peru, small herbivorous Experiment) project, oceanographers the central equatorial Pacific change copepods are recognized as inhabitants have completed a preliminary but in­ only slowly with time. To the north of the continental shelf regions, while tensive study of currents in the central and south of the Equator, however,, larger zooplankton and fish occur at equatorial Pacific. Between November changes occur over short distances in the shelf break. Apparently the con­ 1977 and February 1978 observations both current and temperature records. vergence of currents related to up- were made by aircraft on 13 round During 1979 monthly cruises and air­ welhng at the shelf break tends to trips between Honolulu and Tahiti, on craft fhghts wiU be used to observe low concentrate zooplankton and phyto­ two cruises of the Hawaiian research frequency fluctuations of the currents, plankton on which the fish feed. vessel Kana Keoki, and by drifting buoys to observe current response to changes and current meters. Additional meas­ in the winds, and to determine the Oceanographic Facilities urements were provided by instru­ seasonal cycles of the currents. and Support ments on nearby islands. The objective In the living resources program, of the study was to determine a syste­ analysis is continuing of data from the Facilities and equipment for ocean­ matic sampling scheme for oceano­ last field work in the Coastal Upwell­ ography are a perennial concern to graphic measurements in the same ing Ecosystem Study (CUEA). One scientists and to the various advisory area during 1979. The 1979 measure­ important discovery, concerning the and oversight bodies with responsibili­ ments will be closely coordinated with onshore-offshore distribution of bio­ ties for the health of national ocean the First GARP Global Experiment, an logical organisms, shows that plants programs. The Foundation is the lead intensive worldwide study of tropical and animals are not uniformly distrib­ agency in sustaining those ocean facili­ winds. uted in a coastal upwelling ecosystem. ties serving the academic portion of the 56 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

Nation's oceanographic effort. With tional and scientific capabilities of all instruments in a hostile environment the continuing dechne in support from fleet ships are sustained by the oceano­ impose special management problems. other major agencies, the Foundation graphic equipment program. In fiscal Thus the equipment study also em­ has assumed approximately two-thirds year 1978 a detailed examination of the phasized the need to link NSF's modest of the operating support of the 29-ship impact of this shared-use equipment technician support program to the research fleet; moreover, it is virtually program, now in existence for 8 years, management and maintenance of the only source of support for upgrad­ was undertaken by NSF staff and con­ shared-use instrumentation. Fiscal ing, maintaining, refitting, equipping, sultants from the oceanographic com­ year 1978 technician support for the and replacing elements of this fleet. munity. One overwhelming conclu­ major oceanographic institutions was In fiscal year 1978 NSF made a major sion of the study is that the ship approximately $1.2 million. award to Woods Hole Oceanographic operating institutions are not only The Foundation continued, in fiscal Institution for the first of an antici­ dependent upon this small program year 1978, to support design studies pated series of midlife refits of fleet for improvements for basic ship for coastal and polar ships. Two coastal ships. The award was specifically for operations (e.g., navigation, communi­ designs, approved conceptually in fis­ the reengining of the 210-foot re­ cations, auxiliary machinery) and per- cal year 1977, are being developed to search vessel-Aflo.nTib IL The term"mid- manep.t shi'^board sciep.tific installa­ the stage of final specifications for use life refit" apphes generally to a major tions (e.g., winches, cranes, cables, in future construction. The need for a and unusual overhaul and upgrading acoustic systems) but also, to an in­ continuing program of ship construc­ or replacement program for a ship's creasing extent, for data collecting tion to replace old ships and to modify basic machinery and structural ele­ instruments essential to the perfor­ fleet composition to meet changing ments. Such a refit is hkely to be re­ mance of specific research undertak­ research requirements has been un­ quired between the 12th and 18th year ings (e.g., seawater and seafloor sam­ derscored by reports of such groups as of a ship's expected service hfe of about pling, data management, shore the National Advisory Council for 30 years. The precise nature and cost laboratory analysis). Twenty-three Oceans and Atmosphere and the Uni­ of refits is a function of size, complex­ grants totaling $1.3 miUion were versity National Oceanographic La­ ity, and condition of each particular awarded for items representing this boratory System (UNOLS). UNOLS ship, but the justification is essentially entire range of oceanographic outfit­ oversees and assists the complex sche­ the same for all—namely, the con­ ting. duling of the academic fleet, which tinued operation of an effective re­ The collective nature of oceano­ continues to be used predominantly by search platform at reasonable graphic cruises—most of which com­ NSF-funded research programs di­ cost. bine and integrate the individual rectly in oceanography and also in The reengining of the R/V Atlantis U research of several investigators— global atmospheric programs, earth­ is a unique refit in that it involves the together with the high cost of field quake studies, polar research, and a replacement of steam engines with equipment, urge upon this science a wide range of biomedical studies. Use diesel engines of the type powering sharing approach. But, by the same of the fleet reflects the multiplicity of other academic fleet ships. The steam token, the requirement for accurate scientific activities relating to the engines of Atlantis II were originally cahbration and proper handling of world oceans. selected for their low noise and vibra­ tion characteristics in an era—prior to the energy crisis—in which their high fuel consumption was acceptable. In recent years, however, rising fuel costs United States Antarctic Research along with the larger engine room crew required for maintenance of the steam engines have combined to make United States research and support Virtually all the Foundation's ant­ Atlantis II the most costly ship in the operations in Antarctica constitute a arctic funds are expended as awards fleet. The cost of conversion to diesel year-round program funded and man­ for research projects and operational power will be amortized in several aged by the Foundation. This effort is support in Antarctica, but Foundation years by reduced operating costs, and unusual among the Foundation's pro­ staff and a number of grantees partici­ the 15-year-old Atlantis II is expected to grams because, in addition to support­ pate in international workshops and serve oceanography effectively for an ing research relevant to a number of negotiations that influence the compo­ additional 15 years. global scientific problems, it is the sition of the research program. In the Continuing efforts of a different principal expression of U.S. national area of science, these exchanges fre­ nature to maintain both the opera­ policy and interest in a world region. quently take place in the nongovern- ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 57

mental Scientific Committee for Ant­ this season on the Hobbs and Ruppert derstanding the relationship of ice arctic Researcli, a component of the Coasts of Marie Byrd Land, on the sheet activities to past and present International Council of Scientific Un­ Orville Coast, along the northern Ant­ global climate. An investigator aboard ions. In the political arena, exchanges arctic Peninsula, in southern Victoria the research ship Mas Orcadas managed occur under terms of the Antarctic Land, and in Enderby Land, East Ant­ to retrieve from the sea a piece of an Treaty, which reserves the Antarctic arctica. Meteorites were collected iceberg colored deep green; analysis for peaceful purposes, guarantees free aseptically from the surface of the ice revealed both organic and inorganic access to all parts of the continent, and sheet and were taken for analysis to materials, but the cause of the green encourages scientific research. the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in color is still unclear. These international discussions (and Houston, Texas. The Coast Guard icebreaker Glacier national ones too) have come to be Glacial geology was concentrated in supported intensive physical oceano­ dominated in recent years by concern the McMurdo Sound area, where Ross graphic measurements in the southern for the potential for exploitation of Sea glaciations have occurred in the Weddell Sea. Some 118 hydrographic resources and the environmental im­ last several thousand years. How fluc­ stations were occupied in a grid with pact of exploitation should it occur. tuations in the size of these glaciations spacings of 10 kilometers. The work is The discussions became intensive in relate to world climate is yet to be aimed at understanding the mixing fiscal year 1978. In October, the ninth determined. that leads to formation of bottom wa­ Antarctic Treaty consultative meeting, A flame-jet drill penetrated the 420- ter near the edge of the continental in London, produced two key recom­ meter-thick Ross Ice Shelf to enable shelf. Helicopters from Glacier put a mendations. The first urged the 13 sampling of the sea and sediments buoy on a large tabular iceberg for consultative nations to "refrain from below. A 5-year project to measure tracking by satelhte. Oceanographic all exploration and exploitation of ant­ movement of the ice shelf was com­ measurements made at the Ross Ice arctic mineral resources while making pleted. Airborne radio-echo sounding Shelf drill site and from the icebreaker progress toward the timely adoption of of the thickness of the ice sheet con­ Burton Mand in the Ross Sea gave infor­ an agreed regime." The second recom­ tinued in both East and West Antarc­ mation on circulation beneath the ice mended interim guidelines and estab­ tica; 25,000 kilometers were flown. shelf and on interactions between gla­ lishment of a definitive regime for These projects and others aim at un­ cial ice and the adjacent ocean. Ocean conservation of antarctic marine living resources. Some progress toward the living resources regime was made through the year in meetings at Can­ berra, Buenos Aires, and Washington. Both recommendations noted the need for additional scientific data for development of rational management policies, conservation measures, and environmental safeguards. The Foun­ dation supports basic research that will provide such data. However, the re­ search program, summarized in the foUowing paragraphs, generally re­ mains balanced among the disciplines of geology, geophysics, glaciology, oceanography, biology, medicine, me­ teorology, and upper atmosphere physics. Since the beginning of the U.S. Ant­ arctic Research Program 20 years ago, geological reconnaissance has identi­ fied the structure and the history of much of Marie Byrd Land, the Trans- Ross Ice Shelf. An LC-130 Hercules supply airplane arrives at Site J-9 in November antarctic Mountains, portions of the 1977, where the flame-jet drill seen in the foreground later penetrated the 420-meter Antarctic Peninsula, the Scotia Arc, (1,378 feet) thick ice to retrieve water and sediment samples from below. The drill site is and other locations. Parties operated 587 kilometers (365 miles) from the main U.S. support station at McMurdo Sound. 58 ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES

waves measured at the drill site, sev­ Synoptic surface and upper air ob­ tion, which has a 100-kilowatt very eral hundred kilometers south of the servations at the four U.S. year-round low frequency transmitter and a re­ ice front, were found to have periods of stations continued to contribute to the ceiver with a 21.4-kilometer-long di­ 1 to 15 minutes and amplitudes of a sparse Southern Hemisphere net of pole antenna that is geomagnetically few centimeters. meteorological observing stations. conjugate to a receiver at Roberval, In April and May the research ship Measurements continued at the geo­ Quebec. The studies center on the Islas Orcadas made a 54-day, 10,911- graphic South Pole on a number of interaction of waves and particles in kilometer {6,781-mile) cruise in the atmospheric constituents, including the magnetosphere. Waves induced by southwest Atlantic sector of the trace gases, aerosols, tritium, carbon the ground transmitter or by hghtning southern ocean for sediment coring to dioxide, surface and total ozone, halo- propagate into space along magnetic elucidate the older geologic history of carbons, and NjO. Measurements at field lines, grow in amplitude, and then the region and to trace prior flow of this remote spot yielded global back­ interact strongly with particles, scat­ antarctic deep water. A total of 120 ground levels and provide a basis for tering some downward into the iono­ stations yielded 69 complete piston predicting climatic change. sphere, where they colhde with ions or cores. Gravimetric, magnetic, and seis­ Investigators continued to take ad­ ' neutral particles, creating fresh ioni­ mic measurements were rriade to in­ vantage of Antarctica's high geomag­ zation, A-rays, and optical emissions. vestigate the spreading regime and netic latitude for study of the magnet­ Such effects are of fundamental inter­ fracture zone trends of the tectonic osphere and the ionosphere. The main est both in radio communications and plates in the area. Seventy-three con­ facility for these studies is Siple Sta- in solar/terrestrial physics. ductivity/temperature versus depth casts were made to trace the present- day flow of antarctic deep water and the Polar Front (Antarctic Conver­ gence). Arctic Research Biological projects focused on the marine ecosystem. Micro-organisms collected from seawater beneath the The arctic research program sup­ oceanic features and the broad, shal­ Ross Ice Shelf drill site yielded a count ports projects related to the environ­ low continental shelf favor this high of 8.7 to 12 milhon cells per liter. The ment and to the potential for resour­ production and exchange of biomass. data indicate a metabohcally active ces. It comprises about half the arctic PROBES uses the development of the planktonic biota, but do not establish research supported by the Foundation; life stages of the pollack as a biological an operational food web in this cold the other half is supported by various indicator of ecosystem processes and and dark place, since the populations disciplinary programs. mechanisms. could have flowed in from the Ross Vast amounts of protein are har­ In April through early July 1978, Sea. Zooplankton was studied in the vested each year from the Bering Sea, observations by two research ships— Ross Sea and on the west coast of the whose fisheries comprise about 4 per­ the 'Thompson and the Acona — Antarctic Peninsula; the life cycle of cent of the total world catch; nearly 75 documented that the study area is krill {Euphausia superha) received special percent of this quantity consists of influenced by two different water attention using seawater aquaria at the Alaska (walleye) pollack {Theragra chal- masses originating over the shelf and U.S. station on Anvers Island. A long- cogramma). The Bering Sea also sup­ the open southern Bering Sea. The term study of benthic communities in ports extensive populations of marine basic processes of organic matter McMurdo Sound was concluded, yield­ mammals, birds, and other fishes. De­ transfer and synthesis in each are asso­ ing details of reproductive biology and spite this high productivity, the pri­ ciated with different plant and animal survival for different age groups, Pop­ mary production does not appear ex­ communities and are phased separ­ ulation, behavioral, and physiological cessive; it is typical for a subarctic ately. Just why these regimes stimulate studies continued on penguins, flying ocean. The unexpectedly high second­ high biotic productivity remains to be birds, and several species of seals. Ter­ ary production is presumed to be a re­ learned in a later phase of the project. restrial biology included a survey of sult of effective transfer between pri­ Four U.S. geological projects aimed insect populations, further investiga­ mary and higher trophic levels. at understanding the geologic history tion of the remarkable populations of Processes and Resources of the Ber­ of the arctic island group of Svalbard micro-organisms living just beneath ing Sea (PROBES), now in its second took place during the past year. Sval­ the surface of rocks, and an ecological year, is a project designed to under­ bard has high significance to the geo­ study of lakes and soils in the ice-free stand these extraordinary transfer logical history of the Greenland- valleys of southern Victoria Land. mechanisms. The hypothesis is that Scandinavia area. Field work in July ASTRONOMICAL, ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN SCIENCES 59

and August comprised mapping of Pre- the Greenland Geological Survey at cier, which drains a substantial portion cambrian outcroppings over 150 Isua, Greenland, to do detailed survey­ of the Greenland ice sheet into Davis square kilometers, study of Paleozoic ing and sampling of the world's oldest Strait. stratigraphy, seismology, and geo­ known sedimentary rocks—3.8 billion In the Greenland Ice Sheet program, physics, and glacial geology and mor­ years old. The objective was to under­ airborne radio-echo sounding of ice phology. Norway administers the is­ stand the Precambrian environment of thickness and bedrock topography was lands under a 1920 treaty that grants the area and to obtain evidence of performed in April by a Navy-operated mineral rights on an equal basis to the organic molecules that are the precur­ antarctic airplane; in July and August ten signatories, which include the Uni­ sors of hfe. Another party at Holstein- ice core drilhng and surface glaciology ted States. borg collected rock samples for age took place near Dye-3, a Distant Early U.S. geologists joined others from dating. Glaciologists studied calving of Warning line station in southern the United Kingdom, Denmark, and the rapidly moving Jacobshavan Gla­ Greenland.

BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 61

Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences

erhaps the most sahent charac­ vertebrates with relatively simple research that continually pushes back teristic of research in biological, nervous systems that are amenable to frontiers is pivotal to the ability of P behavioral, and social sciences is analysis in molecular terms. The mo­ these scientific areas to contribute its rich diversity. Subject matter lecular biology revolution of the past long-term solutions. ranges from molecular dynamics to decades continues, but with an added An indirect index of the excitement complex ecosystems. Time perspec­ dimension. Advances are not limited to and opportunity that pervade the bio­ tives range from the picoseconds of the molecular level, but span many logical, behavioral, and social sciences photochemical reactions to the mil­ other facets and levels of biological and research community is the increasing lions of years involved in the cultural behavioral research and theory. The number of unsohcited proposals for development of humankind. Tech­ gains for society from this diffusion of research submitted in the face of de­ niques range from biochemical and knowledge, technique, and instrumen­ creasing expectations of support. From biophysical procedures used, for exam­ tation are already substantial, but the 1976 to 1978 the number of actions ple, to dissect membrane function to long-term payoffs will be immense. (awards, declinations, and withdraw­ the qualitative case-study methods Virtually every major problem faced by als) taken by biological, behavioral, and characteristic of work in the history contemporary society—population, social sciences programs increased ap­ and philosophy of science. nutrition, energy—requires signifi­ proximately 48 percent (from 4,993 to cant biological, behavioral, and social about 7,400). Competitive success ra­ Despite this diversity, many techni­ sciences knowledge and perspectives tios have dropped from 40 percent to cal and conceptual threads cut across for solution. The Foundation's role in about 29 percent, despite a substantial apparently disparate areas of science to assuring a healthy base of fundamental increase in the programs' overall provide an ever-increasing number of interfaces from which emerge signifi­ cant improvements in our ability both Table 4 to pose and answer important ques­ Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences tions. Basic research in biological, be­ Fiscal Years 1976, Transition Quarter havioral, and social sciences is certainly (July 1-Sept. 30,1976), 1977, and 1978 not unique in this regard, but these scientific areas are still relatively (Dollars in Millions)

young. Interdisciplinary activity is ac­ Fiscal Year 1976 Transition Quarter Fiscal Year 1977 Fiscal Year 1978 celerating rapidly, and its impact is Number Number Number Number visible in many areas. For example, of of of of evolution is now addressed in molecu­ Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount lar terms with a tremendous increase Physiology. Cellular, and Molecular Biology 1.053 $ 43.69 279 $12.00 1.169 $ 51 34 1,275 $67.64 in explanatory capability; plant scien­ Behavioral and Neural tists are now trying to specify the Sciences 539 19.69 140 5.47 619 23.81 737 28 47 molecular processes underlying the Environmental Biology 534 26.84 156 7.15 587 30.17 607 31.49 Social Sciences 364 18.81 100 5.11 375 21.29 419 24.25 regeneration of whole plants from vegetative cells; neuroscientists, con­ Total 2,490 $109.03 675 $29.73 2.750 $126.61 3,038 $141.85 centrating on the nervous system/be­ SOURCE: Fiscal Years 1978, 1979, and 1980 Budgets to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations havior link, are capitaUzing upon in­ (Quantitative Program Data Tables). 62 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

budget. Even though the rapid pace of ise of biological, behavioral, and social Structures of Biomolecules development in these areas of science science research have never been has exceeded NSF's ability to support greater. The Foundation is proud of its In the past decade many areas of all of the meritorious projects or to grantees' progress, a small portion of science have benefited tremendously support fully the most important re­ which is discussed on the following by the development of X-ray crystallo­ search, the health, vitality, and prom- pages. graphy and nuclear magnetic reson­ ance (NMR) spectrometry techniques for defining molecular structure. Un­ fortunately, their application to bio­ molecules has been limited. In the case Physiology, Cellular, and Molecular Biology of X-rays, diffraction from planes of atoms within a crystal gives rise to reflections whose intensities contain During the past several decades, important applications. For instance, the structural information. At a min­ experimental biology has changed the identification and isolation of imum, the number of reflections that markedly. Several developments—for pheromones—chemical secretions that must be measured to determine a example, the sophisticated apphcation affect the behavior of other organisms structure for a specific spatial resolu­ of isotope tracer techniques along with of the same species—is leading to new tion is proportional to the molecular improved methods of studying events approaches to insect control. Research weight squared. Consequently, many at the molecular level—were instru­ on the metabolic pathways of bacterial of the proteins whose structures have mental in producing what is commonly hfe forms that produce methane may been determined to date have molecu­ called the "new biology." The develop­ help to meet energy needs, as might lar weights less than 25,000. Similarly, ment of the double-helix model of the research on bacterial forms that pro­ the difficulty with NMR is that the chromosome and the exploitation of duce hydrogen. Advances in basic plant number of signals from magnetic nu­ the implications of this model pro­ science are leading to improved pro­ clei increases with the size and com­ duced new insights into molecular ductivity and will help meet world food plexity of the molecule. As a result, the events at the genetic level, mecha­ needs. spectra of biomolecules obtained with nisms of gene expression, and how A common link across many ot these existing NMR spectrometers contain genes regulate cellular activity. Much areas of biology is molecular biology, broad bands composed of overlapping of the current research in physiology, which has now become a tool in the peaks. However, recent developments cellular, and molecular biology grew investigation of structure and function are now extending the applicability of out of these past discoveries. at higher levels of organization. For both techniques to biological struc­ Rapid advances also have been made example, the estabhshment of changes tures. in such supramolecular areas as or­ in membrane fluidity underlying Conventional X-ray diffractometers ganism development; regulation of and temperature adaptation in some bacte­ measure a single reflection at a time. communication between cells, tissues, rial species, the elaboration of how the Now Xuong Nguyen-huu has built an and organs; structure at cellular and genetic machinery is involved in endo­ X-ray detector at the University of subcellular levels; and functional inte­ crine effects induced by steroid hor­ California, San Diego (UCSD), that gration of whole organisms. A few mones, and the investigations of ap­ can collect intensity data an order of examples of these advances are the pearance of certain enzymes in ex­ magnitude faster than by conventional increased understanding of hormonal plaining neonatal development of reg­ means. Fine wires are arranged in a action in both plants and animals, the ulation all illustrate the applicability of grid with spacings of 1 millimeter to roles of cyclic adenyl monophospate molecular biology to other biological give a compact square array with and cycHc guanyl monophosphate in fields. The diffusion of molecular bio­ 64,00_0 intersections; each place where mediating endocrine action, the dis­ logy does not mean that the "new two wires cross is an individual detec­ covery that these two substances are biology" is coming to an end. To the tor. Electronic delay lines then pin­ involved in regulating cell division and contrary, we now appreciate that there point which detector is struck by an organ size, the discovery of the regula­ are many more unsolved problems at incident X-ray. Using Xuong's multi- tory action of cell type by polar plasma the molecular level that require exten­ wire area detector, Joseph Kraut and in Drosophila eggs, and the analysis of sive future work. Experimental biol­ his students at UCSD made 80,000 sensors underlying the chemotactile ogy has developed a new dimension intensity measurements of 12,000 re­ response. wherein molecular techniques are used flections from a crystal of the enzyme Such progress in basic biological re­ to investigate the mechanistic basis of dehydrofolate reductase during its 6- search at all levels inevitably leads to a variety of supramolecular activities. day lifetime in the X-ray beam. Only BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 63

three crystals, one each of the native protein and two heavy atom deriva­ tives, were needed to obtain an atomic resolution map of the enzyme's struc­ ture. All the data were collected in just a few weeks. Without the new detec­ tor, many months and dozens of crys­ tals would have been needed, or the investigators would have had to con­ tent themselves with a bare outline of the protein's backbone chain. Building on Xuong's work, Martin Deutsch and his colleagues at the Mas­ sachusetts Institute of Technology are building a second-generation area de­ tector that will improve the resolution and further increase the size of macro- molecular structures that can be deter­ mined by X-ray diffraction. In studies of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, it may even be possible to determine the three-dimensional structures of some intermediates that are metastable at subzero temperatures. Resolving the broad composite bands in the NMR spectra of complex biomolecules observed with existing Improved information. A technique—nuclear magnetic resonance—used for studying spectrometers will require higher molecular structures has been markedly improved by the incorporation of a higher magnetic fields than are now used. To magnetic field. A preliminary test of the r\ew instrument on a large biomolecule— carbonmonoxyhemoglobin A—further resolves the fine details of signals produced by achieve this, Joseph Dadok and Aksel magnetic nuclei, with the higher frequency spectrum now possible showing seven Bothner-by of Carnegie-Mellon Uni­ additional peaks on the high field side of the methyl signal. versity have built a 600-MHz (mega­ hertz) nuclear magnetic resonance instrument. The key to their success is the development, undertaken in coop­ probe. The wide bore magnet that was occur will obviously enhance our eration with Intermagnetics General used is being incorporated into a Four­ knowledge of molecular genetics, cell Corporation, of a superconducting ier transform spectrometer with mul- differentiation, and regulation of cellu­ solenoid capable of maintaining a field tinuclear capability and is scheduled to lar activity. of 141 kilogauss with the stability and begin operation as a separate facility in For example, the binding of proteins homogeneity required for NMR meas­ January 1979. This instrument should to nucleic acids is one area where cur­ urements. greatly increase the information about rent techniques are able to reveal much In December 1977, proton spectra biomolecules obtainable from NMR about how such interactions occur. were obtained at full field strength and measurements. The NSF Annual Report for 1975 de­ 600 MHz with a resolution of one part scribed how it was found that the DNA in a billion. Spectra were obtained on in chromosomes is combined with sim­ the high field side of the methyl reso­ Interactions Between ple proteins (histones) in a regular nance of carbonmonoxyhemoglobin at Proteins and Nucleic Acids manner to give rise to a string of beads 250 and at 600 MHz. Seven additional (nudeosomes). Since then, Ada Olins peaks were also obtained at the higher As more has been learned about the at the University of Tennesse has de­ frequency. The 600-MHz spectrum properties of purified large molecules, termined that each nucleosome con­ was taken on the floor of the Intermag­ it has become possible to ask how these tains two each of the four histones netics General factory with the elec­ molecules interact with each other to H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Kensal Van tronics from the Carnegie-Mellon 250- produce functioning cell components. Holde at Oregon State University has MHz instrument and a makeshift Understanding how the interactions shown that a fifth histone. Hi, is in- 64 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

volved in the length of DNA between nucleosomes. Moreover, Jack Griffith at the University of Tennessee has de- has found structures similar to nucleo­ somes in bacteria. This is surprising because histones have never been found in bacterial cells; thus some other protein probably serves the same function in bacteria as histones do in higher organisms. The role of histones is being further elucidated by Ulrich Laemmli at Princeton University, who recently has shown that after the histones and the majority of nonhistone proteins have been removed from human chromosomes, the chromosomal DNA remains in an organized and reasona­ bly compact structure. He also has shown that it is possible to use en­ zymes to digest away almost all of the DNA from chromosomes and still ob­ serve a protein "scaffold" with the shape of the original chromosome. This observation shows that basic chromosomal structure is maintained by protein rather than by DNA, which is the macromolecule that transmits genetic information. A related area of research that has shown important progress in the past year concerns ribosomes—which exist in the thousands in every living cell. It is on these ribosomes that messenger RNA molecules, copied from chromo­ somal DNA, are translated into pro­ teins. These complicated ribosome structures each consist of a large and Central structure. This electron micrograph of a human chromosome—taken after small subunit and contain a total of 3 removal of most of the proteins normally present there—shows a central protein different RNA molecules and 53 differ­ "scaffold" (in the lower part of the picture) surrounded by a halo of DNA, The scaffold, and the DNA, determine the chromosome's structure. ent proteins. Masayasu Nomura and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin were able to purify the indi­ vidual proteins and reassemble func­ reagents. If two proteins are labeled tron scattering to measure the dis­ tional subunits from the proteins and and the rest are unlabeled, distances tances between pairs of proteins. Fi­ RNA molecules. This enabled a variety between the proteins in reconstituted nally, James Lake at the University of of physical techniques to be used to ribosomes can be determined by meas­ Cahfornia, Los Angeles, collaborating determine the three-dimensional uring energy transfer between the with Nomura and with Lawrence Ka- structure of the ribosomes, and paved fluorescent dyes. By replacing hydro­ han at the University of Wisconsin, is the way for assembly mapping. gen with deuterium in selected pro­ using a technique called immuno- Charles Canter at Columbia Univer­ teins, Donald Engleman and Peter electromicroscopy. With this tech­ sity is measuring the distances be­ Moore at Yale University, working nique, antibodies specific to individual tween protein molecules by labehng with Benno Schoenborn at the Brook­ proteins can be added to complete sub- purified proteins with fluorescent haven National Laboratory, use neu­ units, and the points at which the BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 65

S14 S13 T r S13

0° 110°

structure of ribosomes. Ribosomes, the sites mth'm cells where proteins are manufactured, are themselves made up of 53 different proteins. How these proteins fit together controls the function of the ribosome. A new technique adds antibodies for specific proteins to a subunit of the ribosome; where each kind of antibody binds to its specific protein (shown as darker areas) can be seen in the electron microscope, thus giving information about the three-dimensional structure of the ribosome.

antibody molecules bind can be seen in tissues perform their diverse func­ lecular mechanisms of membrane op­ the electron microscope. There is a tions. One of the areas that aims at the eration. consistency in the results that these resynthesis of the whole from its parts Many biological processes depend on different techniques have provided, is the physiology and biochemistry of "signals" received and transmitted via and a three-dimensional structure of membranes, the outer layers of cells. the membrane. For example, hor­ the ribosome is emerging. The revolution in membrane theory mones bind to a receptor on one sur­ initiated in the 1960's by cell biochem­ face of a membrane and activate an ist Peter Mitchel at the Glynn Re­ enzyme on the other; antigens bind to Physiology of Membranes search Laboratory in Cornwall, Eng­ an antibody embedded in the lympho­ land, is transforming our perception of cyte membrane, and the cell responds A vital aspect of biological research life processes as radically as molecular by proliferating or by manufacturing today is the fusion of traditional genetics did two decades ago. Al­ more antibody; cells interact at their disciplines—such as biochemistry, though enormous advances in knowl­ surfaces and initiate phagocytosis, fer­ physiology, anatomy, cytology—into edge about membranes at the cellular tilization, or their own joining into a "molecular physiology." Molecular level have been made, owing chiefly to tissue; and drugs, toxins, carcinogen- physiology attempts to answer the chemiosmotic theory, unanswered ins, lectins, phytotoxins, and hor­ question of how organelles, cells, or questions remain concerning the mo­ mones act via a membrane. The molec- 66 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

ular basis for transmembrane action is tution of membranes already provide cultures. In these cells a requirement receiving increased attention. evidence of the relationships between for certain substances known as cell Many of the processes of life depend the transport of ions and biological division factors (CDF) can be induced on the generation or modulation of ion control mechanisms, but the search for and then reversed by addition of CDF fluxes (especially of calcium) in the cell. regulatory factors is expanding. Un­ itself. Meins is testing the hypothesis Therefore, electrophysiological analy­ derstanding the molecular basis of that this trait, as well as other epige­ sis has been added to the technical membrane physiology in animals and netic events, involves a feedback loop repertoire of cell biologists. Recent plants plays a critical role in numerous mechanism; i.e., the addition and pres­ developments about the currents of biological applications. The impacts ence of a specific CDF ensures that hydrogen, sodium, and other ions that from such research will be widespread, more of the same substance will be flow across membranes show that with significance for marine animals in produced. In such a way, epigenetic these fluxes serve functions other than the aquatic food chain, food sciences changes may be regulated. those included under "bioenergetics." generally, human diseases and suffer­ The research of James Shepard at L. F. Jaffee and coworkers at Purdue ing, and the design and effective use of Kansas State University illustrates University have found that a current medicinal drugs. how such basic information can be of cakium is involved in controlling applied to produce plants with desira­ developmental events and localizing Plant Cell Culture ble characteristics from single cells. embryonic growth and that growth Shepard was studying the structure patterns may be altered by manipulat­ In 1902, Gottlieb Haberlandt pub­ and antigenic characteristics of potato ing calcium fluxes. The importance of lished a report of his study of the virus X when he conceived the idea these observations goes beyond just culture of single leaf cells. Haberlandt that he might obtain potato plants developmental and cellular biology. Ion was able to maintain the isolated living resistant to the virus by selecting sin­ transport not only supplies metabolic cells for up to a month, though they did gle resistant cells and inducing them to enzymes with inorganic cofactors but not divide. Haberlandt was discour­ regenerate entire plants. Because it also generates power and is now seen aged but nevertheless ended his report was difficult to culture potato cells, he to be part of the way cells organize by stating, "I beheve I am not making first used tobacco cells, for which cul­ themselves in the intracellular matrix. too bold a prediction if I point to the ture methods had been defined. He and The first step in the action of many possibility that in this way one could his coworkers isolated protoplasts peptide hormones, including insulin, is successfully produce cultured embryos from leaves infected with the virus and the binding of the hormone to specific from vegetative cells." then induced the protoplasts to divide receptors on the surface, or cell mem­ It is now well established that em­ and produce populations of cells. brane, of the target cells. The basic bryos, even entire plants, can be regen­ Plants regenerated from these cultures concepts about receptors and hor­ erated from vegetative cells. What re­ were screened for resistance to the mones were formulated over 50 years mains unknown are the underlying virus by comparing the number of ago, but our understanding of recep­ mechanisms involved. Present re­ lesions produced in regenerated plants tors has advanced only recently. Mod­ search focuses on both the regenera­ with the number produced in wild ern studies show that the receptor is tion of entire plants from protoplasts plants. Results showed an increased actively regulated in a wide range of (a single plant cell minus its cellulose resistance in the regenerated plants. physiological and pathological states. wall) and on the differentiation process Now Shepard is working with a food The affinity of hormone for receptor itself. crop plant, the Russet Burbank potato, and the concentration of receptor re­ The plant cell culture technique pro­ the popular baking potato. By manipu­ spond rapidly to events inside and vides unique opportunities to investi­ lating the CDF requirements through outside the target cell. For example, gate the cellular and molecular basis of successive transfers of protoplasts to most diabetic patients have been found differentiation. The fact that whole altered media, thus putting to practical to have abnormalities of their insulin plants can be regenerated from the use basic information of epigenesis, he receptors that correlate with abnor­ progeny of single differentiated cells is has been able to regenerate plants. malities in glucose tolerances and in­ evidence that developmental events do Present work, supported as part of sulin sensitivity. These findings sug­ not require fundamental changes in NSF's Applied Science and Research gest that receptor abnormaUties play the genetic material. Instead, an or­ Applications programs, focuses on fu­ an important role in human disorders. derly progression of events produces a sion of protoplasts of virus-resistant With the development of improved multicellular organism. The basis of plants to Russet protoplasts, which are methods for isolating membranes, rap­ this process, called epigenesis, is being extremely susceptible to a number of id progress is occurring at the molec­ investigated by Fred Meins at the Uni­ diseases, and field testing plants regen­ ular level. Fractionation and reconsti- versity of Illinois using tobacco cell erated from these fused cells. BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 67

logical work has provided convincing Behavioral and Neural Sciences support for a linear systems viewpoint. This general approach may provide the necessary key to the successful use of computers in reading patterns and Neuroscience and cognitive science ces in New Delhi, India, in December illustrates the vital importance of both are the most rapidly advancing re­ 1978. perceptual and physiological ap­ search areas being supported by NSF As methods and techniques for proaches to questions of common in­ programs in the behavioral and neural studying the development of complex terest. sciences. In neuroscience the use of behavior in humans and other animals simple systems, together with new have improved in the past few years, Cognitive Representation staining techniques, has greatly ex­ the number of high-quality proposals panded our ability to study, at the received and the amount of NSF sup­ A basic controversy among cognitive cellular level, the nervous system's role port have increased. Research examin­ scientists concerns the nature of our in the production of behavior. Cogni­ ing the role of early experience on mental representation of the world. tive science constitutes an emerging social attachment, acquisition of lan­ Some theorists maintain that the in­ area of inter- and multidisciplinary guage, problem-solving ability, and formation stored in long-term me­ research addressing the human abihty temperament illustrates how genetic mory is in the form of a single abstract to gain and use knowledge and to heritage and environmental influences code that represents not only factual process information. New innovative interact in determining human and knowledge but also physical and visual methods allow increasingly objective animal behavior. information, such as the kind of and quantitative investigation of men­ An exciting development in the lab­ knowledge that permits recognition of tal processes, including the use of lan­ oratory study of animal learning and faces or placement of hands to catch a guage. motivation is the 'integration of theo­ baU. Other areas of behavioral science retical and empirical work on the na­ Other researchers propose a dual- have been active as well and, indeed, ture of reward processes. This work code theory of representation. Accord­ the vitality and opportunity for con­ combines ideas from the study of ing to this theory there are two distinct tinued growth remains high. Two NSF species-typical behavior, evolutionary memory stores or codes, called visual initiatives in anthropology are espe­ biology, and microeconomics. Investi­ and verbal memories. Verbal memory cially noteworthy. In the newly imple­ gation of how behavior is controlled by is contacted when language is compre­ mented program for support of syste­ the scheduling of rewards, such as hended; visual memory, when pictures matic anthropological research food, and the context within which the are perceived. The nature of the rep­ collections, 34 proposals were received schedule operates is leading to new resentation in these two memory in fiscal year 1978 and 10 awards made. understanding of basic timing, count­ stores differs in somewhat the same The initial investment of approxi­ ing, and memory mechanisms in ani­ way that a sentence differs from a mately $300,000 will significantly en­ mals. It is also providing information picture: The verbal memory stores hance research utilizing these valuable on how these mechanisms may guide propositions and the visual memory collections. The second area, research foraging strategies in the wild. stores images. on human origins, is reaching a sophis­ Recent theoretical and experimental Lynn Cooper at Cornell University ticated stage in which a well coordi­ studies of vision have laid the ground­ believes that imagery plays as funda­ nated international program of re­ work for advances in the understand­ mental a role in cognitive representa­ search can be expected to yield ing of visual perception. A new concep­ tion as do propositions. In work ex­ substantial new understanding. (Pub­ tual development makes use of the tending and refining earlier research lic interest in such research is evident linear systems approach, which rehes by Roger Shepard at Stanford Univer­ from the demand for the November 7, on Fourier analysis and synthesis as a sity (reported in the 1974 NSF Annual 1977, issue of Time, which reported on mathematical tool. Any waveform, Report), she is investigating the phe­ Richard Leakey's work in this area. such as that representing the distribu­ nomenon of "mental rotation." Coop­ This was the largest selling issue of tion of a pattern of light on the retina, er shows her subjects a picture of an Time in 1977.) A conference on human- can be synthesized from a number of unfamiliar shape and asks the subjects origin research was organized and con­ sinusoidal components. For several to imagine the shape rotating in space. ducted at the Foundation in May 1978. years psychophysicists have been dem­ While they are doing this, she shows The conference report was discussed onstrating that the visual system them another picture, which is either at the International Congress of An­ works "as if" it were processing such the same shape or a slightly different thropological and Ethnological Scien­ components. Recently, electrophysio­ shape, and asks the subjects to judge 68 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

whether the second picture is the same as or different from the first. Some­ times the second shape has been ro­ tated to an altered angle with respect to the first. The amount of time it takes subjects to make the same/different judgment is measured. When the second image is in the angle the subjects are "expect­ ing" (that is, when it is at an angle corresponding to the angle their men­ tal image of the shape had attained at that point in their mental rotation of it) they are able to make the judgment significantly more quickly than when it is at an unexpected angle. The time required for the same/different judg­ ment is constant for any angle of the second shape, as long as it is expected. The greater the departure from the expected orientation, the longer the time period required for the subjects to make the judgment. By systematically varying the shape displayed. Cooper has been able to show that this phenomenon is inde­ pendent of the complexity or any other inherent property of the rotating shape. Her results thus provide further support for the hypothesis that our cognitive representation cru­ cially involves representations of a visual type, which can undergo contin­ Nervous system. The enzyme horseradish peroxidase, if injected into a cell, can be detected subsequently in the progeny cells that result from division. In his study of uous transformations that simulate nervous system development, Gunther Stent at Berkeley emplaced the enzyme in one physical processes in the external of the two cells in the very young leech embryo that give rise to the adult nervous world, such as rotation around an axis. system. Later, following cell division, one half of the embryo's developing nervous The systematic transformations in­ sytem, labeled with the enzyme, can be clearly visualized. This technique permits ferred from this and related work pro­ tracing the neural development through many stages of growth. vide physiologists with an intriguing neural process to explore. Determin­ ing how and where such transforma­ nervous system functions, the most gle neuron; and (4) their nervous sys­ tions occur in the human brain will not promising approaches to understand­ tem, consisting of only a few neurons, be easy, but even partial answers ing the cellular basis of behavior are makes it relatively easy to study the should provide important insight into emerging from the study of simpler neural basis of simple behaviors. how the human brain functions. organisms. Invertebrates have been Gunther Stent at the University of utilized successfully for several rea­ California, Berkeley, is studying the Invertebrate Neurobiology sons: (1) their large, easily recognizable embryonic development of the leech cells can be studied electrophysiologi- nervous system. Having analyzed neu­ The human brain has billions of cells cally and biochemically; (2) their ner­ ral circuits responsible for movement and multiple times as many connec­ vous systems survive well in isolation; in adult leeches, he is attempting to tions. While noninvasive techniques, (3) their many neurons that do not elucidate the developmental mecha­ using healthy subjects and subjects vary and can be repeatedly located nisms that give rise to these neural with brain dysfunction, provide some from animal to animal facihtate study circuits. Using a new technique of information about how the central of the developmental history of a sin­ intracellular tracer enzyme injection. BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 69

he is able to analyze nerve cell lineage. labeled particles. Two transport sys­ the convergence of developmental, an­ Leech eggs, which may be raised from tems have been identified for the flow atomical, physiological, and bio­ the uncleaved state in a simple salt of cytoplasm through the neuron, one chemical approaches to provide infor­ solution, undergo orderly cleavages to fast (about 400 millimeters per day) mation about the cellular basis of produce easily detected pairs of large and one slow (about 0.5 to 3 milli­ nervous system function and forma­ cells, or teloblasts, which give rise to meters per day). Aplysia lends itself to a tion. As better understanding of the most of the tissues of the adult, large number of biochemical and fundamental principles of neuron sys­ including the nervous system. Cell immunocytochemical manipulations tems in these relatively simple orga­ cleavages leading to the teloblasts can on these systems. nisms is gained, neuroscientists will be be observed under the dissecting These examples illustrate how in­ able to deal more effectively with the microscope. An enzyme, horseradish vertebrate preparations are promoting infinitely more complex human brain. peroxidase, which leaves behind an identifiable reaction product, can be injected into identifiable cells at very early stages of development. With continuing development, the lineal Environmental Biology descendants of the injected cells thus receive some of the injected enzyme along with the parental cytoplasm. NSF supports basic research in the basic genetic material. For example, Intracellular techniques that allow broad areas of systematic and popula­ birds constitute the most completely electrical recording from a single nerve tion biology, ecology, and ecosystem known large group of animals, and few cell followed by injection with horse­ studies. In addition, it provides limited species exist that have not been de­ radish peroxidase for visualization are support for a variety of biological re­ scribed. Nonetheless, our understand­ also being utihzed. This systematic search resources, such as systematic ing of the origins and interrelation­ approach is a very powerful way to collections of national importance, ships of many of the subgroups of birds gain insight into the development of sites for field research, and culture is problematic. The third project de­ nervous systems. collections. scribed in this section illustrates the Graham Hoyle at the University of The specific interactions that regu­ use of direct DNA comparison to Oregon is using another organism late the distribution and abundance of approach these problems. with a simple nervous system, the the species of plants, animals, and locust, to study the cellular basis of micro-organisms that collectively Resource Partitioning learning. The locust learns readily constitute communities and ecosys­ through simple conditioning proce­ tems is an area of high interest in Competition among species for the dures. The animal can learn to exhibit a current ecological research. Two re­ use of environmental resources has specified behavior not only to obtain a cent studies, described on the follow­ long been one of the major foci of food reward but also to avoid or escape ing pages, illustrate the progress re­ research in ecology. Over the years, unpleasant ambient temperatures and sulting from this interest. One field and laboratory observations have an annoying vibratory stimulus. Using examines the partitioning of resources contributed to the growth of an exten­ electro-physiological recording, Hoyle among httoral-zone fish in lakes and sive body of information and theory has identified the motor neurons among plant species in old fields and about how competition influences the controlling leg movement and is also prairie. The other examines the effects distribution and abundance of species investigating the sensory pathways. of vertebrate and invertebrate herbi­ and how it determines the composition James Schwartz at Columbia Uni­ vores on the metabolism and produc­ of plant and animal communities. Gen­ versity, a neurochemist, is utilizing a tivity of the prairie plants on which erally, these observations were based single identified neuron in the central they graze. on only a few species and often re­ nervous system of the giant sea slug, Evolutionary biologists continue to flected highly simplified environmen­ Aplysia, to study axonal transport. By supplement traditional methods of as­ tal conditions. It was easy to show that making use of an intracellular pressure sessing present and past relationships some species exerted strong and direct injection system, he can introduce with analytic techniques probing mo­ detrimental influences on others and small volumes of concentrated radioac­ lecular structure. Of these new bio­ thereby influenced the use of re­ tive precursors, proteins, or small par­ chemical methodologies, those provid­ sources. But the heart of the ques­ ticles directly into the cell body. Kinetic ing direct quantitative comparison of tion—whether these differential effi­ analysis allows for direct microscopic DNA from different species promise to ciencies in exploitation of resources observation of the movement of the reveal average rates of change of the that were in short supply were an 70 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

important restrictive mechanism in nature—remained unanswered. Re­ 60 cent studies address this question. At iVlichigan State University's Kellogg 1 Old Field Biological Station, Earl Werner, collab­ orating with Donald Hall and Patricia 40- Werner, is studying resource parti­ 0) tioning among species of both fresh­ o water fish and old field plants in order 2? 20 to determine the precise mechanisms 3 of competition in natural communities. O O Solidago species: Earl Werner and Hall are concentrat­ O 1 S. nemoralis ing on communities of centrarchid 2 S. missouriensis fish, the family containing the bass and >< 3 S. speciosa sunfish, that dominate the faunas of o 4 S. canadensis c freshwater ponds and lakes in the East­ 0) S. graminifolia ern United States. Methods range 60- (D from censusing fish populations in natural situations (using SCUBA tech­ niques) to studying feeding activities 40 H of individual fish under closely con­ trolled conditions in the laboratory. Werner also experimentally manipu­ lates species combinations in outdoor 20 H artificial ponds in which habitat condi­ tions are controlled. Werner and Hall analyzed partition­ ing among species by stocking three common species of the same genus of 10 20 sunfish—bluegill, green sunfish, and Soil Moisture (percentage) pumpkinseed—in four combinations: together in equal numbers in one arti­ ficial pond, and each species separately Interspecies competition. Six species of goldenrod, when growing in climax prairie in otherwise identical ponds. When stands (mature, stable ecosystems), are clearly segregated in growth habit according to soil moisture. Five of those same species, growing in a younger community stocked separately, the diets of the (abandoned farmland) show far less segregation. Experiments with these plants are three species are quite similar; all feed leading to improved knowledge of the effects of competition on plant growth. on prey living in the preferred forage vegetation. But when the three species are stocked together, only the green Alternatively, bluegills and large- In related research, Patricia Werner sunfish occupies the preferred mouth bass, which have nearly identi­ is concentrating on competitive pro­ habitat—littoral vegetation. The blue- cal depth distributions in midsummer, cesses among herbaceous plants that gill then preys principally in the open partition their food resources by food occupy early stages of secondary suc­ waters, while the pumpkinseed feeds size rather than location. (The mouth cession in forested areas, such as in and above the sediments at the of the latter is obviously adapted to southern Michigan, but exist as center of the pond. larger prey items.) Clearly, the re­ members of mature chmax prairie In natural situations Werner and source partitioning observed under communities farther west. These Hall found that populations of lit­ natural conditions can result from re­ plants, which exhibit a diversity of life toral-zone fish segregate by the place strictions due to interspecific compe­ forms, phenologies, and hfe-cycle pat­ and time of their feeding activities, tition such as was observed in the ar­ terns, offer broad opportunities for thereby partitionirtg food resources. tificial pond experiments. (For this examining specific mechanisms of Spatial segregation is reflected by research. Earl Werner received the plant competition. For example, depth distribution, such as is exhibited Ecological Society of America's 1978 Werner has demonstrated that the low by the green sunfish, which clearly Mercer Award for excellence of pub­ growing rosette that develops during restricts its feeding to shallow waters. lished research in ecology.) the first year of the biennial European BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 71

teasel shades out the surrounding community structure in order to ob­ synthesis to construction of new area, thus suppressing the growth of tain an in-depth understanding of con­ photosynthetic tissue, whereas control surrounding competitors and creating sumers as regulators of ecosystems. plants allocate less than one-third. The an opening in which young teasel seed­ The team, headed by James K. Detling blue grama response to grazing, then, lings can germinate in the next season. of the Natural Resource Ecology Lab­ is rapid reestabhshment of its car­ In its second year the original plant oratory at CSU, includes Carlos A. bon-gain capacity at the expense of produces only a tall, slender, flowering Bonilla, Department of Physiology and root growth. At least for a time, graz­ stalk. Biophysics; John L. Capinera, Depart­ ing increases metabolic growth re­ She is also studying competitive pro­ ment of Zoology and Entomology; and sponse of the plant, which increases cesses among six species of golden- Cleon Ross, Department of Botany plant production above ungrazed rods that differ in growth form, vege­ and Plant Pathology. controls. As grazing intensity in­ tative reproduction, and soil moisture The group, which is particularly in­ creases beyond an optimal level, how­ relations. All six species occur in climax terested in the response of plants to ever, plant production declines. prairie stands in Iowa, and five of them herbivore feeding, is examining the The laboratory results were con­ are found in successional old fields (i.e., idea that herbivores serve not only as firmed in field studies in nearly pristine in abandoned agricultural or pasture "mowing machines" but also as "innoc- prairie and in agricultural crops. Initial land) in southern Michigan. In old ulators" of salivary biochemicals. results indicate that herbivores have a fields, these species show some limited These salivary biochemicals seem to larger and different impact upon the segregation in response to difference act as plant growth regulators, causing prairie than previously imagined. Re­ in soil moisture. In the climax prairie a series of metabolic changes that facil­ lated work has shown that field corn community, however, this segregation itate more rapid regrowth than that ears that had been damaged to simu­ is sharp and striking. The extent to following mechanical damage alone. late bird and insect attack exhibited a which competition is directly responsi­ Laboratory bioassays of a variety of considerable amount of compensatory ble for the partial segregation in field vertebrate and insect salivas indicate growth following damage; previous communities of perhaps 25 years in age that several may contain plant growth experiments suggested that protein and strong segregation in climax com­ regulators. This initial screening is content increased as well. munities that have been undisturbed being checked by studying whole-plant for centuries is being determined. response. Blue grama grass {Bouteloua Shoots of each species, taken from gracilis), the dominant grass of the The Relationships of vegetative clones, were transplanted at North American shortgrass prairie, is Flightless Birds different points along the moisture being studied intensively. Blue grama gradients in both prairie and field. The grass appears especially well adapted to The living ratite (flightless) birds growth of the shoots is being followed grazing since it evolved under consid­ include the ostrich (Siruthio) of Africa, both in the face of competition from erable grazing pressure from a variety the two South American rheas {Rhea), other plants and in the absence of such of herbivores, including the North the emu {Dromaius) of the Australian competition. Transplants of field American bison and several insects. plains, the forest-dwelling cassowaries plants to prairie sites, and vice versa, The grazing process is simulated in the (Casuarius) of New Guinea and north­ also have been done to determine the laboratory by clipping blue grama eastern Austraha, and the three spe­ extent to which local populations are plants and then adding saliva to them. cies of kiwis [Apteryx) of New Zealand. genetically adapted to their regional After 10 weeks those plants that re­ The relationships among these flight­ conditions. By combining field studies ceived this "light grazing treatment" less birds and between them and the with laboratory investigations, valu­ increased total biomass by 13 percent groups that fly—especially to certain able new insights of competitive pro­ over controls that were not clipped. neotropical species (the tinamous)— cesses in plants are being gained. Although the immediate effect of have been debated for more than a Impact of Herbivory on grazing is a 60-percent reduction of century. photosynthesis in the remaining The present geographical isolation Plant Growth, Metabolism, shoots, photosynthesis capacity recov­ of the southern continents from one and Productivity ers rapidly. In 3 days it ranges from 21 another and the numerous anatomical to 33 percent greater than unchpped differences among the ratites have Scientists at Colorado State Univer­ controls. This higher level of photo­ been used to argue that each of the sity (CSU) are examining the impact of synthesis is retained over a 10-day groups had a separate origin. But a variety of vertebrate and inverte­ period. What is happening is that flightless birds share structural and brate herbivores on plant metabolism clipped plants allocate over one-half of behavioral characteristics and common and productivity, seed production, and the material produced in photo­ parasites, which suggests a common 72 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

ancestry. The fossil record has been of Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist be separated ("melted") by heating the little help in resolving the controversy at Yale University are comparing the DNA in solution to a temperature that since the evidence is inconclusive. The sequences of units of the genetic mate­ will rupture the chemical bonds be­ generally accepted theory of continen­ rial of the ratites with one another and tween the base pairs. Upon cooling, the tal drift suggests that the ratites prob­ with that of many other groups of complementary bases reassociate ran­ ably reached their present locations on birds to assess their similarities. The domly, and a new double-stranded the fragments of the protocontinent of technique they are using takes advan­ molecule forms. This property of "se­ Gondwanaland. Their genetic diver­ tage of the fact that DNA is a double- quence recognition" permits DNA's gence, therefore, may be expected to stranded helix of complementary from two different species to be mixed reflect the history of the land masses chemical units called nucleotides. The together, melted into the single- upon which they now live. two strands of the DNA molecule can stranded condition, and allowed to

Cassowary (Australia)

Rhfi.a

Tlnamou (South America)

Ostrich (Africa)

Common Origin

Phylogenetic free. A new technique that compares the similarities between DNA molecules (the carriers of basic genetic information) of different organisms gives a measure of how closely they are related—i.e., at what point they diverged from a common ancestor. Applying the technique to the living flightless birds (and to the similar-appearing flying tinamous) leads to this proposed relationship, which would generally be expected if populations of birds had become separated by the breakup and drifting apart of continents. (The numbers represent relative differences in DNA.) BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 73

form "hybrid" molecules as they cool. family. Values from 10 to 15 denote accommodate competing goals. The temperature required to melt the members of different families in the Among recent developments in hybrid molecules is then determined same order, and above 15, members of economic theory, the "rational expec­ and compared with the melting different orders. In other words, these tations" hypothesis and new mathe­ temperature of control DNA samples. numbers can be used as indicators of matical formulations of "bounded ra­ The temperature difference is used as a species divergence, as expressed in a tionality" are of particular interest. measure of the similarity between the phylogenetic tree. The concept of "bounded rationahty," nucleotide sequences of the two spe­ After comparing the five ratite gen­ discussed on the following pages, rep­ cies and, hence, as an index of their era and the tinamou genus Nothoproda | resents changes in basic economic the­ genetic similarity or, conversely, their in all possible combinations, Walter M. ory that are being developed mathe­ divergence. Fitch at the University of Wisconsin matically by Roy Radner at the Further, by labeling the DNA of one was able to generate a phylogenetic University of California, Berkeley. The species with radioactive iodine, scien­ tree of ratites. Essentially the same tree rational expectations hypothesis pro­ tists can measure the amount of hy­ was produced by a computer program poses that economic actors use all bridization that has occurred between based on a different procedure devel­ available information and anticipate the labeled species and each of the oped by James S. Farris at the State future prices and demand in much the others. After these hybrid combina­ University of New York at Stony same way that an econometrician fore­ tions (ostrich x ostrich, ostrich x emu, Brook. These comparisons indicate a casts these quantities. Decisions based ostrich X rhea, etc.) have been incu­ close relationship between the kiwis of on these anticipations are rational in bated to permit reassociation, the fre­ New Zealand and the emu and casso­ the sense that they are the best possi­ quency distribution of radioactivity for waries of Austraha and New Guinea. ble. In a recent analysis of unemploy­ each hybrid can be plotted and the The pattern of phylogeny presented by ment and output, Robert Barro at the modal temperature for reassociation the DNA data is reasonably consistent University of Rochester concluded determined. A homologous hybrid (for with the history of the breakup and that in the United States since 1946 example, ostrich x ostrich) has a modal drift of the Gondwanaland fragments. unanticipated growth in the money value close to 85° C, while the heterol­ This agrees with other biochemical supply had a notable impact on unem­ ogous hybrids (for example, ostrich x evidence, but it conflicts with both ployment and output, but anticipated emu) have a lower modal value. This anatomical evidence and electropho- growth had much less effect. Current reflects the reduction in base-pair com­ retic comparisons of proteins by Sibley research is exploring factors that influ­ plementarity resulting from the ge­ and Ahlquist. These differences can­ ence the capability of economic actors netic differences acquired since diver­ not yet be fully resolved because pre­ to adapt their behavior to such antici­ gence from a common ancestor. The cise fossil dating to calibrate the delta pations (e.g., long-term contracts) in modal temperature difference be­ mode scale is lacking. In addition, it is an attempt to understand why the tween the homologous hybrid and that not certain that avian lineages evolve economy does not change precisely in of a heterologous hybrid (called the at the same rate. The innovative use of accord with the implications of the delta mode) is used as a single number powerful techniques from molecular rational expectations hypothesis. comparison. Delta mode values up to biology, such as DNA x DNA hybridi­ Research in geography and regional about 2.5 are usual for species of the zation, will provide further insight into science pertains to decisions related to same genus and up to about 9.0 for crucial phylogenetic and evolutionary the location of industries, choice of species of different genera of the same issues. residence, and other interrelated choices that have implications for the redistribution of population, the growth and decline of cities, and shift­ Social Sciences ing patterns in the use of land. The recent change in the long-term trend toward increasing population concen­ A pervasive feature of current social structures, changing regulatory mech­ tration in industrial societies is con­ science research is a focus on decision­ anisms, or shifting prices affect deci­ founding our use of earlier models. making. In economics, for example, the sions. These economic models are Daniel Vining at the University of traditional mode of analysis builds on moving in the direction of increasing Pennsylvania has shown that the 60- constrained maximization models of complexity and realism, especially as year trend toward increasing concen­ decisionmaking.- By exploring the im­ they attempt to handle decision­ tration in the population has been pact of changing constraints, econo­ making under conditions of uncer­ reversed since 1970. His analysis, mists examine how different market tainty and as they are elaborated to which indicates that this is not simply a 74 BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

result of wider dispersal around met­ pursue competing, imperfectly articu­ government and on subsequent ropolitan centers, suggests fundamen­ lated, and sometimes conflicting goals changes in organizational size and/or tal changes in the pattern of decisions rather than a well ordered hierarchy of modernization of procedures (for ex­ about the location of industries and the goals and objectives. ample, automation). choice of residences. Current research Pioneering work on mathematical Meyer found that changes in leader­ is clarifying the reasons for such models of rational decisionmaking ship influence the extent to which changes. under conditions of hmited informa­ organizational change reflects de­ Both sociologists and political scien­ tion is being conducted by Roy Radner mand; agencies with stable leadership tists explore decisionmaking by indi­ at the University of California, Berke­ grew without regard to demand, but viduals. For example, factors influenc­ ley. His finding that under certain agencies with turnover of leadership ing decisions to continue formal educa­ conditions the demand for relevant changed in response to the size of city tion beyond high school or to vote in information will not be a continuous government. This suggests that particular ways have been examined function of its price suggests a need for change of leadership is a mechanism in some detail. Other studies examine fundamental changes in basic eco­ for influencing organizational deci­ how organized collectivities such as nomic theory. Radner's work captures sions that affect growth and efficiency communities, governm.ental bureaucra­ many of the salieni: points of manage­ in response to externa! demand. cies, and voluntary associations make rial dilemmas in that it deals with The range of tasks being done (e.g., decisions. The analysis of decisions and decisions in the context of achieving accounting and auditing only versus the prediction of decision outcomes is multiple goals. He has been able to those functions plus personnel, data found to be heavily dependent on the derive the properties of certain plausi­ processing, and program evaluation distribution of authority and power, ble, but not necessarily optimal, behav­ responsibilities) also affected the de­ communication and interdependence ioral rules under such conditions. He gree to which agency change was re­ networks, and coahtion formation. argues that managers in realistic situa­ sponsive to demand. This indicates The basic processes underlying these tions do not formulate complete pref­ that multiple goals, while potentially factors are being assessed in current erence orderings but rather, seek leading to managerial dilemmas, also research. Through the use of public- workable strategies and act on that ba­ create new avenues for external influ­ choice models, mechanisms by which sis. Radner's mathematical work gives ence on the decisions of organizations. collectivities allocate resources for greater specificity to the concept of In his continuing research Meyer is public goods also are being examined. "satisficing" (choosing the first alter­ exploring other, more direct measures The social science research sup­ native that is good enough, as opposed of demands on organizations and as­ ported by NSF brings the tools of to "maximizing") decisions and serves sessing the conditions that influence science to bear on the systematic anal­ as the foundation for a developing how organizations respond. ysis of social institutions and social theory of "bounded rationality." This These two lines of research—the arrangements in a disciplined search theory has far-reaching implications development of more realistic models for basic principles. The phenomena for the analysis of decisions in organi­ of decisionmaking and the empirical that such principles must encompass zational and economic contexts. exploration of factors that influence are complex, but social science re­ In other research on decision­ organizational change—represent two search is making progress toward de­ making, Marshall Meyer at the developing areas of inquiry that are veloping a body of general, compre­ University of California, Riverside, is providing insights into basic processes hensive, and empirically verified prin­ examining factors that affect organi­ in the behavior of complex organiza­ ciples describing how social systems zational growth and efficiency. His tions. work, change, and affect the lives and empirical work is based on 1966 and well-being of individuals. 1972 data describing 229 municipal His empirical work is based on 1966 Efficient Resource and 1972 data describing 229 municipal Allocation Organizational Change and finance agencies. Meyer reasoned that Decisionmaking initial conditions would be predictive A central theorem in contemporary of subsequent changes and assumed public finance is the inability of decen­ New models of decisionmaking em­ that pressures for organizational tralized market or voting institutions phasize the costs and limitations of change would be greatest in agencies to determine optimal public choices. relevant information and the necessity where the demand was greatest. Ac­ This allocative inefficiency derives for decisions to proceed under condi­ cordingly, he focused on factors that from the so-called free-riding problem tions of uncertainty. These new mod­ increase or diminish the relationship associated with decisions on public els also recognize that organizations between the initial size of the city goods, such as public television, where BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 75

one individual's consumption does not traditional general equilibrium model elucidate the dynamic path by which an diminish that of another. If each partic­ of a competitive, private ownership equilibrium is reached. ipant's allocation of cost for the "public economy and append to it an explicit In response to this need, Vernon good" is determined by his stated procedure for determining consumers' Smith at the University of Arizona wiUingness to pay, then he will have an demands for public goods and the cor­ developed an adjustment process that incentive to understate his demand, responding tax burdens. Under their has been tested in a number of small thus gaining an advantage over other scheme, the taxes set by the Govern­ group experiments. His adjustment citizens who must carry a larger ment and the allocative rules for deter­ procedures incorporate the Roberts- burden of the cost. The consequence of mining the levels of public goods are Groves-Ledyard incentives mecha­ this free-riding behavior for society, structured in such a way that it is in the nism and rapidly lead his experimen­ evaluated in terms of individual prefer­ consumers' self-interest to reveal their tal groups to the optimum at which ences, is the systematic under- true demand or evaluation of public no individual can increase self- provision of public goods. goods. Participants indicate the desired satisfaction without adversely affect­ This inevitability of social waste in a level of public services, knowing the ing someone else. These experiments decentrahzed economic environment formula that determines their own and other studies of alternative incen­ has recently been questioned in a series payments, given their own and others' tive systems show that decentralized of penetrating theoretical papers. The bids. At equilibrium an optimal alloca­ processes, which lead to optimal alloca­ dominant theme of the new theoretical tion results, in which all mutually ad­ tions, do exist for the provision of work has been the search for strategy- vantageous transactions have been public goods. Moreover, Smith rea­ proof incentive structures to induce made and no one can become better off sons, if we know a few such processes participants in decentralized markets without clearly depriving someone there must be others—some better, to reveal their true wiUingness to pay else. some worse, some cheaper, some for public goods. Since the ana'lysis is conducted in dearer. These remain to be investigat­ Theodore Groves, John Roberts, and static general equilibrium terms, it is ed. The next research frontiers, to John Ledyard at Northwestern Uni­ not practical to implement the pro­ determine the practicality of alterna­ versity have developed a set of institu­ posed mechanism directly. The next tive institutional arrangements and to tional rules, rewards, and penalties logical step in the theoretical develop­ gauge the potential gains in efficiency that yield optimal levels of public ment of the mechanism is to formulate from their adoption, are already being goods. Basically, they start with the an exphcit adjustment process that will probed. 78 SCIENCE EDUCATION

rently six separate but correlated activ­ ities aimed at assisting institutions in providing quality science education programs at all educational levels. The emphasis in all of these programs is to expand opportunities for participation to all types of institutions, especially those colleges with limited resources and experience in dealing with NSF.

Comprehensive Assistance to Undergraduate Science Education

The primary objective of the comprehensive assistance to under­ graduate science education (CAUSE) program is to strengthen the under­ graduate science education com­ ponents of 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities. This will improve the quality of the Nation's science educa­ tion at the undergraduate level and will enhance the capabihty of institutions for self-assessment, management, and evaluation of their science programs.

The 73 recipients of 1978 CAUSE CAUSE. Two projects to upgrade ttie quality of undergraduate science education: awards included 20 2-year colleges, 34 (Above) A solar-heated greenhouse was built at Blue Mountain Community College non-Ph. D.-degree-granting institu­ (Pendleton, Oregon) to strengthen a plant science course sequence; (Below) A freshman at John A. Logan College (Carterville, Illinois) uses new computer equipment tions, 17 Ph. D institutions, and 2 con­ to learn BASIC computer language. sortia. The projects reflect each insti­ tution's unique efforts to improve undergraduate science education. For example, Queensborough Com­ munity College in New York will im­ prove astronomy education through the development of an astronomy la­ boratory manual, the construction of an on-campus observatory, student- oriented research and astrophotog- raphy, and the development of alter- _nate_ learning resources for home- capped. In Oklahoma a consortium project including Oklahoma State, Central State, and Phillips Universities will, through contacts with regional indus­ tries, businesses, government agen­ cies, and private firms, develop a case- study applied mathematics course for use by various educational institu­ tions. SCIENCE EDUCATION 79

Faculty at the University of Florida educational research into the under­ both in the laboratory and in the learn­ will develop 125 modules for 18 psy­ graduate curriculum and provide ing resource center. chology laboratory courses. The mod­ science faculty with the opportunity to "Computer Ethics," a LOCI project ules, using computer simulation of develop teaching innovations. In fiscal at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, experimental work, television technol­ year 1978,135 awards were made. The wiU bring together mathematicians, ogy, and "hands-on" approaches, are resulting course development projects computer scientists, and philosophers expected to directly or indirectly affect emphasized such activities as: the in­ to design new course materials on the learning of some 10,000 students troduction and application of micro­ computer privacy, computer theft, and each year. processing computer technology, the other ethical issues related to automa­ Through faculty training, computer development of teaching modules for tion and computer technology. research consolidation, and the devel­ self-paced instruction, the addition and opment of computer-oriented course restructuring of laboratory compo­ materials. Reed College in Portland, nents, and the design of new audio Instructional Scientific Oregon, wiU improve instruction in and/or visual systems for conveying Equipment nine science departments, spanning course content. Awards were made to These projects implement improve­ mathematics and the natural and social individual science faculty or small ments in science instruction through sciences. groups of science faculty at 122 col­ the acquisition of new laboratory leges (2-year and 4-year) and universi­ ties in 43 States. The maximum award instruments and other instructional equipment. The objective is to provide Undergraduate was $25,000, and all awards required Instructional Improvement an institutional contribution. relevant "hands-on" experience for undergraduate students in science and At the State University of New York engineering laboratories. In fiscal year The undergraduate instructional at Oneonta, a LOCI project will de­ 1978, 352 awards were made to 281 improvement program includes local velop a course to provide students with institutions. In each case the Founda­ course improvement (LOCI) and in­ experience in interpreting satellite im­ tion grant—a maximum of $20,000— structional scientific equipment (ISEP) agery of the Earth's surface in digital was matched locally by at least an equal programs. The common purpose of form, using the computer and quanti­ amount of institutional funding. these small grants programs is to ena­ tative techniques. An understanding Nicolet College and Technical Insti­ ble institutions to respond rapidly to of this technology will be apphed to tute at Rhinelander, Wis., will install relatively small-scale undergraduate land and resource management issues. science instructional problems and to two controlled environment chambers A LOCI project at the College of St. enhance science teaching vitality by with accessory equipment. Students in Thomas, in St. Paul, Minn., will de­ encouraging science faculty to pursue ecology, biology, zoology, and botany velop computer-based modules for imaginative ideas in upgrading their courses will be able to grow and main­ teaching political science research instruction. tain living organisms within different methods. The modules, which will in­ environmental conditions. Thus, stu­ Projects may focus on any under­ corporate interactive and logic capabil­ dents will be able to observe directly graduate instructional activity in ities of the computer with graphics the effects of the various air, water, science, including courses intended for capabilities of films and slides, will and soil conditions that they now learn science majors, nonscience majors, provide immediate feedback to stu­ about and measure in other courses. those preparing specifically for careers dents as they are guided through the as teachers of elementary and secon­ A grant to the University of Califor­ steps of the research process in a self- dary school science, or students pre­ nia, Santa Barbara, provides matching paced series of exercises. Increased paring for technological careers. funds for computer-compatible psy­ understanding of and receptivity to Awards go to widely differing types of chology laboratory equipment. Thus, political science as a social science is an public and private institutions, includ­ the data from experiments can be re­ anticipated outcome of the project. ing the undergraduate components of layed to the campus computer center universities, predominantly minority Academically and economically dis­ and processed immediately. The result iriTstitutions, 2-year colleges, and 4- advantaged students from the inner will be that students can see the out­ year liberal arts colleges. city will benefit from a LOCI project at come of experiments at once, without the Los Angeles Trade and Technical proceeding through extensive calcula­ Local Course Improvement College, where a set of video tapes tions or waiting while data are hand- covering basic laboratory skills in the carried to and from the computer. LOCI awards stimulate rapid intro­ biological sciences will be developed. At the Georgia Institute of Technol­ duction of the results of scientific and Tapes will be available for student use ogy, an undergraduate environmental 80 SCIENCE EDUCATION

monitoring laboratory is being school leaders under a grant awarded sciences, mathematics, or engineering; equipped so that engineering students to Arizona State University. These to improve the quality of preparation can be trained to investigate and meas­ conferences acquainted educators with of these students for graduate work or ure parameters used in the analysis of Jean Piaget's ideas of intellectual devel­ careers in science; and to improve the the environmental impacts of selected opment and thetr implications for competitiveness of minority institu­ engineering activities. science teaching. Chicago State Uni­ tions for other Federal funding pro­ At the University of Nebraska, lab­ versity arranged conferences in the grams. oratory courses in food chemistry are Chicago metropolitan area at which , A total of 27 awards, including 3 being strengthened by the purchase of information was shared on research small design grants to assist institu­ a gas chromatograph and an infrared into the use of programmable calcula­ tions without formal planning capabili­ spectrophotometer that will be linked tors in pre-college mathematics and ties in the development of long-range to provide highly sensitive analytical science education. The discussions science improvement plans, were made capabihties. Such substances as lipids, included information about calculator in fiscal year 1978. The awards encom­ fatty acids, food pigments, and flavor­ hardware and commercially available pass a range of activities. For example, ing compounds are of increasing con­ curriculum materials. the Highland Park Community Col­ cern to our food industry. More rapid, Queens College of the City Univer­ lege in Michigan will develop a Science accurate, and reliable detection and sity of New York conducted a program Learning Center to provide individual measurement of such food materials for secondary school decisionmakers in help to students through the use of will now be possible for students who the New York City area. The project peer tutoring and audio-tutorial units have been trained in the use of these focused on analysis and critical review developed by the biology department. advanced analytical instruments. of social studies material in anthropol­ In Washington State, the Lummi In­ ogy, sociology, psychology, political dian School of Aquaculture and Fisher­ science, and economics for use in sec­ ies will strengthen the basic science Information Dissemination ondary schools. WICAT, Inc., of Orem, offerings in its 2-year curriculum to prepare students from various Indian for Science Education Utah, arranged a conference in Salt Lake City targeted at education deci­ tribes for fishery management and sionmakers from eight Rocky Moun­ aquaculture responsibilities within The purpose of this small grants tain States. Nationally recognized their respective communities. The program estabhshed in fiscal year 1977 leaders made presentations on the use New Mexico Highlands University, in is to provide opportunities for school of such recently developed technolo­ a 3-year plan, will strengthen labora­ administrators, subject-matter special­ gies as microcomputer, video disc, and tory programs in chemistry, restruc­ ists, teacher-leaders, school board video tape for science education pur­ ture course offerings in biology, and members, and other decisionmakers in poses. improve its science course offerings State and local school systems to ob­ through the development and use of tain information needed to examine video and audio materials. and evaluate instructional materials l\/linority Institutions and practices prior to selection. Science Improvement Thirty-four awards in fiscal year Program Resource Center for 1978 for conferences and workshops Science and Engineering enabled such school decisionmakers to The primary purpose of this pro­ become familiar with the large variety gram is to effect long-range improve­ The resource center for science and of science instructional materials, ment in science education at institu­ engineering program is a successor to practices, and technologies currently tions with predominantly minority the fiscal year 1977 minority centers available for use in elementary and enrollments. NSF supports science im­ for graduate education in science and secondary schools. In some projects provement projects at 2-year and 4- engineering program. Its primary pur­ information on current research re­ year postsecondary institutions whose pose is to increase participation in sults in pre-college science and mathe­ enrollments are predominantly Ameri­ science and engineering by minorities matics education was presented to par­ can Indian, Alaskan Native, Black, and persons from low-income families. ticipants along with their potential Mexican American, Puerto Rican, or The Foundation's fiscal year 1978 classroom applications. The following other ethnic minorities who are un- Authorization Act mandated the es­ projects illustrate those supported. derrepresented in science and engi­ tablishment of a single Resource Cen­ Regional conferences in Colorado, neering. Program objectives are to ter. The center selected was to be Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and increase the number of minority stu­ geographically located near one or Wyoming were held for secondary dents graduating with majors in the more population centers of minority SCIENCE EDUCATION 81

groups or low-income families and was As a result, Atlanta University re­ process, to prepare people for new directed to: (1) support basic researcti; ceived the first Resource Center science-related tasks and problems, to (2) serve as a regional resource in award. Support was provided for a translate scientific knowledge into a science and engineering; and (3) de­ 4-year project in the amount of form that can be understood and velop joint educational programs with $2,767,000. The university, in cooper­ learned, and to capitaUze upon new nearby pre-college and undergraduate ation with the four undergraduate insights into the way we learn. Both institutions enrolling substantial institutions in the Atlanta University are needed to assure that all people will numbers of minority students or stu­ Center, will engage in a number of be able to cope with and enjoy the dents from low-income families. activities to make its scientific resour­ benefits of our technologically based A two-stage panel review process ces more available to the Atlanta com­ society. was used in the selection of the site of munity and to a network of predomi­ Development and research are not the single Resource Center. Twenty- nantly Black colleges in the Southeast. separate processes; they interact in six institutions or groups of institu­ These activities will include short complex ways. Development not only tions submitted proposals in stage one. courses, summer science enrichment provides new curriculum materials and Institutions submitting the six top- programs for high school and college new organizations of the way we ranking proposals submitted revised students, a Saturday Science Academy teach, but also generates new situa­ proposals in stage two. Site visits were for primary school children, and in­ tions with new information for educa­ then made to the three institutions creased research opportunities for fac­ tional research to analyze and inter­ with top-ranking stage-two proposals. ulty. pret. Research in science education gives us new ways of viewing the process of learning—the way we de­ velop scientific skills and knowledge. Science Education Development and Research Development In Science Education

The quality of life depends in an rapid changes in science and society, The development in science educa­ increasingly large measure on science science education must be continually tion program (DISE) provides funds to and its related technology. The health modified through development and originate, develop, and apply new ideas of science, in turn, depends on the research. Both are needed to introduce that hold promise for increasing the quality of science education. Due to new knowledge into the educational quality and diversity of science knowl­ edge at any educational level and for any group of learners—in school or out. Key approaches include the devel­ Table 6 opment, testing, and evaluation of new Science Education Development and Research instructional materials or novel deliv­ Fiscal Year 1978 ery modes. The latter include apphca­ (Dollars in Millions) tion of technology to the educational process in ways that increase quality Proposals Awards and/or reduce costs. Number Amount Number Amount Fiscal year 1978 was devoted to in­ Development in Science Education 71 $ 8,27 54 $ 5.55 tensive program review and planning Pre-College Materials Development 11 2.40 9 1,32 as well as to continued support of Alternatives in Higher Education 24 4.18 22 3.12 Continuing Education for Scientists and several major projects. The planning 36 1.69 23 1,11 effort resulted in new guidelines for Researcti In Science Education 207 26.50 21 2,35 fiscal year 1979 in five areas of special NIE/NSF Collaborative Research interest: science for the early adoles­ Program 64 7,23 11 0,50 cent; improving access to careers in Local Assessment of Science Education science; science, technology, and so­ in the Tvtfo-Year College 70 1.57 38 0.46 ciety; new knowledge and new skills— Total 412 $43.57 124 $8.86 education for productivity; and tech­ nology as applied to learning. SOURCE; Fiscal Year 1980 Budget to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations (Quantitative Program Data Tables). Fifty-three awards, totahng 82 SCIENCE EDUCATION

$5,405,000, were made in fiscal year 1978. Following are examples of DISE projects currently being supported. Micliael and Josephine Browne be­ lieve the family is an underutilized resource in education and that shifting some of the responsibihty for learning out of the classroom and into the home will be both economical and effective. Last year this space was used to de­ scribe a prototype project, directed by Michael Browne at the University of Idaho, to develop a family-oriented approach to science education for children in kindergarten through eighth grade. In their "Family- Oriented Science Study for Elemen­ tary School Children," the Brownes are developing elementary science materials for children to use at home, in a family setting, with parents acting as advisers. Using the instructor's manual developed in the project, the teacher holds monthly evening work­ shops with parents to review the topics under study. Parents also receive man­ uals to assist them in encouraging the home science studies, and each child is given an "investigator's guide." This year it can be reported that re­ actions to the initial physics and biol­ ogy units now being tested are enthu­ siastic. Parents have a clear idea of what is expected of them and are will­ ing to spend time helping the children with science studies. Since present "back to basics" trends leave little class time for science at the crucial elemen­ tary level, this type of home activity provides science education that might otherwise be missed; a stimulating exposure to science at an early age can be vital to later receptiveness to science education. Most important, the activ­ ity builds strong parent-child bonds and fosters a home environment con­ ducive to learning. There are also im­ portant side benefits; parent involve­ ment provides a subtle form of adult Science at home. Participants in the University of Idaho's project to use the family as an continuing education in science be­ educational setting for elementary science education: (A) At the kitchen sink, a milk cause parents learn along with children carton with holes and plugs at various levels is used to study pressure and flow rates; in an informal fashion. Since no expen­ (B) Using an "Adviser's Guide," this mother works directly with her son in learning science at home; (C) Extending the laboratory to the neighborhood, these girls on sive purchases are required the pro­ skateboards learn some consequences of Newton's Laws of Motion. gram stands a good chance of being SCIENCE EDUCATION 83

Science as sightseeing. Exhibits at the Exploratorium in San Francisco involve the visitors as participants in demonstrating physical phenomena. (Left) Fascinated with the "Bernoulli Blower," these two play and puzzle over why the ball always gets sucked back into the middle of the air jet. (Right) In the "Glow Box," this boy inserts various interference filters into the path of a beam of white light and, seeing the changes in color, learns that "white" light consists of many colors. (Photo at right by Susan Schwartzenberg)

accepted by schools beleaguered by half a million visitors, including 50,000 are exploring various forms of mu­ cutbacks in local taxes. school children on scheduled field seum teaching and learning in the Beginning with an initial award in trips. Exploratorium, but our effort would 1972 and continuing through 1978, In the July 1972 issue of the American be worthwhile even if it did no more NSF has provided about $1 million to journal of Physics, Oppenheimer de­ than provide some good sight­ San Francisco's Palace of Fine Arts and scribed the philosophy embodied in his seeing. . ." Science Foundation for exhibit devel­ "playful science museum": "The roots Oppenheimer and his associates opment by Frank Oppenheimer at the of science frequently lie in sight­ have integrated science and art in the Exploratorium. This support has re­ seeing. . . . Darwin, during the voy­ development of Exploratorium exhib­ sulted in the development of about 75 ages of the Beagle, was sight-seeing, its. Employing the design work of ar­ percent of the Exploratorium's more and after his return these sights led to tists (through an "Artists in Resi­ than 400 exhibits. the formulation of ideas that have dence" grant from the National Conceived by Oppenheimer to pro­ fundamentally changed the way people Endowment for the Arts) and scien­ vide opportunities in science education view themselves and their relationship tists, the exhibits illustrate beautiful that are difficult to achieve through with nature. ... In recent years, and basic natural phenomena stressing school classrooms, books, or television, much of high energy physics, espe­ either the esthetic approach of the arts the Exploratorium opened its doors in cially bubble chamber analysis, has or the analytic approach of the scien­ 1969 and has grown to the point where constituted little more than a very ces. Exhibits are grouped to form co­ its current annual attendance exceeds elaborate form of sight-seeing. . . . We herent, interconnected sequences— 84 SCIENCE EDUCATION

they lead the visitor into the domain of AMCEE works closely with indus­ which serves as the fiscal agent for the physics, biology, and mathematics. try, professional societies, and practic­ association. Charles R. Vail of Georgia These exhibits are designed to be ma­ ing engineers to determine needs in Tech, corporate secretary of AMCEE, nipulated and appreciated by both continuing engineering education and serves as project director. To ensure children and adults at a variety of lev­ to provide information to member in­ that its activities are responsive to the els. stitutions. A key activity, development continuing education needs of the in­ Must every continuing education of an effective mechanism for the ac­ dustrial community, the association's course in science be developed inde­ tive exchange of teaching materials Governing Board works intimately pendently by the institution offering between member institutions, is im­ with a nationally representative Indus­ it? Could this overwhelming duplica­ plemented through a materials pro­ trial Advisory Board and with regional tion of effort be sidestepped by devel­ duction and utihzation committee, boards associated with each of the opment of a system under which spe- which manages a "revolving fund." member institutions. ciaUzed teaching materials developed This fund, provided by the Sloan Foun­ At Northwestern University, Mark at one institution are easily obtainable dation, is used to assist any one of the Pinsky is developing an accelerated, by other institutions with the same member institutions to develop interdisciplinary, 3-year bachelor's de­ needs? With support from NSF, a con­ instructional m.aterials that will be gree curriculum, that focuses on sortium of 19 major engineering available for use at other institutions. mathematics, physics, chemistry, biol­ schools—the Association for Media- Use charges, returned to the fund, are ogy, geology, and astronomy, and Based Continuing Education for Engi­ available for other materials develop­ includes theoretical, laboratory, obser­ neers (AMCEE)—is exploring and de­ ment activity. vational, and computational training. veloping mechanisms to answer these AMCEE headquarters are at the Designed for the superior high school questions. Georgia Institute of Technology, graduate who has achieved advanced

Broad science curriculum. An accelerated undergraduate degree program at Northwestern University gives superior students a multidisciplinary science education prior to specialization in graduate school. The program is characterized by student access to their own computer facilities and sophisticated laboratory equipment (left) and informal interaction with faculty (right). (Photos by Alice Snyder) SCIENCE EDUCATION 85

placement in mathematics. North- toward science with special emphasis Irving Morrissett of the Social Science western's ISP (integrated science pro­ on minorities and women, and micro­ Education Consortium, Inc., in gram) is entering its third year and will computers in science education. The Boulder, Colo., and Alan Osborne of graduate its first class of students at following are examples of new and Ohio State University are attempting the end of the spring quarter, 1979. ongoing awards. to make research more accessible by This project is expected to serve as a Herbert Simon at Carnegie-Mellon synthesizing and analyzing existing national prototype curriculum for giv­ University, winner of the 1978 Nobel data on the goals of science, social ing undergraduates an overview of all prize in economics for research done a science, and mathematics education in the sciences and of mathematics in number of years ago on decision­ grades kindergarten through 12. They terms of first principles, the state of making processes, is trying to find out will compare their conclusions with the art, and problems at the forefront why such a high percentage of stu­ research on the current status and of science. Pinsky says that ISP gradu­ dents are unable to solve simple prob­ results of secondary science education, ates will possess fundamental under­ lems in physics and mathematics, even especially that of three recently com­ standing of science and experience after long periods of formal study. His pleted NSF studies. The differences with a wide range of techniques and research team of physicists, psycholo­ that emerge between the desired and materials; this should prepare them for gists, and computer scientists is study­ actual states will determine an agenda graduate studies leading to careers as ing step-by-step verbal accounts of the of needs and recommended actions professional scientists. processes used by "naive" as well as that will be broadly communicated to In the future, there will be an "expert" subjects as they attempt to policymakers, educators, and the pub­ increasing need for scientists who solve physics and math problems. lic. have the broad background necessary These data will be used to formulate In the 1960's the U.S. Government to solve important scientific and tech­ explicit models of competence in a looked to technology already in the nological problems that require com­ variety of topics in elementary physics home—television—to help bring about prehensive and multidisciplinary so­ and mathematics. Based on these mod­ a national revolution in education. The lutions. Students trained in an els, computer programs will be de­ power of this ubiquitous technology integrated science program are ex­ signed that replicate the variety of system was seen in the impacts of pected to be more flexible in approach, observed students' problem-solving shows like "Sesame Street." Over the better able to use a variety of tech­ processes. This approach requires a next 5 years it is anticipated that a new niques drawn from many scientific detailed definition of every step in the interactive technology, the personal fields, and more able to work collabora­ problem-solving process, thereby un­ computer, will find its way into the tively than students trained in tradi­ covering steps that would otherwise same American homes, creating tional disciphnary programs. remain implicit. It also enables re­ another educational opportunity. Ira P. searchers to simulate and, it is hoped, Goldstein of the Massachusetts Insti­ understand student errors by inten­ tute of Technology is trying to exploit Research in Science tionally inserting "bugs" or faulty this opportunity by developing a the­ Education (RISE) procedures into the programs. ory and building a prototype system to This project is funded under the experiment with the ability of such Now in its second year, long-range joint National Institute of Education/ computer programs to convey impor­ research planning was initiated to National Science Foundation inter­ tant intellectual skills in mathematics identify important issues in science agency program (estabhshed this year) and science. Goldstein says that from education. Eighty leading scientists, of research on cognitive processes and the user's perspective the computer science educators, and educational re­ the structure of knowledge in science can, for example, provide advice re­ searchers prepared reports on the and mathematics. It is believed that garding the appropriate strategy and present and future of science educa­ projects such as this will help us to tactics to win computer games. From tion, formulated a basis for research understand the nature of interaction the educational perspective, however, planning, and made recommendations between subject-matter knowledge such advice can provide an opportunity for a long-range program of research. and general problem-solving skills in to tutor the user in the basic mathe­ In addition, out of 207 proposals re­ learning physics and mathematics. matical and scientific knowledge that ceived, 21 grants were awarded total­ This would be of considerable value to the games employ. Although the com­ ing $2.35 milhon. Priority was given teachers and textbook authors, who puter hardware needed for games and to the study of motivation and learning now must proceed largely on personal computer-based tutoring is expected of science by early adolescents (ages intuition and experience. to continue to drop in cost, the soft­ 10-15 years), measures of effective­ In three related projects, Norris ware technology and the related edu­ ness of science education, attitudes Harms of the University of Colorado, cational and psychological theory for 86 SCIENCE EDUCATION

the design of such computer-based science education program. This is one Student-Oriented Programs tutors does not yet exist. Goldstein will of the projects funded under the two- use his NSF grant to build a foundation year college local assessment in science Student-oriented programs provide to help remedy this situation. education (TYCLASE) program, which challenges and opportunities for re­ is intended to identify the strengths search and study not usually available Janan M. Hayes is closely examining and weaknesses of 2-year college to high school and undergraduate stu­ the changing composition and needs of science programs and provide a ra­ dents and for those who have demon­ the student body at American River tional context for institutional plan­ strated high science potential but College in Sacramento, Calif., and the ning and changes. A related program, whose training has been deficient. The reactions of faculty to these changes. two-year college comprehensive as­ programs give students more respon­ The results of his surveys and com­ sessment in science education sibility for planning and carrying out puter analyses will be used as a basis (TYCCASE), is producing a nation­ their own learning activities, and thus for faculty discussion and recommen­ wide needs assessment of science demonstrate their capacity to be moti­ dations for the future of the college's education in these institutions. vated by this measure of independ­ ence.

Scientific Personnei Improvement Student Science Training

In this program, university research scientists are involved directly with The objectives of these programs are In meeting these objectives, the groups of talented high school stu­ to identify and encourage scientific Foundation supports programs fo­ dents. Of the 150 projects for 11th and cused on four target populations: (1) talent; to assist in maintaining high 12th grade secondary school students high school and undergraduate stu­ standards and quality in the training of supported in 1978, 83 were designed dents, (2) minorities, women, and the students and professionals in the for the educational development of handicapped, (3) graduate and postdoc­ high abihty students with excellent sciences; and to stimulate more partici­ toral students, and (4) teachers of training and 67 were designed for stu­ pation in the sciences by minorities, science at both the college and pre- dents with demonstrated high poten­ women, and the handicapped. college levels. tial but limited educational opportuni­ ties. These latter projects focused on Table 7 students with inadequate facilities or Scientific Personnel improvement instruction who were located in the Fiscal Year 1978 inner cities or in isolated rural areas (Dollars in Millions) and who belonged to educationally disadvantaged populations. Projects Proposals Awards Number of ranged from intensive programs in a Individuals single science discipline to multidisci­ Number Amount Number Amount Supported plinary activities in oceanography, op­ Fellowships and Traineeships 6,494 $ 59.66 1.653 $14.16 1,678 erations research, textile engineering, Graduate Fellowships 4,978 36.34 1,456 11.04 1.456 urban geography, and environmental Postdoctoral Fellowships 1,070 14.49 130 1,76 130 Minority Traineeships 446 8.83 67 1,36 92 assessment. Two projects were de­ Student-Oriented Programs 1,041 15,86 343 5,10 6,670 signed and operated specifically for the physically handicapped. The following Student Science Training 304 6.11 143 2.20 5,107 Undergraduate Research Participation 565 7.35 135 1,98 1.059 are examples of projects funded. Student-Originated Studies 172 2.40 65 0.92 504 An academic year project at Portland Minorities, Women & Physically Handicapped 238 6.31 68 2.31 20,639 State University involved 25 high Faculty Improvement Programs 1,686 38.68 413 10,14 18,751 school students who traveled through­ Pre-College Teacher Development 709 20,17 269 6,76 15,324 out Oregon observing and talking with College Faculty Short Courses 20 2.17 17 1.06 3,300 groups representing Indian, European, Science Faculty Professional Development 957 16,34 127 2.32 127 and Oriental settlers in the area. The Total 9,459 $120.51 2,477 $31.71 47,738 students also carried out in-depth re­ search projects on topics related to SOURCE; Fiscal Year 1979 and 1980 Budgets to Congress—Justification of Estimates ot Appropriations (Quantitative Program Data Tables), Oregon's heritage, and many of these SCIENCE EDUCATION 87

are being placed in the Portland State University library as part of the social science holdings. As a direct result of the project a new undergraduate course, an in-service course for teachers, a course for students ages 11-15, and a course for adult members of local cultural/ethnic organizations are being initiated in the region. A Wayne State University project focused on the engineering challenges to the automotive industry. The proj­ ect involved 32 participants and util­ ized lectures, laboratories, field trips, and individual research. Student re­ search projects included the effects of driver-controlled variables on the fuel economy of a car and the effects of various seat belt designs on the safety of a car's occupant in an accident. The faculty involved in the project are en­ couraging and helping the students to prepare presentations for their own high schools on their study and re­ Student Science Training. Two of the sutnmer 1978 projects for high ability high school search. students: (Above) In Mendenhall Lake in the Juneau Icefield, Alaska, students under the direction of the Foundation for Glacier and Environmental Research gather data on Thirty high school students with noise (seismicity) relating to glacier movements (photo by Robert A. Asher). (Below) In limited educational opportunities, and an engineering project at the Illinois Institute of Technology, students construct primarily from minority groups, were circuitry for a model traffic control system. given an opportunity at Louisiana State University to understand the analytical thought process and activi­ ties of engineering and to participate in engineering design projects. Many of the students, though the best in their classes in their rural schools, had never been challenged and were not aware of real-world technological problems. Places visited included NASA's John­ son Space Center, Texas Instruments, and the Louisiana Power and Light Company. Faculty and guest lecturers presented talks on careers in the various fields of engineering, job prospects, and requisite preparation, and students participated in project- design work in engineering fields of their choice. Student-Originated Studies

This program encourages upper di­ vision undergraduate students to as­ sume more responsibility for their own learning and to contribute directly to 88 SCIENCE EDUCATION

the Nation's research effort on societal effective techniques involved with ar­ history. The information will be given problems. In 1978, 65 student- tificial heart implacement. Tentative to local planning agencies. originated studies projects were de­ results are very encouraging. A group of five students at the Uni­ signed and carried out, with minimal At the University of Northern Ariz­ versity of Colorado at Boulder com­ faculty supervision, by 504 students at ona at Flagstaff, five students con­ pleted a study of rock stress conditions 62 colleges and universities. Studies ducted chemical, biochemical, and bio­ in an effort to accurately predict im­ were directed toward collection of data logical tests of plants near a coal-fired pending hazardous rockbursts. Ap­ of particular and immediate use to civic generating station to determine the proaching the problem from previous bodies, governmental agencies, and effects on surrounding soils and plants and current work of seismologists, and the like, and ranged over a wide spec­ of this means of power production. aided by personnel in the U.S. Bureau trum of topics. Analysis centered chiefly around the of Mines, the project team has made For example, a team of ten students native plant Gutierrezia for trace metals. significant advances in the measure­ at the University of Pennsylvania de­ Highly significant results are tenta­ ment of rock stress and the prediction veloped a new approach to the prob­ tively reported for correlations be­ of rockfall. lem of artificial heart implacement. The tween time and concentrations of sev­ group completed and tested a mock eral trace elements in surrounding circulatory system driven by commer­ soils and vegetation, and are expected Undergraduate Research cially available solenoids linked to a to suggest the need for further envi­ Participation syringe pump and a special series- ronmental control measures. wound electric motor for testing alter­ A team of ten students at the Uni­ The undergraduate research partici­ nate low-density materials for wind­ versity of California, Santa Cruz, com­ pation program provides selected un­ ings and brushes. The team also pleted a study of natural resources of dergraduates in their junior and senior examined a variety of dielectric mate­ the Granite Mountains in an effort to year with firsthand experience in the rials in a search for more medically provide information for land manage­ research process by enabling them to ment decisions and. a baseline inven­ work full time with university science tory for future detailed land-use prac­ faculty or industrial scientists. Tal­ tice studies. The studies included ented science students thus have a geology, botany, zoology, and land-use special opportunity to assess possible

Undergraduate Research Participation. (Left) At the tJniversity of Texas at Arlingtoti a student works on calorimetric reactions of rhodium and iridium complexes. (Right) An electrical engineering student at Texas Tech University demonstrates a new kind of nitrogen laser to his faculty adviser. SCIENCE EDUCATION 89

career choices well before er\terir\g the Foundation supported projects to projects directly involved handicapped graduate programs. Among the 135 motivate and train more minority stu­ students of science. Typical was an projects supporting a total of 1,059 dents and provide them with the op­ environmental research activity in­ undergraduates were the following: portunity to study and do research in a volving 20 high school students who At Grinnel College in Iowa, four variety of scientific disciphnes. For participated during the summer at Ma- students joined professors in ongoing example, at Texas Tech University ten rist College in Poughkeepsie, N.Y. research in chemistry, involving NMR participants are working with research They attended lectures, did laboratory (nuclear magnetic resonance), spec­ faculty on projects in energy-related experiments in water testing, per­ troscopy of metal complexes, electro­ research, including: the development formed parasitology studies on fish, chemistry of heme-protein deriva­ of computer-generated masks for use and learned ecological sampling tech­ tives, molecular weight measurements in optical data processors, which would niques. Another project modified a on giant DNA molecules, and biomo- reduce costs in information retrieval; college general biology course for the lecular reactions of excited state com­ the development of an electrostatic visually impaired so as to use other plexes. Ten students at the Duke energy analyzer; and a study related to senses, such as touch and sound, to University Marine Laboratory at contrasts and clutter in aerial photog­ augment or replace sight. Two confer­ Beaufort, N.C., engaged in interdisci­ raphy. Through these activities the ences assessed the current state of plinary research in marine biochemis­ participants will be better informed science education for the handicapped try, membrane and environmental about the nature of scientific research and looked at ways to eliminate barri­ physiology, biomedical engineering, and will be able to make more realistic ers in postsecondary education, and several aspects of oceanography, ecol­ career decisions. four workshops dealt with the genera­ ogy, developmental biology, and ap­ tion of career information for the plied environmental science. Women in Science handicapped. All projects were de­ Twenty-five workshops involving signed to help facilitate the entrance of Three projects allowed 24 students approximately 5,000 women students handicapped students into careers in to take part in research in industrial in colleges and universities were car­ science and science education. settings. For example, at Macalester ried out in 17 States to provide in-depth College in St. Paul six students studied information on careers in science and computer applications, such as laser Fellowships and engineering. Considerable interest has scans of coated films to monitor coat­ Traineeships been generated by the visiting women ing processes. These activities were scientists project. This draws on the conducted in the research centers of Graduate fellowships and trainee- work experience of career women cooperating computer technology and ships support a limited number of the scientists, who also serve as role mod­ other industries, including 3M, Hon­ Nation's most promising predoctoral els to motivate girls in secondary eywell, and Control Data in St. Paul science students. This assures a small school to continue studying science so and Minneapolis. but stable and highly talented input to they don't cut themselves off from a the scientific personnel pool while also possible career in science. Over 600 taking steps to improve the represen­ Minorities, Women, women applied to serve as visiting tation of certain minority groups in scientists; 40 were selected to visit 110 and tlie Physically that pool. Postdoctoral awards support high schools. Handicapped in Science well quahf ied young scientists working Six projects were to assist women on problems perceived as national with science degrees who are currently These programs develop and test needs. not employed in science or are under­ methods to attract, encourage, and employed in terms of their potential. motivate the participation in science by On completion of special training to Graduate Fellowsliips minorities, women, and the physically update their science backgrounds, By supporting full-time study to­ handicapped. Activities include stud­ these participants are prepared for ward graduate science degrees, this ies, workshops, and special training entrance into graduate school or for program accelerates the students'pro­ opportunities beyond those available direct employment in science. fessional development toward becom­ in existing formal science education ing contributors to the U.S. scientific programs. Physicaiiy Handicapped in enterprise. In fiscal year 1978, 4,331 Minorities Science undergraduate science and engineer­ Using the proven models of the stu­ Fiscal year 1978 was the second year ing majors from throughout the coun­ dent science training and undergradu­ of operation for the physically handi­ try competed for 490 new 3-year grad­ ate research participation programs. capped in science program. Six of the uate fellowships. In addition to the 90 SCIENCE EDUCATION

students who won fellowships in this support of their entry to the advanced elementary; 35.8 percent middle and rigorous national competition, 1,439 science personnel pool. junior high school; and 28.6 percent other applicants were awarded "Hon­ senior high. Of the 269 projects sup­ orable Mention" and cited as being National Needs Postdoctoral ported, a third were concerned with highly deserving of support. This ci­ Fellowships the interrelationship of science and tation frequently assists applicants in In an effort to enhance the country's society, and 22 focused on teachers of acquiring other sources of funds and, ability to deal with scientific problems minority students. Activities sup­ thereby, indirectly aids their pursuit of of national importance, this program ported ranged from a workshop in graduate scientific study. New fellows, provides 1-year fellowship support for basic physics for upper elementary attending institutions of their choice, advanced study and research to prom­ teachers to an in-service education are joining a cadre of 1,140 other cur­ ising young postdoctoral scientists and project in pohtical science for second­ rent NSF fellows. engineers. From among 928 applicants, ary teachers. NSF made 138 awards. All awardees The Catholic University of America Minority Graduate Fellowships showed high promise of advancing is offering a course for upper elemen­ Initiated by Congress in fiscal year toward solutions to some of the com­ tary teachers that seeks to provide 1978, this new program operated in an plex problems we face today. For ex­ exposure to principles of basic physics experimental mode. NSF requested ample, one fellow will study energy and to provide training in techniques nominees from 80 institutions that had loss from electrical generators as one to carry these principles into their significant experience with minority approach to'making the Nation more classes. A unique feature of the course science students. Review of the 72 energy-efficient. Another fellow is ex­ is the use of the Invent Room and ehgible nominees resulted in the award amining the use of sound waves to Sound Studio at Capital Children's of 43 fellowships to those judged most detect internal stress in metals, thus Museum, a new "hands-on" museum qualified. These 3-year fellowships hoping to reduce the exposure of in­ in Washington, D.C. It is basic physics may be used for advanced science dustrial workers to X-rays. come to hfe, with each principle iso­ study at any U.S. institution chosen by lated and concepts presented in tangi­ the student. Based on the experience Faculty Improvement ble and dramatic form. gained, NSF developed and plans to use Program At Western Washington University hereafter a national competition de­ a project for 25 junior and senior high signed to draw upon the fuU pool of school teachers from Idaho, Oregon, The goal of the faculty improvement ehgible minority students, independ­ and Washington deals with a topic program is to enhance the competence ent of their institutional affihation. having major implications for the Uni­ of teachers so they may continue to ted States, the adoption of the 200- provide high quality instruction in the Minority Institution Graduate mile territorial water limit for the Na­ sciences for their students. Participa­ Traineeships tion in general and the Pacific tion in the 1978 programs was open to After an experiment in 1974, and in Northwest in particular. all individuals teaching science, mathe­ an effort to improve participation of California State University, North- matics, or social science in U.S. elemen­ minorities in the advanced levels of ridge, offered 40 elementary teachers tary and secondary schools, 2- and 4- science, the minority institution grad­ in grades four to six in the Los Angeles year colleges, and universities. uate traineeships program became a City Unified School District an oppor­ regular offering in fiscal year 1977. In tunity to update and extend their fiscal year 1978 the program expanded Pre-College Teacher knowledge of the subject matter of the the target audience to include all insti­ Development social sciences by working with social tutions having more than 50 percent scientists and social science education aggregate minority enrollment and In its second year of operation, this specialists. offering the master's degree in at least program continues to stress the one science, regardless of the number improvement of the teachers' knowl­ College Faculty Short Courses of graduate science degrees awarded in edge of the subject matter of science The college faculty short courses recent years. Twenty-three eligible and to foster communication and coop­ program introduces science faculty to institutions requested support for 341 eration between elementary or sec­ the latest scientific developments so as trainees, and 50 3-year traineeships ondary school teachers and colleges to expedite their inclusion in under­ were awarded to specified science de­ and universities. graduate curricula. The courses con­ partments at 13 institutions. Grantee The distribution of the 15,324 par­ sist of two intensive 2-day sessions and institutions appoint awardees to either ticipants by level of employment for an intervening period of several weeks full-time or part-time traineeships in the 1978 program was: 35.6 percent for individual work on a project related SCIENCE EDUCATION 91

to the course. Fifteen field centers host insights into subject matter and gains related land-use undergraduate in­ the lecturers, who move through a new perspectives that are transmitted struction; (2) to produce land-use maps Chautauqua-type circuit from one to the students. and vegetative inventory data as illus­ center to another throughout the Of the 957 applications received, the trations of remote sensing application country. program selected 127 for award; 65 to problems existing in southern Illi­ nois and the surrounding region; and The 1978 program supported the were for research in industrial or non- (3) to ascertain the role of remote participation of some 3,300 college academic laboratories. While the over­ sensing in Southern lUinois Universi­ teachers in 52 different short courses all percent success of applicants for the that dealt with such topics as solar program was 13.3, that of minorities ty's education, research, and service energy from an engineering perspec­ was 13.9 and of women 18.4. Appli­ commitments. The program will pro­ tive, mathematical modehng in the cants from 2-year institutions had ap­ vide competency in the technical as­ biological sciences, and the history of proximately the same success rate as pects of remote sensing and will en­ physical science. For example, David T. those from 4-year colleges and univer­ hance the application of these Tuma of Carnegie-Mellon University sities. techniques in the instructional pro­ teaches a course in application of mi­ Activities varied widely. For exam­ grams of several departments at this crocomputers to science education. ple, one apphcant, an organic chemist, institution. Several areas in which microcompu­ wished to provide students of art and Another grantee has designed a pro­ ters have potential for enriching art history with an understanding of gram involving graduate-level course science education are computation and the materials with which they work, work, independent study, and research simulation, interactive learning, con­ the nature of color and color modifica­ to improve his competence in the areas trollers for experiments or processes, tion, the chemistry of photography, of thermodynamics and energy con­ and data acquisition and reduction. the chemistry of conservation and version and use. His independent preservation of artistic and historic study involves assessing the solar re­ Reginald Vachon and John GoodUng objects, and the scientific methods source in New England and the tech­ of Auburn University and Jeffrey used in the authentication and verifica­ nology of utilizing solar energy for Morehouse of Texas A&M University tion of art objects. To do this, the residential heating and hot water. This teach a course on solar energy from an applicant affihated with the Conserva­ teacher is particularly interested in the engineering perspective. This course tion Center of the Institute of Fine possibilities of retrofitting existing introduces the fundamentals of solar Arts of New York University. structures with solar energy and the thermal energy utilization by using Another program utilizes the equip­ feasibility of a semidetached combina­ both analytic and experimental hands- ment and expertise of personnel of the tion solar and wood heating addition on presentations, including the con­ Goddard Space Flight Center to pro­ for residences. These activities will struction and testing of types of solar cess and interpret remotely sensed lead to the introduction of energy top­ collectors. Interim projects include the imagery with three objectives in mind: ics into the elementary and secondary testing and evaluation of solar collec­ (1) to compare the characteristics of science curricula and the development tors, measurement of solar insolation, aerial photography and satelhte imag­ of an energy curriculum center in his and evaluation of thermal storage sys­ ery for application to forest science and institution's Energy Resource Center. tems.

Science Faculty Professional Development Program The objective of this program is to Science and Society improve undergraduate science teach­ ing in 2- and 4-year colleges and uni­ versities and thereby improve the ca­ NSF's science and society programs complex base of science and technol­ pabilities of students in meeting are concerned with those issues that ogy underlying matters of personal employment opportunities. Awards arise out of the changing relationship choice and pubhc policy on which citi­ were offered to college and university zens must make decisions; (2) interac­ between the scientific and technical teachers to pursue research or study tion between the ethical and social communities and the society of which for 3 to 12 months at institutions of values and standards of society as a they are a part. Its activities are based higher education or in industrial or whole and of the scientific community; other nonacademic laboratories. on the assumption that the health of and (3) full and informed participation Through this program a teacher of both science and society requires: (1) of scientists and citizens in the deci­ undergraduate students obtains new an understanding of the increasingly sionmaking process. 92 SCIENCE EDUCATION

Table 8 In 1978 the SFC forums, confer­ Science and Society ences, and workshops program sup­ Fiscal Year 1978 ported 16 new projects, among which are a workshop, with radio coverage, (Dollars in IVIillions) held by the Turtle Mountain Com­ munity College on the forest ecosys­ Preliminary Number tem, so that tribal members can partici­ Proposals Proposals Awards of pate in the formulation of timber Individuals cutting policy on the Turtle Mountain Number Amount Number Amount Number Amount Supported Indian Reservation in North Dakota. Public Understanding of Science 220 $18,00 72 $16,00 25 $2,40 -0- The Public Resource Center (Wash­ ington, D.C.) is conducting a series of Ettiics & Values in Science and Technology 200 15.00 66 5.70 19 1.29 30 Appalachian community forums to Science for Citizens 709 20,18 261 5,80 71 1 67 33 look at the changing environmental Forums, Conferences and occupational health needs result­ and Workshops 400 14.00 77 2,50 21 0.61 ing from industrial expansion in the Residents and Internships -0- -0- 134 2.10 33 0.53 33 area. Northeast Louisiana University Planning Studies 309 6,18 50 1 20 17 0,53 is establishing a Regional Utihties In­ Total 1,129 $53.18 399 $27.50 115 $5.36 63 formation Center to hold workshops SOURCE: Fiscal Year 1980 Budget to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations (Quantitative Program on energy-related issues, which will Data Tables). involve fuel suppliers, utility compan­ ies, regulatory authorities, and consu­ Science for Citizens scientific issues in proposed State leg­ mers. islation for the Association of Califor­ As a new initiative in fiscal year The overall goals of the science for nia Public Radio Stations. An intern is 1978, the science for citizens program citizens (SFC) program are twofold: (1) working with the Center for Local also awarded 17 planning studies to make scientific and technical infor­ Self-Reliance and the Minnesota State grants to community groups, public mation and expertise available to citi­ Legislature to evaluate urban energy interest science organizations, and ed­ zens at the times and in the ways most conservation programs and to encour­ ucational institutions and service or­ useful to them; and (2) to increase the age citizen participation in developing ganizations. These grants are intended knowledgeable participation of scien­ energy policies. to help them develop stable organiza­ tists and citizens in resolving major Some preliminary results from the tional structures and processes (such issues of public policy that involve fiscal year 1977 science for citizens as public service science centers or science and society. forums, conferences, and workshops networks) that can provide timely and In fiscal year 1978, its second year, indicate that those projects were able intelligible scientific and technical as­ the pubhc service science residencies to bring scientists and citizens to­ sistance to their communities. Exam­ and internships program awarded 25 gether to shed light on and help resolve ples of the fiscal year 1978 planning residencies to scientists and engineers issues of public policy that involve studies grants include a project where and 9 internships to science and engi­ science and technology. A number of the Metrocenter Y.M.C.A., in collabo­ neering students. These awards allow publications are currently available ration with the City of Seattle, the them to undertake up to a year's activi­ from these first projects. The Citizen People Power Coahtion, and the Uni­ ties with citizen groups and other or­ Involvement Network (Washington, versity of Washington, is planning a ganizations in need of their expertise. D.C), for example, has published Retro­ Seattle Metropolitan Technology As­ Examples of the projects being under­ fit '78, the proceedings of a New Eng­ sessment and Transfer Center to link taken by fiscal year 1978 residents and land conference on community- area scientific and technical resources interns include a resident, working focused home insulation and energy with citizen groups. In another, the with the Navaho Nation and Colorado conservation programs. Another pub- Georgia Community Action Associa­ State University, who is studying the hcation. The Community Communications tion will evaluate methods for provid­ nutritional status of native Americans Workbook of the Knoxville (Tennessee) ing technical advice on science- and and conducting training sessions on Communications Cooperative, is in­ technology-related policy issues to dis­ health and nutrition policy for native tended to assist persons interested in advantaged citizens in urban and rural American decisionmakers. Another understanding or undertaking com­ areas, and will prepare guidelines for resident is producing and moderating munity-based cable radio or TV ser­ the establishment of a Citizens Tech­ bilingual radio programs focused on vices. nical Advisory Center. The Southwest SCIENCE EDUCATION 93

Research and Information Center is producing a model for a network of New Mexico organizations that can deliver scientific information to citi­ zens to help them work with scientists in identifying and resolving public pol­ icy issues involving science and tech­ nology.

Ethics and Values in Science and Technology

The ethics and values in science and technology (EVIST) program is di­ rected toward identifying, analyzing, and resolving the ethical and social dilemmas that arise in the work of scientists and engineers and in their interactions with citizens affected by their work.

An International Symposium on So­ International experts. Scientists and policymal

tention and correctional institutions. Its objectives are twofold: (l) to pro­ vide health care professionals, stu­ dents, and trainees with the skills re­ quired to identify, articulate, and analyze the relevant ethical and legal issues; and (2) to develop teaching methodologies and materials that can be used at other institutions. The proj­ ect is being carried out at the Riker's Island Correctional Complex and is being overseen by an advisory commit­ tee of physicians and former inmates at the complex. A grant from the EVIST program permitted the American Association for the Advancement of Science to complete and publish, in fiscal year 1978, a resource directory of programs and courses at U.S. colleges and uni­ versities related to ethics and values in science and technology. The survey revealed that nearly 120 programs and over 900 courses in over 500 institu­ tions are directly concerned with these issues. The directory outlines current academic efforts in the area, thus serv­ ing as a useful resource to institutions that are already offering courses and programs on ethics and values in science and technology, as well as to those that are contemplating such ac­ tivities.

Public Understanding of Science

The objective of the pubhc under­ Young advisers. Children's Television Workshop researcher Hylda Clarke gets the help standing of science (PUOS) program is of a panel of young advisers as preliminary research for a daily TV series about science to help nonscientists understand the and technology gets under way. The Workshop's researchers have had the assistance of over 6,000 8- to 12-year olds as they plan the new series that will be shown on PBS in activities and methods of science and 1980. the implications and issues raised by new discoveries. PUOS utilizes a var­ iety of media to help the pubhc learn issues are of regional rather than na­ Alaskan oil shipments and the alloca­ about science-related issues in an in­ tional interest, so some kinds of pro­ tion of western water resources. formal and recreational milieu. grams are more appropriately oriented Many public understanding prob­ In the area of broadcasting, for ex­ to a regional perspective. To explore lems can be related to a general lack of ample, the NOVA television program this approach, the public television famiharity with science. To address continues to reach a national audience series "Synthesis" is being produced by this long-term problem, NSF has pro­ of 4 to 6 million viewers each week a western regional consortium under vided major support for a new half- with programs that range from nu­ the leadership of KPBS-TV, San hour daily public television program clear safety to the origin of the uni­ Diego. Programs this year have cov­ for 8- to 12-year olds, which will begin verse. But many science-related policy ered such topics as the impact of broadcasting in the fall of 1979. The SCIENCE EDUCATION 95

series will treat all aspects of science Smithsonian Institution, will be placed science column in which articles, writ­ and will present basic concepts of in several large museums of natural ten by Black journahsts in cooperation science as well as the excitement and history and will ultimately be seen by with the Fernbank Science Center in joy of discovery. about 10 million people each year. It Atlanta, are addressed to the interests Museums are another important will be the first time that a living coral of Black readers. The column is already channel of informal science education. reef, complete with the hundreds of being carried by 50 Black newspapers In the past year traveling exhibits from associated plants and animals that throughout the country. the Association of Science and Tech­ make it self-supporting, will be seen in Lecture series supported by NSF are nology Centers in Washington, D.C. such museums. chosen largely for their secondary im­ (supported by NSF since its inception), Few journalists have a scientific pact through radio, television, and reached an audience of over 30 million background and few scientists have newspapers. For example, although people. The association also conducted familiarity with the needs of working West Coast lecture series on topics like seven workshops, each attended by journahsts. To bridge this gap, the energy and ocean resources have been about 100 museum professionals, on American Association for the Ad­ attended by audiences of up to 55,000, topics ranging from science interpreta­ vancement of Science conducts a mass their main impact has been through tion and museum management to ex­ media intern program, which annually newspaper and broadcast coverage. hibits for the handicapped. offers 18 young scientists summer Newspapers in six West Coast cities In order to increase the impact of its experience as science journalists. have run comprehensive summaries of limited resources, the program in­ These exceptional interns have gener­ the lectures opposite the editorial page, itiated support for duplicate exhibits. ated an impressive variety of materials, and studies have shown that reader­ The Columbus, Ohio, Center of Sci­ ranging from short articles and radio ship far exceeds that of the editorials. ence and Industry, for example, has and TV scripts to wire service articles. NSF has also provided briefings for produced ten copies of their hands-on One way to demonstrate the rele­ journalists about developments in chemistry exhibit for roughly the same vance of science and technology is mental health (through the American cost as the single original exhibit. Two through materials that focus on the Psychiatric Association) and research similar grants have been made to de­ interests of smaller and more sharply frontiers (through the Council for the velop duplicate exhibits about com­ defined publics. Clark College in Advancement of Science Writing), and puters and coral reef ecology. The Atlanta, Georgia, for example, has has supported workshops to improve latter, to be developed by the recently developed an experimental the skills of university science writers.

APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 97

Applied Science and Research Applications

! he Apphed Science and Research included appropriate technology, arid and population redistribution. Apphcations (ASRA) program and semiarid lands research, design of Applied rese«rc/!—support for projects T identifies and supports research the built environment, economic initiated by the scientific research com­ and related activities that can contrib­ growth under environmental and re­ munity to improve understanding of ute to the understanding and resolu­ source constraints, and science and various social, economic, policy, and tion of significant problems of national technology for the physically handi­ technical problems and to increase the importance. ASRA's specific goals are capped. rate of innovation stemming from dis­ to: Integrated basic research—support for coveries in science and engineering. basic research that has high relevance Intergovernmental science and public • Foster growth of fundamental to major national problems and provi­ kc/iHology—integration of science and scientific understanding and capa­ sion of a formal link between the NSF technology resources into the activi­ bility in areas most relevant to programs supporting basic research ties of State and local governments, emerging or existing national and those of ASRA. Areas for empha­ and test and evaluation of incentives problems. sis include advanced measurement in­ that the Federal Government may use vestigations, deep mineral resources, to increase R&D investment in the • Focus U.S. scientific and techno­ biogeochemical cycles of selected ele­ private sector and to stimulate the logical capabilities on selected ments (such as carbon and nitrogen). acceleration of innovative technology problems of national significance where NSF can make a unique contribution.

Table 9 • Encourage the application of fun­ Applied Science and Research Applications* damental scientific and engineer­ Fiscal Years 1977 and 1978 ing capabilities to significant prob­ lems in the public and private (Dollars in Millions) sector, and shorten the time be­ tween scientific discoveries and Fiscal Year 1977 Fiscal Year 1978 the application of these discover­ Number Number ot of ies for societal use. Awards Amount Awards Amount Problem-Focused Researcti • Increase the use of science and Applications 194 $22.14 229 $27.02 technology in the public and pri­ Applied Research 270 29.59 136 16.06 vate sectors. intergovernmental Science and Public Technology 94 6.15 127 7.96 Integrated Basic Research 28" 4.47" 9 0.62 To implement these goals, ASRA Problem Analysis — — 17 1.45 focuses on the following areas: Total 586 $62.35 518 $55.11

Problem analysis—analysis of the role 'Research Applied to National Needs (RANN) program was reorganized into the Applied Science and Research Applications (ASRA) program on February 6, 1978. that science can play in contributing a "Reflects amounts obligated under the Weather Modification and Telecommunications programs of RANN that are base of information and technology applicable to the Integrated Basic Research program. relevant to addressing important so­ SOURCE: Fiscal Year 1980 Budget to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations (Ouantltative Program cietal problems. Such analyses have Data Tables). 98 APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

into those areas of the private sector application of science and technology. needed new developments and also where the national interest is served Emphasis is on earthquake hazards worked with handicapped scientists best. mitigation, chemical threats to man for the special insights they could bring Problem-focused research applications— and the environment, alternative bio­ to guide ASRA as to how to direct support of research to clarify and/or logical sources of materials, and com­ apphed physical and social science resolve critical societal problems by the munity water management. research to the problem. The final program goals reflect the need for ASRA to draw developments in basic research through early tests in Problem Analysis application and the proof-of-concept phase, develop low-cost technology needed by the handicapped, study the The problem analysis program stud­ of disciphnes in the research commun­ behavioral issues involved in the inter­ ies how science can contribute to a ity and then focus on the problems of action between the handicapped and base of information and technology the handicapped. To determine just the nonhandicapped population, and relevant to important societal prob­ how to bring this about, the program understand how public policy and eco­ lems. The program identifies emerging surveyed ongoing activities in NSF's nomic incentives affect the develop­ societal problems in which science and basic research areas to identify knowl­ ment of technology for the handi­ technology may have a significant im­ edge that could Be directed to the prob­ capped and the integration of the pact, analyzes the appropriate role for lems of the handicapped. handicapped into the mainstream of the science community and the Federal Building on that base and on a sound society. When the program planning Government, and determines research knowledge of other ongoing Federal phase is complete, the program will be priorities. The NSF program staff programs, the problem analysis pro­ transferred to ASRA's problem- works closely with the research com­ gram worked with the research com­ focused research apphcations program munity and interested publics to exam­ munity to gather suggestions for in fiscal year 1979. ine the nature of the problem area, the needs for scientific input, the role of the Federal Government, and the need for an ASRA program to support re­ Integrated Basic Research search in the area. The program then develops recommendations for those areas where it is determined that This program, which formally links workshops, conferences, and seminars ASRA could foster the growth of an NSF's basic and apphed research pro­ as a normal part of NSF's support of applied scientific capability and help to grams, provides additional support in basic research. focus it on the problem area. selected research problem areas where As of the end of fiscal year 1978, an During fiscal year 1978 the program increased fundamental understanding advisory subcommittee had recom­ analyzed research needs in appropriate is likely to contribute to the long-term mended eight priority topic candidates technology, arid and semiarid lands solution of the problems. The support for support in 1979. Of those, the research, science applied to the design is channeled through the basic re­ following areas will be emphasized. of the built environment, economic search programs. The objective of the Advanced measurement investigations: to growth under environmental and re­ program is to increase the stock of develop new measurement and obser­ source constraints, food and nutrition, fundamental knowledge applicable to vational concepts and to improve exist­ science and technology for the physi­ existing or emerging major problems. ing techniques as a way to help science cally handicapped, and science and During the past year the program move in new research directions. technology to aid local governments. staff identified 24 topic areas where Deep mineral resources: to lay the scien­ The process used to identify re­ basic research can be brought to bear tific foundation for new technology to search needed to focus science and on important or emerging problem find deep ore bodies and recover min­ technology on the problems of the areas. Additional advice and guidance eral resources. physically handicapped is an example was obtained through a broad consul­ Biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, of the kinds of activities that must be tative process with scientists at univer­ and sulfur: to understand the geochemi­ performed to develop a new program sities and in industry. Additional topic cal cycles of important elements, the area. It was first determined that NSF's areas to be selected for consideration perturbations of these cycles, and the comparative advantage was its abihty of support will be developed during resultant biological, ecological, atmos­ to draw upon talents from a wide range fiscal year 1979 by multidisciphnary pheric, and social impacts. APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 99

Population redistribution: to examine the and community levels and to provide as elderly, homeowners, and renters; unanticipated population redistribu­ improved submodels and improve pre­ and for urban and rural groups. The tion patterns in the 1970's that have diction capability for population redis­ research also provides data on individ­ complicated planning at the regional tribution patterns. ual taxes or combinations of taxes. The study contains an analysis of tax re­ form at both the corporate and individ­ ual level, as well as an estimate of the effects of inflation on personal tax lia­ Applied Research bility. Researchers at Data Resources, Inc., in Massachusetts, at Northwestern The applied research program pn reviewed periodically and replaced as University, and at the University of vides a mechanism to support a broad the opportunity and need arise. Three Wisconsin have completed a study of range of projects initiated by the scien­ initial coherent area programs were the impact of regulation on productivi­ tific research community; as such, it is selected after a review of 16 candidate ty in the railroad industry. The study, a complement to the more tightly programs that had been part of the which compared U.S. railroads with structured problem-focused research Foundation's Research Apphed to Na­ the less regulated Canadian railroads, applications program. Responding to tional Needs program, which was the concludes that extensive U.S. regula­ projects of long-term as well as more predecessor of the current ASRA pro­ tion results in smaller productivity immediate utility, the program sup­ gram. Those retained are: regulation, increases than might be forthcoming ports innovative research to improve growth, income, and employment; with less regulation. understanding of various social, eco­ telecommunications; and production Two Harbridge House research nomic, policy, and technical problems research and technology. The others teams in California and Massachusetts and to increase the rate of innovation were phased out as formal programs. are contributing to a better under­ stemming from discoveries in basic About one-third of the programs' re­ standing of the costs and benefits of science. sources are expected to be devoted to regulation. They have developed a 1 o accommodate the broad range of support in these areas. Examples of complete mathematical, computerized proposals expected and to ensure their recent research results are presented system of models to analyze regulatory adequate review, the program is di­ on the following pages. impacts on metallic mining industries vided into two broad sections. Social Edward Denison of the Brookings and have assembled the most complete and behavioral sciences includes public Institution in Washington, D.C, ex­ and accurate data base available on the policy and regulation, public service amined the effects on national produc­ copper industry. They are using this delivery, industrial organization and tivity of three factors: (1) new legal data base, with the models, to analyze markets, and individual and group requirements to protect the physical both monetary and nonmonetary ben­ processes. Physical, mathematical, and environment against pollution, (2) new efits and costs of a number of regula­ biological sciences and engineering in­ regulations aimed at protecting the tions affecting copper production. The cludes physical, mathematical, and safety and health of workers, and (3) White House Non-Fuels Policy Coordi­ geophysical and environmental apph­ social conditions such as increases in nating Committee is using the Har­ cations. This administrative structure the crime rate. He concluded that these bridge House methods to structure its broadly reflects the basic research pro­ factors accounted for a reduction in the overview. The Environmental Protec­ grams of the Foundation and is de­ annual growth rate (over what it tion Agency is using the computer signed to extend basic scientific advan­ would have been in the absence of models for an online capability for all ces into useful apphcation. those factors) by 0.5 percentage points future economic assessments of envi­ In addition to the broad areas of from 1974 to 1975. ronmental regulatory impacts on the support there are several "coherent Also at the Brookings Institution, copper industry. The American Min­ area" programs organized around a Joseph Pechman completed research ing Congress is using the models in generic topic. These are areas in which on the distribution of the tax burden at their own case study of proposed EPA there is evidence of capability and in­ each level of government among arsenic regulations. The U.S. Bureau terest in the research community, a households of different composition of Mines is using the model specifica­ unique role for NSF in organizing or and among households ranked by size tions to link into their Mineral Accessi­ advancing a field of knowledge, and a of income. The research provided de­ bility System, which monitors regula­ receptive "user" community. Coherent tailed tabulations of the incidence of tory impacts on mining. areas, which provide stable support for the entire tax system by income class; The combined use of telecommuni­ a research area for a period of time, are for subgroups of the population such cations and computing technology is 100 APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

frequently posed as a way to reduce dustrial robots. As a result of research ation, wrote a report (Payroll/Personnel travel and enhance productivity in there, the amount of computing time Management System) that identified the white collar occupations. Results from required to determine the position of requirements of small- to medium- a year-long experiment conducted in the robot hand has recently been re­ sized jurisdictions in the payroll/ actual work settings suggest that com­ duced by a factor of about 100. An personnel management area and de­ puter conferencing increases com­ optimization method has been formu­ veloped computerized systems to be munications among geographically lated to determine the path of motion used in fulfilhng these requirements. distributed workers, increases flexibil­ of the manipulators, and a scheme has The Marshall E. Dimock Award of ity in acceptable place of work for been worked out to control the relation the American Society for Pubhc Ad­ cooperative research endeavors, and of manipulation joints efficiently. At ministration was recently presented to promotes greater productivity than the University of Rhode Island re­ James N. Danziger, principal investiga­ alternative communication modes searchers have recently placed an tor on the NSF-supported urban infor­ such as mail or telephone. However, experimental robot system into opera­ mation system project at the Univer­ the amount of travel needed to ac- tion. This system uses a TV camera to sity of California, Irvine, for his article comphsh various tasks was nOt signifi­ aid in picking up an arbitrarily posi­ "Computers, Local Government and cantly reduced, and no substantial tioned workpiece from a bin, comput­ Litany to EDP." The article was se­ changes in when the activity was per­ ing the position of the workpiece, and lected as the most meritorious paper formed, such as after normal office placing it in a predetermined place at a published in the Public Administration hours, were found. There was little to selected site. CoUisions are avoided, Review during 1977. suggest that organization decentrali­ and the workpiece can be regrasped in The Government Finance Research zation results from the use of the new the course of the movement. These Center of the Municipal Finance Offi­ medium. Overall, the study conducted results will be useful in improving cers Association has produced seven by the Institute for the Future in industrial efficiency in the United manuals on financial management Menlo Park, Calif., concluded that States. techniques for smaller cities. These computer conferencing could become a Research on the reduction of por­ were selected for display at the 1978 competitor to mail and telephone ser­ poise mortahty during fishing for tuna National Demonstration Conference vices. is continuing. In fiscal year 1978 re­ sponsored by the American Society for Research findings from several ex­ searchers from San Diego State Uni­ Public Administration and the Civil periments dealing with the use of tele­ versity and the Hubbs-Sea World Re­ Service Commission. Projects dis­ communications for increasing the search Institute began conducting played were cited for addressing tradi­ productivity of public sector services at-sea experiments using the purse tional problems in new ways and for were major contributions to a NATO seiner M/V Queen Mary, which has been their promise to be useful across the Symposium on the Evaluation and made available by the tuna industry for country. The seven manuals developed Planning of Interpersonal Telecom­ research on the tuna-porpoise mortal­ under the NSF award are on financial munication Systems. The symposium ity problem. The results of these pohcy, fiscal indicators, operating brought together policymakers and experiments will be used in developing budget, capital budget, accounting, scientists from nine countries to re­ the conceptual design of an artificial debt management, and treasury man­ view national and international tele­ aggregation system for tuna to elimi­ agement. communications policy, applied re­ nate the need for purse seining. The growing demand for corrosion- search, and industrial development. E. S. Savas at Columbia University, resistant, longer lasting products has A large fraction of manufacturing in conjunction with Public Technol­ prompted increased use of zinc-based today involves production of relatively ogy, Inc., and the International City protective coatings in maritime con­ small batches. Significant productivity Management Association, produced a struction, highway structures and gains, through automation, appear document. Evaluating Residential Refuse bridges, nuclear powerplants, and au­ possible in this small batch production, Collection Costs: A Workbook for Local Gov­ tomotive undercoats. In 1976 approxi­ but the famihar assembly line tech­ ernment, which may be used by urban mately 65,000 short tons of zinc dust niques are not apphcable. Instead, sys­ pohcymakers to assess the effective­ were used in the United States for tems involving programmable devices, ness and efficiency of their solid waste primer applications. However, cur­ such as numerically controlled ma­ collection operations. rently used air atomization spray tech­ chine tools and industrial robots, are Robert Haskell of the Westing­ niques result in zinc losses of over 50 needed. NSF is supporting a number of house National Issues Center, in con­ percent. The wasted zinc collected projects in this area, including a study junction with the Municipal Finance from the spray booths is disposed as at Purdue University of efficient and Officers Association and the Interna­ landfill. The obvious environmental advanced methods of control for in­ tional Personnel Management Associ­ hazards of disposal, coupled with the APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 101

fact ttiat half of the U.S. zinc supply is 1970's. Another example is the Gov­ to determine their weight increase. imported, prompted engineers at the ernment's deliberate policy of foster­ However, experiments at the Haskins University of Louisville, Kentucky, to ing entry into the nickel industry Laboratory in New Haven, Conn., in­ create an efficient application tech­ through stockpile purchases, which dicate that the protozan tetrahymena nique and to find ways to recycle and has led to a very difficult industry may be useful in evaluating proteins in reuse the waste zinc from the conven­ structure and somewhat less efficient foods that have relative protein con­ tional spray process. They built and investment patterns. tent at least one-quarter that of the tested electrostatic spray equipment, One of the problems in determining milk protein casein. That would in­ which laboratory experiments indi­ the nutritional value of proteins in clude most foods of interest to indus­ cated reduced the wastage by approxi­ foods is the time and expense of pres­ try. Test with tetrahymena would be mately 40 percent. A full-scale, four- ent assay methods. The standard test much faster and less expensive than spray, automatic, electrostatic spray now requires feeding rats for 30 days the conventional rat tests. system is now under design and construction with industrial coopera­ tion. Waste zinc from primer applica­ tions was recovered as pure zinc by Problem-Focused drying, screening, and solvent extrac­ tion. Laboratory tests indicate that Research Applications zinc sulfate needed for the fertilizer industry can be produced economically from the waste zinc primer. The problem-focused research appli­ property damage due to earthquakes. A research project investigating in­ cations (PFRA) program apphes new The three major research areas are vestment behavior in the minerals scientific and technological discoveries siting, design, and policy. industry—including nickel, zinc, phos­ to selected, critical national problems. Siting focuses on the relationship phate, aluminum, copper, iron ore, and Research supported by the program is between soil and geologic conditions at sulfur—was recently completed at intended to help accelerate resolution a given site; the potential earthquake Pennsylvania State University. The of problems rather than to increase hazard of the region; and the architec­ findings, as predicted by theory, are knowledge in a particular area. PFRA tural, land use, and engineering practi­ that the demand situation plays a ma­ programs require a multidisciplinary ces and policies necessary to make jor role in investment decisions. For approach to problem solving and en­ buildings at that site earthquake resis­ those commodities like aluminum and courage cooperative research efforts tant. iron ore, where demand estimation involving industry, universities, and Design investigates the elastic and does not involve great uncertainty, a government agencies. Projects range inelastic behavior of building materiah smoother investment pattern is exhi­ from the development of basic new the effects of design, construction, and bited relative to actual demand. For information to proof-of-concept ex­ type of building materials used on the those commodities where demand es­ periments. The array of program areas behavior of structures during seismic timation is difficult, such as nickel, cop­ will change over time as ongoing pro­ and wind excitation; ways to minimize per, and zinc, there were more pro­ grams are either transferred to Fed­ the risk to older buildings not built to nounced periods of undercapacity and eral mission agencies or phased out as meet earthquake code standards; and supply shortfalls with respect to effec­ their objectives are achieved. There the behavior of nonengineered struc­ tive demand. Somewhat surprising were four programs in PFRA in fiscal tures and secondary components of was the relatively minor and indirect year 1978: earthquake hazards mitiga­ buildings. role played by current and projected tion; chemical threats to man and the Policy deals with social, economic, prices of the commodities in question. environment; alternative biological legal, institutional, and other factors Much more significant than prices was sources of materials; and community that facilitate or hinder the adoption of the market structure of the industries water management. social and technological solutions, in­ and changes in that structure over cluding prediction and warning, to time. Most important of all was the earthquake hazards. major and direct impact of Govern­ Earthquake Hazards The results of this research are ap­ ment policies, both of the United Mitigation phcable worldwide, and cooperative States and of other countries. For ex­ research activities already exist with ample, the zinc stockpile decisions in The objectives of the earthquake the Soviet Union, Japan, the Republic face of surplus capacity in the 1950's hazards mitigation program are to of China, and India. led to substantial undercapacity in the minimize loss of life and to reduce The architectural firm of McCue, 102 APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

Seismic design. This architectural award-witining IBM laboratory in San Jose, California, follows earthquake-resistant design criteria developed in earlier research supported by NSF. (Photo by Marvin Wax)

Boone, and Tomsick received an Amer­ earthquake-simulation testing of project has defined the characteristic ican Institute of Architects 1978 Hon­ small-scale, slender, multistory build­ contributions of important manmade or Award for their design of the IBM ings with differing proportionate "source types," including powerplants, Santa Teresa Laboratory in San Jose, strengths and stiffnesses provided by roadway traffic, waste incinerators, Calif. This building complex reflects the frame and wall components. The and industrial sources. Each of these the direct application of NSF- results of this research will be of great source types produces emissions with supported research findings on the value as the basis for improved design characteristic chemical compositions relationship of nonstructural design methods. for certain-sized particles. This knowl­ elements—such as the primary enclo­ edge enables the correlation of air­ sure system, ceihng systems, parti­ Chemical Threats to Man borne contaminants in areas of human tions, and window glass—to the per­ and the Environment exposure to their probable origins. formance of the building's primary Gordon's project examined the oc­ structure during earthquakes. The Research in this area is aimed at currence of about 30 chemical ele­ seismic design features of this building determining chemical pathways and ments in airborne particulates and complex show that seismic and energy transformations in the environment described how these elements are design factors can be incorporated into and in organisms, identifying and distributed into finer, respirable parti­ building design while stiU permitting measuring environmental contami­ cles. Aircraft sampling of copper smel­ architects aesthetic flexibility. nants and their effects on living forms ter plumes in the Southwest showed In the past year Mete Sozen and critical to the functioning of eco­ that, in addition to copper, the plumes William Schnobrich of the University systems, and developing ways to pre­ from five smelters contained easily of Illinois, Urbana, have developed a dict the toxicological effects of chemi­ detectable levels of zinc, cadmium, new conceptual model to determine cals on humans based on animal test lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, the energy dissipation and distribution and laboratory data. bromine, vanadium, molybdenum, of forces in buildings consisting of Glen Gordon of the University of tungsten, and indium. Chemical analy­ combinations of structural shear walls Maryland has developed a better sis of the plume samples has proved and frameworks of reinforced con­ means to identify the sources of partic­ that it is possible to identify individual crete. This research project was based ulate airborne contaminants than had smelters as the sources of specific con­ on the design, construction, and previously been available. Gordon's taminants. Such information will be of APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 103

rr

Domestic rubber. Scientists at Los Angeles County Arboretum are collecting, tiybridizing, and growing different strains of the desert shrub guayule, which contains natural rubber, in an attempt to provide a commercial alternative to imported rubber. Plants growing in this desert-like field are irrigated inexpensively with reclaimed water from a nearby sewage treatment plant.

use to Federal and State officials in hydrocarbons are direct-acting carcino­ ral rubber and liquid wax to replace enforcing environmental protection gens or whether they are metabolized Hevea rubber from Southwest Asia and regulations concerning airborne con­ to carcinogenic intermediates by the the industrial oil from the sperm taminants. organism. whale. In a well intentioned effort to pre­ The nitrogen required by plants for vent burn injuries, the Federal Gov­ growth either can come from indus­ ernment implemented strict regula­ Alternative Biological trial fertilizers or can be naturally de­ tions for many natural and synthetic Sources of IVIaterials rived from atmospheric nitrogen by fabrics with regard to fire retardancy. certain bacteria in the soil. Winston As is often the case with new chemi­ This program supports research to Brill at the University of Wisconsin, cals, some flame retardants were in alleviate the Nation's dependence on Madison, is trying to enhance biologi­ wide use before they had been tested to imported, scarce raw materials by de­ cal nitrogen fixation by coating legume determine whether they posed any veloping domestic biological substi­ seeds with specific protein that binds health risk to those exposed to them. tutes. The program focused on three nitrogen-fixing bacteria to the roots One chemical widely used to fireproof areas in 1978. Biological conversion of of the plant; he is also developing "su- children's sleep clothes, TRIS, proved lignocellulosic materials dealt with permutant" strains of these bacteria. to be highly carcinogenic; as a result, the replacement of petroleum with Results to date have been encouraging; its use has since been banned by the chemical feedstock derived from the coating of the seed with protein does Food and Drug Administration. A conversion of agricultural and forest attract more bacteria, and "supermu- project currently being supported by residues by the use of enzymes or tant" bacteria can produce up to twice the chemical threats program under the microbial systems. Biological nitrogen as many root nodules per plant. Soy­ direction of Benjamin Van Duuren of fixation studied processes to enhance bean plants grown in soil with "super- New York University has shown that natural bacterial nitrogen fixation to mutant" bacteria have shown a dry TRIS, when applied to the skin, causes reduce the need for chemically syn­ weight increase of 20 percent. If suc­ malignant tumors of internal organs, thesized fertihzers, which require nat­ cessful, this research will result in a an unusual and important finding. Van ural gas for their manufacture. Investi­ more economical and effective way to Duuren will further investigate gations on guayule and jojoba sought use natural processes to produce plant whether TRIS and other halogenated to develop domestic sources for natu­ protein. 104 APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

Community Water IVlanagement

Agricultural, industrial, and com­ munity demands for water in the Uni­ ted States have reached a point where quantitative and qualitative limitations are becoming increasingly apparent. Re-use of water, whether direct or indirect, is now the rule rather than the exception. This program supports the scientific investigation of means to meet community needs for manage­ ment of water and waste water, includ­ ing existing social, institutional, and economic barriers to the introduction of innovative concepts. Research re­ sults are targeted to engineers who provide consulting and design services to communities, and to local. State, and Federal regulatory agencies. Since 1972 NSF has supported a sequence of research projects under the direction of Robert and John Kad­ lec of the University of Michigan. Basic research on wetland ecosystems led to studies of the effects of the application of treated waste water on wetland ecosystems; next, to applied studies and systems modeling for treatment plant facilities; and then to verification of the efficacy of applying secondarily treated waste water for recovery of water and nutrient values by the peat wetlands of the region. The success of the research led, in the spring of 1978, to completion by the State of Michigan of a full-scale, proof- of-concept, advanced waste water treatment plant for the Houghton Lake Sewer Authority. The project is an excellent example of complemen­ tary, well coordinated efforts on the part of three Federal agencies (Na­ tional Science Foundation, Environ­ mental Protection Agency, and the Fish and Wildlife Service) and State and local governments cooperating with the private profit and nonprofit sectors (Williams and Works, Inc., and Wastewater management. Researchers from the University of IVlichigan are cooperat­ the Rockefeller Foundation). In addi­ ing with the Houghton Lal

plant will save an estimated $750,000 cost-effective alternative, over the significant developments occurred in over land application, the next most next 20 years. both the executive and legislative branch programs. The executive branch program con­ Intergovernmental Science and tinued to emphasize awards to the national organizations representing Public Technology State government, such as the Na­ tional Governors' Association, the Council of State Governments, and system to demonstrate and replicate Intergovernmental the Council of State Planning Agen­ research findings. These national net­ Programs cies, to identify policy areas in which works, along with the State and re­ more knowledge is needed, transfer gional innovation networks, provided Intergovernmental programs assist successful innovative approaches the primary input into the R&D State and local governments to inte­ among the States, and provide exper­ needs assessment conducted by the grate scientific and technological re­ tise to deal with policy issues in such President's Office of Science and Tech­ sources into their policy formulation, areas as energy, environment, and nology Policy in response to the re­ management support, and program growth. An emerging area of impor­ quest of its Intergovernmental operation activities. The programs also tance was reflected in a series of Science, Engineering, and Technology sponsor projects that help the science awards to regional groupings of States Advisory Panel. and technology community respond to to increase their capacity to access the needs of State and local govern­ Continued support was provided to scientific and technological support. ments. Special attention is given to State and regional innovation groups Awardees in this category included the developing and demonstrating new in California, New England, Texas, Western Governors' Policy Office, the mechanisms and processes to improve Ohio, Colorado, Georgia, Tennessee, Coahtion of Northeastern Governors, communications between resource and Oklahoma, and resources were the Southern Growth Policies Board, supphers and State and local govern­ provided to assist emerging networks and the Midwestern Governors' Con­ ment users. in the Delmarva Peninsula (Delaware, ference. In fiscal year 1978, awards were Maryland, Virginia) and the Pacific The legislative program supported made in four areas: local government. Northwest. Funds to support the net­ several State legislatures to demon­ State government executive branch. works were provided through various strate ways to improve their scientific State government legislative branch, projects with the International City and technological information. Among and science and technology resources. Management Association, National the recipients of these awards were the The major focus of the local govern­ League of Cities, National Association Pennsylvania Legislative Office of Re­ ment programs was support for na­ of Counties, and the United States search Liaison, which links the Assem­ tional and regional innovative net­ Conference of Mayors. bly to six State-supported universities; works. There are three national The State government executive the scientific staff of the Minnesota networks: the Urban Consortium for and legislative branch programs de­ Legislature; and the Science Resources Technology Initiatives, composed of voted considerable effort to ensure Office of the Legislature in Massachu­ the 28 American cities and 8 large successful completion of the planning setts. An award was also made to the urban counties with more than phase of the State Science, Engineer­ National Conference of State Legisla­ 500,000 population; the Urban Tech­ ing, and Technology (SSET) program. tures to develop a comprehensive in­ nology System, composed of 26 cities In this phase, awards were made to the formation system among the Legisla­ and counties in the 50,000 to 500,000 executive branches of 49 States and to tures and to connect the Legislatures population range; and the Community the legislative branches of 42 States for with selected Federal agencies. Technology Initiatives Program, com­ analysis of ways to increase their capa­ Support for Federal Laboratory posed of 32 cities and counties with bility to use science, engineering, and Consortium activities was expanded populations of under 50,000. These technology in policy management. A and the consortium's membership in­ national networks bring together local third-party assessment of the pro­ creased from 150 to 183 laboratories. governments dedicated to finding and gram, conducted by SRI International, An award to the China Lake Naval using new ways to improve productiv­ concluded that there should be con­ Weapons Center provided funds for ity and the quality of services. The tinued Federal investment in this ef­ the consortium secretariat. Consor­ networks develop research and devel­ fort through an implementation phase. tium laboratories increased their as­ opment agendas, involve member ju­ In addition to the special thrust rep­ signment of technical personnel to risdictions in research, and provide a resented by the SSET program, other State and local governments under the 106 APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

Intergovernmental Personnel Act, in­ grams concerned with the role of capacity of small business through the cluding the assignment of seven science and technology in U.S. eco­ award of specific research grants; to "circuit-riding" technology agents and nomic development. It is the only pro­ shorten the time lag between scientific a technology coordinator to the com­ gram conducting field experiments de­ discovery and market commercializa­ munity technology initiatives pro­ signed to extend knowledge in this tion through cooperative research gram. area. The health of science in America projects; to assist in the development NSF also increased its efforts to depends upon improved under­ of innovative and entrepreneurial skills develop a comprehensive evaluation standing of the mechanisms by which through institutionally based innova­ program. Two significant activities scientific discovery is brought to pro­ tion centers; and to provide a univer­ were the use of a specially selected ductive use. sity research resource to segments of panel of research managers and State The industrial program tests and industry by means of university- and local executives and legislators to evaluates selective incentive strategies industry research centers. help develop the program, and the that the Federal Government might The first two kinds of experiments award of a contract for the collection of use to increase R&D investment in are characterized by technological re­ baseline data on the activities of the the private sector of the economy and search that can be used by a company Urban Technology System and prepa­ to stimulate the introduction of inno­ or industry without any attempt to ration of a detailed evaluation plan for vative technology into commercial use, build a lasting institution, while the that project. especially where new products, proc­ latter two depend upon the creation of esses, or services are needed in the an institution. In practically all of the Industrial Program national interest. experiments university educational The program conducts four types of and research personnel and faculties The industrial program is a major experiments, based on the following have been mobilized to stimulate and factor among Federal R&D pro­ goals: to capture the high innovative assist private sector R&D activities

Technological innovation. These two new biomedical products were developed at the University of Utah's innovation center. (Left) This portable kidney dialysis unit is currently being evaluated for its market potential. (Right) The Dermatron, a simple iontophoresis device that uses a low-level electric current to diffuse local anesthetic painlessly into surface tissue, is already being marketed to hospitals and doctors. APPLIED SCIENCE AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 107

and, as such, have aided in the intro­ Communications Programs to improve the quality of science and duction of new products by working increase the ability of scientists in eligi­ with large and small firms and through The communications programs dis­ ble States to compete successfully for new firm initiation. seminated over 53,000 ASRA research Federal research funds. It reflects the The experimental results have shown reports to interested user groups Board's perception that significant na­ a national impact on (1) innova­ through a variety of channels: presen­ tional as well as local benefits are de­ tion and entrepreneurial education, (2) tation of specialized ASRA document rived from each State's participation in new product evaluation and develop­ displays and lists at professional meet­ the national science enterprise. ment techniques, (3) new business ings and conventions; cooperative ac­ Through the program, NSF assumes initiation and assistance methodology, tivities with ASRA program managers responsibility for assisting institutions and (4) economic development. Results among industrial, small business, and in States falling below specified min­ have ranged the spectrum from new appropriate technology communities; imum criteria to improve their compet­ biomedical products to conservation of the publication Recent Research Reports, itive capability in science. At the same resources; industries aided vary from which has achieved a distribution of time, the States involved accept pri­ traditional, with low technology bases, over 3,000 copies per issue; and sales mary responsibility for their improve­ to those using sophisticated technol­ by the National Technical Information ment. ogy, such as digital taxi meters, secur­ Service of the Department of Com­ The program, to be conducted in ity and heating and cooling control merce. fiscal year 1979, consists of two systems, new insulation materials, and phases. In the first, an ad hoc commit­ a substitute for oak flooring. tee from each of seven eligible States The industrial program has had a Experimental Program to will analyze the status of science and successful 5-year history of conduct­ Stimulate Competitive technology in its State and develop a ing experiments on alternative modes Research plan to improve the ability of scientists of promoting a university/industry in that State to compete more success­ interface and is developing a body of In fiscal year 1978 the National fully for Federal research funds. The knowledge on new institutional ar­ Science Board estabhshed the experi­ plans that result from that phase will rangements for applying university- mental program to stimulate competi­ compete against one another for based resources to industry needs. tive research. The program is intended second-phase implementation awards.

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 109

Scientific, Technological, and International Affairs

he Foundation's programs in ing U.S. participation in international cal knowledge needed for the design of Scientific, Technological, and In­ scientific organizations, joint pro­ science and technology information T ternational Affairs (STIA) bring grams and projects, and individual ex­ processing systems. together diverse information on changes in research and related activi­ Policy research and analysis pro­ science and technology to identify re­ ties. Such scientific activities not only grams facilitate decisionmaking on search needs and science and technol­ served the needs of U.S. science, but issues with significant science and ogy policy issues stemming from prac­ also furthered foreign policy interests technology content. Appropriately, in­ tical problems and developing needs. of the United States. formation and analyses are dis­ The data and analyses that derive from Information science and technology seminated to users in both the public these activities serve as input for do­ activities strengthen fundamental and private sector. These activities mestic and international science and knowledge of the properties of infor­ enhance the Nation's science policy technology decisionmaking. Such in­ mation. This program is the only Fed­ research and analysis capabihty and its put is valuable to public and private eral source of funds for research on decisionmakers' abihty to assess alter­ sector policymakers, as well as to ways of improving access to and use of native science and technology policy managers of research and develop­ information across fields of science. options in relation to social and eco­ ment, who require accurate informa­ Foundation programs in this area con­ nomic goals. tion and analysis on national and tribute to the scientific and technologi­ Science resources studies collect and international issues with scientific and technological components. Within STIA, the main areas of Table 10 activities are: (1) international scientif­ Scientific, Technological, and International Affairs ic cooperative programs, (2) informa­ Fiscal Years 1976, Transition Quarter tion science and technology activities, (July 1-Sept. 30,1976), 1977, and 1978 (3) policy research and analysis, and (4) (Dollars in Millions) science resources studies. Together, these activities systematically monitor Fiscal Year 1976 Transition Quarter Fiscal Year 1977 Fiscal Year 1978 the Nation's scientific and technologi­ Number Number Number Number cal enterprise and promote improved of of of ol science and technology information Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount Awards Amount exchange. International Cooperative Scientific Activities 690 $ 7.53 224 $3.04 684 $ 8,49 578 $ 9.85 International cooperative scientific Policy Research and activities increase science and technol­ Analysis 157 6.44 28 1.19 82 3.50 88 5.57 ogy benefits to the United States Science Resources Studies .. 47 2.08 13 0.76 54 2,79 48 2.51 Information Science through international sharing of re­ and Technology 102 5.89 33 076 57 4.54 50 4,97 search approaches, costs, facilities, and NSF Planning and results. During fiscal year 1978 this Evaluation 14 0.47 30 0.40 54 1,34 33 0.88 program supported cooperative rela­ Total 1,010 $22.41 328 $6.15 931 $20.66 797 $23.78 tionships between U.S. and foreign SOURCE: Fiscal Years 1978, 1979, and 1980 Budgets to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations scientists and institutions by advanc­ (Quantitative Program Data Tables). 110 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

analyze data on U.S. human and finan­ Board, other Federal agencies. State • Effects of Government regulatory cial resources for scientific and techno­ and local governments, the U.S. Con­ policies and practices on health logical activities. In fiscal year 1978 gress, and the Executive Office, includ­ technologies, a series of related NSF issued 40 reports to provide com­ ing the Office of Science and Technol­ studies funded under grants to the prehensive overviews of the quantity, ogy Policy and the Office of Manage­ National Bureau of Economic Re­ quality, and direction of the U.S. scien­ ment and Budget. search, Inc., University of Roches­ tific and technological enterprise. Also presented here with the pro­ ter, Brookings Institution, and the NSF programs in Scientific, Techno­ grams of STIA is NSF's planning and National Academy of Sciences. logical, and International Affairs also evaluation activities. This program contribute to an improved national responds to the Foundation's need to • Effects of international technol­ scientific and technological infrastruc­ improve the management of its activi­ ogy transfer on the U.S. economy, ture through liaison with various ties and to review and appraise the a series of studies examining de­ groups in the private and public sector. accomplishments, impact, and ade­ terminants and effects on U.S. These include the research commu­ quacy of NSF programs in relation to technological capability and re­ nity, industry, the National Science overall objectives. search and development of private sector international technology transactions. These studies were conducted by the University of Policy Research and Analysis Pennsylvania, Harvard Univer­ sity, and Battelle Memorial Insti­ tute, Policy Research and Analysis (PRA) resource goals. PRA is also responsive • Staff studies assessing the utility programs support external studies and to Public Law 92-484, which amended of selected R&D output and input conduct internal staff analyses of the NSF enabling legislation and estab­ data as indicators of U.S. techno­ science and technology policy issues of lished a provision for NSF to assist the logical capabihties relative to other interest to NSF, groups within the Office of Technology Assessment and industrial nations. Executive Office of the President such to initiate and support studies of the as the Office of Science and Technol­ effects of technology upon society. • Preparation of a report on the ogy Pohcy and the Office of Manage­ Pohcy research and analysis activi­ effect of NSF and Government ment and Budget, other agencies, and ties are divided into four areas of research funding on the incomes the Congress. These activities are part study: socioeconomic effects of science of academic research scientists, of NSF's efforts, required under the and technology; environment, energy, prepared for the Committee on NSF Act of 1950, to "appraise the and resources; innovative processes Appropriations, U.S. Senate. impact of research upon industrial and their management; and technol­ development and upon the general ogy assessment. Descriptions of their • Preparation of the sections on welfare" and "to provide a source of respective fiscal year 1978 activities research and development and information on policy formulation by follow. U.S. economic progress, compara­ other agencies of the Federal Govern­ tive performance of U.S. technol­ ment." The Socioeconomic ogy, status of basic research in Further, as directed in the National Effects of industry, and some issues in the Science and Technology Policy Act of support of academic science ap­ 1976, NSF provides assistance to the Science and Technology pearing in the 1978 Science and Tecli- Office of Science and Technology Pol­ nology: Annual Report to the Congress. icy in the Executive Office of the Presi­ The purpose of this program ele­ dent. PRA contributes to this NSF ment is to make available for Federal effort through assessments of the con­ decisionmaking: (1) improved empiri­ Environment, Energy, and tribution of science and technology to cal information on the relationship of Resources Studies economic progress and individual wel­ science and technology to economic fare, analysis of the roles of the public performance and the quahty of hfe; (2) This element is concerned with and private sectors in research and improved information about the ef­ science and technology policy choices development and technological in­ fects of Government actions on the that influence future environmental novation, and studies to clarify the role relationship; and (3) improved meth­ quahty, energy supply and cost, and of science and technology in meeting ods for generating such information. resource utilization and development. national energy, environmental, and Projects included: It supported studies that assessed the SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 111

implications for science and technol­ "Adequacy of Minerals-Related corporate and Federal policy­ ogy policy of certain environmental Research and Development." makers' understanding of organi­ regulations, energy technology devel­ zational coordinating mechanisms opment strategies, and minerals ex­ Innovation Processes and and their potential for increasing traction options. In addition, the group Their IVIanagement the flow of technology to the provided staff analysis of domestic marketplace. policy issues in these areas. Projects This element, concerned with the included: • Analysis of developing country processes associated with the develop­ papers, which were submitted in • The Impact of Environmental Regulations ment and diffusion of technological preparation for the 1979 United on Research and Development in the innovations in the United States, seeks Nations Conference on Science Industrial Chemical Industry, an inves­ general principles that explain the and Technology for Development. tigation by Southeastern Louisi­ creation and utilization of technology. At the request of the U.S. Confer­ ana University of the effects of Its goal is to identify points where ence Coordinator, the staff ana­ environmental regulations on 15 public pohcies influence innovation in lyzed developing country papers major R&D centers in the chemi­ the public and private sectors of the to identify common scientific and cal industry. U.S. economy and in the acquisition technological needs, variations in and use of technology in developing these needs among groups of de­ • An interagency case study of the countries. Projects included: veloping countries, and appro­ municipal waste water treatment priate mechanisms for technologi­ facihties construction grants pro­ • Diffusion of Technology in the Domestic cal assistance. The results will aid gram of the Environmental Pro­ Shoe Industry. This study by the the U.S. Delegation in formulat­ tection Agency. Although the University of Maine at Orono ing U.S. initiatives for the Confer­ study focused on national policy explored the processes of techno­ ence. aspects, Boston was the site of the logical change in a specific indus­ case study, and meetings were try and examined the potential held there with local. State, and impact of a variety of Federal ac­ Technology Assessment Federal agencies as well as the tions to stimulate such change. general public in order to obtain Members of the research team This program supports research to comments on the draft final re­ later presented findings to the provide information on the social, en­ ports. Department of Commerce and vironmental, institutional, and eco­ other members of the Adminis­ nomic impacts of the introduction of • A summary report of the findings tration in a number of briefings major new technologies or of expand­ of a series of workshops con­ and workshops. ing existing ones. The 1978 program ducted by the MITRE Corporation focused on research that would pro­ to advise NSF on the research and • The Impact of Professional Associations vide a better understanding of the technological developments con­ on Innovation Diffusion Among City subtle, long-range implications of im­ cerning energy facility siting op­ Governments. This study was car­ plementing technologies. Support was tions and attendant problems ried out by the University of Wis­ also provided for research to improve faced by the energy utilities indus­ consin at Milwaukee in order to methods for the assessment of the try. suggest possible public policy op­ impacts of technology and on ways to tions for improving the transfer • Electric Utility Decisionmaking and the enhance use of technology assessment of innovations among city gov­ in policymaking. Nuclear Option, which analyzed the ernments via professional asso­ factors considered by private utili­ ciations. • Among completed research proj­ ties in their decision to invest in ects were assessments of mobile either a nuclear generating facility • An Exploratory Study of the Coordinat­ communications technologies pre­ or a fossil-fuel facility. ing Mechanisms Between R&D and pared by Cornell University, • Two Domestic Policy Reviews. Marketing as an Influence on the Innova­ transportation of cargoes by very The staff participated in the solar tion Process. This University of large aircraft conducted by Cell- impacts panel of the Domestic Pittsburgh report considered the man Research Associates, risk to Policy Review on Solar Energy and effects on a firm's R&D projects structures from natural hazards in the Nonfuels Mineral Domestic of various procedures for coordi­ by J. H. Wiggins Co., and Pohcy Review, for which NSF was nating research, development, and controlled environment agricul­ the lead agency for the task on marketing. Findings may improve ture done at International Re- 112 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

search and Technology Corpora­ environment. In addition, re­ tion's R&D effort has occurred each tion. Each assessment explored search by Portland State Uni­ year since 1975, reflecting, in large how a specific technology might versity examined the uses of part, increased emphasis on finding evolve and where issues of public structural modeling as a method alternative sources of energy. Total policy could emerge. for analysis of technology assess­ R&D spending is expected to reach ment problems. $51.6 billion in 1979, an increase of • Broad areas where new technolo­ about $4.3 billion over the 1978 level. gies are likely to develop were also • In a collaborative effort with the (National Patterns of R&D Resources: studied. Battelle Columbus Labor­ United Nations Office for Science Funds and Personnel in the United States, atories prepared an agenda for and Technology, the program pro­ 1953-1978-79} technology assessment that iden­ vided partial support for a work­ tified important developments in shop/seminar in Bangalore, India, R&D Funding the materials field. Similarly, the on technology assessment for de­ Georgia Institute of Technology velopment. The workshop's Federal. The President's fiscal year prepared an agenda for assess­ theme involved examining the 1979 Budget, as submitted to Con­ ments of the technologies em­ role of technology assessment as a gress, includes R&D obligations ployed in making the manmade tool for development planning. totaling $28 billion, an all-time high in current dollars but somewhat below the 1978 total in constant dollars. The 1979 budget reflects greater austerity Science Resources Studies in regard to R&D programs than some previous ones, in which overall R&D growth exceeded inflation each The science resources studies pro­ these is a special summary report. year. The criteria cited by the Adminis­ gram's primary function is to develop Science Indicators, prepared biennially for tration for supporting R&D pro­ timely and comprehensive overviews the National Science Board and sub­ grams were whether they fulfilled di­ of the Nation's human and financial mitted to the President and the rect Federal needs, general social needs resource systems for scientific and Congress. This report presents and where the private sector had insuffi­ technological activities. The program analyzes sets of indicators that de­ cient incentive to invest, or the need to includes: (l) development and mainte­ scribe and measure changes in the na­ accelerate private R&D efforts be­ nance of a quantitative information tional state of the science enterprise cause of an overriding national inter­ base; (2) analysis of data, concentrat­ and in its international context. While est. A significant rise was budgeted for ing on the illumination of current informal feedback from users of these defense and space R&D programs, issues and on the identification of fac­ reports is received on a continuing with only a slight rise in the level of tors responsible for current and pro­ basis, formally organized user surveys funding for the civilian areas such as spective supply and utilization pat­ are carried out periodically. The most health, energy, and environment, terns; and (3) special studies carried recent survey, in 1977, resulted in taken as a whole. This would reverse a out at the request of Federal policy­ suggestions on how users' needs could 13-year trend in which Federal R&D makers such as the Office of Manage­ be better met through different for­ support shifted steadily toward civil­ ment and Budget, the Office of mats and presentations of existing ian programs. {An Analysis of Federal Science and Technology Pohcy, and data, additional data, or different R&D Funding hy Function, Fiscal Years various Congressional committees. methodologies apphed to the existing 1969-79) Program activities are divided into or new data bases. Industrial. Roughly 70 percent of all three program elements: scientific and U.S. R&D funds are used by the technical personnel, funding of science industrial sector, with total industrial and technology, and modeling and National R&D Resources R&D expenditures increasing at an science and technology indicators. A average annual rate of 5.5 percent in shift of the program toward greater Information on total national R&D current dollars since 1968. However, analytical activity has recently been expenditures is developed from sur­ the continuing decrease in industry's initiated to improve the utilization of veys of various sectors of the economy. real expenditures for basic research large and complex data bases that have Estimates are based on analyses of since 1968 has been a major source of been established over the years. trends and factors pertinent to current concern in recent years. A study con­ Program output consists of a series funding patterns. These analyses ducted for the NSF by the Industrial of published reports. Included among showed that real growth in the Na­ Research Institute Research Corpora- SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 113

(3) Top management's decision to Trends in Distribution of Federal concentrate their R&D efforts on R&D Obligations by Function: FY 1969-79 improving existing product hnes for which additional basic research is not necessary. Percent of R&D total 60 (4) The decreasing company returns of R&D in terms of cost, business conditions, and risk taking. National defense

The investigators point out that the 50 \- decreasing proportion of industrial re­ sources allocated to basic research re­ flects a broader problem, since similar cautionary trends are observable in apphed research and development as 40 well as in plant and equipment mod­ ernization. There appears to be an un­ willingness by corporate management to commit resources to the future— i.e., take risks. (Support of Basic Research in Industry) 30 Academic. Academic science obliga­ tions totaled $3.3 bilhon in 1977, up 13 percent over 1976. Nevertheless, the new total was still 20 percent below the amount obligated in 1967 in constant 20 All other dollars. Federal support in this area has been characterized by sharp fluctua­ -Space tions during the past decade, ranging, in constant dollars, between a 12- percent decrease and this year's 6- 10 Health- percent increase. Aside from the ef­ fects of inflation, the declines result mainly from cuts in the amounts obli­ - Energy development gated for R&D plant, facilities and and conversion equipment for instruction, and fellow­ ships, traineeships, and training 1969 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 grants. Fiscal Year President's 1979 budget Scientific and SOURCE: National Science Foundation Technical Personnel

Utilization of scientists and engineers. In­ formation on the employment, work activities, and characteristics of U.S. scientists and engineers is developed and maintained in the Foundation's scientific and technical personnel data tion identified the foUowing factors as control of research activities and the system. This data base, which is main­ the principal reasons for this decline: expectation of short-term results. tained through various surveys, showed that employment increased at (1) Improved understanding by top an annual rate of 2.5 percent to a total management of the strategic role of (2) Decreased Government support of 2.5 million between 1974 and 1976. research, which leads to increased and increased Government regulation. This rate was significantly higher than 114 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

the 0.8-percent increase in total em­ ployment. Supply and S/E related utilization of doctorates* Employment of natural scientists increased by about 11 percent during (Thousands of doctorates) this period; employment of social scientists and engineers increased by 7 percent and 2 percent, respectively. The difference between engineers and natural scientists in the rate of employ­ ment growth continues to highlight the changing relative demand for these work forces. During the decade 1966-76, the ratio of employed engi­ 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 neers to natural scientists declined I 1 1 1 \ 1 1 steadily from. 2.4 to 1.5. About three- fifths of all scientists and engineers were employed in private industry in 1976.

Doctoral scientists and engineers. Compar­ ison of 1973 and 1977 characteristics of doctoral scientists and engineers re­ veals that in academic institutions the proportion of doctorates engaged primarily in teaching has declined while the proportion engaged primar­ ily ill research and development and other activities has increased. For all other types of employers, the propor­ tion engaged primarily in research and development has declined. These com­ pensating changes have kept the over­ all proportion of doctorates primarily engaged in research and development stable at 44 percent. The total number of doctorates primarily engaged in re­ search and development increased at a rate substantially faster than non- doctoral scientists and engineers en­ gaged in research and development. Thus, employers seem to be enriching their R&D staffs by taking advantage of the greater availabihty of Ph.D.'s.

Projections of the supply and utilization of •Includes postdoctorals science and engineering doctorates, 1982-87. SOURCES: National Science Foundation and National Research Council. The fourth of a series of reports begun in 1969 explicitly incorporates the ef­ fect of the market for highly trained technical personnel upon the numbers of science and engineering (S/E) docto­ unlikely to find work related to their jobs might range from 11 percent in rates awarded by American universi­ training through the mid-1980's. The the physical sciences to 27 percent in ties. The new projections reinforce projections indicate that in 1987 the the social sciences. The overall rate of the conclusion of the 1975 report that proportion of doctoral scientists and non-S/E employment is projected at 18 many new doctorate recipients are engineers holding non-S/E-related percent. SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 115

and impacts of major NSF programs. NSF Planning and Evaluation They form the basis of oversight re­ sponsibilities in these areas and pro­ vide groundwork for budgetary or policy decisions about program ex­ This program supports research and quences, and Policy Options" by pansion, curtailment, or reorientation. pohcy analysis to strengthen the Foun­ Charles Kidd. These evaluations focus on program dation's ability to plan and improve the output, using criteria based on pro­ • "Science Is Too Important To support of research and science educa­ gram objectives. Program evaluations Be Entrusted to Scientists" by tion. are designed internally; they are often Charles Adams Mosher. The program focuses on strategic carried out by external contractors. issues and policy options of specific concern to the Director of the National The program continued its involve­ In 1978 the evaluation of the Mate­ Science Foundation and to the Na­ ment in the planning and assessment rials Research Laboratory (MRL) pro­ tional Science Board. During the past of the National Science Board Forums, gram was completed. This study year studies concentrated on three an experiment with public participa­ looked at the differences between principal concerns: tion in NSF policy and programs. An MRL's and other materials research iinportant part of the experiment was a groups and considered their capabihty • An assessment of the national series of six regional public forums in to perform research, the nature and environment for the conduct of which the pubhc, business, and educa­ type of research done, and the produc­ research and science education in tional leaders met with members of the tivity and merit of the research the decade ahead. NSB and NSF staff to discuss research product. Although the primary focus issues and opportunities. In fiscal year of the study was on differences be­ • Means to increase public aware­ 1978 forums were held in Minneapolis, tween MRL's and NSF-supported ma­ ness and to facihtate public partici­ Denver, and Philadelphia. terials research at universities, groups pation in the development of NSF supported by other agencies were also In its ongoing effort to assess the policies and programs. included in the study. Most of the major factors influencing the conduct findings were based on an analysis of • A pilot study to determine the of research, the program has begun data obtained from a review of pubh- extent to which the results of basic studying problems associated with cations by a select group of materials research will be utilized in techno­ growing costs of performing research scientists. In addition, achievements logical innovation processes. and with the utihzation of academic submitted by the various university research results by the industrial com­ groups and the prestige of the mate­ In June 1978 the program pubhshed munity. Key issues are those related to rials research faculty at these univer­ a series of papers describing R&D equipment and innovation. A major sities were assessed, also by materials trends and factors expected to influ­ effort was initiated to assess the ef­ scientists. Other findings were based ence research in the years ahead. The fects of inflation on the costs of per­ on analyses of resource data obtained papers included: forming research, with specific atten­ from NSF files and directly from the tion given to the costs of acquiring and universities. • "The Federal Environment for Re­ operating increasingly sophisticated search" by Willis H. Shapley and equipment. This continuing study will The question of whether the MRL's Don I. Phillips, American Associa­ address alternative and innovative are doing research that cannot be or is tion for the Advancement of means of financing essential equip­ not being done as well as or as cheaply Science. ment. A second study sought to deter­ by project support was answered in mine the extent to which basic re­ part by evaluation results. It was • "Strategic Plans of Major Federal search contributes to innovation in shown that MRL's have a higher capa­ Research Supporters" by the NSF industry, as shown by patent process bility to perform research in that they Office of Planning and Policy indicators. This work found that, to a gain researchers of higher reputation, Analysis. high degree, industrial firms do utilize have lower administrative costs, and basic research results published in and hold equipment at least on par with • "Trends in Industrial Research" by available in the open scientific htera- non-MRL's. Further, it was found that George E. Manners, Jr., and How­ ture. MRL's differ from non-MRL's in that ard K. Nason. Evaluation studies provide the Di­ they are to a large extent carrying out • "Federal Regulations of Universi­ rector of the Foundation with infor­ research in different fields—some­ ties: Purpose, Scope, Conse­ mation on the effectiveness, results. what more purely experimental. 116 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

MRL's also tend to do a better job of tween MRL's and non-MRL's in ville, Md. The analysts considered var­ reporting on their research. With ref­ concentration of funding, annual rate ious phases of such communication, erence to research coherence, no sig­ of turnover, duration of research from the origination of information by nificant differences were detected be- areas, and continuity of staffing. an investigator to its ultimate user. They compared the existing paper- based system of scholarly communi­ cation with a hypothetical electronic Information Science and Technology alternative promising greatly in­ creased speed, rehability, and con­ venience of information handling. Over a range of assumptions and for as In 1977 NSF's Science Information mittee also concluded that research far as the analysts could see into the Activities Task Force recommended should be done on the management future, they found virtually no differ­ far-reaching changes in the Founda­ and dissemination of quantitative data ence in cost between the paper-based tion's science information program. files. journal system and its electronic alter­ These recommendations, many of Ohio State University, studying the native. which were implem.ented during fiscal general theory of informiation flow, year 1978, focus NSF attention on defined a series of important measures Another study, by Arthur D. Little, scientific theories of information and that permit the analysis of information Inc., attempted to see if major changes their apphcation to scientific and tech­ in terms of its utility to a decision­ were required in Government pro­ nical information delivery systems. maker. The significance of this re­ grams related to scientific and techni­ During recent years information, search lies in its development of a cal information. The findings indicate and especially scientific and technical theoretical basis for quantifiable meas­ that the kinds of contributions infor­ information, has become an increas­ ures of document effectiveness and the mation resources are making to eco­ ingly important national resource efficiency of data base management nomic growth and progress are cur­ whose rapid growth requires better techniques. rently undergoing change. While still methods to collect, correlate, organize, For decades national expenditures useful in promoting advances in physi­ and use it. Meanwhile, escalating costs on scientific and technical information cal and social science and technology, have provided additional motivation have been growing considerably faster information resources are increasing­ for understanding what can and can­ than expenditures on research and ly being used to solve social, economic, not be accomphshed in a practical way. development and somewhat faster energy, and environmental problems. To support these areas of basic and than gross national product; they now An important recommendation asserts applied research, the Foundation es­ total some $13 billion per year. The the responsibilities of Federal agencies tablished its information science and production and use of this information to make information systems available technology program during 1978. involve scientists and engineers work­ to State and local government agencies ing worldwide under diverse economic and to the general public, as well as to and political conditions: It first appears the scientific, academic, and business Fundamental and in traditional and other forms of publi­ communities. Advanced Research cation and distribution, winds up in vast library archives, is affected by The development of standards and regulative legislation including copy­ Research on measures permits an objective assess­ right law, and is used in governmental, Information Systems ment of the predictions of theory and a private, and public organizations. comparison of the performance of in­ Studies, surveys, and simulation mod­ As a study of the structure of infor­ formation systems and their compo­ els help to correlate and understand mation, a project at Lehigh University nent subsystems. In fiscal year 1978 the activities and interactions of these investigated underlying principles for the Committee on Data Needs of the sectors; they also provide the basis for the design of systems; this will permit National Research Council/National short-term prediction of the probable retrieval of inferences and derivation Academy of Sciences completed a effects of changes in economic condi­ of new relationships from the contents study on national needs for critically tions, legislative and foreign policy, of two or more data bases. The project evaluated physical and chemical data. It and technological innovations. utilized machine-readable files on coal recommended that higher priority be A systems analysis of scientific and data, and attention was confined to given to quantitative data compilation technical communication in the United coal-related energy. The design prob­ and evaluation in order to support the States was completed during this past lem involved combination of two large Nation's R&D programs. The Com- year by King Research, Inc., of Rock- and separate numerical data files to SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 117

ognition) and to the interplay be­ Total science and technology communication resource tween human sensory perception and expenditures, gross national product, and R&D funds, the physical sources of information in current dollars (1960-1980) (such as books, computer terminals, and video displays). In fiscal year 1978 (Billions of Dollars) three additional geographically dis­ persed communities began trials of Projected electronic information exchange, bringing the total number of trials under way to seven. Based on a re­ search facility at the New Jersey Insti­ tute of Technology, these trials range from 12 to 18 months in scheduled duration, with the trial communities ranging in size from 17 to 40 members. An objective of each trial is to arrive at an assessment of how computer con­ ferences and other forms of electronic information exchange affect the pro­ ductivity of individuals who use them.

The first wave of assessments is scheduled to be made in fiscal year 1979. Meanwhile, experience with this new communication medium is accu­ mulating at the rate of 2,000 user- hours per month, roughly eight times the highest level of usage previously reported for a computer conference system. Each month the research facility's 500 members transmit nearly 6,000 items and receive some 26,000 items in exchange.

The Electronic Systems Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is preparing an exhibit for the Massachusetts Governor's Con­ Year ference on Libraries and Information SOURCE: Economic Report of the President, February 1975 GNP. (GNP) 1960-1974. Services (sponsored by the National National Planning Association (GNP) 1975-1980. Commission on Libraries and Informa­ King Research, Inc. Center for Quantitative Sciences (ST) Communipation 1960-1980. R&D tion Science White House Confer­ Funds 1975-1980. National Science Foundation, National Patterns of R&D Resources, 1953-1975 (NSF 75-307) ence). It will present an NSF-supported (R&D Funds). prototype computer interface for het­ erogeneous retrieval systems which: Growth of communications. This chart shows how national expenditures for science (1) allows users to express their re­ and technology communications have grown faster than either the GNP or national quests in a common, easy-to-use lan­ expenditures for R&D over recent years. guage; (2) provides instruction so that even inexperienced people can use the form a data base for coal-related deci- The utihty of information depends interface effectively; and (3) auto­ sioit support, and integration with a on the abilities and limitations of peo­ matically connects users to the appro­ decisionmaking model. The project ple as information processors, both priate retrieval systems and data bases demonstrated that it is possible to with regard to internal processing and translates their requests from the generate new factual aggregates not (which includes aspects of learning, common language to the appropriate apparent from either data base. memory, and information pattern rec­ languages. 118 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

ground water irrigated and fertilized International Programs with wastewater and sludge. Scientists in Mexico and the United States are studying the chemical structure, phys­ The Foundation's cooperative tists participated in exchanges, 44 joint ical properties, and extraction and science activities include support scientific research projects were sup­ processing variables of rubber from for joint research projects and semi­ ported, and 97 joint publications were guayule. This arid-land plant, which nars/workshops, exchange of scien­ authorized. grows in the Southwestern United tists, joint commissions for scientific In northern Colombia (one of nine States and northern Mexico, produces and technological cooperation, and Latin American countries in which a latex very similar to natural rubber participation in international scientific NSF supported research with counter­ {Hevea). organizations. Many of these activities part agencies), U.S. and Colombian Joint seminars in hydrometallurgy operate under formal bilateral or geophysicists are studying an area that to explore new energy-efficient pro­ multilateral agreements with foreign suffers one of the most intense rates of cesses for extraction of minerals were countries. In fiscal year 1978, NSF earthquake activity in the world. In held in Indonesia and the Philippines, conducted program.s under 16 such 1976, during a 3-uay period, 200 earth­ two of nine cooperating countries in formal arrangements. In addition, quakes were recorded in the area; the the Pacific region during 1978. A plant cooperative activities were carried out research is an effort to understand the mycoplasma disease seminar in Tai­ under informal arrangements with mechafiisms that produce such fre­ wan allowed presentation of signifi­ another 22 countries. quent earthquakes. In another Latin cant achievements and planning of fol- The Foundation cooperates, for­ American joint project, scientists from lowup activities by U.S. and Chinese mally and informally, with ten Euro­ the United States and Chile are study­ investigators. New findings that may pean countries. Under the program ing the changes in chemical levels that permit improvement in the survival with Italy, a joint research project in can be expected in soils, crops, and and growth of plants at lower tempera- cellular biology during the past year led to a new experimental technique that promises progress in understanding the molecular basis of embryonic development and cancer. A coopera­ tive venture in materials research be­ tween U.S. and French scientists re­ sulted in the formation of clusters of crystals—many for the first time, and some of a large size never before at­ tained—which can contribute to im­ proved performance and reduced cost in electronic devices and communica­ tion systems. In the Romanian pro­ gram, research in atomic and plasma physics led to what may now be the best available method for investigating certain types of highly excited atomic systems. Ongoing NSF cooperative activities with the Soviet Union take place under the U.S./U.S.S.R. Agreement on Co­ operation in the Fields of Science and Technology. Areas of mutual interest include chemical catalysis, computer apphcations to management, electro­ metallurgy and materials, micro­ Testing Soviet stainless steel. A section of a 750-pound higti-nitrogen-steel ingot, sent biology, physics, science policy, and to the United States under the Science and Technology Agreement on Cooperation in scientific and technical information. the Fields of Science and Technology, is hot rolled at Battelle Laboratories to evaluate During the fiscal year, 18 U.S. scien­ its workability. (Photo by Battelle Columbus Laboratories) SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 119

tures were reported at a U.S.-Japan ing countries. In India an SFC award comparison drawing upon contribu­ seminar on cold hardiness of plants. enabled U.S. and Indian scientists to tions of both Eastern and Western As part of its Pacific area activities, study the basic phenomena of internal scientists. The Foundation also makes NSF continued to provide partial sup­ combustion engines and the applica­ travel awards to enable U.S. scientists port to the Committee on Scholarly tion of these results to the problems of to attend scientific congresses and Communication with the People's Re­ emission control. In another project, meetings, obtain or exchange scientific public of China (CSCPRC) under a U.S. scientists participated in prepara­ information, and engage in interna­ contract with the National Academy of tions for a major international effort, tional scientific activities. During Sciences. Together with its Chinese the Monsoon Experiment, in the In­ 1978, 364 awards supported 616 U.S. counterpart, the CSCPRC facilitated dian Subcontinent during late 1978 scientists. the exchange of 13 delegations cover­ and 1979. In Pakistan, American and In addition to direct funding for ing a wide range of scientific and tech­ Pakistani scientists completed a survey research, NSF's international pro­ nological subject areas. of the geodynamics of Pakistan, which grams also support and conduct assess­ Scientific cooperation with Africa made new geologic data and maps ments of international science mat­ and Asia is supported largely through available to the world scientific com­ ters. For example, an NSF evaluation Special Foreign Currency (SFC) pro­ munity. of the activities of IIASA indicates that: grams. SFC countries are those in NSF continued to support U.S. par­ IIASA conferences are judged to be of which the United States owns ticipation in several international, non­ high quality; IIASA has made consider­ amounts of local currency in excess of governmental organizations. Among able progress towards its original its own normal requirements. During these organizations are the Interna­ goals, but U.S. mechanisms for using fiscal year 1978 NSF made SFC awards tional Council of Scientific Unions, the IIASA research results require further in Egypt, India, and Pakistan for re­ Organization for Economic Coopera­ development. search and related scientific activities, tion and Development, and the United In August 1979 there will be a for international travel for scientific Nations Educational, Scientific, and United Nations Conference on Science purposes, and for translations into Cultural Organization. Similarly, a and Technology for Development English of foreign scientific and tech­ major award in fiscal year 1978 was in (UNCSTD) in Vienna. During fiscal nological literature. support of the National Academy of year 1978, NSF assisted the U.S. SFC-funded activities in Egypt in­ Sciences' membership in the Interna­ Coordinator for UNCSTD in the De­ cluded a project where solar energy tional Institute for Applied Systems partment of State in preparations of specialists gave a short course in Cairo Analysis (IIASA), a nongovern­ the U.S. position for the conference on the fundamentals, as well as present mental, multidisciplinary, interna­ by supporting individual studies re­ and future applications, of solar energy tional research institute located in lated to conference agenda items and technology. The discussions were de­ Laxenburg, Austria. IIASA's recently through the transfer of funds to the signed to assist the participants in the pubhshed report comparing fusion and Department of State for preparatory use of renewable resources in develop­ fast breeder reactors was the first such activities.

APPENDICES 121

Appendix A

National Science Board, NSF Siaff Advisory CommiHees and Panels

NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION STAFF

Terms Expire May 10, 1980 Director, Richard C. Atkinson Deputy Director, George C. Pimentel Jewel Plummer Cobb, Dean and Professor of Biology, Douglass Col­ Director, Office of Equal Employment Opportunity, Herbert lege, Rutgers—The State University of New Jersey, New Harrington, jr. Brunswick, N.J. General Counsel, Charles H. Herz "Norman Hackerman (Chairman, National Science Board), Presi­ Deputy General Counsel, Maryann B. Lloyd dent, Rice University, Houston, Tex. Director, Office of Government and Public Programs, Thomas Ubois W. N. Hubbard, Jr., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Associate Director for Public Programs, Theodore D. Drury Mich. Head, Congressional Liaison Branch, Patricia E. Nicely Saunders MacLane, Max Mason Distinguished Service Professor of Head, Public Information Branch, Jack Renirie Mathematics, University of Chicago Head, Communications Resource Branch, Bruce R. Abell Grover E. Murray, University Professor, Texas Tech University Head, Community Affairs Branch, R. Lynn Carroll Complex, Lubbock, Tex. Director, Office of Planning and Resources Management, M. Kent Wilson 'Donald B. Rice, Jr., President, The Rand Corporation, Santa Deputy Director, Office of Planning and Resources Management, Vacant Monica, Calif. Director, Division of Budget and Program Analysis, Syl McNinch, Jr. L. Donald Shields, President, California State University, Fullerton Head, Budget Office, Thomas Ryan James H. Zumberge, President, Southern Methodist University, Head (Acting), Programming Office, Syl McNinch, Jr. Dallas, Tex. Director, Division of Strategic Planning and Analysis, Martin J. Cooper Head, Planning and Policy Analysis Office, Martin J. Cooper Terms Expire May 10, 1982 Head, Program Review Office, Lewis P. Jones Director, Office of Audit and Oversight, Jerome H. Fregeau Raymond L. Bisplinghoff, Vice President for Research and Development, Deputy Director, Office of Audi! and Oversight, Robert B. Boyden Tyco Laboratories, Inc., Tyco Park, Exeter, N.H. Head, Audit Office, Robert B. Boyden Lloyd M. Cooke, Vice Chairman, Economic Development Council of Head, Evaluation Staff, Harry J. Piccariello New York City, Inc., New York, N.Y. Director, Office of Small Business Research and Development, Theodore W. Herbert D. Doan,C/i(jirmHn,Doan Resources Corporation, Mid­ Wirths land, Mich. Assistant Director for Applied Science and Research Applications, Jack T. John R. Hogness, President, University of Washington, Seattle, Sanderson Wash. Deputy Assistant Director for Applied Science and Research Applications, William F. Hueg, Jr., Professor of Agronomy and Deputy Vice President and Vacant Dean, Institute of Agriculture, Forestry, and Home Econom­ Director of Operations, Richard J. Green ics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul Head, Office of Problem Analysis, Vacant 'Marian E. Koshland, Professor of Bacteriology and Immunology, Univer­ Director, Division of Integrated Basic Research, Donald Senich sity of California, Berkeley Director, Division of Applied Research, L. Vaughn Blankenship Joseph M. Pettit, President, Georgia Institute of Technology, Director, Division of Problem-Tocused Research Applications, Charles C. Atlanta Thiel Alexander Rich, Sedgwick Professor of Biophysics, Department of Direclor, Division of Intergovernmental Science and Public Technology, Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology William Wetmore Assistant Direclor for Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences, John B. Slaughter Terms Expire May 10, 1984 Deputy Assistant Director for Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences, Daniel Hunt (Eight vacancies) Direclor, Division of Astronomical Sciences, William E. Howard Director, Division of Atmospheric Sciences, Alan J. Grobecker Member, Ex Officio Director, Division of Earth Sciences, Peter R. Brett Director, Division of Ocean Sciences, Dirk Frankenberg 'Richard C. Atkinson (Chairman, Executive Committee), Direclor, Director, Division of Polar Programs, Edward P. Todd National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Assistant Director for Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences, Eloise E. Clark Vernice Anderson, Executive Secretary, National Science Board, Deputy Assistant Director for Biological, Behavioral and Social Sciences, J. National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. James Brown Direclor, Division of Behavioral and Neural Sciences, RichardT. Louttit 'Member, Executive Committee Director (Acting), Division of Environmental Biology, John Brooks 122 APPENDICES

Director, Division of Physiohgi/, Cellular, and Molecular Biology, Director, Division of Scientific Personnel Improvement, Lewis A. Gist Henry C. Reeves Assistant Director for Scientific, Technological, and International Affairs, Director, Division of Social Sciences, Herbert L. Costner Harvey Averch Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physical Sciences, and Engineering, Deputy Assistant Director for Scientific, Technological, and International James A. Krumhansl Affairs, Leonard L. Lederman Deputy Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physical Sciences, and Director of Operations and Analysis, Richard R. Ries Engineering, Ronald E. Kagarise Director of Strategic Planning and Assessment, Leonard L. Lederman Director, Division of Chemistry, Richard S. Nicholson Director, Division of International Programs, Bodo Bartocha Director, Division of Engineering, Henry C. Bourne, Jr. Director, Division of Policy Research and Analysis, Alden S. Bean Director, Division of Materials Research, Herbert S. Bennett Director, Division of Science Resources Studies, Charles E. Falk Director, Division of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, JohnR. Pasta Director, Division of Information Science and Technology, Howard L. Director, Division of Physics, Marcel Bardon Resnikoff Assistant Director for Science Education, F. James Rutherford Assistant Director for Administration, Eldon D. Taylor Deputy Assistant Director for Science Education, Walter L. Gillespie Deputy Assistant Director for Administration, George Pilarinos Direclor, Office of Program Integration, Alphonse Buccino Director, Division of Financial and Administrative Management, Fred K. Director, Office of Science and Society, Alexander J. Morin Murakami Director, Division of Science Education Development and Research, Joseph Director, Division of Grants and Contracts, Kenneth B. Foster Lipson Director, Division of Information Systems, Gaylord L. Ellis Director (Acting), Division of Science Education Resources Improvement, Director, Division of Personnel and Management, Burl Valentine Terence L. Porter Direclor, Health Service, James W. Long, M.D.

ADVISORY COMMITTEES AND PANELS

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR Frederick Seitz Courtland D. Perkins President President National Academy of Engineering The Alan T. Waterman Award Committee Rockefeller University

Terms Expire December 31, 1978 Terms Expire December 31, 1980 National Science Foundation Advisory Floyd E. Bloom Council Melvin Calvin (Chairperson) Director, Arthur Vining Davis Center for Director, Laboratory of Chemical Behavioral Neurobiology Ernest A. Boykins, Jr. Biodynamics Salk Institute President University of California, Berkeley La Jolla, Calif. Mississippi Valley State University Herbert S. Gutowsky Frank D. Drake Head, Department of Chemistry Lisle C. Carter, Jr. Professor of Astronomy and Director, Na­ University of Illinois, Urbana President tional Astronomy and Ionosphere Center University of the District of Columbia Cornell University Clement L. Markert Professor of Biology A. R. Chamberlain J. William Schopf Yale University President Professor of Geology Colorado State University University of California, Los Angeles Ruth Patrick Curator of Limnology John T. Wilson Emilio Q. Daddario Academy of Natural Sciences President Attorney Philadelphia, Pa. University of Chicago Washington, D.C.

Saville R. Davis Terms Expire December 31, 1979 Ex Officio Special Correspondent The Christian Science Monitor Raoul Bott Richard C. Atkinson Higgins Professor of Mathematics Director Herbert I. Fusfeld Harvard University National Science Foundation Director of the Center for Science and W. Robert Marshall, Jr. Norman Hackerman Technology PoUcy Dean, College of Engineering Chairman, National Science Board Graduate Scliool of Pubhc Administration University of Wisconsin, Madison National Science Foundation New York University

Marc L. Nerlove Philip Handler Marshall Gordon Cook Professor of Economics President Vice President for University Services Northwestern University National Academy of Sciences Murray State University APPENDICES 123

Charles L. Hammer Harold R. Sims DIRECTORATE FOR ASTRONOMICAL, Professor of Physics Vice President, Corporate Affairs, Corpo­ ATMOSPHERIC, EARTH, AND OCEAN Iowa State University rate Staff SCIENCES Johnson & Johnson Matina S. Horner Advisory Committee for Astronomical President Constance P. Tate Sciences Radcliffe College Coordinator of Science Baltimore City Public School System Thomas F. Jones, Jr. Sandra M. Faber Vice President for Research Margaret L. Windus (Executive Secretary) Lick Observatory Massachusetts Institute of Technology Special Assistant to the Director National Science Foundation William H. Kruskal University of California, Santa Cruz Dean, Division of Social Sciences University of Chicago President's Committee on the National Robert D. Gehrz Medal of Science Department of Physics and Astronomy Donald N. Langenberg (Chairperson) University of Wyoming Vice Provost for Graduate Studies and Re­ James Gunn search Terms Expire December 3 3, 1978 Robinson Laboratory University of Pennsylvania California Institute of Technology Gertrude S. Goldhaber Department of Physics M. Cecil Mackey Arthur A. Hoag Brookhaven National Laboratory President Lowell Observatory Flagstaff, Ariz. Texas Tech University Anton Lang Director, ERDA Plant Research Laboratory Thomas F. Malone Michigan State University Richard Huguenin Director, Holcomb Research Institute Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Massachusetts Butler University John R. Schrieffer Carleton E. McMullin Department of Physics City Manager University of Pennsylvania Kenneth Kellermann Little Rock, Ark. Max Planck Institute fur Radioastronomie Bonn, West Germany Cheves Walling Roger G. Noll Department of Chemistry Chairman, Division of the Humanities and University of Utah Joseph S. Miller Social Sciences Lick Observatory California Institute of Technology Terms Expire December 31, 1979 University of California, Santa Cruz Halsey L. Royden Dean, School of Humanities and Sciences James H. Cavanaugh Arno Penzias Stanford University AUergan Pharmaceuticals Irvine, Calif. Radio Physics Research Department Joseph E. Rowe Bell Labs, Inc. Vice President, Technology Henel M. Ranney Gordon H. Pettengill Harris Corporation Department of Medicine, University Department of Earth and Planetary Melbourne, Fla. Hospital Sciences San Diego, Calif. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Gilbert Sanchez Chairman, Department of Biology James B. Wyngaarden Peter A. Strittmatter (Chairperson) New Mexico Institute of Mining and Tech­ Department of Medicine Steward Observatory nology Duke University Medical Center University of Arizona

Myriam P. Sarachik Charles H. Townes Ex Officio Professor of Physics Department of Physics City College of the City University of New University of California, Berkeley York Philip Handler President Riley O. Schaeffer Arthur Walker, Jr. Professor of Chemistry National Academy of Sciences Department of Applied Physics University of Wyoming Stanford University Frank Press WiUiam D. Watson Eileen F. Serene Science and Technology Adviser to the Assistant Professor of Philosophy President Department of Physics and Astronomy Yale University Director, Office of Science and Technology University of Illinois, Urbana Policy 124 APPENDICES

Subcommittee on Laboratory and Edward Ney Harry L. Hamilton Theoretical Astrophysics School of Physics Chairman, Department of Atmospheric Sciences Kenneth Brecher University of Minnesota, Minneapolis State University of New York, Albany Department of Physics Massachusetts Institute of Technology Judith L. Pipher Gordon J. F. MacDonald (Chairperson) Physics and Astronomy Department The MITRE Corporation Alexander Dalgarno University of Rochester McLean, Va. Harvard College Observatory Harlan J. Smith Astronomy Department William McKechney D. M. Eardley University of Texas, Austin Boiling Air Force Base Physics Department Washington, D.C. Yale University Arthur B. Walker Institute for Plasma Research J. Murray Mitchell William Fowler Stanford University National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin­ Division of Physics, Math, and Astronomy istration Silver Spring, Md. California Institute of Technology Subcommittee on Radio Astronomy

Andrew F. Nagy D. R. Johnson Michael Davis Space Physics Research Laboratory National Bureau of Standards Arecibo Observatory University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Washington, D.C. Arecibo, P.R.

R. A. McCray William Erickson Gordon Newkirk National Center for Atmospheric Research JILA Astronomy Program Boulder, Colo. University of Colorado, Boulder University of Maryland, College Park

Joanne Simpson William D. Watson (Chairperson) Carl B. Heiles Department of Environmental Sciences Department of Physics and Astronomy Astronomy Department University of Illinois, Urbana University of California, Berkeley University of Virginia

John M. Wallace Richard Hugue'nin (Chairperson) Department of Atmospheric Sciences Subcommittee on Optical and Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Washington Infrared Astronomy University of Massachusetts Fred White Eric E. Becklin James Moran Arlington, Va. Institute for Astronomy Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory University of Hawaii Cambridge, Mass.

Richard Canfield Patrick Palmer Advisory Committee for Earth Sciences Physics Department Radio Astronomy Laboratory University of California, San Diego University of California, Berkeley Subcommittee for Geochemistry Anne P. Cowley Paul A. Vanden Bout Department of Astronomy Department of Astronomy William C. Kelly University of Michigan, Ann Arbor University of Texas, Austin Department of Geology and Mineralogy University of Michigan, Ann Arbor John S. Gallagher Advisory Committee for Fred T. Mackenzie Department of Astronomy Atmospheric Sciences Department of Geological Sciences University of Illinois, Urbana Northwestern University Reid Bryson Robert D. Gehrz (Chairperson) Institute of Environmental Studies V. Rama Murthy Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Wisconsin, Madison Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Wyoming University of Minnesota, MinneapoUs Paul Crutzen Fred C. Gillett National Center for Atmospheric Research Samuel M. Savin Kitt Peak National Observatory Boulder, Colo. Department of Earth Sciences Tucson, Ariz. Case Western Reserve University Edwin F. Danielsen James Gunn Department of Atmospheric Sciences Rosemary Vidale Robinson Laboratory Oregon State University Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory California Institute of Technology Los Alamos, N. Mex. Alexander J. Dessler Joseph S. Miller Department of Space Physics and Bruce B. Hanshaw (Alternate) Lick Observatory Astronomy U. S. Geological Survey University of California, Santa Cruz Rice University Reston, Va. APPENDICES 125

Subcommittee for Geology William G. Melson Paul J. Fox Smithsonian Institution Department of Geological Sciences Claude C. Albritton, Jr. State University of New York, Albany Department of Geological Sciences Carl Savit Southern Methodist University Western Geophysical, Inc. James V. Gardner U. S. Geological Survey John C. Crowell George A. Thompson Menlo Park, Calif. Department of Geology Stanford University University of California, Santa Barbara J. Frederick Grassle David Wones Department of Biology John C. Harms Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Denver Research Center University Marathon Oil Company Edward D. Houde School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Advisory Committee for Ocean Sciences Allison R. Palmer University of Miami Department of Earth and Space Sciences Albert W. Bally State University of New York, Stony Brook David C. Hurd Shell Oil Company Hawaii Institute of Geophysics Houston, Tex. Gershon D. Robinson University of Hawaii U. S. Geological Survey Wallace Broecker Menlo Park, Calif. Christopher N. K. Mooers Department of Geology College of Marine Studies Columbia University Donald G. McCubbin (Alternate) University of Delaware Denver Research Center John V. Byrne Marathon Oil Company John W. Morse School of Oceanography School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Oregon State University University of Miami Subcommittee for Geophysics Richard C. Dugdale John A. Mustek Bigelow Laboratory of Ocean Sciences William F. Brace West Boothbay Harbor, Me. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Department of Earth and Planetary Science Massachusetts Institute of Technology M. Grant Gross Kenneth L. Webb Chesapeake Bay Institute Michael D. Fuller Virginia Institute of Marine Science Johns Hopkins University Department of Geological Sciences Advisory Committee for Polar Programs University of California, Santa Barbara John Imbrie Subcommittee on Polar Biology and Department of Geological Sciences Freeman Gilbert Medicine Brown University Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, San Diego Gilbert V. Levin Reuben Lasker President, Biospherics, Inc. National Marine Fisheries Service Lane R. Johnson Rockville, Md. La Jolla, Calif. Department of Geology and Geophysics University of California, Berkeley Peter Mazur Mary A. McWhinnie Biology Division Department of Biological Sciences Hiroo Kanamori Oak Ridge National Laboratory De Paul University Division of Geology and Planetary Science California Institute of Technology Frank A. Pitelka Joseph L. Reid Department of Zoology Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, Berkeley La Jolla, Calif. Subcommittee for Deep-Sea Drilling Robert L. Rausch Ferris Webster Alfred G. Fischer School of Medicine Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Princeton University University of Washington Woods Hole, Mass. Robert M. Carrels Emanuel D. Rudolph Warren S. Wooster Northwestern University Professor of Botany and Acting Chairman Institute of Marine Studies Ohio State University University of Washington Bruno J. Giletti (Chairperson) Brown University John H. Ryther Subcommittee for Oceanography Project Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Howard Gould Support Woods Hole, Mass. Exxon Production Research Company LeRoy M. Dorman Howard H. Seliger M. Grant Gross Scripps Institution of Oceanography Department of Biology Johns Hopkins University University of Cahfornia, San Diego Johns Hopkins University 126 APPENDICES

William L. Sladen Elliott M. Blass John U. Ogbu School of ffygiene and Public Health Psychology Department Department of Anthropology Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University University of California, Berkeley

Lee M. Talbot Jack W. Bradbury Pertti J. Pelto Assistant to the Chairman for International Department of Biology Department of Anthropology and Scientific Affairs University of California, San Diego University of Connecticut President's Council on Environmental Quality Gordon M. Burghardt Carol A. Smith Department of Psychology Department of Anthropology Clayton M. White University of Tennessee, Knoxville Duke University Department of Zoology Brigham Young University J. Bruce Overmier Department of Psychology Subcommittee for Linguistics Subcommittee on Glaciology University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Eve V. Clark Wallace Broecker Gene P. Sackett Department of Linguistics Department of Geology Regional Primate Research Center Stanford University Columbia University University of Washington Eric P. Hamp Barry Schwartz Albert P. Crary Department of Linguistics Department of Psychology Washington, D.C. University of Chicago Swarthmore College Stephen E. Dwornik Chin-Wu Kim Office of Space Sciences and Applications Subcommittee for Physical Anthropology Department of Linguistics National Aeronautics and Space Adminis­ and Archaeology University of Illinois, Urbana tration George J. Armelagos Robert E. Francois Department of Anthropology Harlan Lane Applied Physics Laboratory University of Massachusetts Department of Psychology University of Washington Northwestern University Cynthia Irwin-Williams Walter B. Kamb Department of Anthropology Barbara H. Partee Division of Geology and Planetary Science Eastern New Mexico University Department of Linguistics California Institute of Technology University of Massachusetts Mark P. Leone Samuel O. Raymond Department of Anthropology Albert Valdman Chairman, Benthos, Inc. University of Maryland, College Park Department of Linguistics North Falmouth, Mass. Alan E. Mann Indiana University Paul V. Sellman Department of Anthropology USA/CRREL University of Pennsylvania Subcommittee for Neurobiology Hanover, N.H. Anthony E. Marks Michael Brownstein Stanley D. Wilson Department of Anthropology National Institutes of Health Seattle, Wash. Southern Methodist University Bethesda, Md.

Alan McPherron Ad Hoc Advisory Committee on Post- William L. R. Cruce Department of Anthropology College of Medicine International Phase of Ocean Drilling University of Pittsburgh Science Northeastern Ohio Universities William T. Sanders (Committee members have not been appointed.) Russell G. Durkovic Department of Anthropology Department of Physiology Pennsylvania State University, University Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse, N.Y. Park DIRECTORATE FOR BIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Rodger O. Eckert Subcommittee for Cultural Anthropology Department of Biology University of California, Los Angeles Advisory Committee for Behavioral and May M. Ebihara Neural Sciences Department of Anthropology Barry J. Hoffer Lehman College, State University of Department of Pharmacology Subcommittee for Psychobiology New York University of Colorado Medical School

Elizabeth K. Adkins Michael Kenny Kevin Hunt Department of Psychology Department of Anthropology Department of Biophysics Cornell University Catholic University Johns Hopkins University APPENDICES 127

Christiana M. Leonard Rochel Gelman David L. Dilcher Department of Neuroscience Department of Psychology Department of Botany University of Florida University of Pennsylvania Indiana University

Henry G. Mautner James G. Greeno David E. Fairbrothers Department of Biochemistry and Pharma­ Learning R&D Center Department of Botany cology University of Pittsburgh Rutgers-The State University of New Tufts University Jersey Richard B. Millward Rodney K. Murphey Melvin S. Fuller Department of Psychology Department of Biology Department of Botany Brown University State University of New York at Albany University of Georgia Gary M. Olson M. Ian Phillips Stephen J. Gould Department of Psychology Department of Physiology and Biophysics Museum of Comparative Zoology University of Michigan, Ann Arbor University of Iowa Harvard University Roger W. Schvaneveldt Lynda L. Uphouse Arnold G. Kluge Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Department of Zoology New Mexico State University, Las Cruces Yale University University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Subcommittee for Sensory Physiology and Leonard Radinsky Subcommittee for Social and Perception Department of Anatomy Developmental Psychology University of Chicago Ann M. Graybiel W. Andrew Collins Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Subcommittee for Ecological Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Minnesota, Minneapolis J. David Allan Bruce P. Halpern William D. Crano Department of Zoology Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Maryland, College Park Cornell University Michigan State University Joseph S. Lappin Daniel B. Botkin John M. Darley, Jr. Department of Psychology Woodrow Wilson International Center for Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University Scholars Princeton University Washington, D.C. Walter Makous Robert W. Krauss Department of Psychology Margaret B. Davis Department of Psychology University of Washington Department of Ecology and Behavioral Columbia University Biology Conrad C. Mueller University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Hazel Markus Center for Neural Sciences Institute for Social Research Indiana University University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Gordon W. Frankie Division of Entomology David C. Van Essen Ross D. Parke University of California, Berkeley Division of Biology Department of Psychology California Institute of Technology James A. MacMahon University of Illinois, Champaign Department of Biology Charles S. Watson Utah State University Director of Research Advisory Committee for Environmental The Boys Town Institute for Communica­ Biology Robert V. O'Neill tion Disorders in Children Ecological Sciences Division Omaha, Nebr. Oak Ridge National Laboratory Subcommittee on Systematic Biology Theodore P. Williams James R. Sedell Department of Biological Sciences William R. Atchley Weyerhauser Corporation Institute of Molecular Sciences Department of Entomology Longview, Wash. Florida State University University of Wisconsin, Madison

Subcommittee on Memory and Cognitive Guy L. Bush Richard H. Waring Processes Department of Zoology Forest Resources Laboratory University of Texas, Austin Oregon State University Herbert H. Clark Center for Advanced Study in the Behav­ Daniel Crawford William J. Wiebe ioral Sciences Department of Botany Department of Microbiology Stanford, Calif. Ohio State University University of Georgia 128 APPENDICES

Larry L. Wolf George M. Malacinski Paul B. Green Department of Zoology Department of Zoology Department of Biology Syracuse University Indiana University Stanford University

Roger Pedersen Carol Heckman Subcommittee for Population Laboratory of Radio Biology Biology Division Biology/Physiology/Ecology University of California, San Francisco Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Wyatt W. Anderson Ralph Quatrano Warren R. Jelinek Department of Zoology Department of Botany and Plant Pathology Department of Molecular and Cell Biology University of Georgia Oregon State University Rockefeller University

Brian F. Chabot Larry N. Vanderhoef Judith A. Kapp Section of Ecology and Systematics Department of Botany Department of Pathology Cornell University University of Illinois, Urbana Washington University Medical Center St. Louis, Mo. Nelson G. Hairston Subcommittee for Genetic Biology Department of Zoology Richard E. Pagano University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Elias Balbinder Department of Embryology Carnegie Institution of Washington Director of Genetics Richard K. Koehn Baltimore, Md. American Cancer Center and Hospital Department of Ecology and Evolution Lakewood, Colo. State University of New York, Stony Brook Paula M. Pitha Johns Hopkins Oncology Center Roy A. Jensen Donald A. Levin Johns Hopkins Hospital Department of Biological Sciences Department of Botany State University of New York at Richard C. Weisenberg University of Texas, Austin Binghamton Department of Biology Richard E. MacMillen Temple University Margaret Lieb Department of Ecology Department of Microbiology University of California, Irvine Christopher L. Woodcock University of Southern California Department of Zoology Daniel S. Simberloff University of Massachusetts Richard Losick Department of Biological Science Biological Laboratories Florida State University lames H. Wyche Harvard University Department of Biochemistry University of Missouri, Columbia Paul S. Lovett Advisory Committee for Physiology, Department of Biological Sciences Cellular, and Molecular Biology University of Maryland, Baltimore Subcommittee for Molecular Biology (Panel A) Subcommittee on Developmental Biology George A. Marzluf Department of Biochemistry Rodney L. Biltonen Susan Bryant Ohio State University Department of Biochemistry Center for Pathobiology University of Virginia University of California, Irvine Peter Palese Department of Microbiology Marshall Elzinga Verne M. Chapman Mt. Sinai School of Medicine Department of Biology Department of Molecular Biology Brookhaven National Laboratory Roswell Park Memorial Institute William Reznikoff Department of Biochemistry George P. Hess Elizabeth D. Earle University of Wisconsin, Madison Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Department of Plant Breeding Biology Cornell University Immo Scheffler Cornell tJniversity Department of Biology Joseph Frankel University of California, San Diego Lawrence Kahan Department of Zoology Department of Physiological Chemistry University of Iowa James F. Shepard University of Wisconsin, Madison Department of Plant Pathology L. Patrick Gage Kansas State University John Lenard Department of Cell Biology Department of Physiology Roche Institute of Molecular Biology Rutgers University Medical School Subcommittee for Cell Biology Mildred Gordon Alan N. Schechter Center for Biomedical Education Eliezer Benjamini National Institute of Arthritis, MetaboUsm, City College of City University of New Department of Medical Microbiology and Digestive Diseases York University of California, Davis National Institutes of Health APPENDICES 129

Frederick I. Tsuji Subcommittee on Henry Kamin Department of Biological Sciences Regulatory Biology Department of Biochemistry University of Southern California Duke University Peter J. Bentley Department of Pharmacology Evanjelos N. Moudrianakis Subcommittee for Molecular Biology Department of Biology (Panel B) Mount Sinai School of Medicine City University of New York Johns Hopkins University

William A. Cramer Stephen H. Bishop Barry P. Rosen Department of Biological Sciences Department of Zoology Department of Biological Chemistry Purdue University Iowa State University University of Maryland, Baltimore

Claude B. Klee Susan W. Farmer George Sachs National Cancer Institute Hormone Research Laboratory Department of Medicine National Institutes of Health University of California, San Francisco University of Alabama

Irwin D. Kuntz Thomas O. Fox Advisory Committee for Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department of Neuroscience Social Sciences University of California, San Francisco Children's Hospital Medical Center Boston, Mass. Karl H. Muench Subcommittee for Economics Department of Medicine James W. Putney, Jr. University of Miami Department of Pharmacology Robert J. Barro Wayne State University School of Medicine Department of Economics Paul Sigler University of Rochester Department of Biophysics and Theoretical Charles L. Ralph Biology Department of Zoology and Entomology Michael J. Boskin Cummings Life Science Center Colorado State University Department of Economics Chicago, III. Stanford University Judith A. Ramaley Kensel E. Van Holde Gregory C. Chow Department of Physiology and Biophysics Department of Biochemistry and Department of Economics University of Nebraska Medical Center Biophysics Princeton University Oregon State University John L. Roberts Stanley Fischer Department of Zoology Christopher T. Walsh Department of Economics University of Massachusetts Department of Chemistry Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology Marion J. Siegman Arthur S. Goldberger Department of Physiology Reed B. Wickner Department of Economics Jefferson Medical College National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, University of Wisconsin, Madison and Digestive Diseases Thomas Jefferson University National Institutes of Health James J. Heckman Walter R. Tschinkel National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. Department of Biological Science Eckard Wimmer Palo Alto, Calif. School of Health Science Florida State University State University of New York at Stony Broo John O. Ledyard Center for Mathematical Studies, Econom­ Subcommittee for Subcommittee for ics, and Management Sciences Human Cell Biology Metabolic Biology Northwestern University

A. Michael Spence Carl Anderson James A. Bassham Department of Economics Brookhaven National Laboratory Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Harvard University Associated Universities, Inc. University of California, Berkeley

Gavin Wright Paul Gottleib Jean E. Brenchley Department of Economics Center for Cancer Research Department of Biological Sciences University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Massachusetts Institute of Technology Purdue University

Joel A. Huberman Deborah Delmer Department of Medical Viral Oncology MSU/ERDA Plant Research Laboratory Subcommittee for Geography and Regional Roswell Park Memorial Institute Michigan State University Science

Robert E. Pollack Lowell P. Hager Melvin G. Marcus Department of Microbiology Department of Biochemistry Department of Geography State University of New York, Stony Brook University of Illinois, Urbana Arizona State University 130 APPENDICES

Marvin W. Mikesell Richard O. Lempert Herman Turk Department of Geography Law School Department of Sociology and University of Chicago University of Michigan Anthropology University of Southern California Gerard Rushton Richard S. Markovits Department of Geography Law School James J. Zuiches University of Iowa University of Texas, Austin Department of Sociology Michigan State University Daniel R. Vining, Jr. Robert Seidman Regional Science Department School of Law University of Pennsylvania Boston University DIRECTORATE FOR MATHEMATICAL Julian Wolpert Barbara Yngvesson AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AND School of Architecture and Urban Planning Department of Anthropology ENGINEERING Princeton University Hampshire College

Advisory Committee for Chemistry Subcommittee for History and Philosophy Subcom.mittee for Political Science of Science Bruce J. Berne Joel D. Aberbach Department of Chemistry Arthur W. Burks Columbia University Department of Computer and The Brookings Institution Washington, D.C. Communication Science Orville L. Chapman University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Department of Chemistry Charles W. Anderson University of California, Los Angeles Ruth S. Cowan Department of Pohtical Science Department of History University of Wisconsin, Madison Dennis H. Evans State University of New York at Stony Department of Chemistry Brook Robert S. Erikson University of Wisconsin, Madison Department of Political Science Arthur Donovan University of Houston Paul G. Gassman Department of History Department of Chemistry West Virginia University John A. Ferejohn University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Division of Humanities and Social Science John Heilbron California Institute of Technology Kendall N. Houk Office for History of Science and Department of Chemistry Technology Louisiana State University University of California, Berkeley William R. Keech Department of Political Science Frederick Kaufman University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Dorothy Ross Department of Chemistry Department of History University of Pittsburgh University of Virginia Robert O. Keohane Department of Political Science Rudolph A. Marcus Merrilee H. Salmon Stanford University Department of Chemistry Department of Philosophy California Institute of Technology University of Arizona Subcommittee for Sociology George W. Parshall Howard Stein Joan A. Huber E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Company, Department of Philosophy Department of Sociology Inc. Columbia University University of Illinois, Urbana Wilmington, Del.

Linda A. Wessels Stanley Lieberson Richard R. Schrock Department of History and Philosophy of Department of Sociology Department of Chemistry Science University of Arizona Massachusetts Institute of Technology Indiana University Anne M. McMahon David A. Shirley Department of Sociology Department of Chemistry Subcommittee for Law and Social Sciences University of Rochester University of California, Berkeley

Shari Diamond Nicholas C. Mullins Jeanne M. Shreeve Department of Criminal Justice Department of Sociology Department of Chemistry University of Illinois, Chicago Circle Indiana University University of Idaho

John P. Heinz Peter H. Rossi James D. Winefordner School of Law Department of Sociology Department of Chemistry Northwestern University University of Massachusetts University of Florida APPENDICES 131

Albert C. Yates E. Bruce Lee Marvin E. Wyman Department of Chemistry Department of Electrical Engineering Associate Provost for Research and Spon­ University of Cincinnati University of Minnesota, Minneapolis sored Programs Old Dominion University George Nemhauser Advisory Committee for Engineering K. T. Yang School of Operations Research and Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Industrial Engineering Melvin Baron Engineering Cornell University Paul Weidlinger Consulting Engineers University of Notre Dame Bronx, N.Y. Demetrius T. Paris (Chairperson) Samuel B. Batdorf School of Electrical Engineering Aerospace Corporation Georgia Institute of Technology Advisory Committee for El Segundo, Calif. Materials Research Bernard Widrow John S. Blakemore James W. Dally Department of Electrical Engineering Oregon Graduate Center Department of Mechanical Engineering Stanford University University of Maryland, College Park Beaverton, Oreg.

Steven J. Fenves Subcommittee on Engineering Chemistry Martin Blume Department of Civil Engineering and Energetics Section Department of Physics Carnegie-Mellon University Brookhaven National Laboratory David M. Benson William F. Brinkman Donald R. F. Harleman Department of Electrical Engineering Bell Labs Department of Civil Engineering State University of New York at Buffalo Massachusetts Institute of Technology Murray Hill, NJ.

Edward L. Cussler Ray B. Krone lay Gregory Dash Department of Chemical Engineering College of Engineering Department of Physics Carnegie-Mellon University University of California, Davis University of Washington

James K. Mitchell James G. Knudsen Luther Davis, Jr. Department of Civil Engineering Professor and Associate Dean of Raytheon Company University of California, Berkeley Engineering Waltham, Mass. Oregon State University Richard L. Peskin K. Lawrence DeVries Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering and William D. Maxon University of Utah Aerospace The Upjohn Company Rutgers-The State University of Kalamazoo, Mich. New Jersey George Dieter Department of Mechanical Engineering Arthur B. Metzner George F. Pinder University of Maryland, College Park H. Fletcher Brown Professor of Chemical Department of Civil Engineering Engineering Princeton University William Henry Dresher University of Delaware College of Mines Eh Reshotko University of Arizona Department of Mechanical and Aerospace R. C. Reid Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering Dean E. Eastman Case Western Reserve University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Watson Research Center, IBM Yorktown Heights, N.Y. Richard Skalak Hamish Small Department of Civil Engineering and Engi­ Dow Chemical Company Craig J. Eckhardt neering Mechanics Midland, Mich. Department of Chemistry Columbia University University of Nebraska, Lincoln D. T. Wasan LeRoy Eyring Kyriakos C. Valanis Professor and Acting Dean of Engineering Division of Materials Engineering Department of Chemistry Illinois Institute of Technology University of Iowa Arizona State University

Charles B. Watkins, Jr. Michael E. Fisher Subcommittee on Electrical Sciences and Department of Mechanical Engineering Baker Lab Analysis Section ffoward University Cornell University

Esther Conwell C. Y. Wen Simeon A. Friedberg Xerox Corporation Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Physics Webster, N.Y. West Virginia University Carnegie-Mellon University 132 APPENDICES

Hellmut Fritzsche Mary Beth Stearns Wilham G. Strang James Frank Institute Ford Motor Company Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Cfiicago Dearborn, Mich. Karen Uhlenbeck Donald M. Ginsberg Dale F. Stein Department of Mathematics Department of Physics Vice President for Academic Affairs University of Illinois, Chicago Circle University of Illinois, Urbana Michigan Technological University Subcommittee for Computer Science Robert S. Hansen Robert J. Stokes Honeywell Corporate Research Center Ames Laboratory, ERDA Robert P. Abbott Bloomington, Minn. Iowa State University Director, EDP Audit Control Oakland, Calif. Clyde E. Taylor John P. Hirth Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Department of Metallurgical Engineering Alan P. Batson University of California, Berkeley Ohio State University Department of Computer Science University of Virginia Michael Tinkham John J. Hopfield Department of Physics Department of Physics Harvard University James C. Browne Princeton University Department of Computer Science Robert W. Vest University of Texas, Austin Alexei A. Maradudin School of Electrical Engineering Department of Physics Purdue University Edward A. Feigenbaum University of California, Irvine Computer Science Department John B. Wachtman, Jr. Stanford University Herbert Morawetz Inorganic Materials Division Department of Chemistry National Bureau of Standards Anthony C. Hearn Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn Computer Science Department University of Utah William D. Nix Advisory Committee for Mathematical and Department of Materials Science and Computer Science David A. Huffman Engineering Department of Information Sciences Stanford University University of California, Santa Cruz Subcommittee on Mathematical Sciences

Charles G. Overberger Aravind K. Joshi Department of Chemistry Jonathan P. Brezin Department of Computer and Information University of Michigan Department of Mathematics Sciences University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Pennsylvania George T. Rado Magnetism Branch David Eisenbud David J. Kuck U. S. Naval Research Laboratory Department of Mathematics Department of Computer Science Brandeis University University of Illinois, Urbana John T. Ransom E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Cathleen Morawetz Barbara H. Liskov Company, Inc. Courant Institute Department of Electrical Engineering and Wilmington, Del. New York University Computer Science Massachusetts Institute of Technology Kenneth J. Richards Ingram Olkin Kennecott Copper Corporation Department of Statistics Lois Mansfield Salt Lake City, Utah Stanford University Department of Computer Science University of Kansas Stephen E. Schnatterly O. Timothy O'Meara Department of Physics Department of Mathematics Nicholas C. Metropolis University of Virginia University of Notre Dame Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Los Alamos, N. Mex. William A. Sibley Paul J. Sally, Jr. Department of Physics Department of Mathematics Paul R. Young Oklahoma State University University of Chicago Division of Mathematical Sciences Purdue University William G. Spitzer Allen L. Shields Department of Physics Department of Mathematics University of Southern California University of Michigan Advisory Committee for Physics

Vivian Thomas Stannett James D. Stasheff Peter A. Carruthers Dean of the Graduate School Department of Mathematics Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory North Carolina State University University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Los Alamos, N. Mex. APPENDICES 133

Wilfried W. Daehnick G. E. Brown James P. Blackledge Department of Physics Department of Physics Denver Research Institute University of Pittsburgh State University of New York at Stony University of Denver Brook James E. Faller Harrison S. Brown Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics R. M. DeVries Honolulu, Hawaii University of Colorado, Boulder Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Los Alamos, N. Mex. T. Dixon Long Hans E. Frauenfelder Case Western Reserve University Department of Physics H. Feshbach University of Illinois, Urbana Department of Physics Jamal T. Manassah Massachusetts Institute of Technology New York, N.Y. Edward A. Frieman Plasma Physics Laboratory W. A. Fowler (Chairperson) Carol Newton Princeton University W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory Department of Biomathematics California Institute of Technology University of California, Los Angeles Gerson Goldhaber Department of Physics G. T. Garvey Norman P. Neureiter University of California, Berkeley Physics Division Texas Instruments, Inc. Argonne National Laboratory Dallas, Tex. Ernest M. Henley Department of Physics W. Haeberli Herman Pollack University of Washington Physics Department Graduate Program in Science, Technology, University of Wisconsin, Madison and Public Policy Anne Kernan George Washington University Department of Physics I. Halpern University of California, Riverside C. E.N. SACLAY Harvey W. Wallender 91190 Gif-sur-YVETTE, France Council of the Americans Neal F. Lane New York, N.Y. Department of Physics B. G. Harvey Rice University Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Adolph Y. Wilburn University of California, Berkeley Council for the International Exchange of Homer Neal Scholars Department of Physics J. R. Huizenga Washington, D.C. Indiana University, Bloomington Department of Physics and Chemistry University of Rochester Dorothy S. Zinberg William H. Press Program for Science and International Department of Physics E. A. Knapp Affairs Harvard University Accelerator Techology Division Harvard University Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory George M. Temmer Department of Physics R. E. Pollock Advisory Committee for Policy Research Rutgers-The State University of Indiana University Cyclotron Facility and Analysis and Science Resources New Jersey Studies D. R. Robson Chia-Wei Woo Department of Physics Department of Physics and Astronomy Florida State University Cecile deLisle Barker Northwestern University OAO Corporation T. T. Sugihara Beltsville, Md. C. N. Yang Cyclotron Institute Institute for Theoretical Physics Texas A&M University J. Clarence Davies State University of New York at Stony Conservation Foundation Brook J. D. Walecka Washington, D.C. Department of Physics Stanford University John H. Gibbons Advisory Committee for Environmental Center Nuclear Sciences DIRECTORATE FOR SCIENTIFIC, University of Tennessee, Knoxville TECHNOLOGICAL, AND F. Ajzenberg-Selove INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS Harold Goldstein David Rittenhouse Laboratory Kramer Associates University of Pennsylvania Advisory Committee for Washington, D.C. International Programs P. D. Barnes W. Lee Hansen C.E.N. SACLAY Henry Birnbaum Professor of Economics 91190 Gif-sur-YVETTE, France Office of the President University of Wisconsin, Madison University of Southern California 134 APPENDICES

Ida R. Hoos Paul Hurd Constance Tate Space Science Laboratory School of Education Coordinator of Science University of California, Berkeley Stanford University Baltimore City Public Schools Baltimore, Md. Allen V. Kneese Philip W. Jackson Department of Economics University of Chicago Adolph Y. Wilburn University of New Mexico Council of International Exchange of Carol Kimmel Scholars John Kendrick Rock Island, 111. Washington, D.C. Department of Economics Advisory Committee for George Washington University Elaine Ledbetter Science and Society Science Department Melvin Kranzberg (Chairperson) Pampa Senior High School Jackson B. Browning Callaway Professor of the ffistory of Pampa, Tex. Union Carbide Corporation Technology New York, N.Y. Georgia Institute of Technology H. Vaughn Phelps Westside Community Schools Dennis Chamot Franklin A. Long Omaha, Nebr. Department of Professional Employees STS Program AFL-CIO Cornell University Cheryl J. Potts Washington, D.C. Department of Psychology Edwin Mansfield University of Nevada Kay Davis Department of Economics Fernbank Science Center University of Pennsylvania Lindon E. Saline Atlanta, Ga. General Electric Company Lowell W. Steele Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y. Luis Garden-Acosta General Electric Company Dr. Salsa's Medicine Show Schenectady, N.Y. Advisory Committee for Minority Amherst, Mass. Programs in Science Education Raymond Tanter Loren Graham Political Science Department Arnold T. Anderson Washington, D.C. University of Michigan Chappaqua, N.Y. Chfford Grobstein Monte C. Throdahl Richard Anderson Science, Technology, and Public Affairs Monsanto Company Department of Mathematics University of California, San Diego St. Louis, Mo. Louisiana State University Susan Hadden Lois E. Torrence Broadus Butler Southern Center for Studies in Public Director of Institutional Research R. R. Moton Memorial Institute, Inc. Affairs University of Connecticut Washington, D.C. Clark College

Seymour Wolfbein Ewaugh Fields (Chairperson) Lee Hanna School of Business Administration Dean of the University College of the Chicago, III. Temple University District of Columbia William W. Harris Thomas E. Ford Public Interest Communication Service, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Inc. DIRECTORATE FOR SCIENCE New York, N.Y. EDUCATION Cambridge, Mass. Esther A. H. Hopkins Advisory Committee for Patent Division Eugene Hess Science Education Polaroid Corporation Federation of American Societies For Experimental Biology Benjamin H. Alexander Luis Nieves Bethesda, Md. Chicago State University Office of Minority Education Norman Hilberry Education Testing Service Department of Nuclear Engineering Joel Bloom Princeton, NJ. University of Arizona Director, Science Museum and Planetarium The Franklin Institute L. Shelbert Smith Richard J. Hill Philadelphia, Pa. National Institute of Science School of Community Service and Public Central State University Affairs E. Glenadine Gibb University of Oregon University of Texas Dorrance Steele Education Programs Administrator Halsted R. Holman Suzanne W. Helburn Superintendent of Schools Department of Medicine London, England Hopi Indian Agency Stanford University APPENDICES 135

Edward J. Kormondy Clifford Grobstein Eugene Lyle Hess Washington, D.C. Science, Technology, and Public Affairs Federation of American Societies for Exper­ University of California, San Diego imental Biology Polykarp Kusch Bethesda, Md. Eugene McDermott Professor of Physics Susan G. Hadden University of Texas, Dallas Southern Center for Studies in Public Af­ Norman Hilberry fairs Department of Nuclear Engineering Elizabeth Kutter Clark College University of Arizona Department of Biology Evergreen State College Richard J. Hill (Chairperson) Edward J. Kormondy Department of Sociology Washington, D.C. Cora B. Marrett University of Oregon Department of Sociology Frank Oppenheimer University of Wisconsin, Madison Thomas E. Morgan Palace of Fine Arts Association of American Medical Colleges San Francisco, Calif. Robert P. Morgan Washington, D.C. Department of Technology and Human David Perlman Affairs Lois Sharpe San Francisco Chronicle Washington University League of Women Voters Education Fund Falls Church, Va. Subcommittee on Ethics and Values in Claire Nader Science and Technology Program Washington, D.C. James B. Sullivan Center for Science in the Public Interest Frank Oppenheimer Cabin John, Md. Loren Graham Palace of Fine Arts Department of History San Francisco, Calif. Stanley Van Ness Co umbia University Commissioner David Perlman Public Advocate Halsted Holman San Francisco Chronicle State of New Jersey School of Medicine Stanford University Lois Sharpe Frank von Hippel League of Women Voters Education Fund Center for Environmental Studies Polykarp Kusch Falls Church, Va. Princeton University Eugene McDermott Professor of Physics University of Texas, Dallas Vivien Shelanski James D. Wright Newsletter on Science, Technology, and Director of Labor Programs Elizabeth Kutter Human Values New School for Democratic Management Department of Biology Harvard University San Francisco, Calif. Evergreen State College

James B. Sullivan Cora B. Marrett Center for Science in the Public Interest Department of Sociology Cabin John, Md. Subcommittee on Public Understanding of University of Wisconsin, Madison Science Stanley Van Ness Robert Morgan Commissioner Department of Technology and Human Public Advocate Affairs State of New Jersey Dennis Chamot Washington University Department for Professional Employees Frank von Hippel AFL-CIO Claire Nader Center for Environmental Studies Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Princeton University Kay Davis Vivien Shelanski James D. Wright Fernbank Science Center Newsletter on Science, Technology, and Director of Labor Programs Atlanta, Ga. Human Values New School for Democratic Management Harvard University San Francisco, Calif. Luis Garden-Acosta University of Massachusetts Subcommittee on Oversight Lee Hanna Subcommittee on Science General Manager, WMAQ Dennis Chamot for Citizens Chicago, III. Department for Professional Employees AFL-CIO William W. Harris Washington, D.C. Jackson B. Browning Public Interest Communications Services, Union Carbide Corporation Inc. Loren Graham New York, N.Y. Cambridge, Mass. Washington, D.C. 136 APPENDICES

Clifford Grobstein (Chairperson) DIRECTORATE FOR APPLIED SCIENCE Bruce Thrasher Science, Technology, and Public Affairs AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS United Steel Workers of America University of California, San Diego Pittsburgh, Pa.

Advisory Committee for Applied Science Eugene Lyle Hess William Vogely and Research Applications Federation of American Societies for Exper­ Professor of Mineral Economics imental Biology Pennsylvania State University Bethesda, Md. David M. Bartley Holyoke Community College Eugene J. Webb Richard J. Hill Holyoke, Mass. Graduate School of Business School of Community Service and Public Stanford University Affairs Robert R. Berks University of Oregon Orient, N.Y. Sylvan Wittwer Director, Agricultural Experiment Station Claire Nader John A. Blume and Assistant Dean, College of Agricul­ Washington, D.C. URS/John A. Blume and Associates, ture and Natural Resources Engineers Michigan State University San Francisco, Calif. Advisory Comm.iitee for Two-Year Robert B. Yegge College Science Education Needs Frank C. DiLuzio Yegge, Hall, and Evans Assessment Government and University Relations Denver, Colo. Los Alamos Scientific Research Laboratory David Breneman Los Alamos, N. Mex. Roy A. Young Brookings Institute Chancellor Washington, D.C. Lewis O. Grant University of Nebraska Department of Atmospheric Sciences Joseph P. Cosand Colorado State University Eugene Younts Center for the Study of Higher Education Vice President for Services University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Thomas F. Jones (Chairperson) University of Georgia Vice President for Research Rosemary Garcia Massachusetts Institute of Technology Pima Community College Subcommittee for Integrated Basic Tucson, Ariz. Research Arthur R. Kantrowitz Howard Jones AVCO-Everett Research Laboratory J. David Allan School of Education Everett, Mass. Department of Zoology University of Houston University of Maryland, College Park Joseph Ling Christine M. Kerr Environmental Engineering and Pollution Jonathan P. Brezin Department of Chemistry Control Department of Mathematics Montgomery College 3M Company University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Rockville, Md. St. Paul, Minn. Orville L. Chapman LilUe Smith King Richard P. Nalesnik Department of Chemistry Alabama Consortium for the Development Resources and Technology Department University of California, Los Angeles of Higher Education National Association of Manufacturers University of Alabama Washington, D.C. Albert P. Crary Washington, D.C. Edward L. Krehbiel Howard Odum Grossmont Community College District Graduate Research Professor Richard C. Dudgale El Cajon, Calif. Environmental Science Bigelow Laboratory of Ocean Sciences University of Florida Douglas F. Libby, Jr. West Boothbay Harbor, Me. Community College of Delaware County Irene Carswell Peden Media, Pa. Bruno J. Giletti Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Geological Sciences University of Washington, Seattle Jacqueline Spears Brown University Department of Physics Marymount College Howard J. Taubenfeld Cynthia C. Irwin-Williams Salina, Kans. Professor of Law Department of Anthropology Southern Methodist University Eastern New Mexico University Robin Valencic Oceanography Department Richard E. Thomas David W. Krogmann Saddleback Community College Zachry Engineering Center Department of Biochemistry Mission Viejo, Calif. Texas A&M University Purdue University APPENDICES 1

David J. Kuck Dale F. Stein Arthur B. Walker, Jr. Department of Computer Science Vice President for Academic Affairs Institute for Plasma Research University of Illinois, Urbana Michigan Technological University Stanford University

Walter Makous Walter R. Tschinkel Chia-Wei Woo Department of Psychology Biological Sciences Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Washington Florida State University Northwestern University

Arthur B. Metzner Daniel R. Vining, Jr. Roy Young Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Regional Science Chancellor University of Delaware University of Pennsylvania University of Nebraska 138 APPENDICES

Appendix B

Paienls and Inventions Resulting from Activities Supported hy the National Science Foundation During fiscal year 1978, the Foundation received 98 invention tional Patent Agreements for a total of 21. Licenses were received disclosures and made rights determinations in 51 inventions. The by the Foundation under 1 patent and 39 patent applications filed determinations, made in accordance with NSF Patent Regula­ by grantees and contractors who had been allowed to retain tions, included decisions to dedicate the invention to the public principal rights in their inventions. through publication in 18 cases, to transfer rights to other interested Government agencies in 3 cases, and to permit reten­ tion of rights by the grantee or inventor in 30 instances. At the The following U.S. Patents issued from research supported by end of the fiscal year NSF had entered into 4 additional Institu­ the Foundation:

No. Title Institution 4,016,331 Composite Polymeric University of Pennsylvania Material Formed with an Epitaxial Crystalline Film of Polymeric Sulfur Nitride, and Method of Preparing Same 4,050,508 Controllable Heat Trans­ Massachusetts Institute of mission Panels Technology 4,055,783 Spark Source with Regula­ Wisconsin Alumni Research tion of Spark Magnitude Foundation by Control of Spark Timing 4,064,150 Synthesis of Isoprenoid University of Illinois 1,5-Dienes Foundation 4,065,780 Tunnel Injection of Minority Cornell Research Foundation Carriers in Semiconductors 4,066,821 Tungsten Carbide Tools Massachusetts Institute of Treated with Group IVB Technology and VB Metals 4,067,823 Thallium (III) Reagents Princeton University Supported on Montmorillonite Clay Minerals and Oxythallation Processes for Utilizing Same 4,068,214 Asynchronous Logic Array Massachusetts Institute of Technology 4,069,418 Improvement on High Speed University of Illinois Optoelectric Sampling Head 4,069,732 Electric Guitar Massachusetts Institute of Technology 4,072,353 Thrust-Impact Rock University of Missouri Splitter 4,076,866 Method of Growing Films Massachusetts Institute of by Flash Vaporization Technology 4,077,020 Pulsed Gas Laser Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation 4,077,818 Development of Low Cost Southern Methodist Film Polycrystalline Silicon University Solar Cells for Terrestrial Applications 4,078,167 Welding Shield and Plasma United Technologies Corp. Suppressor Apparatus 4.084.041 Secondary Battery or Cell Ford Motor Company with Polysulfide Wettable Electrode -#2 4.084.042 Secondary Battery or Cell Ford Motor Company With Polysulfide Wettable Electrode -#1 4,084,943 Jet Membrane Gas Separator Grumman Aerospace Corp. and Method 4,087,328 Purification and Immobilization Research Triangle Institute of Sulfhydryl Oxidase 4,088,675 Production of Acyl Phosphate Massachusetts Institute of Salts Technology 4,106,588 Mode Cancelling Composite Massachusetts Institute of Panel for Greater Than Mass- Technology Low Transmission Loss in the Principal Speech Bands 140 APPENDICES

Appendix C

Financial Report for Fiscal Year 1978

(in Thousands of Dollars)

Research and Related Activities Appropriation Fund Availability

Fiscal year 1978 appropriation $785,250 Unobligated balance brought forward 7,216 Adjustment to prior year accounts 3,688 Fiscal year 1978 availability ,,$796,154

Obligations

Mathematical and physical sciences, and engineering: Mathematical sciences $21,406 Computer research 16,632 Physics 59,858 Chemistry 43,050 Engineering 43,869 Materials research 59,916 Regional instrumentation facilities 3,010 Industry/university cooperative research 746

Subtotal, mathematical and physical sciences, and engineering $248,487

Astronomical, atmospheric, earth, and ocean sciences: Astronomical sciences $57,584 Atmospheric sciences 56,415 Earth sciences 34,065 Ocean sciences 58,178 Arctic research program 5,339

Subtotal, astronomical, atmospheric, earth, and ocean sciences $211.581

U.S. Antarctic program $48,447

Biological, behavioral, and social sciences: Physiology, cellular, and molecular biology $57,636 Behavioral and neural sciences 28,470 Environmental biology 31,490 Social sciences 24,255

Subtotal, biological, behavioral, and social sciences $141,851

Applied science and research applications: Problem analysis $ 1,455 Integrated basic research 620 Applied research 18,057 Problem-focused research applications 27,017 Intergovernmental science and public technology 7,962 APPENDICES 141

Subtotal, applied science and researcti applications $55,111

Scientific, tectinological, and international affairs: International cooperative scientific activities $9,854 Policy researcti and analysis 5,565 Science resources studies 2,511 Information science and tectinology 4.969 NSF planning and evaluation 883

Subtotal, scientific, tectinological, and International affairs $23,782

Program development and management $48,695

Subtotal, obligations $777,954

Unobligated balance carried forward $9,878 Deferral carried forward $6,900 Unobligated balance lapsing $1,422

Total, fiscal year 1978 availability for researcti and related activities _^^^96^54

Science Education Activities Appropriation Fund Availability Fiscal year 1978 appropriation $73,200 Unobligated balance brought forward 758 Adjustment to prior year accounts 354 Fiscal year 1978 availability $74,312

Obligations

Science education activities: Scientific personnel improvement $31,713 Science education resources improvement 27,933 Science education development and research 8,860 Science and Society 5,358

Subtotal, obligations $73,864

Unobligated balance carried forward $8 Unobligated balance lapsing $440

Total, fiscal year 1978 availability for science education activities

Special Foreign Currency Appropriation Fund Availability Fiscal year 1978 appropriation $4,900 Unobligated balance brought forward 534 Adjustment to prior year accounts 60 Fiscal year 1978 availability $5,494 142 APPENDICES

Obligations

Special foreign currency program: Researcfi and related activities $4,349 Science Information 1,080

Subtotal, obligations ^ $5,429

Unobligated balance carried forward $5 Unobligated balance lapsing $60

Total, fiscal year 1978 availability for special foreign currency program $5,494

Trust Fund Fund Availability Unobligated balance brought forward $3,785 Receipts from non-Federal sources 4,348 Adjustment to pi-ior year accounts , ^ Fiscal year 1978 availability $8,099

Obligations

Astronomical, atmospheric, earth, and ocean sciences activity (ocean sediment coring program) $3,758 Gifts and donations 5

Subtotal, obligations $3,763

Unobligated balance carried forward $4,336

Total, fiscal year 1978 availability for trust fund $8,099

SOURCES: Fiscal Year 1980 Revised Supplementary Budget Schedules to the Office of Management and Budget. Fiscal Year 1980 Budget to Congress—Justification of Estimates of Appropriations. Appendix D

National Research Centers Contractors

Associaled UniversiHes, Inc. (AUI) National Center for Atmospheric Research Gerald F. Tape, President Francis P. Bretherton, Director National Radio Astronomy Observatory UCAR Member Universities: Morton S. Roberts, Director University of Alaska University of Arizona AUI Member Universities; California Institute of Technology Columbia University University of California Cornell University The Catholic University of America Harvard University University of Chicago The Johns Hopkins University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Colorado State University University of Pennsylvania University of Colorado Princeton University Cornell University University of Rochester University of Denver Yale University Drexel University Florida State University Harvard University Association of Universities for Research in University of Hawaii Astronomy, Inc., (AURA) Iowa State University John M. Teem, President The Johns Hopkins University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory University of Maryland Victor M. Blanco, Director Massachusetts Institute of Technology Kitt Peak National Observatory McGill University Geoffrey Burbidge, Director University of Miami AURA Member Universities: University of Michigan University of Arizona University of Minnesota California Institute of Technology University of Missouri University of California University of Nevada University of Chicago New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Harvard University New York University Indiana University State University of New York at Albany University of Michigan Ohio State University Ohio State University University of Oklahoma Princeton University Oregon State University University of Texas at Austin Pennsylvania State University University of Wisconsin Purdue University Yale University The Rice University Saint Louis University Cornell University Stanford University W. Donald Cooke, Vice President for Research Texas A&M University University of Texas National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center University of Toronto Frank D. Drake, Director, Ithaca, N.Y. Utah State University Harold D. Craft, Director, Observatory University of Utah Operations, Arecibo, P.R. University of Washington University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) University of Wisconsin Francis P. Bretherton, President Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution