SER, VOLUME 13 (2): October 20J2

A REFLECTION ON AND ITS PEDGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

SHEHU SIDI IBRAHIM (Ph.D.) AND UMAR JIBRIL

ABSTRACT

Tone is central to the study of English speech beyond the individual words. This is obvious in languages tike English, but rone and interfaced in the study of die global theory of intonational phonology. This paper takes another look at tone, beyond its conception in relation to words, it sees it as inclusive term precluding both tone and intonation. The first part of the paper introduces intonation as phenomena central to the learning of second language like English without which it could not be learnt properly. In the second part of this paper pitch as vibration of vocal cords caused by pressure from lungs in an attempt for humans to speak specific to particular languages was handled. The third part addresses tone as contrastive and relative phonological term in relation to words of a language. In part four issues like tone floating syndrome and functions of tone in African languages and English were explored. Part five summed the major arguments of the paper that intonation needs to be properly and pragmatically taught and future direction of matching theoretical fonnulations and practical drills and exercises and mode of designing them was proposed as area of research in English/Nigerian languages.

Key words: Implications, Pedagogy, Pitch, Tone, Tone Floating, Tonmorphs

Introduction Received Pronunciation RP seems to be wider in the area of intonation In the process of second language than any other area of speech. This learning intonation is probably one paper reflects on intonation, tone of the phenomena in language and related matters, as well as their without which one can never speak pedagogical implications. A tone is English like a native speaker. important in this investigation for Adegtubgo (1984) asserts that the the fact that Nigeria as an ESL English spoken in Nigeria is country most of the languages are different from the English spoken tone languages trying to learn a in Britain. He cites examples of second language-English which is requests which are made with intonational. While intonation is rising tone final intonation pattern voluntary pitch patterns that are contrasted with the falling tone used in English language at the final intonation in Nigerian English levels of the sentences a tone form. Therefore the gap between language is (one) in which pitch is n B ii hieinEnglish and BritishNigerian significant, contrastive, but A Reflection on Tone and Its Pedgogical Implications

relative...on each Pike which are common to the speech (1984). All these have implications community and which are of based on the above parity between considerable linguistic and social tone and intonation in both importance. teaching and learning, tone and related matters are further A number of observations can be explored. Let us begin by made from the above definitions. discussing pitch as a relevant First, pitch largely depends on the aspect in the next section. speed of vibration of the vocal cords. Thus if the vibration of the Pitch vocal cords is fast: the pitch of voice accordingly becomes high. This is the name commonly To that extent, therefore, pitch is a associated with the vibration of the feature of voiced sounds. Secondly, vocal cords caused by air pressure although pitch variation is common from the lungs Fromkin and to all natural languages, it is by no Rodman (1978). Speakers of all means distributed at random; it is languages change the pitch of their organized: and the way pitch is voices when they talk and the pitch utilized by languages seems to be so produced depends upon the specific to them. In other words, speed of the vocal cords or the every language has its way of frequency of the vibration: the utilizing pitch either to signal faster the vibration, the higher the intonation (like English or pitch perceived. In other words, all German), accent (like Japanese or speech sounds arise from the Ancient Greek) or lexical (like physical act of making the vocal Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Chinese or cords or folds vibrate in the larynx. Korean languages). Normally when Without phonation there is no a language makes use of pitch over perception of pitch. Pitch can be phrases to define intonation, it does associated with the resonance of not simultaneously as a distinctive the speaker’s voice and contrasts feature signaling words. This with whispered speech (where therefore means that emphasis or there is no vocal cord vibration). prominence will also be signaled Robin (1964:110-112) describes differently across languages. pitch as the result of the speed of English for example uses focus, or the vibration of the vocal cords in emphatic accent, to signal the voiced parts of utterances. prominence, e.g. ‘Zaid went to the Abercrombie (1967:107) while market (not Abba)’, while Hausa accepting Robin’s definition (because it is a language with cautions that pitch is by no means a lexical tone) uses word order random fluctuation but follows movements for the same function, well-defined melodic patterns e.g ‘Ai Zaid nee yaa tafii kasuwa’.

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In the English language again, it Tone does not matter whether one says (dog) with a high pitch or a low So much has been written on tone pitch: it will still mean (dog). by both Nigerian and non Nigerian However, if one should say (ha) scholars so that our attempt to give with a high pitch in Hausa it will it any undue prominence may risk mean “open your mouth” as the danger of being interpreted as a mothers often say to their children. mere replication of the works of Whereas if one says (ha) with a others. However, this does not low pitch, it will mean, “something mean it will not be mentioned. Sani has happened” or someone has (1984:40) describes tone as a pitch been thrown as in a wrestling bout. of voice on which individual Languages in which regular of a word are uttered sequences of different pitches naturally in order to convey a characterize stretches of speech proper meaning to the listener. He between sounds are said to be goes on to explain that every intonation languages, whereas syllable, in a tone language, has its languages in which pitch assigned pitch of voice or tone. differentiation marks the Thus, whereas some syllables are distinction between one word and produced on a high tone others are another are known as tone produced on a low tone. The languages. English, French, syllables uttered on a high pitch of German and many Indo-European voice are said to have a HIGH languages belong to the first TONE, while the ones that are category, while most African uttered on a low pitch are said to languages such as Hausa, Yoruba, have a LOW TONE. Igbo, Izon and Ewe etc. belong to the second category. Discussion of Pike (1948) defines a tone pitch variation across languages is language as that in which pitch is necessary to make sense of the significant contrastive, but overall focus of this paper. One relative...on each syllable. important reason is that the subject However, this definition is of our paper is mainly on the considered too strong by Welmers differentiation in the utilization of (1950) for its requirement of a pitch between the educated significant pitch on each syllable. speakers of Nigerian English and Thus, Welmers proposes a the speakers of standard British modified version: A tone language English. We now link to the is (one) in which both pitch discussion of tone and related phonemes enter into the matters. composition of at least some morphemes (Welmers, 1973 and Hyman, 1975). Welmers maintains

58 A Reflection on Tone and Its Peclgogical Implications

that since some morphemes (and as a non speaker. For instance, just therefore syllables) may actually be as the substitution of /m/ or /b/ can 'toneless, it is wrong to expect change English ‘make’ to ‘bake’ significant pitch on each syllable and change the lexical meaning and this is especially so when one from creating, constructing or considers the Tone Floating preparing something by combining Syndrome where tonal morphemes materials or putting things together, or ‘tomorphs’ are not carried on to ‘cooking something by dry heat any of a given word. in an oven or by making Hyman and Tadadieu (1976:61) something’. So in Hausa the report that Mbui, a language substitution of (n) for (d) can spoken in Cameroon, represents a change ‘nawa’ (how much?) To good case of a language in which ‘dawa’ (forest or jungle): but also the phenomenon of tone floating is substitution of a low tone for a high evident. tone can change (ga) meaning (to) and (ga) meaning (see) so that ‘ga What we have just done is simply Audu’ becomes (to Audu) and ga to present the scholars’ views on Audu refers (to see Audu) low the phenomenon of TONE against high tone. FLOATING. We by no means, attempt to get embroiled in the Tone languages can function in two discussion of the merits and basic ways: they have lexical and demerits of Pike’s (1948) position grammatical functions. When tone and Welmers (1959) modification is used almost exclusively to of it. Having said that, we shall distinguish word meaning as point out that nearly all above, we say that such function is phonologists agree that one of the lexical. basic functions of a tone language In Igbo, tones (the distinctive is that it requires a significant pitch patterns of pitch or pitch changes) on each syllable. In other words, are used not only in distinguishing every syllable in a tone language several lexical items such as: has a pitch that is determined by Akwa - ‘cloth’ (a high and low the inherent nature of the word tone) itself. Ladefoged (1985) observes Akwa - ‘bed’ (two low tones) that although speakers of English Akwa - ‘cry’ (two high tones) often find it hard to consider the Akwa - ‘egg’ (a low and a high tone as an important, meaningful tone) part of a word the truth remains But also used mainly or exclusively that the attempt to play around with for the signaling of grammatical tones in a tone language can cause distinction. This function Egbe a loss of or confusion of lexical (1986:8) describes as the verbo- meaning or simply marks one out nominal distinction. Thus:

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Ije - ‘Journey Ije to go the intensity of the : and Ike - ‘Strength Ike to shave it serves in raising the last high Ibu - ‘Loud Ibu to cany tone of the phrase to an extra pitch with a sharp fall or falling slur. In Yoruba, Elugbe (1995:67) suggests that three tones (high, mid Perhaps this section on the review and low) are minimally distinctive of tone and tone languages will not and they can be shown to be so. be complete without, a mention of (a) Oho ‘hoe’ the Nigeria Pidgin (NP). This is not (b) Oko ‘husband’ only because the language is (c) Oke ‘vehicle’ indigenous to Nigeria but also (d) Ota ‘enemy’ because like most other Nigeria (e) Ota ‘champion’ languages, it was in one way or the (f) Ota ‘place-name’ other influenced if not affected by (g) Ko ‘build’ the English spoken in Nigerian. (h) Ko ‘write Nevertheless, is Nigerian Pidgin a (i) Ko ‘reject’ tone language? Mafeni (1971) Good example of a do suggests that it is a tone language system of intonation as can be seen because: One, it is syllable-timed from both the declarative and the (as opposed to -timed) and interrogative sentences two, it makes lexical use of words schematized in Sani (1989:46) as /fada/-father and ‘fada’ a below. Thus: (Roman Catholic Priest). However, 5. Elugbe and Omamor (1991) think 4. rather differently. In their opinion 3. in as much as it is true to say NP is 2. a syllable timed language in which 1. each syllable is prominent and equidistant from is neighbours, it Inaa suka tafiii? may not be true to say that NP is a tone language in the same sense as 5. Yoruba, Igbo or Hausa for 4. example. Their position and one 3. which we are in agreement with, is 2. that NP is neither a tone language 1. nor a stress-timed language. This is Kano ya tafii? not a new phenomenon among natural languages as we also From the above intonation pitch indicate later in this paper under curves the following deduction can section on RHYTHM, but before be made- The effect of question then, let us very quickly review intonation is to reduce considerably David Crystal’s approach to tone.

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According to Crystal (1969:142) Furthermore, in Hausa tone may be tone is a feature of phonology. It is used in conditional clauses for associated with either level pitch or example: * the direction of pitch movement Idem yetcil taa z.o za ’a bat a littafen (falling or rising) within the most (likely conditional clause) prominent syllable of an Idem yaci/taa zo z a ’a bata littafen intonational phrase (intonational (unlikely conditional clause) phrase simply put refers to the to Idem yaa/taa zo da an has hi/t a be the domain relevant to the littafen (hypothetical/rejected organization of tunes and the conditional clause) phonetic implementation of intonation; it also a unit of the Tone language according to phonology which corresponds to Katamba (1989) can also be somewhat to syntactic phrase) or classified as belonging to one of ‘tone unit’ in the vocabulary of the two categories because of the shape London School. of their tones: TONE language and ONTOUR TONE In any tone-unit (...) the majority language. In a true register tone of syllables are uttered with a level languages such as Hausa, Yoruba pitch (static tone) but a few are and Igala tones have level high or uttered with a perceptible pitch low pitch, in these languages the movement from one height to pitch hardly goes up or down another... either a pitch glide (for during the production of a example, when the syllable centre particular tone. Welmers is a relatively long vowel or vowel­ (1973:116) reports that Igala like sound) or pitch jump to a represents the best example of a different level on the following register tone language. Thus: syllable (as when the syllable contains a short vowel and there Awo ‘guinea fowl’ ( ) are other syllables in the word), the awo ‘aslap’ ( ) later being interpreted. Awo ‘an increase’ ( ) awo ‘acom b’( ) Tone in Hausa can also be Awo ‘hole (in a tree) ( ) grammatical, example: awo ‘a star ( )

Yaa zo high (he came) Past In a true contour tone language the Yaazo falling (he may come) pitch phonemes, or tones cannot be future e.g. ‘Bari aiyaa zo (wait he conveniently described in terms of may come) single points within a pitch range. Taa zo high (she came) past In other words, the tones in this Taa zo falling (she mat come) type of language have a somewhat future fluctuating pitch range. The

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Vietnamese languages of South that directly relates to this paper is East Asia belong to this category DOWNDRIFT. In downdrift every with Mandrin Chinese providing high pitch following a low pitch is the best example, thus: lower than the preceding high each Ma ‘mother’ (level high time there is an intervening low tone) ( ) thereby creating terracing effects. Ma ‘hemp’ (high rising Thus, Hausa is said to provide a tone) ( ) functionally as identical with a Ma ‘horse’ (falling glide (...). The notion of kinetic rising tone) ( ) tone is thus partially a functional Ma ** ‘scold’ (high falling abstraction to allow these tone) ( ) substantial differences to be grouped under the same heading. We should also point out here that At least one such tone is obligatory the above classification of tone for a tone-unit to be interpreted as languages is by no means 'complete' (...) the categories of watertight. In fact, there are tone pitch glide discriminated include: languages that share the features of falling (transcribed with 'over the both categories. Luganda, a vowel of the syllable), rising ( language in Uganda falls within falling-rising (); falling-rising— this category (see Ladefoged, falling ( ); rising-falling-rising (); 1982:231). falling-plus-rise ( );rise-plus- fall(}, with a certain variation of Furthermore, there exist instances the first element. The first two, where some tone languages have along with level tone ()(...) are various types of pitches referred to as simple tones: the superimposed upon them. These next as complex tones (...) and the superimposed pitches of voice may remainder as compound tones. It carry the implications of anger, is also obligatory for the sarcasm, disgust, astonishment or articulation of a kinetic tone in simple admiration. Scholars such English that there is an increase in as Sani (1989), Abdullahi (1990) intensity on the syllable carrying and Na’isa (1992) refer to this the glide, which perceptually phenomenon as TONE seems equivalent to the loudness of TERRACING and they all seem to the term stress in the simple agree that ‘tone terracing’ is made syllable loudness system", (Crystal, up of several distinguishable but Ibid: 142 - 3). The categorization related features. of pitch is characteristic pattern of the London School in that it falls We shall not attempt to review all between the phonetic of them here, nor shall we attempt characterization of intonation and to mention them. However, the one a simple, abstract system

62 A Reflection on Tone and Its Pedgogical Implications

characterized by relations of remain unexplored and untapped. dependency and structure. In the We recommend that this problem - subsequent sections we will see could be minimized in the that Janet Pierrechumbert's following ways: contribution to the description of intonation was to reduce the very a. Adequate time should be complex of tones proposed by given to teaching of Crystal above to two tones - High pronunciation not just and Low, which can combine in limited to a couple of hours various ways to build up what she per day. calls tunes, and to map tones onto b. Effort should be intensified pitch accents in an auto segmental in teaching spoken English analysis which is made up of in constant drills. several tiers of presentation. c. Repetition and imitation of material learnt should be Pedagogical Implications emphasized. d. Students should be encouraged to listen to The investigation on intonation good realization of tone and related matters above­ intonation patterns of revealed that since in most English from films, radios, schools and colleges in Nigeria television and above all largely grammar and writing are good mothers. taught as a result the beauty of e. Student should be advised speech is consequently lost. and encouraged as well to Intonation rather than tone in listen and learn from the English is more natural and English of newscasters on economical. Phonemic BBC, NTA and try to distinction is easier using match their realization as intonation rather than tone via- much as possible with what sentence and words. is heard. Lack of good teaching or Finally in this age of globalization learning of intonation leave and internet the teaching and some linguistic and learning of English should take communicative resources cognizance of the interface untapped, and the speech melody between acceptability and lost. All these are serious international intelligibility implications for teaching and components. learning of English as a second language. This in sum shows only one aspect (or few) is taught to the detriment of some which

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Conclusion Adetugbo (1984). The English Language in Nigerian W hat is obvious from this paper is Experience. Inaugural that tone and intonation are Lecture Series Lagos: Lagos different things. While the tone University Press has its role on the syllable structure the intonation contours Caroll, D. W. (2004). Psychology rely on the sentence or utterance of Language 4Ih ed. Australia, and it refers to meaning Canada: Thomson Waduerth distinctions. But most importantly this reflection has Crystal, D. (1976). Prosodic critical implications for teaching System and Intonation in and learning of English in Nigeria English London: CUP since the beauty of English language is in its intonation which .■______(1986). Intonation and bears its melody and musicality; Its Parts: Melody in Spoken but what obtains is that grammar English California: Standford and writing takes precedence to University. spoken English thereby leaving the linguistic and communicative Culpeper, J.; Katamba F; Kerswill resources untapped. Way forward P, & Wodak R, (eds.) (2008). is to reorient the teaching and English Language: learning of English to incorporate Description, Variation and spoken English especially the Context London: Palgrave correct use of intonation patterns of English. In addition to these, the Egbe, E. N. in Unoh (ed.) (1979). proper utilization of modem Use o f English in multimedia resources in both Communication. Ibadan: teaching and learning of spoken Spectrum Books Limited. English in Nigeria. Fromkin & Rodman (1978). An Reference Introduction to Language 5th edn (New York: Harcourt Abdullahi, M. A. (1996). ‘Tone in Brace) Hausa’ Unpublished M. A. Thesis Bayero University Hyman & E. M (1975). Phonology: Kano Nigeria. Theoty and Analysis New York: Holt, Rineltart and Abercombie (1967). Elements of Winston. General Edinburgh: Edinburgh Ibrahim S. S. (2002). ‘Intonation University Press. Patterns of Educated Nigerian

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English’ Unpublished Ph.D. Pike, K. L. (1984). Tone Thesis Bayero University Languages. Ann Abor: Kano Nigeria. University of Michigan.

______& Jibril, U. (2011). Robins, R. H. (1964). A Short ‘Intonation as Marker of History of Linguistics, Politeness in ‘Nigerian London: Longman English’ Paper Presented at 24th Annual Conference of Sani, M. A. Z. (1989). An the Linguistic Association of Introductory Phonology of Nigeria (CLAN) held at Hausa, Kano: Triumph Bayero University Kano from Publishing Co. Monday 5th to Thursday 9th December 2011. Svartvick, I. & Leech, G. (2006). English: One Tongue, Many Katamba, F. (1989). An Voices Basingstoke: Palgrave Introduction to Phonology. MacMillan Longman: London and New York. Swales J. M & Christine, B. F (2000). English in Today’s Klien, W. (1986). Second Research World: A Writing Language Acquisition, Guide, Michigan: The Cambridge: Cambridge University of Michigan Press University Press Udofot, I. (1997). ‘The Rhythm of Ladd, D. R. (1996). Intonational Spoken Nigerian English’, Phonology, New York: CUP. Unpublished PhD Thesis University of Uyo Nigeria. Ladefoged, P. (1985). A Course in Phonetics New York: Wells, J. C. (2006). Intonation: An Harcourt Brace Javanaich Introduction, New York: CUP Naisa, S. Z. (1992). A Short Hausa Linguistics Course for Welmers W. E. (1959). Tonemics, Schools and Colleges, Morploptonomics and Tonal Kaduna: Kaduna Polytechnic Morphs. Berkeley: University of California Press.

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