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From Milk and Wool: Vital Pastoral Crafts and Their Vitality in 21 St Century Xinjiang Annie Chan

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From Milk and Wool: Vital Pastoral Crafts and Their Vitality in 21 St Century Xinjiang Annie Chan From Milk and Wool: Vital Pastoral Crafts and their Vitality in 21 st Century Xinjiang Annie Chan To cite this version: Annie Chan. From Milk and Wool: Vital Pastoral Crafts and their Vitality in 21 st Century Xinjiang. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, BioMed Central, 2017, 37 (3), pp.542-560. 10.2993/0278-0771-37.3.542. hal-03111597 HAL Id: hal-03111597 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03111597 Submitted on 15 Jan 2021 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. From Milk and Wool: Vital Pastoral Crafts and their Vitality in 21st Century Xinjiang Author(s): Annie Chan Source: Journal of Ethnobiology, 37(3):542-560. Published By: Society of Ethnobiology https://doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771-37.3.542 URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2993/0278-0771-37.3.542 BioOne (www.bioone.org) is a nonprofit, online aggregation of core research in the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences. BioOne provides a sustainable online platform for over 170 journals and books published by nonprofit societies, associations, museums, institutions, and presses. Your use of this PDF, the BioOne Web site, and all posted and associated content indicates your acceptance of BioOne’s Terms of Use, available at www.bioone.org/page/ terms_of_use. Usage of BioOne content is strictly limited to personal, educational, and non- commercial use. Commercial inquiries or rights and permissions requests should be directed to the individual publisher as copyright holder. BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to critical research. Journal of Ethnobiology 37(3): 542–560 2017 FROM MILK AND WOOL: VITAL PASTORAL CRAFTS AND THEIR VITALITY IN 21ST CENTURY XINJIANG Annie Chan1 Ecological and socioeconomic effects of sedentarization campaigns and growing state controls on pastoral practices are a prevalent topic of interest in the study of nomads. Research to date has focused on how processes of industrialization and urbanization bear on the productivity of pasturage and livestock; other constituents of pastoral livelihood, such as secondary animal products, remain less explored. In documenting the making of felt and milk products by Kazakh and Mongol practitioners in the Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, this paper explores the perpetuation of pastoral crafts amid household modernization and the building of market economy in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China. The tradition of domestic production of milk products continues despite increased state-control on pastoral ways of life. In contrast, felt-making is no longer essential to domestic subsistence but survives as a handicraft known to selected members of the community and a token of ethnic heritage. This study proposes that these traditional pastoral crafts should not be valued simply as records of the historic past. Instead, they provide essential knowledge for designing more sustainable measures in current state reforms. Keywords: pastoralism, sedentarization, felt, milk products, cultural heritage Introduction It is not unexpected that in China, one of the world’s fastest growing economies, preserving artisanal skills of production would be peripheral to state goals of industrialization and modernization. Reforms targeting the western regions, for instance, stem from an explicit agenda to lessen the economic disparity between coastal China and interior provinces, consolidate political control over an ethnically diverse population, and ameliorate trade relations with neighboring Central Asian countries (Pannell and Ma 1997; Yessengaliyeva and Kozhirova 2016). The initiative introduced by the Chinese government in 1986 to settle nomadic pastoralists and introduce them to agro-pastoralism (Congress 2002) aims to counteract overgrazing and grassland degradation (Sayilan 2011) caused by the disproportionate increase in pastoral populations to livestock output, but the socioeconomic benefits are so far not pronounced. Case studies in Western China have consistently shown that reducing herding range is ineffective for increasing forage availability (Liao et al. 2014) and for combating the effects of overgrazing and climate change (Dong et al. 2011; Shinjilt 2010; Yeh 2009). Such practices contravene TEK (traditional ecological knowledge), an invaluable reference for devising sustainable measures (e.g., Humphrey and Sneath 1996; Wolverton et al. 2016). In Xinjiang Uyghur 1University of Pennsylvania, Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, 255 S. 36th St., Philadelphia, USA ([email protected]) 2017 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 543 Autonomous Region, where traditional herding practices are forced to yield to state goals to simultaneously stimulate pasture productivity and the market economy (Liao et al. 2015; Shinjilt 2010; Xun and Bao 2008; Yeh 2009:886), skills of traditional production that were once central to sustainable pastoral livelihood, such as the making of milk products (Lu 2010:33) and felt (Feng and Aimaiti 2008:115), are rapidly losing their economic and social currency. Artisanal crafts are broadly synonymous with artifact, heritage, ethnic art, and tourist attraction, with little bearing on pertinent social policies that aim to better the livelihood of resettled pastoralists. As a result, such crafts are often conveniently assigned to the patronage of the administration of ‘‘intangible cultural heritage,’’ whose categories are manifold (Shepherd and Yu 2013; State Administration of Cultural Heritage 2008). So-called green products, in the case of dairy, are hyped for their ecological authenticity and purity (Tracy 2013; Xun and Bao 2008), yet TEK in general is dispensed with (Liao et al. 2014). To illustrate the perpetuation of the making of milk products and felt in domestic livelihoods, I present two field observations of pastoral production in Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture and discuss these results with reference to existing ethnographic literature. The discussion excludes the economy of wool and milk acquisition, which falls under a different legislative purview. I argue that these pastoral crafts, once fundamental to a sustainable mode of pastoralism, are becoming what current productivity and developmental targets consider ‘‘extraneous,’’ even though they carry valuable TEK that could help promote cultural heritage and bolster local economies. Background: The Effects of Current Reforms on Pastoral Life The province-wide transition from year-round herding to sedentarization and agro-pastoralism in Xinjiang is heralded as a guaranteed path to elevating pastoral productivity and the standard of living (Feng and Aimaiti 2008:116). Lei’s (2011) field study in Bortala details changes the ethnic minority groups experience after their resettlement. Moving from yurts into new urban housing (Pannell and Ma 1997:220; Sayilan 2011:71) renders the convenience of using electrical appliances and better sanitary conditions. These groups receive allowances and are allocated vegetable patches and animal pens. Funding for machinery and programs that educate the youth on crop planting techniques and agricultural technologies are offered (Feng and Aimaiti 2008:115). Public infrastructure and cooperatives are set up to provide employment and support increasingly industrialized scales of production in conurbations of rural municipalities (Pannell and Ma 1997:219; cf. Xun and Bao 2008). But policies promulgated to assimilate pastoralists into urban living and a sedentary subsistence have seen limited progress. Government subsidies are of limited assistance to those who begin crop cultivation and small businesses (Liao et al. 2015). Income disparities and social gaps continue to widen (Shinjilt 2010). Competition from military farms instituted by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps in support of large-scale Han Chinese in-migrations since the 544 CHAN Vol. 37, No. 3 1950s poses further obstacles to making a good profit from selling agricultural produce. With the rising cost of fodder, new farmers are struggling to attain a profitable level of agricultural output, thus, many still subsist primarily on mobile husbandry (Lei 2011). Notwithstanding shortcomings of the resettlement campaign, Chinese scholarly literature has consistently championed the economic benefits of sedentarization (e.g., Feng and Aimaiti 2008; Lei 2011; Ma 2008; Sayilan 2011). The campaign’s struggle to attract sedentarization is not solely financial, however. Pastoralists that Cerny (2008:214; 219–220) interviewed in his field of study were anxious about affording urban living and adapting to a different habitat. While the campaign paints a glamorized prospect of sedentarized pastoralists living as shrewd consumers and businessmen and as citizens who embrace modern living (Feng and Aimaiti 2008), the pastoralists remain ambivalent about relocating (Cerny 2008; Lei 2011; Sayilan 2011). At the same time,
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