a journal of theology, culture, and society

Vol. 49 No. 2 • Spring 2012

Reflections on the Public Outpouring of Grief Following Jack Layton’s Death Bill Blaikie, Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Don Schweitzer, St. Andrew’s College, Saskatoon

or eight years, Jack Layton was leader of the federal The depth and breadth of the public outpouring of FNew Democratic Party (NDP), a national political grief following Layton’s death surprised all who wit- party dedicated to creating a socially democratic Canada. nessed it. What can be learned or gleaned from this Layton led the party to the surprising and unprecedented public reaction? Were the Canadians who reacted so achievement of becoming the Official Opposition in the strongly and sympathetically to Layton’s death moved May 2011 election. A mere three and a half months later, early on the morning of Monday, August 22, he died of cancer. He was 61 years old. Just after noon that same Contents day, his family released a farewell letter he had written to Canadians two days before he died. Reflections on the Public Outpouring of Grief The news of his death quickly spread across the coun- Following Jack Layton’s Death try, prompting a remarkable public outpouring of grief By Bill Blaikie and Don Schweitzer ...... 1 from Canadians across the political spectrum. Hundreds Postcolonial Suggestions and hundreds of people gathered on that Monday eve- for Intercultural Ministries ning in August on Parliament Hill in Ottawa and in cities By HyeRan Kim-Cragg ...... 6 across Canada to remember him. In front of his Toronto Religion and Caste as Dangerous Portent: riding office and at the Centennial Flame in Ottawa, Changing Terms of Discourse of people left flowers, notes and cans of Orange Crush, the Dalit Struggles in Public Theology which had become a symbol of the NDP’s success By Dr. Indukuri John Mohan Razu ...... 12 in the recent federal election, orange being one of its theme colours. Public expressions of grief and tributes Deep Protest, High Hope, and Wide Embrace: to Jack (Canadians were on a first-name basis with him) Dalit Theology’s Multiplicity of Inspirations continued throughout the week following his death, By Sunder John Boopalan ...... 19 culminating in his state funeral on Saturday, August 27, Theology That Attends to the Pain of the World in Toronto. Layton’s person and relationships, political By Don Schweitzer ...... 21 achievements, views and style, his farewell letter and the Third World Christian Feminism public reaction to his death dominated the national news By Jane Doull ...... 23 for an entire week.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 1 12-05-04 15:51 by its tragic timing, coming as it did only months after election, as new Liberal leader Michael Ignatieff proved an electoral breakthrough that saw him become the even less popular than his predecessors. And still there Official Leader of Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition, and was no breakthrough in English Canada. furthermore, the first NDP leader to assume this role? Quebec was a different story, and a neglected one, Were they moved by a personal affection for Layton, for Canadians had come to take it for granted that the an affection that accumulated over the eight years he province belonged to the separatist party, the Bloc was on the national stage, and was that affection re- Québécois. But Jack Layton had reasoned otherwise, lated to his generally positive and constructive way recruiting dissident former provincial Liberal cabinet of being an opposition party leader? Was the level of minister Thomas Mulcair, and inspiring New Democrats reaction stimulated and magnified in some way by the in Quebec to greater levels of organization and out- extra media attention that came with the honour of a reach. Caught between fatigue with the Bloc and the state funeral, which Prime Minister Harper offered to whole debate about sovereignty, bad memories of the Layton’s widow, Olivia Chow? Were people moved by Liberals, and an ambiguity shared by many of their fel- admiration of Layton for his energy, cheerfulness, and low Canadians towards the Conservatives, the voters of genuine optimism, cane waving in his hand, that he Quebec did what New Democrats had always hoped all displayed throughout the spring 2011 election campaign Canadians would do someday. They took a leap of faith that culminated on May 2? Or was it all of these things, and gave someone else a chance. They freed themselves plus the rare opportunity that Layton’s death provided from captivity to the usual choices, and produced what to Canadians to show a side of themselves that is rarely came to be known as the “Orange Crush.” Under Jack seen or encouraged in public, the side of themselves that Layton, the NDP won 59 of Quebec’s 75 seats in the wants to, and does, affirm the value of public life and the House of Commons. value of those who lead public lives? “Le Bon Jack” (“a good guy”) had won the hearts and, more crucially, the votes of Quebecers in a way Layton and the NDP’s success that virtually no one had foreseen, reducing the Bloc in the May 2011 election Québécois to from 47 seats to four, and defeating This was Jack Layton’s fourth general election since the party’s leader, Gilles Duceppe, in his own riding. becoming NDP leader in January 2003. Despite steady Coming first in Quebec meant coming second overall progress in the first three elections – 2004, 2006, and and displacing the Liberals as the Official Opposition. 2008 – the hoped-for breakthrough, a hope that had It also meant that Layton and the NDP had finally done animated his leadership campaign, had not materialized. what so many Canadians had hoped for since the federal With 37 out of 308 seats in 2008, the NDP had fallen election of 1993, when the Bloc first established itself as short of its highest number of seats: 44 seats out of 282 a major presence in the House of Commons and as the in 1988. Not even been a breakthrough in Toronto had majority federal party in Quebec. been achieved. Even the NDP’s federalist opponents were com- Although the party had been revitalized, it must have pelled to say how pleased they were that the Bloc had seemed to Jack Layton at times that perhaps he was been almost wiped out electorally. It would not be long destined to join the growing list of federal NDP leaders before these voices began chastising the NDP for hav- who had to go into the political sunset without living ing former sovereigntists in their ranks, as if this could up to their expectations, or the expectations of others. be avoided when successfully arguing that Quebecers After all, three elections in a row had arguably provided should change their minds and vote for a social demo- the ideal objective conditions for an NDP surge. The cratic Canada here and now instead of in an independent Liberals, under Paul Martin, were reduced to a minor- Quebec in some far-off future. Jack Layton and the NDP ity government in 2004, and then defeated in 2006. Led had done a big thing for the unity and future of Canada. by Stéphane Dion, they were not seen as a desirable Jack Layton had made history, and doubly so: for the alternative to Harper, who himself was not seen as a par- NDP and its political universe by becoming the Official ticularly desirable alternative to the discredited Liberals, Opposition, and for Canada, by defeating the separat- as the succession of minority Conservative governments ists. Depending on your politics, you might add a third from 2006 to 2011 amply demonstrated. Such were the dimension to Layton’s history making. He created a conditions that continued to obtain in Layton’s fourth Canada in which it will no longer be possible to argue

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 2 12-05-04 15:51 that Canadians have only two real political choices for derive little direct benefit, and often was more concerned the federal government. Some of us live in places where about getting things done than taking the credit. For ex- that limitation was overcome years ago for certain prov- ample, when Stephen Harper apologized to First Nations inces, and the world did not come to an end. And Jack peoples for the Canadian government’s involvement in Layton did all this while dealing with prostate cancer, the running of residential schools, he acknowledged that a broken hip, and, as it turned out, another cancer that this apology was partly the result of Layton repeatedly would soon take his life. The tremendous public out- urging him to offer it. Many Internet postings spoke of pouring of grief following Layton’s death may have Layton’s service to Canada. Even Christie Blatchford, reflected how much his leading the NDP to become a vi- who condemned his farewell letter as “vainglorious” in able third political option for the Government of Canada her August 23, 2011, column in the National Post, noted meant to many Canadians. that he made a significant contribution to his country.2 While Layton had a reputation, particularly before The loss of a successful and respected left-wing he got to Ottawa, of grandstanding to gain media atten- politician tion, his public discourse and relations with political As might be expected, many public expressions of opponents were characterized by personal civility and grief came from NDP supporters, reflecting sorrow and respect for them, regardless of their views. Layton was a loss over the passing of an effective party leader. For politician to his core, but one whose public life reflected many of them, Layton was a beacon of hope in a federal his beliefs that mutual respect, dialogue, and rational political landscape where the NDP had lived with no debate are essential to the democratic process. Even discernible expectation of ever forming the govern- many who were opposed to his political views admired ment. The extent of the public outpouring of grief that this position. followed his death reinforced the message of the May The expressions of mourning over Layton’s death 2011 election. Under Layton’s leadership, the NDP had by those who opposed his political views but respected become an important presence in Canadian political his person and approach to politics indicate that there is life. Layton was remembered as a leader of national another division in Canadian society in addition to the significance. one among the platforms of different political parties. However, many who expressed sorrow over Layton’s This other division runs along an axis that cuts through death also expressed disagreement with his political all the major Canadian political parties. Some people in views. Some Internet postings that opposed Layton’s each of these parties believe that the chief goal of politi- stands on issues simply condemned them as unworkable cal life is to attain and wield power. They tend to judge or bad for the country. But others, while they disagreed others in public life only by their political orientation or with his politics, also spoke of a sense of loss at his electoral success or both. Postings on Internet sites that death. These people did not necessarily express the same simply condemned Layton’s political stands reflected grief as felt by NDP members. What their postings on this outlook. But there are others who believe that the Internet sites and elsewhere indicated was that despite democratic process is itself a good, that political life is disagreeing with Layton on many issues, these people not simply about seeking power, but is also about main- appreciated and respected him for the way he com- taining a quality of public life and political engagement ported himself in public life. For instance, a CBC blog that reflects democratic ideals of mutual respect and featuring Layton’s farewell letter contained a number of human dignity. Jack Layton was one of these, and many posts that express disagreement with his policies, speak Canadians of all political persuasions who value civility of respect for his approach to politics, and point out in political life admired him for it. the civility he brought to federal political discourse in This quality of public engagement cannot be Canada.1 In recent decades, several prominent Canadian enforced, yet it is important for democracies as it ex- federal politicians have ended their political careers with presses values that underlie and legitimate democratic reputations tarnished by involvement with scandals, in procedures. A country and communities are built by the which it appeared their political office may have been policies people pursue, but also by the way they pursue used for personal gain. By contrast, Layton appeared them. Democracies are sustained by the moral values of to be in politics out of concern for the public good. He human dignity and mutual respect, yet the expression of championed a number of causes from which he could these in public life often depends upon individual virtue.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 3 12-05-04 15:51 Democracies ultimately depend upon these values, but another kind of optimism—one that Dietrich Bonhoeffer it is difficult to compel public figures to exhibit them. praised—that acknowledges the data of despair but in- Many choose not to. spires a person to work and struggle in the face of it for Erving Goffman observed that a person’s behaviour a better future. According to Bonhoeffer, such optimism in public is a performance. He noted the following: “should never be despised.”6 This kind of optimism is To the degree that a performance highlights the also present in Layton’s letter, which acknowledged common official values of the society in which his impending death without dwelling upon it. The it occurs, we may look upon it, in the manner of focus of his letter was on the work of the future, urging Durkheim and Radcliffe-Brown, as a ceremony— Canadians to work together for a Canada characterized as an expressive rejuvenation and reaffirmation of by greater inclusivity, social justice, and equality. Such the moral values of the community.3 a future can become present only through solidarity, struggle, commitment, and sacrifice. Layton’s letter did Many for whom the democratic political process is not gloss over the data of despair. His description of a good that needs to be sustained, that is in constant how this better future was possible was as much a call to danger of atrophy and perversion, experienced Layton’s Canadians to assume their responsibilities towards each public behaviour in this way, as rejuvenating and reaf- other as it was a description of present possibilities. This firming values that underlie democratic procedures and is the kind of optimism that Bonhoeffer admired. that make democracy in and of itself a social good. In his closing paragraph, Layton wrote that “love is Regardless of their political orientation, these people better than anger. Hope is better than fear. Optimism respected Layton for upholding the values of civility and is better than despair.”7 Many Canadians were deeply respect for others in his public life. moved and inspired by these words, which expressed Layton’s farewell letter faith in the meaningfulness of solidarity, love, and com- mitment to justice, even in the face of death. This kind Much of the public outpouring of grief following of faith, which makes no mention of God, might be Layton’s death concerned his farewell letter.4 Written characterized as a response “to the divine call operative with help two days before his death, it gave advice to in history in a hidden way.”8 But it can also be seen as his party and caucus, encouraged other people living Layton’s faithfulness to the religious ethos of the United with cancer, and addressed NDP members, Quebecers, Church of Canada. young Canadians and then all Canadians. Though Layton was dying, his letter focused on the future of his The determination to overcome party and country. Many people spoke of how it moved In an August 23 Globe and Mail editorial, John and inspired them. Others responded to it by describing Doyle argued that Layton’s performance during the Layton as having “class.” By this they seemed to mean May 2011 election campaign seized the imaginations that the moral outlook and demeanor expressed in his of many Canadians because of its symbolic resonance letter were exemplary. Hope and optimism that the fu- with certain iconic Canadian images.9 According to ture could be enhanced through people acting together Doyle, Layton’s “smiling determination to overcome” were its dominant themes. in the service of the common good despite his pain and Protestant theologians have analyzed optimism in physical impediments connected him in the minds of two ways. Douglas John Hall criticized what he de- voters with well-known figures like Terry Fox or Rick scribed as the official optimism prevalent in Canada Hansen. In Quebec, it may also have brought Lucien and the United States. By this he meant the public Bouchard and his cane to mind. Doyle then argued that rhetoric that uses “positive data of past and present hu- through this resonance, Layton’s campaign worked to man achievements,” while omitting and suppressing any redefine values like courage and dedication in the minds “data of despair,” to present an ideology of progress and of many Canadians. Whereas the Conservative party 5 mastery. According to Hall, such optimism must be ex- under Stephen Harper has tried to highlight these values posed as a false ideology detrimental to society’s victims in association with military service and action abroad, and the environment. Layton’s cane-waving populism also identified such Communications from political leaders to party values with the contribution of ordinary citizens to the members inevitably display such official optimism, and public good at home. Layton’s letter contained elements of this. But there is

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 4 12-05-04 15:51 Doyle’s analysis has similarities to the social theory equality of the human condition rather than limited to in- of Yale sociologist Jeffrey Alexander. Alexander argues dividual opportunity and individual success. The narrow that there is some form of binary symbolic code at the neo-conservative and neo-liberal market understanding heart of every civil discourse that conceptualizes the of these virtues that has become culturally dominant world into “those who deserve inclusion and those who in Canadian civil society and federal politics can be do not.”10 The basic elements and values of this binary redefined. Insofar as it was an indication of this redefi- code are generally accepted by all sides of the political nition of values, the public outpouring of grief at Jack spectrum in a given culture. What is contested within a Layton’s death was a sign of hope for social democracy culture’s civil society is how its code’s values of purity in Canada. and impurity, inclusion and exclusion “will be applied to particular actors and groups.”11 Politicians, cultural com- The Hon. Bill Blaikie served in the House of Commons from 1979 to 2008, and was runner-up to Jack Layton in the 2003 NDP leadership race. mentators, and others seek to define who the positive and negative values of a culture’s symbolic code apply Don Schweitzer is McDougald Professor of Theology at St. Andrew’s to. In doing so, they use it to “legitimate friends and College in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. 12 delegitimate opponents,” as deserving or undeserving 1 http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/08/22/pol-layton-last- of respect, compassion, and loyalty. letter.html (accessed Jan. 28, 2012). As the anti-social market imagination of corporate 2 http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2011/08/22/christie-blatchford- globalization progressively took hold in Canada dur- laytons-death-turns-into-a-thoroughly-public-spectacle (accessed Jan. 26, 2012). ing the 1980s and 1990s, through agreements like the 3 Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden Free Trade Agreement (FTA), the North American City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1959), 35. Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the World Trade 4 Jack Layton, “A Letter to Canadians from the Honourable Jack Organization (WTO) agreements, social democratic val- Layton,” http://www.ndp.ca/letter-to-canadians-from-jack-layton (accessed Feb. 1, 2012). ues of concern for the unemployed, the disadvantaged, 5 Douglas John Hall, “The Theology of Hope in an Officially minorities, for social justice, equality, and inclusion Optimistic Society,” Religion in Life 40 (1971), 379. became delegitimated in Canadian political and cultural 6 Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 15. discourse.13 Layton and the NDP strove to reverse this 7 Layton, “A Letter to Canadians from the Honourable Jack Layton.” trend. The NDP gains in the May 2011 election and 8 Gregory Baum, Truth Beyond Relativism: Karl Mannheim’s the public outpouring of grief at Jack Layton’s death Sociology of Knowledge (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, suggest that he had some success in this reversal. They 1977), 55–56. indicate that the neo-liberal social imagination can be 9 John Doyle, “Jack Layton: The Man Was the Message,” The Globe and Mail, August 23, 2011, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/ challenged. As Layton surely knew, this takes more than news/arts/television/john-doyle/jack-layton-the-man-was-the-message/ symbolic gestures of cane waving and a quick wit. It also article2137754 (accessed Feb. 3, 2012). requires careful analysis, creative thinking, hard work, 10 Jeffrey Alexander, The Civil Sphere (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 55. and reasoned discourse. 11 Ibid., 64. The values of the symbolic code(s) at the heart of 12 Ibid., 65. Canadian civil discourse can be extended to society’s 13 Gregory Baum, Signs of the Times: Religious Pluralism and victims. Love can be redefined as solidarity, rather than Economic Injustice (Ottawa: Novalis, 2007), 159, 162. restricted to charity. Hope can be extended to greater

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 5 12-05-04 15:51 Postcolonial Suggestions for Intercultural Ministries By HyeRan Kim-Cragg St. Andrew’s College, Saskatoon

Introduction present.5 It uses the prefix “post” ironically. It seems to he United Church of Canada (UCC) was born on indicate that colonialism is over when it actually points 6 TJune 10, 1925, with the coming together of four to a colonial reality that continues to affect us all. One denominational bodies—the Congregationalists, the of the foci of postcolonial studies is how the assump- Methodists, and two-thirds of Presbyterians and the tions and practices of colonialism continue in societies Local Union churches. Its founders had a vision of and institutions after colonialism has officially ended. building a national church, Canada’s largest Protestant Postcolonial studies can serve as a hermeneutic and dis- denomination. The vision, however, was seriously lim- cursive tool to draw attention to our complex and unjust ited by a White English-Speaking Protestant worldview realities in order to imagine another world to live in. that excluded Aboriginal peoples, French Canadians, Postcolonial Conversations with Intercultural non-European Protestants, non-Christians, and recent Commitments immigrants.1 These others were to be all formed into an In a world marked by countless (dis)locations and a ethos comprised of British and evangelical Protestant growing number of places-in-between, one’s own posi- values. While this vision of being Canada’s national tion cannot be fixed. The following postcolonial issues church has come to an end, its limitations continue to serve only as guiding points intended to invite a con- trouble the United Church as it seeks to serve an increas- versation between postcolonial and intercultural voices ingly multicultural, multireligious, and secular Canada. talking to each other. They are not fixed, immutable As part of responding to this troubled reality, the truths. United Church made a commitment at its 39th General Council in 2006 to become an “intercultural” church. Orientalism “Intercultural” meant “mutually reciprocal relationships Edward Said, whose work sparked much of the cur- among, between, and within different groups. Becoming rent postcolonial discourse, attempted to show how “the an intercultural church is about envisioning and embrac- Orient” was created as a concept by configurations of 2 ing different ways of being the church in the world.” Western colonial power in order to control the East.7 What kinds of intercultural commitment must the Depicting Easterners as “Orientals” within the colonial church take in order to radically move away from discourses of the nineteenth century reinforced the its original White Anglo Saxon Protestant (WASP) Western self-image of superiority. The construction of English-centred vision? How can the church envision a the “Orient” as “Others,” he argued, “is not merely a new way of becoming intercultural rather than national? mental exercise but involves eminent historical, social, This article responds to these questions as it exam- intellectual, and political agendas, taking place within ines the United Church’s recent online documents on individuals and institutions in all societies.”8 While one 3 intercultural ministries. It employs four particular post- may note a pitfall of his universalizing argument on colonial insights in engaging in these documents found Orientalism, his analysis of “Otherness” bears weight. It on the official website of the United Church. It ends by becomes undeniably clear that people’s differences and arguing that one of the most difficult challenges in en- complexities are constructed by and set in relation to the gaging intercultural ministries is to overcome attitudes West to strengthen the division between the dominant and language that still place the dominant WASP groups and the non-dominant. His insight is helpful in identify- at the centre. ing problems that might stand in the way of creating a The term “postcolonial” just community as envisioned in current thinking about intercultural ministries. The term “postcolonial” 4 is used specifically to point In “Defining Intercultural Ministries,” Steve Willey to the connection and continuity of the history of impe- says the following: rialism and colonialism in the past and through to the

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 6 12-05-04 15:51 This is especially true for those of us who are part “Whites,” and that intercultural issues are only relevant of the racial, ethnic, and cultural majority. Since to and needed for racialized people. birth, most of us English-speaking White peoples Both of the documents discussed above disclose the have been able to operate on “autopilot,” assum- danger and difficulty of taking the intercultural journey. ing that our way of doing, being, and seeing is When members of a cultural or racial majority begin the Canadian way. Members of racial, ethnic, and the intercultural journey, they often unconsciously bring cultural minority communities have had to be flu- centrist notions of themselves along and continue to ent in the ways of the majority culture in addition employ these even while advocating for something dif- to those of their own culture. They have much to ferent. Postcolonial thought helps to get us out of the teach—and we have much to learn. trap of “us” and “they/other” dualism, while debunking Willey makes a helpful and honest identification of the normalization of the dominant group’s power. The his own social location as a WASP. It is important to be issues presented here may seem subtle, but it is where upfront and to speak of one’s own position as a person we begin the journey towards intercultural ministries. It in a dominant culture rather than representing others.9 is a hurdle to overcome the discrimination engendered Willey’s statement, however, also poses problems. In by Orientalism in verbal and written languages and non- identifying “English-speaking White people” as the verbal and bodily practices, but we must transgress it if majority and “non-English-speaking non-White people” we are committed to becoming intercultural. If this kind as the minority, he seems to address the majority exclu- of subtle privileging of white norms and identity is not sively. The statement “They have much to teach—and identified and overcome, it will continue to pervade the we have much to learn” actually privileges the domi- churches’ thought and practices that are unexamined and nant group by placing them as the targeted readers and unchallenged, failing to confront the evils of systematic thus rendering them the primary beneficiaries of this racism and white supremacy. document. Furthermore, such binary lines often under- Hybrid Diaspora Identity mine and dismiss the complex differences within these Homi Bhabha, in a question of the locations of cul- groups, where the clear divisions of “us” and “them” are ture, describes the conditions of the colonized in the transgressed due to different immigrant histories and previous colonial era and the realities of the marginal- interracial relationships in postcolonial contexts. Since ized immigrants in the current postcolonial era. These the document is open to the public via the Internet, his conditions are “both alike and different” from their orig- identification of “us vs. they” makes those who are not inal (pre-colonial or the pre-immigrant) cultures. While part of “us” or “they” and/or those who are in both the inscribing the process of these conditions and realities, “us” category and the “they” category feel excluded and he contends that the term “hybridity” is an identity and uninvited to the conversation.10 a reality that refuses homogenous purity and “the binary At the 40th General Council of the UCC in 2009, a representation of social antagonism.”12 It recognizes that video was made of Adele Halliday presenting the “inter- cultures never exist as purely independent pre-invaded cultural vision” to the gathered delegates and visitors. In local cultures and that they don’t remain a purely colo- this video, the camera was almost exclusively focused nial entity either.13 Instead, hybridity creates a space that on the racialized faces on the floor.11 This seems to constructs “visions of community,” recognizing “the convey the message that intercultural ministry is only partial culture” as having its own integrity and whole- for racialized people (and therefore unnecessary for ness. The term “hybridity” is useful to intercultural the White folks). Even when she states, “intercultural discourse, for it reflects a reality of inevitable encounters goes far beyond race and ethnicity … no one is left between different cultures and mixed realities as a result. unchanged in this process,” it is at this very moment It may lead to a new reality beyond a totalizing reality. of her speech that the camera reveals a close-up of the The lens of hybridity negates the need to choose one racialized faces. These seem to be clear examples of identity and deny the other. Rather, it allows a reality of Orientalism at work, privileging White over non-White both. The notion of hybrid entails an intentional learn- people. This suggests that it is racialized people who ing and practice of living in-between and living together are being addressed, who have to change, rather than with differences.14

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 7 12-05-04 15:51 In “Room for All-Myth or Reality?” Michael Blair instance because the term would connect with the writes: experiences of Africans in diaspora. People who are different from the majority are Wenh-In Ng, “What is in a Name? Our Multiple asked to make accommodations to fit in … The Identities” notion of hospitality undergirds this process of ac- In the New Testament, the most famous ques- commodation. As the “other,” the minority person tion about identity must be Jesus’ question to the is invited into the space of the majority. Hospitality disciples, “Who do you say that I am?” (Mark assumes a host and guest; it carries an implicit no- 8:20). It seems that … identity does not depend tion of what is “normal.” In a relationship based only on one’s own declaration, but also on the solely on hospitality, the “guest” is never really assessment of others … People should be able to at home; rather, they are always being accommo- name who they are, not remain nameless or—this dated in someone else’s home. is also quite problematic—answer to the names Blair’s description of being a guest, “never really at we use for them. Just as I bristle at being called home,” is used to raise awareness of the host’s sense “oriental” (rather than “Asian”), I am careful to of normativity, of where assumptions about how the ask a First Nations group how they want me to “guest” is to be accommodated. It also disrupts the as- refer to them … “What’s in a name?” asks Juliet sumptions around who is accommodating whom. In a (or Shakespeare), rhetorically. I would respond, “A church practice where hospitality is strongly encour- lot! One’s identity may be at stake!” aged, his critique is poignant. However, as the term Postcolonial diaspora identity is highly political and “hospitality” is a contested term, “home” also needs to collective, working to reclaim dignity for those who are be questioned. When it is said, “the guest is never really “Black” or “Asian” to achieve integrity for all parties in- at home,” is “home” assumed to be something static, or volved. Both authors resist an “identity” forced on them even nostalgic? In a world where transnational histories by dominant assumptions of who they are. Postcolonial of migrants, the colonized, or political refugees are insight provides “counter-tools”17 for diasporas against so prominent, we can no longer afford to assume that the dominant identity of the centre, while assisting them home is a place where a guest can easily return to or to claim and enhance their multiple identities. Such find security or comfort. The journey of finding one’s counter-identification also involves an oppositional identity, one’s roots, continues not by returning to the reading of history and the Bible, in which we are able 15 origins but in a perpetual state of being “en route.” to engage next. Bhabha illumines an “unhomely” postcolonial reality that captures “the shock of the recognition of the world- Postcolonial Reading of the Bible in-the-home, the home-in-the-world.” Indeed, a further The story of the Syrophoenician woman (Matthew disruptive postcolonial question can be raised: “Whose 15:21-28; Mark 7:24-30) is one that is often used for house is this?”16 articulating an intercultural vision for the church. The The following voices reflect postcolonial hybrid dias- same passage is widely studied in postcolonial biblical pora identities that are fluid and multiple and not static interpretation as well. It is fruitful to explore insights or nostalgic: gained from postcolonial reading of this particular pas- Choice Okoro, “Being and Becoming Black” sage to enhance the intercultural engagement of the UCC. The joke among some of my friends from Africa Kwok Pui-lan criticizes the conventional interpreta- is that we became Black when we immigrated to tion of this passage as a story about a woman at the Canada and we usually stay Black until we speak margin and Jesus at the centre.18 The woman is often —then we become Africans … [W]hen planning described as gentile (i.e., someone to be saved) while an event for the recent United Church consulta- Jesus is portrayed as a merciful saviour. This traditional tion with people of African descent, I, along with polarity, Kwok notes, fails to reveal intersecting fac- others, opted for the name “The Journeys of Black tors: culture, religion, class, colonialism, and gender. A Peoples” instead of “The Journeys of Peoples of postcolonial interpretation poses a possibility that this African Descent” … I opted for “Black” in this woman is a person from the privileged, Greek-speaking

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 8 12-05-04 15:51 upper classes, which disrupts the traditional Christian from “It is not fair to take the children’s food and throw dichotomy of Jew and Gentile, man and woman, or- it to the dogs” (New Revised Standard Version)—em- thodox and pagan. Attention to the intersections of her phasizes Jesus’ identity as the Jewish man, the head of multiple cultural, linguistic, class, gender, and colonial the table, reinforcing the patriarchal identity of Jesus identities juxtaposed with those of Jesus, a colonized (man’s own children). At the same time, the woman’s Jewish man of a lower class, reveals the complex power identity as mother is strongly imposed (she loved her dynamics between the two. Kwok argues that the two sick daughter very much). Its overall treatment remains stand “simultaneously at the boundaries of the privi- in a conventional view of the woman marginalized by leged and the marginalized.”19 She further investigates her gender and race begging for help, while Jesus, su- the colonial agenda in interpretations of this passage as perior to her, is seen as the only one capable of helping. a model story for the colonized who are “expected to be Adele Halliday’s treatment of the same passage in subservient, obedient, and loyal as a ‘devoted dog,’” like “Unspoken Codes of Cultural Empire” seems to take us this gentile heathen woman whose humility and faith in a different direction: are said to save her daughter. Such an indoctrinating Jesus did not simply offer to “include” those who colonial posture is doubly oppressive for the colonized were on the margins; rather, Jesus enabled those women when Jesus’ love and care for women are uncriti- encounters with the marginalized to shape him and cally highlighted without mentioning the fact that Jesus change him as in the case of the Syrophoenician 20 was at first mean and rude to her. woman. In Jesus’ encounter with this woman—a With Kwok’s pointy insights in mind, let us look at woman of a different racial and ethnic background “What Is the Intercultural Church? A Plain Language from him—the woman challenged his racial and Document”: cultural assumptions, and because of her words, Once, Jesus was travelling in the northern land of Jesus changed his mind and his actions. Canaan. As a Jewish man, he was an outsider in Unlike the previous document, Halliday refers to the this place. A woman recognized him, however. Her Markan version of this story, identifying the women as daughter was sick with an evil spirit, so she begged Syrophoenician (rather than Canaanite). This unravels Jesus for help. At first, Jesus did not answer her be- the geo-political and economic position of this woman cause she belonged to a race that the Jewish people differently from the traditional interpretation. She nu- looked down upon. But the woman insisted. She ances a notion of “inclusion”—not as rhetoric of the shouted for help again … She kneeled down in salvation mission motif, God’s mercy open to Gentiles, front of him and pleaded, “Lord, help me.” Jesus but as an agency of those who are excluded and margin- was annoyed. He said to her, “It is not fair to give alized to shake and shape those who are in the centre. good food to a dog when a man’s own children are By erecting the woman as the one who challenged Jesus’ hungry.” The woman did not like being compared wrong views and ethnocentric racist attitudes, Halliday to a dog. But she loved her sick daughter very identifies racialized people in the church to be agents much. “I agree that your children must come first,” of change in an intercultural church by disrupting and she replied. “But a dog can still live on the crumbs changing unexamined imperial norms and practices. As that fall from the dinner table.” Jesus was aston- followers of Jesus who “enabled those encounters … to ished by this reminder that all races and peoples shape him and change him,” we are encouraged to be are included in God’s family. “shaped and changed” by others who are different from It should be noted that this document tells the story us, Adele argues. Empowered by this woman, those of according to the gospel of Matthew, the one that em- the marginalized and/or racialized persons are identified phasizes Jesus’ identity as the Son of David. Among her as people shaping and changing others. many identities, it singles out the woman’s racial iden- Both documents could have been strengthened by tity (in relation to the colonized land, Canaan). She was postcolonial insights. The former document’s interpre- discriminated against by Jewish people, who believed tation of Jesus being an “outsider” could have posed that her race is inferior to Jews (looked down upon). The an intriguing question by intersecting the women’s rephrasing of the verse 26—“It is not fair to give good geo-political location with that of Jesus. Such juxta- food to a dog when a man’s own children are hungry” posed and intertwined relations between Jesus and this

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 9 12-05-04 15:51 woman would have illuminated the much more complex minority congregation was inferior to a majority realities of their relations and those of our intercul- congregation; it was something to be outgrown, tural ministry realities. Halliday’s interpretation of the like a relic of childhood. (3) Syrophoenician woman as agent for change could be Such concerns continue in Halliday’s critique of enhanced by postcolonial insight as well. Her agency as the systematic injustice against non–English speakers “the Other,” a person from another faith who refuses to prevalent in United Church gatherings in “Unspoken become a member of Jesus’ religion, would have deep- Codes of Cultural Empire”: “Several people who speak 21 ened the understanding of her agency. English as a second language—or do not speak English The Issue of English at all—find it impossible to participate in regional and national church gatherings, which still tend to embrace Thus far, this article has examined several documents a dominant English-speaking culture.” that are included on the official website of the United While being aware that drawing such a definitive line Church of Canada. The six authors introduced here are between English-speaking and non–English-speaking different in terms of race, gender, ethnicity, sexual ori- people may fall into the dichotomizing trap typical entation, age, and immigrant experiences, just to name a of colonial thought, one cannot help but wonder how few identifying points. These differences equipped them those of us who can articulate our vision for intercul- to provide heterogeneous insights into the importance of tural ministry for the United Church with our respective this intercultural commitment. While it is helpful to have languages (other than English) can be heard in the such diversified voices represented here, one important English-dominant public sphere. perspective that could be viewed as a pitfall is that all the contributors are English speakers and all their texts are Conclusion created for the viewers and readers or those who have We have examined a few documents that discuss in- capacity to engage in English. tercultural ministry by employing postcolonial tools to Such an observation is not to dismiss the postcolonial disclose Euro-centric ways prevalent in the culture and reality from which English, as the dominant language, the practice of the United Church of Canada. Orientalism continues and will continue to be pervasive. What this helps to identify the oppression and discrimination that observation poses as a critique is that the homogenizing results from the artificial and self-serving Western force of using one dominant language has not been con- construction of “Others.” Postcolonial hybrid diaspora tested in the educational endeavour towards intercultural identity affirms multiple and fluid identities based upon ministry in the United Church of Canada. None of these overlapping mixed cultures within and among groups. documents are available in translation for those whose A conversation between intercultural ministries and first language is not English. The lack of educational postcolonial studies is helpful as both seek to articulate, resources written by non–English-speaking groups resist, and transform the present reality of unexamined draws more critical attention to this matter. Such uneven norms and unchallenged colonial practices, ranging inclusion or partial exclusion of non–English-speaking from reading the Bible to the use of English. people, whichever way you look at it, leaves one with un- The United Church’s decision to become an inter- easy and unresolved questions: Who is this intercultural cultural church is a step in the direction of addressing ministry for? Is it implying that non–English-speaking postcolonial issues of racism and ethnocentrism. Euro- members of the church are unable to articulate this centric self-serving tendencies, however, continue to be ministry? Is it even suggesting that English is the only present, as found in this article. The United Church’s de- communication tool for intercultural ministry? cision to become an intercultural church is a step in the The critique of the Anglo-centric view of language direction of addressing postcolonial issues of racism and mentioned in Kim Udeye-Kai’s article “The Sound of a ethnocentrism. Euro-centric self-serving tendencies, Church” echoes this point: however, continue to be present, as found in this essay. With language no longer a barrier, he assumed they While this article has examined materials only from no longer had need of their ethnic congregation. the United Church, it should not assume that UCC is He encouraged them to join a majority congrega- alone in this intercultural journey. Many churches and tion since nothing was preventing them from being denominations across North America are also actively one of “us.” The implication was clear—an ethnic

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 10 12-05-04 15:51 engaging in a similar process of unpacking colonial Mufti, & Ella Shohat, eds. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, practices and disclosing Euro-centric traditions.22 1997), 415. 11 http://www.youtube.com search ‘uccgc40’ and find ‘intercultural vi- Since this process involves uncovering our colonial sion.’ legacy and Western dominant practices, it may make us 12 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Rutledge, 1994), uneasy at times. However, this uneasy process is a part 54, 58. of learning towards a journey of growth and wholeness. 13 Edward Said, Out of Place: A Memoir (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999). He notes, “I wish we could have been all Arabs, or all-European.” (6) 14 HyeRan Kim-Cragg and Joanne Doi, “Intercultural Threads of HyeRan Kim-Cragg is Lydia Gruchy Professor of Pastoral Studies at St. Hybridity and Threshold Spaces of Learning,” Religious Education 107: 2 Andrew’s College, Saskatoon. (May–June, 2012). 15 Ann Wonhee Joh, Heart of the Cross: A Postcolonial Christology 1 Greer Anne Wenh-In Ng, “The United Church of Canada: A Church (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2007), 60. Fittingly National,” in Christianity and Ethnicity in Canada, edited by Paul 16 Homi Bhabha, “The World and the Home,” in Dangerous Liaisons: Bramadat and David Seljak (University of Toronto Press, 2008), 204. Gender, Nation, & Postcolonial Perspectives, Anne McClintock, Aamir 2 Our Common Vision: Becoming an Intercultural Church, a DVD Mufti, & Ella Shohat, eds. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, produced by United Church of Canada, 2011. 1997), 445. 3 All the documents examined here can be found at www.united- 17 R.S. Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Criticism and Biblical Interpretation church.ca/intercultural in “Articles on Becoming an Intercultural Church.” (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 99–100. 4 Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes 18 Kwok Pui-lan, Discovering the Bible in the Non-Biblical World Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literatures (London and New (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1996), 71–83; “Overlapping Communities and York: Routledge, 1989), 2. Multicultural Hermeneutics.” In A Feminist Companion to Reading the 5 Imperialism is a larger force that drives colonialism. Stephen Bible: Approaches, Methods, and Strategies, Athalya Brenner and Carole Slemon, “Post-colonial Critical Theories,” in Postcolonial Discourses: Fontaine, eds. (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 103–18. An Anthropology, ed. George Castle (Oxford/Massachusetts: Blackwell 19 Kwok, Discovering the Bible in the Non-Biblical World, 75. Publishers, 2001), 101. 20 Ibid., 78. 6 Ella Shohat, “Notes on the ‘Post-Colonial’,” Social Text 31/32 (1992): 21 Musa Dube, Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation of the Bible, 103. (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2000), 184. 7 Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 4–5, 22 Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook provides a lengthy list of how various or- 40, 49. ganizations and different denominations take this intercultural journey. The 8 Ibid., Afterword to the 1994 edition, 331–32. denominations include the Anglican Church of Canada, Christian Church 9 Mark Lewis Taylor, Remembering Esperanza: A Cultural-Political (Disciples of Christ), Episcopal Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Theology for North American Praxis (Maryknoll, Orbis, 1990), 31–32. America (ELCA), Presbyterian Church (PCUSA), Unitarian Universalist 10 Trinh T. Minh-ha, “Not You/Like You: Postcolonial Women and the Association (UUA), United Church of Christ (UCC), United Methodist Interlocking Questions of Identity and Difference,” in Dangerous Liaisons: Church (UMC). A House of Prayer for All Peoples: Congregations Building Gender, Nation, & Postcolonial Perspectives, Anne McClintock, Aamir Multiracial Community (Bastheda, MD: The Alban Institute, 2002), 219–32.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 11 12-05-04 15:51 Religion and Caste as Dangerous Portent: Changing Terms of Discourse of the Dalit Struggles in Public Theology By Dr. Indukuri John Mohan Razu, Bangalore, India

The Power of Religion colours by spitting venom on other religious com- ince the dawn of the 21st century, religion has been munities. The demolition of Babri Masjid, attacks on Sat the core of much of the strife around the globe. minorities by the ultra-rightists, the extermination of Conflicts in the Middle East, South Asia, Europe, and the Tamils and removal of Tamil from the Sri Lankan North America manifest religion’s imposing role. The national anthem show the darker side of religions. global topography is marked by terrorist attacks, bomb- Nevertheless, there is the constructive contribution ings, massacres, ethnic killings, caste and communal made by religions. For example, the Roman Catholic flare-ups, and mob frenzies that are centred on religion. Church in the Philippines played an important role in the The fragility of the world in which we live pushes us February 1985 “peoples’ uprising,” which dislodged the to a state of vulnerability greater than ever before. And Marcos’ dictatorial regime. Latin American thinkers and so, no one can stand as guarantor of anyone’s safety theologians have long recognized the power of religion and security, including the so-called nation-states. The vis-à-vis Christianity—not only in the colonization of world is gripped with fear psychosis and lives in suspi- Latin America, but also in its struggle against colonial- cion. In such a scenario, quite often religion becomes a ism and neo-colonialism. The significant participation contentious issue. The fundamentalists of every religion of Christians in this struggle provides one of the inspir- claim that their religion is true, authentic, and genuine, ing examples, if not the most poignant one, that religion disregarding, undermining, and dismissing others as could play in overthrowing of unjust regimes. However, evil, satanic, and barbaric. As of now, both the major and in recent times, we are witnessing the phenomenal minor religions are reinvigorating their core principles, growth and spread of the ultra-right fundamentalist ide- ethical moorings, and value orientations. The fundamen- ology in free and democratic societies all over the globe. tals of religious tenets are interpreted and communicated Religion, by and large, distances and demarcates the to ridicule and caricature other religions in order to suit boundaries between humans and God. The binaries are one’s own political ends. The scriptures have been dis- juxtaposed in order to distinctly distinguish and delin- torted and misinterpreted in a way that raises emotional eate within the rubric of immanence-transcendence. frenzy, repulsion, and ecstasy, leading to animosity and “What is definitive about this polarity is the holistic na- disharmony among those who subscribe to other faiths. ture of the first term. The immanent is the whole world, Some social thinkers of the late nineteenth and early the whole of perceptible reality … The transcendent, as 20th centuries thought religion would disappear, becom- the polar opposite, serves to give the immanent whole its ing redundant as a result of the progress of modernity meaningful context. In this sense, it acts as the condition through industrialization, secularization, and the expan- for the possibility of the immanent.”1 The dynamic be- sion of modern institutions. On the contrary, religion tween immanence and transcendence, this-worldly and is gaining momentum and plays a domineering role in other-worldly, demarcates the boundaries between “hu- the social, economic, political, and cultural mosaic of man will” and “divine will.” These binaries are mediated many countries. Those who predicted the attenuation of by religion. “Religion, therefore, operates with sacred religion are taken aback by the militancy and ferocity of symbols, ones which always point radically beyond religion, examples of which abound on the South-Asian themselves. It deals simultaneously with the immanent sub-continent. For instance, the protagonists of right- and the transcendent.”2 This understanding suggests that wing Hindu fundamentalism in India, ultra-Islamic the traditional functions of religion will continue. fundamentalists in Pakistan, and neo-conservative Often, traditional religion extends solutions to this- Sinhala-Buddhists in Sri Lanka display their destructive worldly problems into other-worldly realms. Binaries

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 12 12-05-04 15:51 are juxtaposed, such as the “earthly city” that is filled turing in Pali scriptures and Kalidasa’s romantic epic with pain, suffering, hardships, trials, and tribulations, Meghdoot, a well-known tourist attraction and also the while the “heavenly city” offers joy, happiness, peace, parliamentary constituency of Mrs. Sushma Swaraj, the and perfect tranquility. Capitalizing on the helplessness Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha—maintains of humans, religion may offer temporal solace and in the banned practice of manual scavenging (people lift- the process create a dependency syndrome. A question ing human excreta with their hands and carrying the arises at this point: Is it possible for religion to change load on their heads, hips, or shoulders), which is still a its function from this traditional role to a prophetic forced occupation for a number of Dalit families. Over performance? This seldom happens. When it comes to 200 families in this district continue to bear the brunt problems that humans confront in an objective world of caste discrimination primarily through the practice of materiality, religion typically addresses them in of manual scavenging. “Every morning, I go to eight other-worldly spiritual realms or offers superficial pre- to ten households, collect the garbage in a straw basket scriptions or handouts. Hence, religion is entwined with and dump it a mile away from the village. When it rains, a number of internal contradictions that are innate and the water oozes through the basket over to my hair,” in-built. Within this context we turn to a closer look into says Guddi Bai (38) of Nateran tehsil.5 The waste she is the interconnections between Hinduism and caste and talking about is human excreta, euphemistically called the modes it uses in oppressing and subjugating Dalits “night soil.” Guddi belongs to the Valmiki community, in India. relegated by the caste system to practise manual scav- enging as their traditional occupation. Religion and Caste Vidisha District Collector Yogendra Sharma accepts The topography of the Dalits presents a traumatic and that the practice still continues, but claims that economic volatile picture of caste atrocities and discrimination. deprivation is not the reason. He justifies his observa- Caste “could perhaps be understood as the opposition to tion that “All these families have alternative livelihood manual and non-manual labor enforced by a powerful options; most of them have BPL (Below Poverty Line) ideology and coercive apparatus.”3 The binary pitched ration cards, cattle, etc. The only reason, I understand, between purity and pollution, manual and non-manual they are still doing it for generations because it is easy labour ordered on the basis of pure and polluted, touch- money for them compared to jobs that require hard work able and untouchables, means that the experiences that like agriculture,” says Mr. Sharma, the Collector.6 As Dalits undergo physically, mentally, and spiritually tend a civil servant he had to tow the lines of government. to be exclusive, unique, and distinct. However, I do not agree with him. The job she does The levels of treatments meted out and experienced and in return gets around “20 to 50 kilos of grain an- by the Dalits in different conflict-ridden terrains since nually and a few old clothes on occasion,” is one she the beginning of the 21st century need careful scrutiny. has been doing since her marriage. When asked why For instance, a 38-year-old Dalit woman was forced she doesn’t she quit, she answers, “If we quit, the upper by a casteist mob to drink excreta mixed with water caste women ridicule us by saying ‘Tum to panditaain in front of her husband and children after she spurned ho gayi ho’” (you seem to act like a Brahmin woman).7 the advances of a so-called upper-caste man in Keela This occupation is dehumanizing, but the patron-client Uraappanur village in Thirumangalam block of Madurai system has given it legitimacy and sanction, firmly District of the State of Tamil Nadu.4 Similarly, in entrenching it into the psyche of those who benefit and Thinniyam village in Tiruchi District of Tamil Nadu, make the Dalits perform this degrading job in the name two Dalits named Murugesan and Ramaswami were of a decent occupation. forced eat human excreta. The “crime” they committed Manual scavenging exists in many States, despite an was that they supported a Dalit named Karuppiah, who Act passed by the Parliament banning it. “Shameful,” was engaged in a prolonged struggle against a former “degrading,” “disgusting,” “obnoxious,” “abhorrent,” village panchayat president and her husband to recover and a “blot on humanity” are some of the words used an amount of money he said he had given them as a bribe to describe manual scavenging. Over the years, many to get a house allotted for his sister. committees and Commissions have been set up; laws Vidisha, a thriving trade centre of ancient India and have been enacted; and millions of rupees were spent also known for Emperor Ashoka’s governorship—fea- to eradicate manual scavenging; but even after six

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 13 12-05-04 15:51 decades of Independence, India continues to dehuman- For instance, the doctrine of karma or pre-destination ize, degrade, and shame the Dalits, in particular the de-links the immanent from the transcendent. The sys- Valmiki community. Governments in several States in tem of caste predetermines that those who are born way India have staunchly denied in Courts and in other fora down the caste ladder have all the possibilities of eleva- the prevalence and existence of manual scavenging, but tion to higher levels by performing certain rituals so that the reality on the ground shows just the opposite. Sites of in the next cycle of birth they may be born into better sta- atrocities, discrimination, and exclusion that the Dalits tus. The system of caste clearly demarcates the location face and experience are on the rise across India. The case of each caste grouping. Hence, caste plays a major role studies cited above might appear to be isolated incidents. in determining the contexts in which Dalits live. These But they are rather blatant and atrocious examples of contexts supply crucial raw materials for theologizing. the sum total of inhumanity perpetuated against Dalit Without the contextualization of theology, seeking to communities. understand the gospel in relation to the historical context Traditional Hindu teachings about caste provide the of Dalits, there is no breaking of new ground. Previous ideological basis for this social division and stratifica- understandings of the gospel will simply be repeated, tion. Religion in this sense becomes the idiom and with no insights gained into its liberating message in instrument through which castes express their identity. relation to the present. In complex settings of caste op- It is also a process through which the so-called casteist pression in India, contextuality emphasizes not just one forces derive solidarity and majority. Religion unites part of the reality, but all, thus giving rise to holism in its them by separating them from other caste groups by perspective on a milieu, seeking to understand its various virtue of its hierarchical nature, which opens up social elements in their relation to one another. Contextuality is relations of superiority and domination. In the ultimate required to portray the context sufficiently for analysis, analysis, it involves articulation and justification of a interpretation, and theologizing. system that legitimizes, sustains, and justifies the use However, in seeking to contextualize the gospel, of power. there is always a burden of proof on the part of those who theologize. The struggle has always been between The relationship of religious transcendence uncritical and authentic contextualization. False contex- and immanence tualization accommodates all sorts of materials/things The dimensions of the immanent and the transcen- without critical sifting and evaluation. Authentic contex- dent with reference to and in the context of Dalits should tualization rejects superficiality and goes for prophetic be seen as one integral unit. De-linking the transcendent praxis arising out of life-affirming encounter between dimension from the immanent life of the Dalits is not God’s Word and World. For the Dalits, engaging and helpful for the public role of Dalit theology. One should struggling to change or transform the caste-stratified be cautious of the categories and methods the so-called topography of the Indian society from sub-human to upper castes employ, which often serve to separate the human, untouchable to touchable, life-negating to life- transcendent dynamic of religion from the immanent affirming is part of their theologizing. Life-affirming life of Dalits. Hinduism as a religion uses all sorts of contextualizing, therefore, warrants daring and selfless mechanisms to de-link the Dalits from their roots and sacrifice, since it is rooted in the liberating power of the their histories. It has also restrained upward mobility for gospel. It is indeed a radical call to those involved in pro- the Dalits within its own scheme of rules and regulation. phetic vocation. In this connection, A.P. Nirmal opines, It is an irony that the Indian Christian Theology used the God, therefore, must be indigenous to Indian Indian philosophical systems, modes, and theoretical history. And by history I mean history in all its frameworks of the dominant. A.P. Nirmal, the pioneer totality—with its religious, cultural, philosophical of Dalit theology in India, pointed out that “Indian and socio-political aspects … both my God and Christian theologians today need to recognize that the history are indigenous. It is when I am interpret- last word in Indian Christian theology was not said by ing this indigenous God in terms of his saving and Brahmabandhav, Appasamy, Chakkarai and Chenchiah. transforming activity in my own indigenous his- There is no need to idealise the glorious past of Indian tory, that I am doing indigenous theology.9 Christian theology represented in the writings of these men.”8

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 14 12-05-04 15:51 In this critical and creative encounter of contextual- autobiography combines memories of suffering and izing the gospel, the location of Dalit discourse/theology joy, humiliation and triumph.”12 Karukku, for Bama, as a public theology emerges. The public nature of this highlights moments of transformation happening from theology must be seen in its relation to locales/public one state to another. Although the context is filled with domains of the Dalits of the past and the changing land- shame, suffering, and humiliation, it is impregnated with scapes of the present. For any theology, in order to be possibilities and potentials that can generate new life—a authentic and relevant in the caste- and conflict-ridden new dawn and a new humanity without any bias, preju- Indian context, should address the life-threatening and dice, discrimination, or stratification. life-sustaining questions that the Dalits are asking in The yearnings of the Dalits for a caste-free soci- the midst of multifarious dilemmas regarding hopes, ety will certainly become a reality sooner or later. dreams, despair, death, and suffering. As this happens, The dream of the Dalits, like a seed sown in the karu context, contextuality, and contextualization acquire (embryo), has grown to fruition. Bama’s metaphor of theological relevance and significance. These categories karukku denotes the dynamic movement instantly taking form the basis for theologizing. In conjunction with this, place between immanent-transcendent. When she talks A.P. Nirmal observed that “The ‘original’ and the ‘given’ about the transformation, she implies moving to a higher in this context is our own situation, our own history, our state of being and becoming. A.P. Nirmal, elaborating on own struggles, our own aspirations, our own fears and this dynamic, narrates his own experience: our own hopes. God is dynamically present in these. This is because I know for certain—histori- He is savingly active in these. This is where we have to cally—that this wandering Aramaean was not my 10 discern the Gospel happening and becoming.” father. My father or forefathers were Indians and It is in this context that Bama, the Dalit organic in- not Aramaeans. My dalit father did not enjoy the tellectual, elaborates lucidly the integral dynamic and nomadic freedom of wandering Aramaean. As an dialectic between immanent and transcendent by using outcaste he was also cast of his village … When the metaphor of karukku (serrated leaves, blades). She he walked the dusty roads of his village, the sa- picks up our common notion of pain and unpacks some varna tied a tree branch around his waist so that he of the intricate aspects involved in it. Our common would not leave any unclean footprints and pollute understanding of pain is that it would not usually sub- the roads. The savarnas also tied an earthen pot side or go away soon, but rather tends to intensify and around his neck to serve as a spittoon. If ever he gradually shoots up, lasting for hours or days, months or tried to learn Sanskrit or some other sophisticated even years, and so, it is always construed as dreadful or language the oppressors gagged him permanently leading to harrowing experience. Bama looks at it from by pouring molted lead down his throat. That my a different perspective. For her, pain could also spur friends was my father—a Maung in Maharashtra. realization and new growth. She looks at it positively. He was no wandering Aramaean.13 Pain can also generate change. She reiterates, “There are many congruities between the saw-edged Palmyra A.P. Nirmal graphically explains who his father was. He narrates that his father and his community were karukku and my own life. Not only did I pick up the looked down upon as menials and non-entities. Hence, scattered Palmyra karukku in the days when I went out to gather firewood, scratching and tearing my skin as I the immanent (“here and now”)—the very being of the played with them; but later they also became the embryo Dalits who live at the sub-human level and their becom- (karu) ….”11 ing on par with other humans (transcendent)—can and shall never happen, nor is it possible within the caste Palmyra karukku is two-edged. One edge portrays the immanent dimension: the volatile and gruesome op- system. Therefore, for Dalit theology, the dimensions pression that Dalits face, day in and day out. The other of immanent and transcendent play vital roles in theolo- edge reflects the transcendent dimension that manifests gizing. As elaborated by A.P. Nirmal, “… theology is a human activity. It is written neither by God nor for God the embryo (karu), denoting the emergence of a new humanity wherein everyone lives together with dignity to read. It is written for the benefit of the humans. It is and equality. A simple metaphor that Bama employs not a study of God but of the concept of God. The pri- 14 for her Dalit world concurs with the Dalit understand- mary datum for doing theology is human life.” Moving ing of immanent and transcendent. “Hence, Bama’s further, “It is human life which raises the questions of

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 15 12-05-04 15:51 God and also answers it. By life I mean life in its totality. the servant—the language full of pathos. That is The primary task of theology, therefore, is to make sense the language used for God—the God of Dalits, of human life and given it a certain direction and goal. the Dalit God … Jesus Christ whose followers we The criteria of theology too then must be derived from are was himself a dalit—despite his being a Jew. It human life and not from some other ‘givens’.”15 further means that both his humanity and divinity At this juncture, it is important to look into the col- are to be understood in terms of his dalitness. His lective experience of the Dalit women who are involved dalitness is the key to the mystery of his divine in manual scavenging. They carry human excreta in human unity.16 baskets made of bamboo and walk kilometres to dump In a similar vein, Bama recollects an incident when it. When it rains, the water oozes through the baskets, she was eight years old. In her village, as a Naicka passes through their hair, and then touches their lips and landlord belonging to the so-called high caste was super- sometimes enters into their mouth. The inter-subjective vising the Dalits threshing grain, a respected Dalit leader worlds comprising the so-called upper-caste women and much older than the landlord approached him by stand- the so-called untouchables view their worlds from their ing at a distance. He was carrying a fried snack packet respective terrains. For instance, the so-called upper- from the market, wrapped in paper and fastened with a caste women tend to look at manual scavenging work string. Holding it with the help of a string bow before as part of the Dalit women’s occupation because of their him, in such a way that neither his hands nor his body descent. They look at it as easy money and say there is touched the packet, he handed it over to the landlord. He no hard work involved. The Dalit women are made to held the packet by the string to prevent his hands from believe that manual scavenging is their job, since they polluting the landlord’s snack. Bama was totally shaken are born as chandalas, and therefore they cannot quit. and thus raises a series of questions: “Why should we But those who are aware of their Dalit consciousness have to fetch and carry for these people, I wondered. and dalitness say “If we quit,” immediately the so-called Such an important elder of ours goes off meekly to the high caste women retort, “You seem to be acting like shops to fetch snacks and hands them over reverently, Brahmin women.” This shows how the ideology of bowing and shrinking, to this fellow who just sits there caste is entrenched into the psyche of the so-called high and stuffs them into his mouth.”17 In spite of being a castes. leader of a Dalit community, endowed with native know- In view of this, the magnitude and intensity of op- how and expertise, he was treated like a sub-human or pression unleashed and humiliation inflicted against the a non-entity. Hence, the caste hierarchical order takes Dalits are perceived as if they are natural and something precedence over other considerations. normal. Besides, why do the Dalit women, despite all Further, Bama’s metaphor karukku would certainly forms of exploitation and oppression, carry the human help us to unravel the multi-dimensional mindset of the excreta of their visible and proximate oppressors and Dalits. For instance, exploiters, even now without any prejudice, hatred, or vengeful feelings? How does the shift or transformation Bama links the karukku’s sharpness to the New take place from the terrains of immanent, context-spe- Testament passage [that] called the “word of God” cific dimension of Dalits to the transcendent dimension? a two-edged sword (Heb 4:10), viewing her expe- The dynamic between the dimensions of “immanent” rience of caste bigotry as proof that God’s word and “transcendent” is articulated by A.P. Nirmal in the had failed to soften the hard hearts of many so- following: called Christians. She urges Dalits to “function as God’s word, piercing to the very heart” … cutting Are we prepared to say that my housemaid, my through the hypocrisy … that ignore the teachings sweeper (my bhwangi) is my God? It is precisely of radical equality which Bama has encountered in this sense that our God is a servant God. He in the Bible.18 is a waiter, a dhobi and bhangi. Traditionally all such service has been the lot of dalits. To speak For Bama, the dimensions of immanent and transcen- of a servant God, therefore, is to recognize him dent depict suffering and joy, humiliation and triumph. and identify him as truly a Dalit deity. The Gospel Certainly, “A deftly crafted depiction of a child learning writers identified Jesus with the Servant of God what ‘untouchable’ means exemplifies how karukku 19 of Isaiah … That is the language used to describe highlights moments of transformation.” Bama, with-

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 16 12-05-04 15:51 out any reservation, informs that the Dalits, despite and means “to remain within the divine presence in being surrounded by a hostile and conflict-ridden which divine is seen to be manifested by encompassing environment, continue to grapple with experiences of the immanent material world.” transcendence in their lives. These two dimensions are Traditionally, immanence is often contrasted with closely connected and interwoven with each other. In the notions of transcendence in which the divine is the life of Dalits, immanence and transcendence consti- seen to be outside the scope of the material world. This tute an unbroken continuum. The case studies that are understanding has been circumvented by this schema. cited clearly testify that the “transcendent” dimension To be more precise, God, in Jesus, entering into the is not something alien, but part of their everyday: “from process of humanization and dalitization, has integrally below,” “from within,” “immanent,” “human.” Dalit ex- elevated the Dalits to realize their personhood, people- perience is in fact embedded in transcendence. hood, and communityhood. In this dynamic, the Dalits’ Dalits’ yearning for a common humanity and a caste- transcendent dimension must be conceived as grounded less society in India is imbedded in transcendent values. in God’s immanent-transcendent dialectic. Further, the They seek to realize and appropriate these transcendent dimension of transcendent cannot be measured in the values within the immanent. The meeting of the im- spatial sense. Therefore, God is beyond the limit of hu- manent and the transcendent is crucial for the Dalits. man knowledge and experience; immanent “here” and Having been subjected to all forms of humiliation and transcendent “there” have been reversed. shame, what keeps Dalits intact and living in hope? This theological dialectic is in tune with God’s mys- It is this mysterious union of immanent-transcendent terious divine revelation in Jesus Christ. It manifests that operates in the total being of the Dalits. In this the divine act of “coming” into this world and estab- dialectic, the Dalits are elevated to higher levels, such lishes the “transcendent” dimension. This is how the as co-humans and co-terminus, despite being rejected, Dalits instantaneously elevated, and thus acquired, the humiliated, and disowned by the Indian caste-stratified transcendent dimension at the very moment of God, in society. In conflict-ridden living contexts, the Dalits Jesus, taking the place of Dalits as the lowest of the low continue to contribute their labour and other services and the last of the least. And this transcendent act has, for centuries for the well-being of the society. In spite once and for all, categorically transformed the Dalits of being treated as lesser children of God, as untouch- as “humans,” “persons,” “subjects,” and “partners” in ables, as sub-humans, and called by different names, the God’s immanent-transcendent relationship. New di- Dalits offer their services for the well-being of the larger mensions in Dalits’ epistemology of “immanent” and community. It is in their immanent daily lives that they “transcendent” occur in this way. In Dalits’ human realize the transcendent. If God had not incarnated in experience, the material world right here (“immanent”), the human person stooping down as a suffering servant, and God the “transcendent” (out there) in Jesus coming the history of the Dalits would have been different. This into this world, taking human form (immanent), living radical reversal has changed the subjecthood and the and experiencing as Dalits do (immanent), has radically subjectivity of the Dalits. altered the traditional notions and understandings of the The very act of God taking on servanthood in Jesus epistemology of “immanent-transcendent” equations. In has radically reversed the assumptions and expectations this way, Dalits are transformed and have acquired the of the dominant and the powerful. God, in Jesus, had status of transcendence. The Dalits are often referred to to face all sorts of humiliation and mockery. In taking both as hapless victims (denied of their basic dignity and the human form, God in Jesus went through the process rights) and as assertive subjects (assured of their history of humanization and dalitization. It is this incarnation and destiny) in the discourse of Dalit theologies. By and that opened a space for the Dalits to acquire and attain large, the Dalit theologies are built around the aspects their human dignity, human worth, and personhood. of pain and pathos or/and also on the components of Hence, Dalits’ discernment of the transcendent God is resolve and resilience. Nevertheless, both of these dia- not rooted in God being distant and far from them, but is metrically opposed aspects in essence and in reality have rooted in the One who lives among them, who identifies dalitness. And they are mediated by the dimensions of and expresses solidarity with them in their faith journey. immanent and transcendent. These two dimensions, The whole dynamic conjoins with the root meaning of although they are like two sides of karukku, are but one “immanence,” which is derived from the Latin manere, integral unit.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 17 12-05-04 15:51 Dr. Indukuri John Mohan Razu, Professor of Christian Social Ethics, 9 Ibid., 142–43. served for many years in the Departments of Theology and Ethics and 10 Ibid., 143. Church and Society at the United Theological College, Bangalore, and is 11 Paula Richman, “Dalit Transmission, Narrative, and Verbal Art in currently associated with the doctoral program of the ACTS Academy of Tamil Novels of Bama,” in Manu Bhagavan and Anne Feldhaus (eds.), Higher Education, Bangalore, as a Resource Person (HON). Speaking Truth to Power (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008), 140. 12 Ibid. 1 See the introduction by Peter Beyer, Religion and Globalization 13 Chandran, “A.P. Nirmal—A Tribute”, 149. (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1997), 5. 14 Ibid, 142. 2 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 3 Paranjit S. Judge, Changing Dalits: Exploration Across Time (New 16 Ibid, 150–51. Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2010), 31. 17 Richman, “Dalit Transmission, Narrative, and Verbal Act in Tamil 4 See Indian Express, 30.9.2009. Novels of Bama,” 141. 5 The Hindu, 16.12.2010. 18 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 19 Ibid., 140. 7 Ibid. 8 J. Russel Chandran,“A.P. Nirmal—A Tribute,” in Voices from the Third World, Vol. XX, no. 1 (June 1997), 142.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 18 12-05-04 15:51 Deep Protest, High Hope, and Wide Embrace: Dalit Theology’s Multiplicity of Inspirations By Sunder John Boopalan Dalit Theology in the Twenty-first Century: Discordant Voices, Discerning Pathways Edited by Sathianathan Clarke, Deenabandhu Manchala, and Philip Vinod Peacock. New Delhi: World Council of Churches/Oxford University Press, 2010. viii + 302 pp.

alit theology is a liberation theology indigenous to the “conflictual” map of “Dalit dissent” (58)—dis- Dto India. The sixteen essays in this book arise out sent by remaining within Hinduism, on the one hand, of the Symposium on ‘Dalit Theology in the Twenty- and, on the other, by the rejection of it; understand- first Century’ sponsored and hosted in Kolkata, India, ing this “heterogeneity” (68) means recognizing the “ in January 2008 by Bishop’s College, Kolkata; the fruitful interrelationality” within such “diversity” (67). World Council of Churches, Geneva; and the Council Philip Vinod Peacock points out the important “socio- for World Mission, London. The essays are divided psychological role(s)” (75) that myths of origin play in into three parts under the headings ‘Dalit Theology: the formation of group identities and values and cautions Introduction, Interrogation, and Imagination’; ‘Foraging Dalit theology against the danger of creating binary Dalit Worlds, Freeing Theological Symbols, Foraging identities that posit an ‘us’ over against a ‘them’ (81). Dalit Word Visions’; and ‘Dalit Hermeneutics: New While affirming that current states of disenfranchise- Christian Vedas, Old Gospel, Different Voices’. The ment are connected to historical injustices that have editors of the work bring with them rich experiences caused them, Peacock is keen to emphasize familial and immense skill. Sathianathan Clarke, the author bonds and sees diverse communities as members of of Dalits and Christianity: Subaltern Religion and a family estranged by circumstances in the past (89). Liberation Theology in India (Oxford University Press, Being inspired by postmodern methods, Y. T. Vinayaraj 1998) now holds the Bishop Sundo Kim Chair in World examines how everyday talk (discursive practices) gives Christianity at the Wesley Theological Seminary, us “our sense of ourselves” (96) and proposes seemingly Washington, DC, USA where he is also a Professor simple, but profound practices of resistance in hegemon- of Theology. Deenabandhu Manchala, a pastor in the ic environments. Lalruatkima examines the importance Andhra Evangelical Lutheran Church, has been work- of staying true to and being “entrenched” in lived reali- ing with the World Council of Churches as Executive ties of the “Indian soil” (104) and warns one against the Secretary in the programme area of Unity, Evangelism danger of flattening “heterogenous particularities” (105) and Spirituality. Philip Vinod Peacock teaches at to truly understand “what constitutes the self” (107). Bishop’s College, Kolkata as Associate Professor and The second section begins with L. Jayachitra’s essay, teaches courses in Dalit Theology and Social Analysis. which calls for a forging of solidarity among those who In the opening essay of the first section, while suffer pain and oppression by privileging the principle throughout remaining true to Dalit consciousness, evoked by Jesus’ saying that “whoever is not against Sathianathan Clarke avers that Dalit theology does not us is for us” (121). While noting that myths of Dalit merely see itself as a counter-culture that sets itself over goddesses go against some of the notions of social or- against to what is, but rather that it represents an “au- der sought to be maintained by Hindu dharma (140), thentic theology from and for India” (20). Deenabandhu Joseph Prabhakar Dayam studies how such myths also Manchala argues that Dalit Theology seeks to address a “transcend religious distinctions” (140) by privileging wide audience by calling into question both the “logic marginality and showing how “pollution” becomes a and ideology” (52) of caste. He ties concerns of social socio-theological space for divine disclosure. Using J. justice to the mission of the church by reiterating “the D. Crossan’s analysis of the historical Jesus, Anderson missiological challenge” to be “liberatively involved at H. M. Jeremiah envisions the theological resources every site where human rights are violated” (13). Peniel offered by Jesus the Christ through the lenses of Irai- Jesudason Rufus Rajkumar draws the readers’ attention araneriyalar Yesu—the ethical Jesus who valued the

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 19 12-05-04 15:51 body and life of people (158–59), Kadanth Nilaiyalar the many positive contributions Dalits have made to Yesu—Jesus who transcended “divisive” and “distrust- community life and nation (234) and thus privileges ful categories” (159–61), and Murpoku Ethirpalar talk about the reality and possibility of “camaraderie” Yesu—Jesus who resisted oppressive status quo by (238) across class, ethnicity, and in-group/out-group transgressing rigid boundaries that maintained status distinctions. Surekha Nelavala uses yet another method quo (161–63). Geevarghese Mor Coorilos questions to examine assumptions about the past that often work some of the assumptions of a Marxian analysis of Indian by “assigning notoriety” and “reaffirming negative society (173) and, by pointing to certain limitations in stereotypes” (253). Nelavala calls into question the such an analysis, shows how Dalit theology can and does rationalizing process that seeks to unify and homog- pay attention to what he calls “little narratives” (174), by enize by evoking stereotypical answers. Using “auto/ which he means the thousands of embodied struggles of biographical narration and criticism,” she gives flesh to people for food, land, housing, and dignity. In the last what she calls a “profound non-verbal voice” (254). This essay in this section, Sathianathan Clarke and Philip “non-verbal voice” is used and imagined in fresh and Peacock examine conversion, electoral politics, national meaningful ways for textual constructions in Dalit the- identity, and the ever-persistent issue of caste and tribe ology. In the last essay, after defining Dalit women in a in India. By pointing to the sense of the past and collec- thought-provoking manner as “those who have lost their tive memory, they remind one of the “multidimensional laughter” (267), Prasuna Gnana Nelavala argues power- character of religious conversion among Dalits” (192)— fully for a separate and special attention to be paid to the a point well made by the subtitle of their essay, “Slippery lived experiences of Dalit women in order to articulate Identities and Shrewd Identifications” (178). an authentic Dalit theology. The third and final section of the book continues to By holding together in creative tension elements of broaden the rich resources that the essays have thus celebration and pathos, protest and play, critical refuta- far unearthed and to offer much food for thought and tion and imaginative construction, these sixteen essays reflection. Drawing insights from Foucault’s analysis of representing a wide spectrum of scholarship make a power, Evangeline Anderson Rajkumar points out how valuable contribution to the field of Dalit theology. ideas of “male honour” and “female purity” have taken “Dalit” is a term that represents the self-ascription of on various oppressive permutations and combinations. persons in India who have been historically treated as She picks up on the issue of what has come to be known “untouchables.” Comprising a little more than 16 per- notoriously as “honour killings” (210) and seriously cent of the country’s population (5), every sixth person questions commonly held presuppositions about the in India is a Dalit. Dalit communities are both numerous “common good” (204) by bringing to light atrocities and diverse, embodying distinctive cultural realities and based on caste and dealing with two very important ways of living. The editors recognize this diversity and questions: whose good and at what cost? Roja Singh embrace both the challenge and the promise of such sets up the metaphor of the court and uses “testimonial diversity. Considering the long history of denied access narrative” (217) to make her point. In bringing out into to scripture that “shut out” (1) Dalits from access to the the open an analysis based on caste, she opens danger- Hindu scriptures, the importance of Dalit theologizing ous fissures that point to the hypocrisy often present becomes all the more significant and subversive. The in institutionalized Christianity in India (219). Singh’s book offers a constellation of resources to a wide vari- essay offers methodological insights for Dalit theol- ety of readers. The breadth and depth of areas covered ogy; by saying “Che” (an “expression of disgust”) to in the book make it a valuable resource for academia, what is wrong and oppressive (220), she points out the both within and outside the guild of theology. A further methodological need to “disturb rather than settle” (227) strength of the book lies in the rigorous analysis that it apathetic understandings of the self, the other, and the undertakes of Indian society from fresh vantage points. world. Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon picks up on the The work thus offers itself to a wider popular audience story of Judith in Christian scripture and uses a feminist interested in obtaining a necessary but otherwise not so analysis to talk about forgotten voices and distanced readily available take on matters that pertain to the col- memories. Pursuing this line of thought, she argues that lective life of the Indian people. victimhood is surely a lived reality for many Dalits in India; nevertheless, Melanchthon simultaneously notes Sunder John Boopalan is a Ph.D. Candidate (Religion and Society) at Princeton Theological Seminary.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 20 12-05-04 15:51 Theology That Attends to the Pain of the World By Don Schweitzer Mark Lewis Taylor. The Theological and the Political: On the Weight of the World. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011. 256 pp.

n this book, Mark Lewis Taylor, Maxwell M. Upson the injustice of the weight placed upon them through IProfessor of Theology and Culture at Princeton aesthetic resistance. Taylor recounts witnessing a man Theological Seminary, reflects upon the place of the- in the Virginia State Penitentiary throw a tray of food ology in contemporary Western societies and issues a through the bars of his cell (36). Through this action, challenge to Christian theologians. He distinguishes Taylor perceived the weight of the world concentrated “guild Theology,” reflection by Christian theologians upon this person, restricting and diminishing the two of focusing on traditional Christian doctrines and seek- them in different ways. According to Taylor, such acts ing to articulate a divine transcendence beyond history, “haunt” by expressing the pain of the oppressed and the from “the theological,” reflection on the protests and injustice they suffer. This haunting can de-legitimize resistance of oppressed peoples expressed through art- oppressive social structures and inspire others to work ful images in literature, graffiti, etc. Taylor argues that to change them. Through such communicative acts, the guild Theology is inherently complicit in imperialism victims of society “weigh-in” against regimes and pow- and domination, because it projects a divine transcen- ers oppressing them. dence beyond history. He notes that Christology can The theological tracks and reflects upon this weigh- transform notions of divine transcendence and that ing-in. In doing so, it calls guild Theology into question, these can empower liberation struggles of the oppressed. relating to it dialectically. The theological cannot simply Nonetheless, he argues that such notions prevent guild dispense with guild Theology’s symbols and notions Theology from recognizing its own historicity and in- of transcendence. It must retain the expectation these volvement in oppression, inevitably turning it into an inspire that life has a future beyond the present. Yet it ideology of domination. must redirect this hope to liminal places within history According to Taylor, oppression gives rise to a “seeth- where the protests of the poor and oppressed are at work. ing presence,” protest and resistance that “haunts” unjust In sum, the theological must attend to the suffering of social structures and societies, often through symbolic the world and develop understandings of God, self, and acts and images of resistance. These can have liberat- world that relate to this in transformative ways. ing power through the aesthetic force with which they Taylor’s provocative argument provides an ap- express their truth claims (14). The theological attends proximate conceptualization of the way some significant to these effective images, becoming a haunting presence critical theologies have worked. It presents a challenge itself by bringing their truth claims into the academic to Christian theologians: does our work serve the inter- setting of guild Theology. This haunting involves study, ests of the privileged or a theological guild, or does it discussion, and writing, but also physical participation serve the liberation of the marginalized and oppressed? in demonstrations, prayer vigils, healing rituals, and At the heart of Taylor’s argument is an insightful celebrations. The theological must be embodied as well appreciation of how aesthetics can awaken, sustain, as discursively argued. and communicate moral concerns. Recent history gives Taylor develops his argument by drawing upon many examples of this. Mamie Bradley, the mother of Jean-Luc Nancy’s notion of the world as “a totality of fourteen-year-old Emmet Till, murdered by white rac- meaning,” constituted by one’s relationships and the ists in Money, Mississippi, in August 1955, insisted that meanings that arise from one’s care for these (38). In her son’s casket be open. Thousands of people viewed our relationships, we share with others the burdens of his body and pictures of it were carried in Jet magazine. existence, the weight of the world. This is often unjustly This galvanized the American black community, set- distributed, concentrated with crushing force upon cer- ting the stage for the civil rights struggle. In the 1980s, tain social groups that frequently lack the power to resist Peter Gabriel’s song “Biko” encouraged many in North this directly. Instead, they may protest and rebel against Atlantic countries to struggle against apartheid in South

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 21 12-05-04 15:51 Africa and for human rights around the globe. Most ture for social life.3 According to Alexander, members recently, the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, in of societies are categorized as pure or impure according Tunisia on December 17, 2010, combined with the com- to these codes. Categorizing a group or person as im- municative power of social media, helped to incite the pure legitimates their repression. As Taylor notes, it can wave of revolt against oppressive governments that has even sanction their torture (170–174). In Alexander’s come to be known as the Arab Spring. view, within a national community, even social groups Taylor’s argument provides an important supplement in conflict with each other often share values structured to liberation theologies, which have often neglected the by the same binary code. What is contested is not the roles of aesthetics in liberation struggles. However, in code, but how it gets applied; who is categorized as pure focusing on aesthetic power, he says little here about or impure, and who gets repressed or protected accord- the roles of economic and political power in liberation ingly.4 This relates to Taylor’s key notion of the effective struggles. The theological also needs to reflect upon the image by which the oppressed weigh in against their workings of the other two forms of power. oppression. Alexander’s analysis suggests that part of On another note, Taylor’s argument that notions of what makes an image effective is its ability to extend and divine transcendence to history inevitably foster domi- revise perceptions of purity and impurity. A struggle for nation lifts up a genuine danger. Such notions can direct justice is often simultaneously a struggle for recognition critique against others and away from one’s self. But a and social legitimacy. An image is effective because of sense of transcendence to history is implicit in every jus- how it resonates with the binary code at the heart of a tice claim. The compelling nature of the aesthetic acts of nation’s social imaginary and shifts its application, thus resistance Taylor attends to suggests that these articulate changing society’s perception of the oppressed and their moral claims beyond personal preferences. His rejection oppressors. Alexander’s analysis helps to show what of transcendence to history makes it difficult for him to makes particular images and symbolic actions effective. account for this. Notions of divine transcendence can If accurate, it could help liberation movements gauge become ideologies of domination. Still, the Hebrew how effective various images and strategies may be. prophets denounced injustice on the basis of such no- Taylor demands that Christian theologians recognize tions. Charles Taylor and Jürgen Habermas, each in their that their work takes place in a world where agents of own way, have argued that notions of divine or moral nations proclaiming themselves to be righteous torture transcendence are necessary to sustain compassion and human beings. His challenge to theologians resonates solidarity, to keep struggles for liberation from becoming with central Christian symbols. Faithfulness to Jesus cynical or cruel, even towards those they claim to serve.1 Christ, to the God of the Exodus, requires theologians Divine transcendence to history as understood in the jus- to attend to the suffering of the world and to work as tification of the ungodly can be a powerful moral source theologians to overcome it. With this book Taylor has for the reconciliation of enemies and can enable one to weighed in amidst the suffering of the world in a sig- receive critique. Finally, Taylor does not consider how nificant way. notions of divine transcendence can differ substantively. Don Schweitzer is McDougald Professor of Theology at St. Andrew’s Abraham Heschel argued that it is the transcendence of College in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. God’s love that compels us to attend to the suffering of others.2 All this suggests that the argument that radical 1 Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge, MI: The Belknap Press notions of divine transcendence are inherently linked to of Harvard University Press, 2007), 695–703; Jürgen Habermas, “An Awareness of What is Missing,” in Jürgen Habermas, An Awareness of What oppression deserves further discussion. is Missing: Faith and Reason in a Post-Secular Age (Malden, MA: Polity On a constructive note, Taylor’s understanding of the Press, 2010), 18–19. connection between aesthetic and political power might 2 Abraham Heschel, The Prophets, Vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Row, find a fruitful dialogue partner in Jeffrey Alexander’s 1962), 219–20. 3 Jeffrey Alexander, The Civil Sphere (New York: Oxford University analysis of how civic solidarity tends to be guided by Press, 2006), 53–67. binary codes which provide the general discursive struc- 4 Alexander, The Civil Sphere, 65.

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 22 12-05-04 15:51 Third World Christian Feminism By Jane Doull Hope Abundant: Third World and Indigenous Women’s Theology. Kwok Pui-Lan, ed. Maryknoll, Orbis, 2010. 288 pp.

ack in the 1980s, Christian feminism inspired she challenges even those of us who profess a feminist Bmany teachers, thinkers, activists, and seekers in liberation theology. Your perspective on Ruth will forev- United Church pastoral charges, educational centres, er change when you have read it, with Cherokee scholar and even some Conference and General Council of- Laura Donaldson, as a story of cultural assimilation. fices. Experience meant women’s experience, too, and Third, we can learn from the increasing openness of women’s experience transformed our view of scripture, Christian feminist and indigenous theologians to other tradition, and even reason. religions and cultures, anticipated in some of the 1989 But our experience was only our experience. Women Asian theology. This present book articulates even more in other social and cultural locations needed to tell their strongly the need for feminist interfaith cooperation. own story and do their own theology—and so they did, Christian scripture needs to be placed in dialogue not in books such as the 1989 foundational text With Passion only with the stories of present-day women but also and Compassion: Third World Women Doing Theology. with stories in other scriptures. Critique of patriarchal This present collection is an intentional update to scriptures must include critique of patriarchy in all scrip- With Passion and Compassion, to “signal newer devel- tures and religions. Liturgical and spiritual practice can opments and to include emerging voices.” It still uses comfortably integrate other spiritualities with devotion the term “Third World” to connote “the tremendous to Mary and Jesus. In multi-faith Canada, how might we power imbalance between the powerful and the disen- become more open? franchised” (1), an imbalance present also within the Fourth, this book offers voices not available in 1989: so-called First World. It includes also the voices of Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon on Dalit women’s theol- indigenous women. ogy; Lee Miena Skye (Palawa, Tasmania) on Australian Why should you read this book? Aboriginal Christologies; Clara Luz Ajo Làzaro on First, you need to study Kwok Pui-Lan’s essay on interreligious theology in Cuba; a mainland Chinese the “newer developments.” There is much to be learned woman, Meng Yanling; a Palestinian Quaker, Jean Zaru from her remarks on cultural criticism, examining the (essential reading!). Like Jesus hearing the unheard, we impact of globalism on local culture, as well as the dia- need to hear those most marginalized in our world. logue between local culture and the doing of theology. Who should read this book? Jean Zaru’s poignant Second, this book illustrates how post-colonial theory story or Malawi writer Isabel Phiri’s African response to can transform our understanding of theology, Bible, HIV-AIDS would speak to engaged laypeople. The ar- and social ethics. Musa Dube, a Botswanan theologian, ticles by Sharon Bong, Ivone Gebara, and Andrea Smith clarifies that postcolonial discourse is not about “histori- are harder going, even for a very literate reader, but they cal accusations” but a “committed search and struggle are worth the work. for decolonization and liberation of the oppressed” (92). This book belongs in seminary libraries and curri- Postcolonial theory includes an awareness that “imperi- cula, and on the bookshelves of preachers and Christian alism” [Empire] is not about “geographical possession,” educators. We need to listen to those on the margin who and thus it has persisted even in countries that have see what we miss, who open our eyes to the colonialism gained their political independence (93). and other “isms” that shape our lives. We need to persist Postcolonial theology is for all of us, so that we do in the shared task of mending the world. not collude, however innocently, in the disempowerment of others. It is our work to discover and move beyond Jane Doull ministers with Wesley United Church, St Andrews, New Brunswick. our biases, especially in our reading of scripture. Musa Dube’s ground-breaking essay explains the theory, and

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Ecumenist SPRING 2012.indd 23 12-05-04 15:51 Vatican II: Fifty Years of Evolution and Revolution in the Catholic Church Margaret Lavin Presenting the Council documents in an accessible and concise way, Lavin offers a straightforward commentary of Vatican II and how its teachings have shaped Catholic life and practices over the past 50 years.

Margaret Lavin, STL, PhD, teaches systematic theology at Regis College in Toronto, Canada and is an author of a previous Novalis book, Theology for Ministry.

208 pp PB 6” x 9” 978-2-89646-329-9 $18.95

Embracing the End of Life: Help for Those Who Accompany the Dying MicheLLe O’rOurke and eugene dufOur Offering family members and health care providers with practical tools and spiritual guidance, this book is an essential for anyone journeying with those who are nearing the end of life.

Michelle O’Rourke, a registered nurse for more than thirty years, is the author of Befriending Death: Henri Nouwen and a Spirituality of Dying.

Eugene Dufour is a clinically trained therapist and international speaker on the topics of compassion fatigue, critical incident stress debriefing, bereavement, hospice palliative care and pastoral care.

176 pp PB 5.25” x 8.25” 978-2-89646-396-1 $16.95

Available at your local bookstore or call 1- 800 -387-7164 to order

Ecumenist_Ad_C4_MAR12.indd 1 12-03-26 12:06 PM The Ecumenist: A Journal of Theology, Culture, and Society is published quarterly by Novalis © Novalis 2012. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, without prior permission of and proper acknowledgment of The Ecumenist: A Journal of Theology, Culture, and Society. Guest Editor: Donald Schweitzer – Editor: David Seljak – Editor Emeritus: Gregory Baum – Contributing editors: M. Shawn Copeland, Lee Cormie, Charles Curran, Virgilio Elizondo, Scott Kline, Marilyn Legge, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Harold Wells, Don Schweitzer – Design: Gilles Lépine – Layout: Audrey Wells Subscriptions: $15 (postage and taxes included). To order: Periodicals Dept., Novalis, 10 Lower Spadina Avenue, Suite 400, Toronto, ON M5V 2Z2 Tel: 1-800-387-7164 Fax: 1-800-204-4140 E-mail: [email protected] ISSN: 0013-080X Address editorial correspondence to: Novalis Publishing Inc., 10 Lower Spadina Avenue, Suite 400, Toronto, ON M5V 2Z2 Printed in Canada

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