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Cover Page of Thesis, Project, Or Dissertation Proposal The Geologic History and Evolution of Italy: Highlighting the Relationship Between Geology and Culture A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at George Mason University By Florence C. Katrivanos Bachelor of Arts, 2003 George Mason University Bachelor of Science, 1977 George Mason University Director: Rosemary Jann, Professor Department of English Summer Semester 2009 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Copyright 2009 Florence C. Katrivanos All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION This is dedicated to my loving husband Harry who supported and encouraged me to indulge in my dream of becoming a geologist. Without his patience and love throughout this 10-year journey, this work would not have been possible. It is also dedicated to my two wonderful sons Michael and Stephen who inspire me to do my best as they do in pursuit of their musical careers. Finally, to Shatsee and Tiger who never failed to purr and snore throughout the late nights of work. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend my heartfelt thanks to several individuals who have made this work possible. My husband Harry provided extraordinary loving support throughout the past ten years while I indulged my passion for geology. My two sons Michael and Stephen have encouraged, and inspired me to try my best through their own dedication to their music. Their technical assistance with computer issues has solved many a problem. My graduate committee adviser Rosemary Jann has been of invaluable assistance in many ways. She taught me how to evolve from a scientific writer to a writer of the humanities and helped me to organize my ideas. Her suggestions on a model for the work were instrumental in establishing the general framework and enabled me to get my thoughts on paper. I am grateful for her steadfast pursuit of excellence on form and format. I appreciate all the time she dedicated to the review of the manuscript and to her many insightful comments. Giuseppina Kysar Mattietti my friend and Italian trained geologist taught me Italy’s geologic history gave me insights to Italian culture. Her gentle encouragement and Italian way of simplifying the complexities of Italy’s geology complemented my way of reasoning and enabled me to understand this geologically challenging Mediterranean region. Rick Diecchio taught my first introductory geology class and several others at George Mason University. He encouraged me to do this work, and made many useful contributions to the manuscript. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………vi List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………..vii List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………….………..xii Abstract………………………………………………………………………………..xiii Foreword…………………………………………………………………………….......1 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………….....3 2. Chapter 1. Geologic Primer……………………………………………………......10 3. Chapter 2. A Summary of Italy’s Geologic Evolution…………………………….51 4. Chapter 3. A Slice of Central Italy – From Rome to Gran Sasso D’Italia (The Regions of Lazio and Abruzzo)……..……………………………………………..63 5. Chapter 4. A Slice Across North/Central Italy – Orvieto, the Geologic History of the Alps and Apennines, the K/T Boundary in Gubbio, Florence, Pisa and Larderello (The Regions of Tuscany, Umbria and Marche)…….…………….....108 6. Chapter 5. Northern Italy – Comparing Alps to Apennines, Lake Como, the Dolomites, Bolzano, Venice (The Regions of Lombardia, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Veneto).………………………………………………………………………164 7. Chapter 6. A Slice of Southern Italy – From Naples to the Promontorio del Gargano, Naples, Mt.Vesuvius, Pompeii, Phlegraean Fields, the New Italian Dinosaur Species (The Regions of Campania and Puglia)..………………………212 Afterword…………………………………………………………………………..274 Works Cited………………………………………………………………………..275 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Geothermal Fields in Italy Electricity Production 2005…………………………..159 2. Worldwide Geothermal Power Generation in Early 2005………….……………..160 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Lace from Burano…………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Geologic Time Scale………………………………………………………………14 1.2 Earth Cutaway……………………………………………………………………..17 1.3 Plate Tectonics……………………………………………………………………..22 1.4 Plate Tectonics……………………………………………………………………..24 1.5 Continental-Continental Convergence……………………………………………..26 1.6 Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Convergence………………………………………………27 1.7 Oceanic-Continental Plate Convergence…………………………………………...28 1.8 Divergent Plate Boundary Sequence………………………………………………29 1.9 Mid-Atlantic Ridge………………………………………………………………...30 1.10 Mid-Ocean Ridge…………………………………………………………………..30 1.11 Normal Fault……………………………………………………………………….31 1.12 Reverse Fault………………………………………………………………………32 1.13 Strike-Slip Fault……………………………………………………………………32 1.14 San Andreas Fault………………………………………………………………….33 1.15 Earthquake Along a Reverse Fault………………………………………………...33 1.16 Welded Tuff………………………………………………………………………..36 1.17 Basalt………………………………………………………………………………37 1.18 Limestone………………………………………………………………………….39 1.19 Travertine in 400 Year Old Building in Rome…………………………………….40 1.20 Map of Major Volcanoes in Italy…………………………………………………..44 1.21 How Calderas Form………………………………………………………………..45 1.22 Shield Volcano……………………………………………………………………..46 1.23 Composite Volcano………………………………………………………………...47 1.24 Cinder Cone Volcano………………………………………………………………48 1.25 Rock Cycle…………………………………………………………………………50 2.1 Digital Elevation Terrain Model of Mediterranean………………………………..52 2.2 Paleogeography of the Mediterranean Late Triassic 200 MY……………………..54 2.3 Paleogeography of the Mediterranean Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary 100 – 56 MY……………………………………………………………………….56 2.4 Paleogeography of the Mediterranean Late Oligocene to Early Miocene 24 - 15 MY…………………………………………………………………………58 2.5 Paleogeography of the Mediterranean Late Miocene 6 MY……………………….60 3.1 Lazio and Abruzzo Regions of Italy……………………………………………….63 3.2 The Seven Hills of Rome…………………………………………………………..65 vii 3.3 Volcanic Rocks of Sabatini and Alban Hills, Rome……………………………..67 3.4 Sedimentary Environment……………………………………………………….69 3.5 Simplified Geologic and Location Map Showing Sampling Locations…………70 3.6 LANDSAT -7 Image of Rome and Environs……………………………………72 3.7 Lake Bracciano…………………………………………………………………..72 3.8 The Tiber Near Rome……………………………………………………………74 3.9 Tiber River……………………………………………………………………….75 3.10 Drainage Area of Tiber…………………………………………………………..76 3.11 Santa Maria Sopra Minerva……………………………………………………...77 3.12 Fire Department Rescues in Rome Dec. 14, 2008……………………………….78 3.13 Flooded Banks of Tiber in Rome – Dec. 2008…………………………………..78 3.14 Author Drinking From a Fountain at the Vatican………………………………..80 3.15 Karst Terrain in Gran Sasso D’Italia……………………………………………..81 3.16 Temple of Antonius and Faustina, Forum………………………………………..84 3.17 Close up of Temple of Antonius and Faustina Column………………………….84 3.18 Travertine on Outer Wall of Colosseum, Rome………………………………….85 3.19 Roman Colosseum………………………………………………………………..87 3.20 Trevi Fountain……………………………………………………………………88 3.21 The Appian Way………………………………………………………………….89 3.22 Life on the Appian Way…………………………………………………………..90 3.23 Close Up of Basalt and Wheel Tracks on the Appian Way, Rome……………….91 3.24 The Appian Way, Rome…………………………………………………………..92 3.25 Columnar Basalt…………………………………………………………………..94 3.26 Via Appia………………………………………………………………………….94 3.27 Gran Sasso D’Italia, Campo Imperatore…………………………………………..96 3.28 Wild Horses Licking Salt, Campo Imperatore…………………………………….97 3.29 Sketch Map of Gran Sasso Thrust System in the Geological Setting of Central Apennines………………………………………………………………………...100 3.30 Shaded Relief Map of Gran Sasso and Surrounding Areas………………………101 3.31 Epicenters of Instrumental Earthquakes Recorded From 1980-1996 by the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia…………………………………..103 3.32 Earthquake Location in L’Aquila Italy…………………………………………...107 4.1 Tuscany, Umbria and Marche Regions of Italy…………………………………...108 4.2 City of Orvieto…………………………………………………………………….110 4.3 Orvieto Cliff……………………………………………………………………….111 4.4 Geological Schematic of the Orvieto Cliff………………………………………...112 4.5 Schematic Evolution of Orvieto During the Quaternary…………………………..114 4.6 Mechanisms of Instability of Orvieto Rock………………………………………..116 4.7 Strengthening Scheme of Orvieto Rock…………………………………………..117 4.8 Orvieto Cathedral ………………………………………………………………….118 4.9 Orvieto Cathedral Stained Glass-Travertine Window……………………………..119 4.10 Close Up of Orvieto’s Travertine Window………………………………………..119 4.11 Pigeon Holes in Orvieto Underground……………………………………………122 viii 4.12 Aerial View of Lago Trasimeno………………………………………………..124 4.13 Adria and the Adriatic Promontory Converging Northward Towards Europe…128 4.14 The South Side of the Bottaccione Gorge………………………………………129 4.15 KT Boundary and Scaglia rossa Limestone, Gubbio……………………………136 4.16 Tuscan Hillside………………………………………………………………….137 4.17 Façade of Florence’s Duomo…………………………………………………....140 4.18 Detail Design of Florence’s Duomo…………………………………………….141 4.19 Dome of Florence’s Duomo…………………………………………………….142 4.20 Rocks of Florence’s Duomo…………………………………………………….143 4.21 David (Michelangelo)…………………………………………………………...145 4.22 Carrara Quarry…………………………………………………………………..146 4.23 The Pieta…………………………………………………………………………147 4.24 Leaning Tower of Pisa…………………………………………………………..148 4.25 Geological Map of Pisa Area……………………………………………………149 4.26 Geologic Map of Pisa Area………………………………………………………150 4.27 Soil Profile Beneath the Tower…………………………………………………..151 4.28 Proposed Method of Inducing Subsidence by Soil Extraction…………………..152 4.29 Geothermal Reservoir……………………………………………………………154 4.30 First Geothermal
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