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Chapter 7 Wind Power Zero Order Draft Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN) Chapter 7 Wind Power First Order Draft Contribution to Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN) Chapter: 7 Title: Wind energy (Sub)Section: All Author(s): CLAs: Ryan Wiser, Zhenbin Yang LAs: Maureen Hand, Olav Hohmeyer, David Infield, Peter Hjuler Jensen, Vladimir Nikolaev, Mark O’Malley, Graham Sinden, Arthouros Zervos CAs: Naim Darghouth, Dennis Elliott, Hannele Holttinen, Jason Jonkman, Andrew Mills, Patrick Moriarty, Sara Pryor, Charles Smith Remarks: First Order Draft Version: 01 File name: SRREN_Draft1_Ch07 Date: 22-Dec-09 18:26 Time-zone: CET Template Version: 8 1 2 COMMENTS ON TEXT BY AUTHORS/TSU TO REVIEWER 3 Yellow highlighted – original chapter text to which comments are referenced 4 Turquoise highlighted – inserted comment text from Authors or TSU i.e. [AUTHOR/TSU: ….] 5 6 Length 7 Chapter 7 has been allocated a maximum of 68 (with a mean of 51) pages in the SRREN. The actual 8 chapter length (excluding references & cover page) is 72 pages: a total of 4 pages over the 9 maximum (21 over the mean, respectively). 10 Expert reviewers are kindly asked to indicate where the Chapter could be shortened by 4-21 pages 11 in terms of text and/or figures and tables to reach the mean length. 12 13 References 14 References highlighted in yellow are either missing or unclear. Do Not Cite or Quote 1 of 92 Chapter 7 SRREN_Draft1_Ch07 22-Dec-09 First Order Draft Contribution to Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN) 1 Chapter 7: Wind energy 2 CONTENTS 3 Chapter 7: Wind energy................................................................................................................2 4 CONTENTS.........................................................................................................................................2 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................4 6 7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................6 7 7.2 Resource potential............................................................................................................9 8 7.2.1 Global technical resource potential..........................................................................9 9 7.2.2 Regional technical resource potential ....................................................................12 10 7.2.2.1 Global assessment results, by region .................................................................12 11 7.2.2.2 ´Regional assessment results..............................................................................14 12 7.2.3 Possible impact of climate change on resource potential ......................................17 13 7.3 Technology and applications.........................................................................................17 14 7.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................17 15 7.3.2 Technology development and status......................................................................18 16 7.3.2.1 On-shore wind technology.................................................................................18 17 7.3.2.2 Off-shore wind technology ................................................................................21 18 7.3.3 International wind technology standards ...............................................................22 19 7.3.4 Grid connection issues...........................................................................................23 20 7.4 Global and regional status of market and industry development...................................24 21 7.4.1 Global status and trends .........................................................................................24 22 7.4.2 Regional and national status and trends.................................................................25 23 7.4.3 Industry development.............................................................................................28 24 7.4.4 Impact of policies...................................................................................................29 25 7.5 Near-term grid integration issues...................................................................................30 26 7.5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................30 27 7.5.2 Wind energy characteristics..........................................................................................30 28 7.5.3 Planning power systems with wind energy...................................................................32 29 7.5.3.1 Power system models.............................................................................................33 30 7.5.3.2 Grid codes..........................................................................................................33 31 7.5.3.3 Transmission infrastructure and resource adequacy evaluations...........................33 32 7.5.4 Operating power systems with wind energy.................................................................34 33 7.5.4.1 Integration, flexibility, and variability ...................................................................34 34 7.5.4.2 Practical experience in integrating wind energy....................................................36 35 7.5.5 Results from integration studies....................................................................................37 36 7.6 Environmental and social impacts .................................................................................39 37 7.6.1 Environmental net benefits of wind.......................................................................39 38 7.6.1.1 Direct impacts ....................................................................................................40 39 7.6.1.2 Indirect lifecycle impacts...................................................................................40 40 7.6.1.3 Indirect variability impacts ................................................................................41 41 7.6.1.4 Net environmental benefits ................................................................................42 42 7.6.2 Ecological impacts .................................................................................................42 43 7.6.2.1 Direct bird and bat fatalities...............................................................................42 44 7.6.2.2 Ecosystem structure impacts..............................................................................43 45 7.6.2.3 Impact of wind project development on the local climate.................................44 46 7.6.3 Impacts on humans.................................................................................................44 47 7.6.3.1 Land and marine usage ......................................................................................45 Do Not Cite or Quote 2 of 92 Chapter 7 SRREN_Draft1_Ch07 22-Dec-09 First Order Draft Contribution to Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN) 1 7.6.3.2 Visual impacts....................................................................................................45 2 7.6.3.3 Noise, flicker, health, and safety........................................................................45 3 7.6.3.4 Property values...................................................................................................46 4 7.6.4 Public attitudes and acceptance..............................................................................46 5 7.6.5 Minimizing social and environmental concerns ....................................................47 6 7.7 Prospects for technology improvement and innovation.................................................47 7 7.7.1 Research and development programs ....................................................................48 8 7.7.2 System-level design and optimization ...................................................................48 9 7.7.3 Component-level innovation opportunities............................................................50 10 7.7.3.1 Advanced tower concepts ..................................................................................50 11 7.7.3.2 Advanced rotors and blades ...............................................................................51 12 7.7.3.3 Reduced energy losses and improved availability .............................................52 13 7.7.3.4 Advanced drive trains, generators, and power electronics.................................52 14 7.7.3.5 Manufacturing and learning curve .....................................................................53 15 7.7.3.6 Advanced turbine concepts ................................................................................53 16 7.7.3.7 Off-shore research and development opportunities ...........................................53 17 7.7.4 The Importance of underpinning science...............................................................54 18 7.7.4.1 Aeroelastics........................................................................................................55 19 7.7.4.2 Aerodynamics ....................................................................................................56 20 7.7.4.3 Aeroacoustics.....................................................................................................57 21 7.7.4.4 Advanced control
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