Integrated Green Spaces in Urban Areas - A case study of inner Brisbane

Hanna Olsson Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet Område Landskapsarkitektur Fakulteten för landskapsplanering, trädgårds- Examensarbete i landskapsplanering, 30 hp och jordbruksvetenskap Landskapsarkitektprogrammet Självständigt arbete vid LTJ-fakulteten, SLU Alnarp 2012 Integrated Green Spaces in Urban Areas - A case study of inner Brisbane

Titel svenska: Integrerad grönstruktur i urbana miljöer - En fallstudie över centrala Brisbane Författare: Hanna Olsson Handledare: Mats Gyllin, SLU, Arbetsvetenskap, Ekonomi & Miljöpsykologi Examinator: Tim Delshammar, SLU, Landskapsutveckling Bitr. examinator: Christine Haaland, SLU, Landskapsarkitektur Omfattning: 30 hp Nivå och fördjupning: A2E Kurstitel: Examensarbete i landskapsplanering / Master Project in Landscape Planning Kurskod: EX0546 Program: Landskapsarkitektprogrammet / Masterprogramme in Landscape Architecture Ämne: Landskapsplanering Utgivningsort: Alnarp Utgivningsmånad och -år: Februari 2012 Omslagsbild: Hanna Olsson Serienamn: Självständigt arbete vid LTJ-fakulteten, SLU Elektronisk publicering: http://stud.epsilon.slu.se

Nyckelord: Green space, perceived dimensions, Brisbane, challenges, design, planning, characteristics, SWOT, landscape values

PREFACE

“Life is what happens to you while you’re busy making other plans”

John Lennon, “Beautiful Boy”

A journey in how we perceive and experience our outdoor environment, as well as a personal journey about my own experiences… urban and environmental planning and the challenges within. Wishing you a pleasant reading and hoping you will get inspired to further engagement about the field of There are many I want to thanks who have supported, encouraged, helped and inspired me along the way on my Master Thesis.

Thank you!

Mats Gyllin, my supervisor, for guidance, support and help - bane, for opened my eyes about urban and environmental planning in a regional perspective HelenDarryl Favelle Low Choy, & Anton Associate Trenorden, Professor planner in Environmental and landscape & architectLandscape at PlanningBrisbane atCity Griffith Council University, for contribut Bris- ing information and for letting me meet you in private. - tion and for your guidance during my stay in Brisbane regarding the case study. CeciliaNeil Sipe, Olsson, Associate my Mother, Professor for inalways Urban watching & Environmental over me and Planning bringing at Griffithme a smile. University, for your inspira

Tyréns AB, Malmö, for letting my use their office - NL-fakultetensship Samlinsfond, SLU, for given my financial support by their genorous schoolarship Ulla och Julius Edwardssons stipendium, SLU, for given my financial support by their genorous schoolar ABSTRACT SAMMANFATTNING

The review of Integrated green spaces in urban areas – A case study of Arbetet “Integrated grönstruktur i urbana områden - en fallstudie över centrala Brisbane” betona vikten av att kartlägga karaktärer, kvaliteter qualities and landscape values in our outdoor environment. The impor- och landskapvärden i vår utemiljö. Fördelarna med att integrera grön- tanceinner Brisbaneof green spaces highlight to thethe wellbeingsignificance of peopleof addressing in the citycharacteristics, and the eco - logical, social and cultural values they carry are widely recognised in the och kulturella värderingar de bär är allmänt erkända inom urban och regionalstruktur planering.i stadsmiljöer Befolkningstillväxt, för vårt välbefinnand klimatförändringar och de ekologiska, och urbanisersociala - climate change and urban development put planners and scientists in a ing sätter planerare och forskare i en utmanande position där nya lösnin- challengingfield of urban position and regional where planning. new solutions At the must same be time put populationon the agenda growth, in gar måste sättas på dagordningen för att åstadkomma hållbarhet. Tydligt order to accomplish sustainability. Open space strategies, collaboration utvecklade strategier, samarbete mellan aktörer, allmänhetens deltagande between stakeholders, public participation, learn from earlier failings and och ett “värde-baserat” beslutsfattande ger ökade positiva resultat för a “value-led” approach facilitate the managing of open space. hantering av grönstrukturplanering.

Brisbane is located in the fastest growing metropolitan region in Austral- Brisbane tillhör den snabbast växande storstadsregion i Australien. ia. The city´s open space landscapes offer cultural, geographical, recrea- - tional, social and scenic amenity assets, which make a major contribution kreativa kvaliteter som bidrag till regionens välkända identitet. Landska- to the regions identity they a wide world known for. Landscape values petsStadens värden öppna inom landskap grönstrukturen erbjuder förbättrarkulturella, livskvalitetgeografiska, för sociala alla invånare. och re within open space highly improve liveability and quality of life for all resi- Den genomförda fallstudie av två parker i centrala Brisbane, South Bank dents. The operated case study of two parks in inner Brisbane, South Bank Parklands and the City Botanic Gardens show the wide range of different characteristics included in the design. The qualities and the characteris- våraParklands parker och och the trädgårdar City Botanic är väsentliga Gardens visar för användningen på flera olika karaktäreroch attraktion i sin- tics found in landscapes, parks and gardens are essential for the usage and fysiskaskraften. utformning. Genom att Dekartlägga kvaliteter olika och “upplevelsevärden” egenskaper som finns i grönstrukturen i landskapet, i the attractiveness. By addressing perceived dimensions in green spaces, så kan man få fram en analysbild av områdets styrkor, svagheter, möj- strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats can be further evalu- ligheter och hot. Endast en integrerad och väl utformad grönstruktur kan ated. Only an integrated and well-designed open space system can meet möta behoven hos ett växande och föränderligt samhälle. the needs of a growing and changing community. TABLE OF CONTENTS Landscape heritage 25 Outdoor recreation 25 ILLUSTRATIONS 8 Landscape Connection and Attraction 25

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 10 CHAPTER FOUR - OPEN SPACE STRATEGY IN BRISBANE 27 Background 10 Factors Affecting Green Space Use 27 Concepts & Definitions 11 Aesthetics 27 Aim & Purpose 12 Cultural differences 28 Question at Issue 12 Accessibility 28 Delimitation 13 The Planning Structure 28 Method 13 Plans, Programs and Policies 29 Open Space Strategy 29 CHAPTER TWO – GREEN SPACES IN URBAN AREAS 14 Future Threats and Challenges 30 What is Green Space? 14 Climate change 31 Green Space and Urban Form 14 Structure and Multifunction 15 CAPTER FIVE – CASE STUDY AND ANALYSES OF GREEN SPACES IN IN- NER BRISBANE 32 16 Definition of Perceived Dimensions of Urban Green Space 32 16 Study Area 33 The importanceRecreation of Green Openand Health Space Effects in Urban Areas 17 Material and basic data 33 Use values of GreenActiveness Space and passiveness 18 The Methods, Scope and Purpose of the Review 34 Perceived Dimensions of Green Spaces 18 Perceived dimensions-analysis 34 The Idealistic Park 20 SWOT-analysis 35 South Bank Parklands 36 CHAPTER THREE – BACKGROUND AND VALUES OF GREEN SPACE IN Overview 36 BRISBANE 21 History 36 The History of Town Planning in Brisbane 21 Structure and physical design 36 The establishment of the Greater Brisbane 21 Accessibility 37 Town planning movement 21 Perceived Dimensions 38 Current planning approach 21 Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) of Brisbane – A Metropolitan City in Australia 21 South Bank Parkland 39 An attractive city 22 City Botanic Gardens 41 Quality of Life and Liveability 23 Overview 41 Landscape Values 23 History 41 Biodiversity 24 Structure and physical design 42 Rural production 24 Accessibility 43 Scenic amenity 24 Perceived Dimensions 43 Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) of City Botanic Gardens 44 Critic of Method 45

CONCLUSIONS 46

REFERENCES 47 Img. 16: Floods in Brisbane 2011, (private)

ILLUSTRATIONSThe images, tables and maps used in the review are permitted for publica- Img 17: Diver at a reef, (www.sxc.hu) tion. The sources are presented in the list. Img. 18: The case study area, (www.queensland-australia.com.au) Images Img. 19: SWOT-analysis, (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SWOT_en.svg)

Img. 20: South Bank Parklands location, (www.queensland-australia.com. Img. 2:1: SurfersUrban structure Paradise, in (private) central Brisbane, (private) au)

Img. 3: Kurilpa Bridge, (private)

Img. 4: Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney, (private) Img. 22:21: OverviewThe Bougainvillea over the Grandparklands, Arbour, (www.discoverbrisbane.com.au) (www.flickr.com)

Img. 5: Grey Headed Flying Foxes, (private) Img. 23: The Streets Beach, (private)

Img. 24: The Brisbane Wheel by night, (private)

Img. 7:6: TheActiveness Botanic and Gardens passiveness, in Gothenburg, (www.flickr.com) (private) Img. 25: The City Botanic Gardens location, (www.queensland-australia. com.au) Img. 8: The Australian continent, (www.queensland-australia.com.au)

Img. 9: Surfers Paradise, (private) Img. 27:26: The riverBrisbane walk, skyline, (www.runningmaps.eu) (www.flickr.com)

Img. 28: Water Hill Fountain, (private) Img. 10: Brisbane skyline by night, (www.flickr.com)

Img. 12:11: NativeSurfing, plant, (private) (private) Img. 29: GoodwillTables Bridge, (www.flickr.com) Img. 13: Springbrook National Park, (private) Table 1: International and Australian park standards, (Byrne & Sipe, Img. 14: Aborigine with a boomerang, (private) 2010:21)

Img. 15: Brisbane view, (www.flickr.com) 8 Table 2: Perceived dimensions and its criteria, (modified from SCTRP, 2004; Grahn et al., 2005; Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2009)

Table 3: Perceived dimensions found in South Bank Parklands

Table 4: Perceived dimensions found in the City Botanic Gardens

Figures

Fig. 1: Landscape attraction and connection spectrum, (adapted from Steadman, 2003)

9 gov.au), andduring aten year period from 1991to 2000,thepopulation of years (2006-2010), thepopulationin CBDhasdoubled((b)www.abs. in thefastest growing metropolitan region inAustralia. Over thelastfive and mustbemanagedby collaboration (IPCC, 2007).Brisbaneislocated change, urban development andpopulationgrowth are ofglobal concern facing similarthreats andchallengeswithinthefieldofplanning. Climate Even though needsand requirements differ amongthecountries,we are Thesis. supervisor, MatsGyllin who gave courage andsupportto startmy Master feeding thosethoughts Idecidedto discussmy concernswithmy Swedish results show andwould itbeusefulinfurtherplanning?After monthsof well-known Swedish methodonanAustralian site? Whatwould the aging green spacesinBrisbaneandwould itbepossibleto apply avery myself ifthelandscapevalues have beentaken into accountwhen man- regular basis,Inoticedthatthey were different from backhome.Iasked was aroused. SinceIwas visitingtheparks andgardens inBrisbaneona spaces inBrisbaneare implemented to meetneedsandrequirements, riosity aboutopenspacestrategies andhow thephysical designofgreen grated andevaluated inthegreen spacenetwork in innerBrisbane.Acu ment withinthesubjectandpaidattention to how thesevalues were inte- At thattimeIdiscovered aninterest andacuriosityfor furtherimprove- be identifiedto guidecurrent andfuture planning. knowledge oflandscapevalues, QualityofLife and“senseofplace”should in theplanningprocesses (Low Choy, 2006;2009;2010),where improved of integrating “values-led” planningand“performance based”approaches held thecourse:“Strategic PlanningStudio”, highlighted theimportance Darryl Low Choy, NeilSipe,Lex Brown andJagoDodson.Low Choy, who planning, where discussionsandtutorials were heldby theProfessors several interesting courseswithinthefieldofurban andenvironmental During my exchange year atGriffithUniversity in2009-2010Istudied Background CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION - 10 et al.,2005). learn very littleaboutthequalitiesfound intheurban green areas (Grahn improve qualityoflife andliveability (Low Choy, 2006,2009).Thus,we heritage, socialopportunitiesandscenicamenityassets,which highly safeguard communityandlandscapevalues, suchasbiodiversity, cultural Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009).Itisalsowidely argued thatopenspacemay health andwell-being are well definedintheliterature (Grahn, 1992; The importanceofgreen spaceanditscontributionto ourimproved statistics putplannersinachallengingposition. the SouthEastQueenslandregion grew by 25%(Low Choy, 2009).These

CHAPTER ONE Sustainability: with aspatial settingby anindividual oragroup (Alexander, 2008). architects and sociologistsoften seeitasanattachmentorasatisfaction place of Describes theaffective bondbetween peopleandplaces.Geographers, Sense preference andvisual exposure” (SEQRP, 2009:64). region’s widevariety oflandscapes.Scenicamenityis afunctionofscenic the psychological benefitthatthecommunityderives from viewingthe amenity “Scenic amenityisthemeasure ofalandscape’sscenicqualities,reflecting Scenic further presented. us certainexperiences. Inthisthesis,several (1-8)characteristics willbe rural landetc.) orthebuilt(parks, gardens etc.) environments thatgive dimensions Refer to different landscapecharacteristics found inthenatural (forest, Perceived within thelandscapethathighly contribute to ourpreferred way ofliving. Is well connected to qualityoflife andrefers to attributes andvalues Liveability nic amenity, outdoor recreation andrural production (SEQRP, 2009:56). liveability oftheregion, for example: biodiversity, landscapeheritage,sce- regional landscape,which significantly contribute to theeconomy andthe values Several landscapevalues have beenidentifiedandrecognised withinthe Landscape ments which contribute to liveability andqualityoflife. space Refer to publicaccessibleareas withinopenspacesthatinvolve green ele- Green of thecontext throughout thethesis. Some conceptsanddefinitionsmustbeclarifiedfor furtherunderstanding Concepts &Definitions 11 their own needs”(UN, 1987). present withoutcompromising theabilityoffuture generations to meet mission isoneofthemostused:“Sustainabilitymeetsneeds throughoutity” theyears, where thedefinitionfrom theBrundtlandCom- There have beenseveral different definitionsoftheconcept“sustainabil Brisbane. a site. Themethodwillbeusedinmy casestudy ofgreen spacesininner Strengths, Weaknesses, OpportunitiesandThreats involved inaproject or A SWOT-analysis isastrategic planningmethodusedto evaluate the SWOT-analysis - CHAPTER ONE es withinsustainabledevelopment andenvironmental planning. data to continuethediscussionandhighlight thecomplexity andchalleng Hopefully theresults from the casestudy willgive materials andbasic improvements attheon-going debate aboutgreen spaceand usevalues. weaknesses, opportunitiesandthreats withingreen space,to guidefuture My intension withthisthesisis,by mappingandaddressing strengths, ity oflife. are ofgreat significanceandcontribute to theregions liveability andqual • Mapandaddress qualitiesandlandscapevalues withinopenspacethat ties andTreats withinthesites. by thesamecasestudiesevaluate theStrengths, Weaknesses, Opportuni- which extend, perceived dimensions are includedinphysical design.Also • Examine by casestudiesofgreen spacesininnerBrisbane,how andto and Queenslandto beableto evaluate challengesandthecauseswithin. • Address openspacestrategies andplanningapproaches withinBrisbane ture andphysical designofgreen spaces. and theSwedish University ofAgriculture concerningusevalues, struc from readings, journals,articlesanddebates heldatGriffithUniversity the usevalues within.Thiswillbeaccomplishedby presenting discourses • Highlight theimportanceofintegrating green spacesinurban areas and The purposeofthisMaster Thesisismainly to: Aim &Purpose - - - 12 spaces inBrisbaneandtheSEQregion? • Whichare thequalitiesandlandscapevalues to befound withingreen Brisbane? nesses, opportunitiesandthreats includedinthegreen spacesofinner • Whichandhow are theperceived dimensionsandthestrengths, weak the region? Brisbane andQueenslandthatwilltarget threats andchallengeswithin • Whichare theopenspacestrategies andplanningapproaches within es? lighted inthetheoretical fieldofprevious andpresent planningdiscours- • How are usevalues, structure andphysical designofgreen spaceshigh- the review: In thisthesisIhave founded thefollowing questionsto guidethroughout Question atIssue - CHAPTER ONE in general willbehighlighted. planning, theoriesconcerningstructure andphysical designofopenspace are facing similarchallengeswideworld withinthefieldofenvironmental within theSouthEastQueenslandregion willbeheldaswell. Sincewe discussion regarding qualities,landscapevalues andopenspacestrategies willbefurtheranalysedBusiness District, andevaluated. Butawider Brisbane regarding my casestudies.Two parks, located attheCentral ommended for thethesis,Ihave chosento focus onthecentral partof Due to thespecified timeframe andthecertainamountofpagesrec - Delimitation 13 be furtherpresented infollowing chapters. weaknesses, opportunitiesandthreats withinthesite. Themethodswill analyse have beenappliedatthesameprecinct to evaluate strengths, to theexperienced qualitieswithinaspecificsite. Inadditional,aSWOT- concept ofperceived dimensionsintheoutdoor environment andrefers of thetwo methods.Thefirstmethodusedisdeveloped from aSwedish gathered. Thematerial enabledfurtherevaluations andtheapplication in theselected precincts, where information andbasicdatahave been My site analysis andthecasestudy have beenperformed by several visits lighted different aspectsofsustainableplanningcriteria. important knowledge ofurban andenvironmental planning,which high- sions, tutorials andprojects atGriffithUniversity have contributed with obtained from literature, articles,journalsandwebsites. Extensive discus The theoretical background andtheinformation gathered are mainly information. Trenorden attheBrisbaneCityCouncil,who provided me withvery useful planning approaches inQueensland,Ivisited HelenFavelle andAnton are presented andhighlighted. Regarding openspacestrategies andthe by aliterature review where planningdiscoursesandon-going debates I amintroducing thesubjectofintegrating green spacesinurban areas Method - CHAPTER ONE ban development (Springgate, 2008). that suchareas stillprovide aestheticaland psychological relief from ur- public doesn’t have total accessto theurban green spaces,it´sbelieved al orcorporate grounds andhigher educationcampuses.Even though the privately owned. may Suchplaces includecommunitygardens, institution Generally, green spacesare accessibleto thepublic,butare insomecases regional levels and larger sites inthewider countryside (GIG, 2009). network operates atallspatialscalesfrom localneighbourhood, to sub- may surround thebuiltenvironment (Grönplan för Malmö,2003).The gardens, squares etc.) and paths(streets, walkways, canalsetc.), which ecological processes (GIG,2009).Thisisusually divided into areas (parks, underpins sustainabilityandincreases qualityoflife withitsnatural and is anetwork ofmulti-functionalgreen space,bothrural andurban, which 2004). Anotherterm thatmustbeclarifiedis“green infrastructure” which of urban andregional planning(Bucht&Persson, 1994;Strategi Skåne, in green spaceandare alsoreferred to asthe“bluestructure” inthefield open water, rivers, streams andstorm water systems are usually included environments (Bucht&Persson, 1994;GIG,2009).Water systems suchas gardens, avenues, playing fields andchurchyards to natural landscape of abroad range oflandscapecharacters from highly maintained parks, opportunities to thesociety(Marilyn, 1975).Green spacemay consist “green space”isapartofopenspaceandserves to provide recreational it isoften includedinthedefinitionaswell (www.epa.gov). Theterm to improving publichealthandenvironmental qualityofneighbourhood, piazzas, plazas,playing fieldsandurban squares often are contributing has nobuildingstructure onit(www.epa.gov). Butsince itisbelieved that Open spaceisoften describedasany pieceoflandthatisundeveloped and What isGreen Space? CHAPTER TWO –GREENSPACES INURBAN AREAS - 14 metropolitan areas. urban form, Howard´s legacy isstilltoday ofgreat significantindesigning bourne andAdelaide (Hall&Ward, 1998).When discussing greenery and lowed worldwide by othercities,suchasNewOrleans, SãoPaulo, Mel principles ofgreen beltplanningandtheGarden Citymodelwere fol- surrounded by agreen beltwould constrain sprawl (Godall,1987).The tan area withaconcentricpattern includingopenspacesandboulevards, London (Hall&Ward, 1998).Howard believed aself-sufficientmetropoli- cally more profitable, which was putinto practice inthe Garden Citynear and densecity. Thiscolonisation ofrural landwould alsobeeconomi- quality oflife heargues for suburbanisation, by escapingthepolluted greater needofgreen spacesdueto lackofspace.To improve ahigher the concernaboutagrowing populationwhere urbanisation leadsto a (1902) istheprimeadvocate ofgreen spaces(Skoniezki, 2010).Heraised to theera ofModernism,where Howard´s Garden CitiesofTo-morrow the Broadacre CityandtheGarden Cityare subjectto andwell connected debate atthetime.Theplanner´smodelsofRadiant City, theGridCity, design andplanningfor automobile traffic, which was thesubjectof Right andEbenezerHoward hadasignificantrole inpromoting functional tury plannersandarchitects asLeCorbusier, LewisMumford, Frank Lloyd city shouldbedesignedto improve living conditions.Duringthe20thcen Several planningtheorieshave guidedthediscussiononhow themodern Green SpaceandUrban Form Img. 1:Urban structure incentral Brisbane - - CHAPTER TWO ages refer to five typesofelements: paths,edges,districts, nodesand is theoverlap ofmany individual images” (Lynch, 1960:46).Theseim author claims“there seemsto beapublicimageofany given citywhich mental psychology into thefield ofurban planning(Lynch, 1960).The its namewas ofgreat importance inhumanbehavior, andadded environ- ability suchassocialmeaning ofasite, itsfunction,history andeven while navigating through urban areas. Heargued influencesonimage- Image oftheCity(1960),how usersperceive thephysical environment Kevin Lynch, anAmericanplannerandauthor, examines inhisbookThe dress theproblem ofhumanadaptations(McHarg, 1967). values withplanning.Finally thelackoftheoriesmadeitdifficultto ad- and ecologicalscience,buthadnotpointed outany interests incombining socio-economic process. Theexperts were informed ofphysical processes edge oftheenvironment inplanning,which was earlier atotally applied The bookcertainly played acontributingrole inemphasizingtheknowl- not yet discovered theenvironment issuesregarding man´sbehaviour. McHarg´s book DesignwithNature was publishedin1967, scientistshad debate was notpresented until50years later. At thetimewhen Ian The awareness ofincludingenvironmental concernsintheplanning world, over Surfers Paradise. Img. 2:Viewfrom Q1,thetallestresidential buildinginthe - 15 conveniently located parks. Furthermore they are moving from atra- and Gearin (2005) supportthetheory oftheimportance available and tween urban andrural landscape would have to besubstantial.Pincetl In order to optimise thevalues withingreen spacetheinteraction be 1961:99). modernist plannerswho considered parks as“self-evident virtue”(Jacobs, areas provide thecrowded citywithcertainfunctions,andagree with direct contrast to avery compactandbusy citylife. Sheargues thatgreen spaces, inparticularparks, are themostvaluable, asthey often standin open spacesisrising.TheauthorJaneJacobs(1961)claimsthatgreen Since more peopleare chosento live inthecity, thepressure oncurrent Structure andMultifunction spaces and,socialandenvironmental sustainabilityofurban areas. still ofinterest andagoodstartingpointwhen discussingsprawl, green (Luymes, 1997).Hisengagement insegregation andplanningissuesare integrates publicandprivate spacesinorder to improve socialcohesion an ideaofwhat hewas callingaGoodCity Form, which inasmoothway landmarks which constitute amentalmap of thecityform. Lynch alsohad Img. 3:Kurilpa Bridgeinfront ofBrisbaneCBD.

CHAPTER TWO tan areas withanumberofimportant activities, functions and ecosystem It isargued thatregional landscapeandopen spaceprovide metropoli- and physical settings are highly valued (Burgess etal.,1988). life andfacilitate avariety ofopportunities,socialand cultural diversity (Berglund &Jergeby, 1998).Green spaces enhancethequalitiesofurban in urban areas are important to satisfy different needswithinthesociety broad structural range and avariation atdifferent scalesofgreen spaces improvement ofthequality oflife for allcitizens(Burgess etal.,1988).A sity, where thepotential ofgreen spacesishighlighted asapotential Research hasshown thatthere is agreat needfor environmental diver The importanceofGreen OpenSpaceinUrban Areas before designinggreen structure and developing rural landscape. Sorte (1985)claimtheimportanceofassessmentandevaluation ofusage in newforms andspacesfor future growth (Sieverts, 2003).Grahn and lem inurban andregional planning.Therefore we mustseeksolutions and development shouldbeseenasanopportunityrather thanaprob- The increasing demandfor openspaceinurban areas dueto urbanisation landscape more dynamic, where urban andrural attributes are merged. way oftraveling across thelandscapeandwithinurban areas makes the mobility withinthemetropolitan region” (Kühn, 2003).Thenewandfast between cityandcountryside isgradually levelling offby increasing a strictseparation between thenotionoftwo ofthem.“Thegrade Today plannersdiscussthesynergy ofcityandcountryside, rather than between green areas andthebuiltsurroundings (Skoniezki, 2010). be well connected to eachother, which willalsoform abetter interaction structure (GIG,2009).To increase theattractiveness, green spacesshould we achieve anoptimalandfully multifunctionalnetwork ofgreen infra- individual spotsandroutes, butitisnotuntilthesites are connected that range offunctionsitmay offer. However, multifunctionalitycanapply to ity iscentral to theconceptofgreen infrastructure andrefers to the wide and pathsform1961).Multifunctional anetwork ofaccessibility(Jacobs, recreation inthecity, to multiple-functionzoneswhere streets, sideways ditional viewofgreen spaces only asdesignated zonesfor nature and

- - 16 • Rural landscapethatprovides residential locations. tion. • Farming landsthatsupply urban areas withfood andfarming produc- • Water catchments thatsafeguard urban water supplies. landscape identity. • Openspacethatprovides scenicamenitythatcontributes to regional • Natural resources for buildingandconstructionpurposes. ter to theurban areas. • Infrastructure corridorsthatfacilitate themovement ofenergy andwa- • Outdoor recreation areas for theurban populationandtourists. services, including: Use values ofGreen Space (Low Choy, 2004:12; 2009:2) urban planning.(6) Thegreen structure thatcombinesgreen openspaces Today theimportanceofgreen spacesiswidely recognised in thefieldof recreational andsocialactivities. Img. 4:Royal BotanicGardens inSydney ispopularfor

CHAPTER TWO values aswell. and aesthetical functions,green spaces have significant cultural and social (Grönplan för Malmö,2003).Inadditionto theecological,recreational urban development affect thegreen experiences inman´severyday life sues. Itcreates abetter understandingofhow natural processes and knowledge andawareness ofecologicalsystems andenvironmental is biodiversity in thecity. Spendingtimeinparks andgreen areas increases ent specieswithinurban areas, which plays acrucialrole for promoting effectively linked green infrastructure facilitates thedispersalofdiffer of plants,animals,soilandhumanactivity (Bucht&Persson, 1994).An The ecologicalfunctionswithingreen spacesinvolve thewhole system 1994). serving nature for itsown sake isgenerally secondary(Bucht&Persson, experiences, identityandculture for theresidents. Themotive for pre- been developed primarily to provide opportunities for recreation, play, development. Itisargued thatgreen structure incityenvironments has wildlife speciesinenvironments thatare otherwisedominated by urban 2003). Green areas serve asenvironmental lungs,providing arefuge for to thecitizens(Skonieski; Bucht&Persson, 1994;Grönplan för Malmö, provides several environmental, social,cultural andeconomicfunctions tral Sydney. Img. 5:Grey HeadedFlying Foxes roosting inatree incen- - - 17 Grahn, 1986). of learning, playing andoutdoor activities (Grönplan för Malmö,2003; children´s physical movement skills,andprovide themwithpossibilities 1985). Access to green environment isshown to have apositive impacton areas atadifferent ageandfor different purposein life (Grahn &Sorte, It seemslike different groups withinthesocietytake advantage ofgreen stressed we become(Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2003). distance to greenery, themore often andtheless we spendtimeusingit, more densegreen spacenetworks to avoid longdistances.Theshorter most popularingeneral, while inurban areas there isagreater needfor (Grahn, 1986).Grahn andSorte (1985)found nature-style parks to bethe observing green environments, which also refers to theaestheticalvalues recreation includesphysical activities andpassivity entailsbeinginand ban recreation into passive, active, emotionalandcreative, where active improved concentration andlearningcapacity. Hisresearch divides ur effects ofgreen spacessuchasstress relief, strengthened immunesystem, tunities they provide for society. Grahn (1992)highlights thepositive green areas may improve well-being, becauseoftherecreational oppor importance ofgreen spacesfor publichealth.Independentofitscharacter, ery, andahigh qualityoflife. Plannersandexperts today agree onthe There isastrong relationship between accessibility/experience ofgreen- Recreation andHealthEffects green infrastructure (Berglund &Jergeby, 1998). feelings andknowledge shouldbeincludedintheplanningprocesses of “for more democratic planningofourcities”, people´svalues, experiences, integrated withthebuiltenvironment. To achieve and asustainableresult, different structure andenvironmental qualities,which mustbewell ing socialnetworks. Buildingfor green spacesrequires agoodmixof work associalarenas where parks andgreen areas are essentialinbuild ecology withthesocialscope(Borgström, 2009).Outdoor environments trees andplantsinteract withsocialqualitiessincegreen areas combine tivities, Regarding butalsofor spontaneoussocialcontact. socialfactors, physical andapsychological needfor greenery, notonly for outdoor ac This isargued by Grahn andSorte (1985)who claimthatpeoplehave a - - - - CHAPTER TWO amount ofinformation thebusy citylife provides uswith, forces our lot ofattention, which isperceived asexhausting andtiring.Thegreat human health(Grahn, 1991b).Urban areas ontheotherhandrequire a population, which emphasisesthe importance ofpassive recreation for Green areas ofserene characteristics are preferred by a majority ofthe crowded amusementparks are more attractive (Grahn & Sorte, 1986). feeling motivated, engaged andextrovert, physical andsocialactivities in such aspromenades andreadings are preferred. Ontheotherhand,when introvert people(Grahn, 2005). In this type of condition peaceful activities plation andreflections, which shouldappealto stressed, depressed and and state ofmind.Apark ofaserene characteristic facilitates contem- are attracted to different characteristics dependingontheirwell-being qualities, characteristics andpossibleactivities. They claimedthatpeople Grahn &Sorte (1986)mappeddifferent typesofparks dependingontheir (Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2003). increased abilityto concentrate andlessproduction ofstress hormones effects. Passiveness ingreen spacesmay leadto lowered bloodpressure, only beingactive inagreen environment thatgenerates positive health purposes, in order to make aquicker recovery from astressful life. Itis not Grahn (1991b)argues thatgreen spacesare mainly usedfor recreational Activeness andpassiveness Img. 6:Mostparks offer bothactiveness andpassiveness. 18 Perceived DimensionsofGreen Spaces ing inanother world” andto experience freedom andspaciousness. No The mostdistinct attributes for thischaracteristics are the notionsof“be- 2. Stigsdotter, 2009;Grahn, 2005). litter, nonoiseandnottoo many people shouldbedisturbing (Grahn & notice soundsoftheblowing wind, singingbirds and pouringrain. No portunities to reflection andspiritualityare appreciated. You canusually such aswindbreakers andeasily accessiblepaths,where safety andop- place withnoannoying soundsanddistractions. May containattributes This isaplacewhich expresses silence,serenity andpeacefulness,aquiet 1. istics, which refer to theperceived dimensionsofurban green spaces. environmental psychology, hasdeveloped eight different Park Character Patrik Grahn, aSwedish landscapearchitect, who isalsoascientistwithin urban green spaces(Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009). we mustimprove ourknowledge ofhow citizensexperience andperceive analyse thequalitiesofdifferent characteristics. For better understanding potential to berestorative environments, thenwe needto address and ing general healthconditions(Grahn, 1991b).Ifgreen spaceshave the to activate amajorityofthepopulationisindirect proportion to maintain tion ofallcitizensinurban recreational activities. However thechallenge range ofdifferent characteristics ofgreen spaces,itfacilitates the interac- discouraged, which to ahigher extent controls theusage.By having awide distinguishing qualityandcharacteristics, activities may beencouraged or ronment (Grönplan för Malmö,2003).Dependingonthephysical design, quality green spaceswithinatwo-minute-distance from ourliving envi- we are usingthem.Itseemsthatitisofgreat significanceto have high The designofandaccessibilityto green spacesare determined by theway 1991). energy, which may leadto headaches,irritationanddepression (Kaplan, brains to work intensely to screen theimpressions. Thisprocess requires Space Serene - - CHAPTER TWO with botanicalgardens andtheGarden ofEden (Grahn, 2005). gives thecharacteristic afurtherdimension.Thismight alsobeassociated butterflies (Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009).Adding water, damsandponds, of agreat variety offlora andfauna, includingflowers, berries,lichens, This typeofgreen spaceincludesspeciesdiversity andmediates anotion 4. ter, 2009;Grahn, 2005). condition, becauseofitsdynamic andintrinsicvitality(Grahn &Stigsdot- atmosphere. Itgives thevisitor afeeling ofbeinginnature onitsown ally madeupofrocks, lichensandmossesbringsarelaxing andsafe tion between humansandnature hasitsarena. Theenvironment isusu- Native plantsandanimalsdominate theexperiences, where theinterac- ments thatappearto have noorlittlehumaninfluences(Grahn 1991a). The park characteristics ofwildernessare associated withgreen environ- 3. plation andreflection (Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009;Grahn, 2005). The green spaceconsists ofacohesive structure, which facilitates contem - external influencesfrom surrounding environments shouldbepresent. Img. 7:TheBotanic Gardens inGothenburg are richinspecies. Rich in species in Rich Nature 19 6. (Berggren-Bärring &Grahn, 1995). such asswings, slidesandsmallhousesinvite to active andpassive games age children to play games, have picnic andoutdoor activities. Attributes structures are enclosedby bushesandhigher vegetation, andencour- feeling ofsafety ishighly important(Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009).The A placewhere peoplecanrelate to, andidentifythemselves, where the and Grahn (1995) themore characteristics thatare includedingreen aims atguiding future planning processes. According to Berggren-Bärring The research thataddresses perceived dimensionsofurban green spaces Bärring &Grahn, 1995). located closeto urban centres, sincedisturbance may occur(Berggren- to facilitate festivity. Theplacementsofthesegreen areas are usually which demandbenches,restrooms, well litupandeasily accessiblepaths take place(Grahn, 2005).Different variables ofamusementare included, sonal meetings,where activities suchasdancing,playing anddiningmay The socialcharacteristic ofaplaceencourages socialactivities andper 8. ties are themainaccomplishment(Berggren-Bärring &Grahn, 1995). facilities, publictoilets, trees inrows aswind-breakers etc. Physical activi- cept thegrass lawn, theenvironmental may, for instance,consistofsitting with open fields, which are usually designed as well-cutgrass surfaces. Ex The prospect dimensionofperceived urban green spacesisassociated 7. historical andcultural footprint. Stigsdotter, 2009).Theplaceisofsymbolic significanceandimpregnates tains, statues,pondsetc. inbothnatural andcultural settings(Grahn & tributes. Suchattributes may behumanartfacts suchassculptures, foun- understanding theirenvironment by identifyingcultural andhistorical at a senseofbelongingandidentityare fulfilled.People have adesire of This characteristic isassociated withhumanvaluation andhistory, where 5. Refuge Social Prospect Cultural - - - CHAPTER TWO Prerequisites for social contactsandthenotion ofnursingcare are also disturbing elements to befound inthepark, itwillbecome lessattractive. able to see,withoutbeingseen.This aimsto arouse curiosity. Ifthere are A variation ofopenspaceanddisclosedstructures enablesretreat, to be planning. should beaguidingprinciple inthemoderndebate ofsustainableurban ronment isagreat source ofexperiences. Furthermore, thepreferences environmental theoriesabouttheeight preferences thattheurban envi- mined for itsattractiveness. Sorte argues, basedonprofessor Küller´s Spatiality, Spiritedness, Sociality, Affection andOriginality, andisdeter which refers to eight different preferences: Comfort, Complexity, Entirety, Gunnar Jarle Sorte (2005)discussesthenotionofIdealisticPark, The IdealisticPark contain. address how green spacesare usedandwhat kindofcharacteristics they teristics were found. Whentalkingaboutwellbeing andhealth,we must of thegreen areas very strongly, while inothergreen spaces,few charac- ter, 2009).Itisnotablethatvisitors canidentifyallcharacteristics insome nected to expectations aswell asfundamentalreflexes (Grahn & Stigsdot- The perceived dimensionsofurban green spacesinvolve experiences con Stigsdotter, 2009). Refuge were found inthemiddle,directly after Spaceand Nature (Grahn & ture, Prospect andSocialwere theleastpreferred, andRich inspeciesand dimensions are included,which attract amajorityofthepopulation.Cul Grahn, 2005).Serene satisfiesseveral needs.Sometimesalleight ofthe even for themoststressed andvulnerable (Grahn &Stigsdotter, 2009; The characteristic ofSerene isthemostpreferred dimensioningeneral, individual, butalsoaidto improve qualityoflife withinsociety. with high diversity, sincegoodrecreational conditionsnotonly serve the park becomes. Ståhle(2005)highlights theimportanceofgreen spaces spaces, themore people benefitfrom itsusageandthemore popularthe - - - 20 knowledgement abouttheIdealisticPark. also undertaken by professor Sorte, who supportsthemodelinhisac- beneficial inthemostprofitable way (Kaplanetal.,1998).Theresearch is spaces mustinvolve Complexity, Unity, Readability andMystery, to make it Kaplan, two scientistswithinenvironmental phycology, claimthatgreen ronment andwhich factors thatshouldbeincluded.Stephen andRachel Several scientistshave developed theoriesaboutimproving outdoor envi- determining factors for itsattractiveness Sorte (2005).

CHAPTER TWO Minnery (2004) argues thisismainly dueto thevery low state population surrounded by greenbelts, which turnedoutto belargely unsuccessful. by Garden Cityideas, where communitiesintended to beself-contained, 2004). Theapproach of`greater cities´, asinGreater Brisbane,was guided the debate, andhighly influenced thetown planning discussion(Minnery, administration, politicalandsocialchangesinAustralia was caught upin “breathing (Low spacesfor Choy, thecity” 2009:5).This was atimewhen provision ofadequate parks and publicreserves” andspoke interms of William Jolly, thefirstmayor ofBrisbaneacknowledged “theneedfor the space conceptinrecreational purposeswere expressed inthecityplan. awarenessAfter Brisbanesestablishment, ofandawillto includeopen ed (Low Choy, 2009). was created, after twenty smallerauthorities andshires were amalgamat Australian explorer Robert Dixon, butitwas notuntil1925thatBrisbane first CityPlanofBrisbaneTown was establishedintheendof1840by the ended, andfree settlersentered thearea ofSouthEastQueensland.The financed directly from Britain.At thattime,deportationofconvicts had Australian citiesintheBritishcolonialempire, which were controlled and time trades, mining,wool andgoldposedthemaineconomicactivities of (Sandercock, 1990).Duringthenineteenth centurytheindustryofmari onemillionaborigineslivedtlement, ashunters across thecontinent for “white” Australia. For atleastfiftythousandyears priorBritishset Transportation ofconvicts from Britain in1788was thestarting point (Gregory, 1996). cluded rainforest, coastalland,swamps, lagoons,flatland-andgrasslands aboriginal tribesinhabited theregion. They roamed alarge area thatin Before European settlersoccupiedthearea today known asBrisbane,two The establishmentoftheGreater Brisbane The History ofTown PlanninginBrisbane SPACE INBRISBANE CHAPTER THREE–BACKGROUND ANDVALUES OFGREEN - - - - 21 (Low Choy, 2006)Thecentral parts around Brisbane encompassesa and isincluded inthefastest growing metropolitan region inAustralia. Brisbane islocated inthesouth-east cornerofthestate ofQueensland, Brisbane –AMetropolitan CityinAustrali planning process anditsoutcomes. and program initiatives have beendeveloped to facilitate andguidethe within theSEQregion (Low Choy, 2006). Sincethen,several documents weaknesses, opportunitiesandthreats, for current andfuture needs opment approach (Sandercock, 1990).Thisaimsto addressing strengths, tor, planningissues thelastdecadeshave adopted thesustainabledevel- changing international circumstances andlittlegrowth intheprivate sec After years ofeconomicdifficultiesduringthe70´sto mid-80´s,dueto in everyday life (Low Choy, 2009). great significancesincetheautomobile hadnow becomewell integrated transport needswere calculated upuntiltheyear 2000.Thereport was of in thelate 50´s.IntheBrisbanetransportation study report, future public Despite steady growth, Brisbanewas suffering infrastructure problems Current planningapproach Choy, 2009). scheme, which was undertaken by theBrisbaneCityCouncilin1965(Low for controlling planningpolicies,ledto thefirststatutory town-planning `legislative´ phaseconcerningzoning,subdivision andcontrol. Theneed opment was advocated. Planningturnedfrom beingan`idea´phaseto a for servingtheneedsofBrisbane´spopulationby efficientlandusedevel- amongst thereasons given for development ofGreater Brisbane,planning interest” (Minnery, 2004:5).However, even though town planningwas was seenasatool for “comprehensiveness, co-operation andthepublic Later ontheconceptofTown PlanningMovement grew stronger, which living initscapitalcity. Town planningmovement a - CHAPTER THREE international migrants, which putthe“region underpressure” (Low Choy, tributes hasbeenthemost importantfactors to attract bothnational and (Low Choy, 2009).Thehigh QualityofLife anditspositive landscapeat 2000, thepopulationof theSouthEastQueenslandregion grew by 25% bled ((b)www.abs.gov.au), andduringaten-year periodfrom 1991to Over the lastfive years (2006-2010),thepopulation intheCBDhasdou Mountains are thelowest rises(Gregory, 2007). Mountain andEnoggera Hill,where White Hill,Highgate Hill andStephens est pointofBrisbane(300m)andisfollowed by MountGravatt, Toohey bers (Edward, George etc). William,Albert, MountCoot-thaisthehigh- ret, Maryetc), andperpendicularto thosestreets, namedafter malemem- female membersoftheBritishRoyal Family inonedirection (Ann, Marga- Brisbane isahilly citywithagridstreet system intheCBD, namedafter nisation (Feb 1893,Jan1974,2011)(Gunn,1978). the metropolitan area, thecityhassuffered three majorfloodssincecolo inside acurved segmentoftheBrisbaneRiver. Sincetheriver crisscrosses District) standsontheoriginalsite ofEuropean settlementandislocated the south,andacross to Ipswich inthesouth.TheCBD(Central Business along theBrisbaneRiver, from Caboolture inthenorthto Beenleigh in also known astheRiver City, sincetheurban area extends in alldirections third mostpopulouscity inthecountry((a)www.abs.gov.au). Brisbaneis population ofover 2millionpeople(inMarch 2011),which makes itthe Img. 8:TheAustralian continent - - - 22 comes to cafes and restaurants. Many ofthese places have taken advan- The Brisbane central businessdistrict offers arichsocial life when it of boththebeachandhinterland landscapes (GCCC, 2007:14). capturing anearly expression oftheperceived attractiveness andvitality with green spaceandbeachassets,oftheBrisbane tourism promotion Australian lifestyle. Leisure hasbecomepartofthearea‘s cultural identity, as surfing,swimming, hikinganddiving are ofgreat significancefor the Based onthemildclimate, beachesandassociated leisure pursuitssuch (SEQRP, 2009:58). and temperate zonessupportinganabundanceofspeciesandhabitats of theregion, withthearea occupying atransition zonebetween tropical around. Topography andlatitudehave contributed to therichbiodiversity mild winters makes itperfect for outdoor recreational assetsalltheyear The humidsubtropical climate withhotandhumidsummersdry, An attractive city ing intheinnercitysuburbs (www.traditionalqueenslanders.com). Before thenthearchitectural style known asQueenslanderwas dominat- sity housingapproach typically through multi-residence accommodation. 2009:4). Thepopulationgrowth sincetheearly 70´shasledto ahigh-den Img. 9:Thefamous beachesatSurfers Paradise outsideBrisbane. - CHAPTER THREE QoL andliveability ofaregion only canbesafeguarded ifitissupported Professor Darryl Low Choy (2009) at theGriffithUniversity claimsthe space willbecomeeven more important. tion growth andchange,therelationship between QoLandregional open crease liveability withincommunity. However, intimesofrabid popula of regional openspaceseeks to improve QualityofLife (QoL)andin- due to afunctionalopenspacesystem (Low Choy, 2009).Preservation region´s identityand`senseofplace´,which inalarger context ismainly recreation. Itiswidely argued thatlandscape attributes contribute to a landscape heritage(bothindigenousandnon-indigenous) andoutdoor these values may includebiodiversity, rural production, scenic amenity, According to theSouthEastQueenslandRegional Plan(SEQRP, 2009:56) that contribute significantly to theeconomy andthewelfare oftheregion. There are many values andqualitiesto befound intheregional landscape Quality ofLife andLiveability the Australian lifestyle ((a)www.brisbane-australia.com). places to befound aswell, which are ofgreat significanceinmaintaining ties. However, ifyou want relax to orhave chillout, abarbeque, there are tage ofthemildclimate andprovide guestswithoutdoor eatingfacili- Img. 10:TheBrisbaneskyline atnight. - 23 Low Choy in2004:13). liveability objectives that thecommunityseeks for the region” (assited by QoL thatresidents enjoy which inturncontributes to theachievement of space thatconstitutes theregional landscape.Thesevalues determine the tion oroutdoor recreation opportunities)thatare derived from theopen places value onlandscapeattributes suchasscenery(ornature conserva- between openspaceandQoL,Low Choy (2009)observes: “thecommunity might have negative impactsonsuchvalues. Regarding theconnection landscape, theframework shouldaddress functionsandactivities that and managedby aregional landscapeframework. Inorder to protect rural utes (Low Choy, 2009:4). sure´ putting atriskthevery uniqueenvironmental andlandscape attrib to widechallengesfor thearea, which makes SEQa`region underpres space, sinceresidents move outwards from theurban centres. Thishasled to thispopulationgrowth, hasresulted inurban sprawl andlossofopen migrants, which is themainfactor ofthegrowth. Housingdemands,due within theopenspacesystem. Thesepositive values attract interstate and QoLofaregion. Landscapevalues andattributes are often to befound As mentioned,openspacemakes asignificantcontributionto theidentity Landscape Values Img. 11:SurfingisanessentialpartoftheAustralian lifestyle. - - CHAPTER THREE (SEQRP,regional sustainability” 2009:48). sity values oftheregion are enhancedover thelongerterm to support of areas withsignificantbiodiversity values and thattheoverall biodiver opment andotherland useactivities donotcauseany lossordegradation The policywithinSEQRPintends to protect landscapeby ensuring“devel- 2009:58). sustain significantbiodiversity values atregional andlocalscales”(SEQRP, habitats andconnectingbiodiversity corridorsdesignedandmanagedto scape areas ofgreat significanceare identifiedas:“Networks ofwildlife classified by theregional economy andenvironment. Single value land The landscapevalues ofbiodiversity are often easy to measure andcanbe Biodiversity protected intheregion, including: South EastRegional Planbringsupkey values, which are supported and which gives theSEQregion itswell-known reputation (SEQRP, 2009:56). Highly valued landscapeareas in-corporate several values andattributes, Any partoflandmay integrate oneormore values into thelandscape. Img. 12:Native plantintheCityBotanicGardens, Brisbane. - - 24 of theassetsfor identifyingtheregion. the SEQ´sbeaches,oceans,ranges, mountains,parks andforests are some variety oflandscapes”(SEQRP, 2009:64).Scenicamenityqualitieswithin cal benefitthatthecommunityderives from viewingtheregion’s wide “is themeasure ofalandscape’sscenicqualities,reflecting thepsychologi- Scenic amenityisafunctionofwhat we experience by visualexposure and Scenic amenity key ecosystem services(SEQRP, 2009:67). air, native animalsandplants,provide thepeopleofSEQregion with Natural resources suchasland,fresh andmarinewater, forests, minerals, scape heritage(SEQRP, 2009:56). of aestheticandcultural attributes connected to scenicamenityandland nomic resources. Thiscreates rural landscapesthatcontainawiderange fishing opportunitiesfor humanuse,they alsoincludenatural andeco Rural landscapesdonotonly provide agriculture, grazing, forestry and Rural production Img. 13:Beautiful viewover Springbrook NationalPark, Queensland. - - CHAPTER THREE tion to theplanningprocess oftheSEQregion (Low Choy etal., 2010). enous landscapevalues, which turnedoutto have asignificantcontribu study (2010) thatshowed thatis possibleto articulate andidentifyindig identified intheregional planningprocesses. Thefindingsfrom theirpilot et al.(2010)argue thatindigenousvalues needto beincorporated and In order to establishasustainablelandscapeheritageapproach, Low Choy heritage. such asopenspaces,facilities andinfrastructure, which represent culture 2009:83). Thesevalues may alsobeexpressed inlandscapeattributes found inarchitecture, crafts, arts,design,festivals andleisure (SEQRP, sists ofnon-indigenousandindigenouscultural values, which couldbe comes to cultural andindigenoussignificance.Landscapeheritagecon The regional landscapeanditsurban footprint are highly valued when it Landscape heritag methodologies (SEQRP, 2009:58). amenity significancecanbeidentifiedandevaluated by existing regional provide localresidents withrecreational opportunities.Values ofscenic These scenicamenityattributes attract tourists from across theworld and Img. 14:Discussinghow to useaBoomerang withanaborigine. e - - - 25 Fig. 1:Landscapeattraction andconnectionspectrum: (Stedman, 2003:682). ings andhow they may changeinresponse to physical landscapechange” by changes.“Itiscrucialthatwe understandtheimportanceofmean- not always aware oftheaffection to theplaceuntilsite isthreatened a placeisoften describedasabond,anunconsciousstate, where you are and theidentityoflandscape.Therelationship between peopleand in thesevalues when lookingattheissueofcapture a`senseofplace´ in. According to Stedman, plannershave to beaware ofthedifferences and people´sconnection/attraction to theregional site they are situated (2003) hasidentifiedatheoretical distinctionbetween landscapevalues ests, needs,cultural andsocialbackground mustbeaddressed. Stedman volved intheprocesses, andconsiderations such asdemographic, inter When planningfor sustainabledevelopment stakeholders needto bein- Landscape ConnectionandAttraction vation andpublicrecreation (SEQRP, 2009:66). be achieved by developing aregional inventory oflandfor nature conser per centmore landfor publicrecreational activities by 2020,which will 2009:66). According to SEQRPthere isastate-wide target to protect 50 economic, tourism, cultural andenvironmental outcomes (SEQRP, recreation (Low Choy, 2009)andcontribute to improving social,health, An integrated network ofopenspaceandurban areas facilitate public Outdoor recreation Landscape attraction Landscape connection Tourists residents Newly arrived residents Established owners Traditional - - CHAPTER THREE is essentialinlandscapeheritageplanning(Corlett etal.,2010). of stakeholders´this spectrumand differentrelationships tolandscape the attracted to thesamewater area dueto thepolluted beach.Awareness of food connectionto apolluted water area; similarly atourist may notbe and attraction decrease. For example, anindigenous group may losetheir stakeholders have environmental thresholds over which theirconnection (2003) hasfound thatwhile thelevel ofconnectionandattraction vary, all bution anddepthofattachmentfor various groups intheregion. Stedman in aspectrum,which illustrated theimportanceofrecognizing thecontri The stakeholders andtheir relationship to thelandscapeare represented - 26

CHAPTER THREE surroundings and prefer leisure and activities recreational inthe experiences & deVries, 2006). Actually, it is notable, city dwellers to urban escape seek parks more frequently just live they because indenserenvironments (Maat that we cannot assume urban residents neighbourhood use necessarily will sation Hypothesis´ (Maat &deVries, 2006).However, recent research suggests access by using public parks more often,which is referred theto `Compenas - 2007).It(Searle, is claimed that residents compensate will green space poor and green neighbourhood, spacesintheir due to loss of private backyards Some theorists argue that urban residents to more seek frequently parks use students Brisbane inthe are CBD (Byrne &Sipe, expected to be 2010). arewho retired or young couples with younger children, and graduated newly numbera higher of recent immigrants with young families, more residents reational opportunities. If we are to assume urban growth patterns ingeneral, are recent immigrants, have agreater for need public access to parks and rec- arewho children or retired, with low income levels or are unemployed, or who Different research havepointed outthat people with little or no private space, ences and safety are factors that greatly influence public use. 2006). Physical characteristics, existing facilities, accessibility, cultural differ want to green spaceopportunities use forRoss, different & (Coen purposes disability and physical fitness, havethey differentneeds thereforeand normally Since people are different in age,sex, race, ethnicity, education, income levels, (Byrneneeds &Sipe, 2010). and lifestyle preferences inour attempt tocurrent satisfy and future public to need accountalso for socio-demographic characteristics, recreational trends es inproviding green spaceopportunities. When designing green spaceswe features open compact inthe spacesystem, while cities suffergreater challeng- inurban areas. use al In lower density cities, parks and gardens are dominating space appearances increase possibility the for an efficientactive and recreation - Solutions upon supply based the of varietyof awide different greentypes of Factors Affecting Green SpaceUse CHAPTER FOUR -OPENSPACE STRATEGY INBRISBANE - 27 1991b). from visualising and by passive are activities not underestimated to be (Grahn, and green areas tofrom benefit their presence. Therecreational opportunities ter, 2009).It is argued that some users donot direct access evenneed to parks ronment, where aserene atmosphere (Grahn &Stigdot experienced could be - have found that amajority of green spaceusers prefer anatural landscape envi- than itself aesthetics the (Kaplan etal., 1998;Sorte,2005).However, studies and emotions the from different experienced is decision design rather making, inpreviousAs discussed chapters, varietyof the open and structure disclosed Aesthetics public (Byrne needs etal., 2010). pies, shade possibilities, rain shelters, seating, barbequefacilities etc.) to meet contain level of ahigh environmental qualities (different treestructures, cano - • To optimize usage, the urban green spacesmust to easy get be to, safe be and past, attracted which another target group. environment, since historical sites may have another and use inthe function • Planners aware to need be of how to integrate green spaceswith existing built space opportunities indifferent ways. • Different urban residents have different thereforeneeds,will and use green public green spaces. that there are important several factors considered to be planning when for (Byrne etal.,countryside 2010;Maat &Vries, 2006).Byrne etal. (2010)argue Img. 15:View over Brisbane CBD.

CHAPTER FOUR 2010). 1000 residents´ minimum standard City Plan from (Byrne & Sipe, BCC´s the other international open spacestandards and below `two also the hectares per is `one 1000residents´, hectare per is which significantly lower compared to & Mahler, 1970).In inner the Brisbane green the spacestandard used being and distances use the walking make obstruct green spacesless attractive (Bangs heterogeneous structure and availability into account. Unnecessarily long standardthe approach has received criticism for not quality taking parks, standardthe of 1,000residents 4-5ha per (Byrne &Sipe, 2010).Since 70s the following concept the of United the Kingdom. In Queensland accepted they residents. Australian cities were at first the thetwentieth decades of century green spaces.Later on standards the were and modified referred to acresper cans claimed that no resident should have more than 400meters to parks and standard approaches were introduced to planning the discourses, Ameri- the mum acceptable green spaceallocations for urban residents. Initially when The standard approach earlyhasthe since twentieth the mini- centuryguided Standard approach andneeds-basedassessments information, distance to parks, costs and crowding (Byrne &Sipe, 2010). transport, amount the of for time recreational fear activities, of crime, poor attitudestheir toward leisure and nature, ifand how have they access to public Factors that may affect usage greenof spaces arewhere potential live,users Accessibility 2010). bring demands new and challenges upon green spacesystems (Byrne &Sipe, centthan 20per were overseas born (www.shelteroffshore.com). Immigrants attracts many cultures, for reasons, several and have apopulation where more thus green spacesare probably differently. very used Brisbane and SEQ region Many Australian cities consist of relatively levels high of cultural diversity, Cultural differences 28

brisbane-australia.com). government The local is responsible for city matters, including over those police, hospitals, government schools and local ((b)www. Governors,the state the rule who parliament, retain which residual all powers governmentlocal (www.qld.gov.au). The state government is represented by ture, defence and welfare. The also provideFederals funding both to state and ernment is responsible for national security, general taxation, major- infrastruc co-operate to ensure and facilitate Australian the democracy. The Gov - Federal Governmentand Local the (www.gg.gov.au).three The levels of government constitutes three tiers of Federal Government, bureaucracy: State Government and Unitedtralia the Kingdom of Great Britain.Governmental The system tutional monarchy IIas its Elizabeth apex of with Queen as Queen the Aus- Brisbane City belongs to Commonwealth the of Australia, is which aconsti- The PlanningStructure support sustainable green spacenetwork. upgraded”be (Byrne &Sipe, 2010:23).This has emerged as a preferred tool to characteristics of areas for parks which are or needed, where park facilities will assessment,based “which considers socio-demographic the and bio-physical A more currentthan the and model standards beneficial approachthe is need- Table 1:Comparisonofinternational andAustralian park standards: CBD Brisbane Queensland Australia dom United King- dom United King- United States Place Present Present 1940s 1950s 1920s 1970s Year 1 ha 1 4-5 ha 7 acre/3 ha 4 acre/ 1.6ha 6 acre/ 2.4ha 10 acre/ 4ha Green Space Size of Public

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Population (Byrne &Sipe,2010:21) Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified 800 m Unspecified 400 m Distance

CHAPTER FOUR protect regional the landscape, production rural and non-urban values from tion and climate change. The SEQRP is a statutory instrument, seek whichto promoteswhich sustainability by compact settlement, reduced car use, conges- Plan (SEQRP) is Queensland the Government´s document for smart growth, ing growth and effects the caused.it East Queensland South The Regional Regional and policies program initiatives were inresponse to rapidly chang - Act 1997(IPA) of 2009asbounded document. alegally in 18th December consultation and planning reform, SPA the replaced Integrated the Planning and change within State” the (www.derm.qld.gov.au). As aresult of extensive of natural the environment by providing aframework for managing growth to balancecommunity well-being, economic development and protection the land’s planning and development assessment legislation. Theof SPApurpose is The Sustainable Planning 2009(SPA)Act “…formsthe foundation Queens- of gional planning approach (Byrne et al., 2010). management boundaries, urban consolidation and other measures re inthe - to urban sprawl minimise by using urban footprints, landscape values, growth sessment processes” (www.dlgp.qld.gov.au). Planning strategies have sought planning schemes, state planning regulatory provisions and development as- statutory planning tools, including state planning government local policies, and economic development. “Regional plans operate inconjunction with other SEQthe challenge the meet associated with population growth, climate change guide and provide framework for Queensland the government, helps which There are several plans, programs policieswithinand regional planningthat Plans, Programs andPolicies support, government gives which local great power political (Minnery, 2004). through stateoccurred government action,but government with active local under state government legislation. The establishment of Greater Brisbane Town planning matters inQueensland are devolved government to local but Brisbane City Council. (BCC) braries, inBrisbane which is controlled bygovernment asingle local entity, the making decisions concerning at scale, roads, alocal public transport and li- 29 future, must considered. be • Ensure multiple of use open space, since range awide of present needs, and • Strengthened and integrated values associated with open spaces. 3. tree• Essential cover along roads, parks and other public spaces. • Creation of public new space. • Pathways throughout Brisbane. • Corridors of great significance. ecological 2. threats • Ensure able be we to keep will existing open spacesfor current and future • More efficient public influence over privately openspace.owned ernment- owned land. • Greater collaboration state between and government federal to protect gov- • Support regional integration of open spaceinitiatives. 1. open spacesinBrisbane, where has he Council addressed four key elements: The strategy aims to establish a plan for how to protect, develop and manage government)bane City (local Council has Space developed an Strategy. Open following inthe future discussed chapter, further challenges, be as will Bris the - reputation as agreen and attractive city inAustralia. In response to current and Brisbane has an extensive network of open spacesthat greatly contributes to its Open SpaceStrategy Footprint delineated for future and current growth (Kennedy, 2010). of region the from urbanisation by containing development within an Urban next 20years (SEQRP, 2009:1).The seeks planto protect morethanper cent 80 plan is astep towards planning for abetter future that shape will SEQ over the inappropriate urban residential and rural development (Low Choy, 2009).The Better managingBetter open spaces,including: Initiatives to better and link consolidate key open spaces,including: Protection of existing open space, including:

CHAPTER FOUR tion of regional the landscape initiatives to freehold landowners. • Minimise and manage negative non-planning influencesfrom communica- participation and community development stages. inall • Full community engagement by avoluntary collaborative process of public • Involve and evaluate stakeholders planning inthe debate. scape. • Develop Space an Strategy, Open should which facilitate open the spaceland- ed. These challenges might include: development of astrategy to challenges meet within SEQ the region is demand- As mentioned there are immediate several threats to SEQ´s identity, inwhich SEQRP,the lessons ifthe are learnt to be from past. the processes, author the positive highlightthe outcomes that from might occur valuesscape entirety” intheir (Low Choy, 2009:1). Regarding implementation challenges facing Queensland South East and safeguarding its regional land- management capable paradigm of successfully addressing urban the growth nity engagement through collaborative planning is only the feasible landscape orfailed met limited success (Low Choy, on its 2009).Based “commu history - response challenges, to these previous inwhich regional initiatives scale had Queensland. The statutory document SEQRP 2009-2031was produced in we as planners must faceinorder to maintain landscape values inSouth East population growth and urban development are some of challengers the that region´sthe of sense place and liveability are threatened. Climate change, positiveThe landscape attributes theand unique that lifestyle contribute to Future Threats andChallenges (BCC, • Greater opportunities for Indigenous values and needs. spaceprograms• Open that respond to community needs. 2006) • Encourage community involvement and public participation. 4. • Establish equitable standards of open spaceacross Brisbane. Closer involvementCloser of community, including: 30 which iswhich amajor challenge for urban planners. eastern suburbs of city the and have long distances to future activity centres, ment pressure 2006).Green spacesare (BCC, largely located western inthe and north and south, are ones the that are to have expected greatest the develop- Theneeds. Brisbane areasthat arealready short parklands,of suchthe inneras upcoming trends and since needs future may needs not same the as current be recreation (Low Choy, 2006).It is essential that future parks are able to meet Recreational areas inBrisbane have traditionallyprovided been for passive park system across Brisbane the city landscape. must found. be We to need redefine our design greenof spaces and retrofit our solutions regarding physical availability design, and allocation of green spaces institutional arrangements, but as community the is growing/changing new challenges discussed These are mainly concerning planning strategies and from• Learn earlier failings • Improve integration state between government. and local • Convert planning goals and concepts into successfully planning outcomes. shouldmedia have an important role to produce positive outcomes. • Gain support from politicians, and industry business community, where the in Brisbane2011. Img. 16:Aworker clean upthedamagesfrom the floods (BBC, 2006;SEQRP,(BBC, 2009:11-12;Low Choy, 2009).

CHAPTER FOUR prehensive temperature, surface connection sea between depths thermocline to increase. Furtherexpected to recent this, research to find seeks a more com - areas becoming drier. The variability in climate due to climate changes also is creasing rainfall, more global severe precipitationsomewith and land flooding, McMichael (2006)argue etal that changed climate patterns include will in- to atmospheric greenhouse gas and aerosol accumulation isexpected. to be conditions. Climatological research claims that warmer climate, as aresponse temperature atmosphere inthe have will which direct impacts on our living on Climate Change predicts (IPCC) that climate change cause increased will likelyfect caused by effects the of humanbehaviour. The International Panel now agree climateExperts that Earth´s the isawarming experiencing ef- Climate change communitywalls, gardens and open storm water systems. • Encourage solutions design new for green spacessuch as green roofs, green by reducing physical and mental landscape. in the barriers • Improve accessibility by locate future parks within short travel distances, and nomic benefits to city life, improvealso it safety andvitality to such places. • Place commercial next activities to open not spaces,which only provide- eco • Allow intimate smaller spacesfor contemplation and relaxation. classes, events, sports weekend markets and vending. food • Ensure that the green city, spacesofferto informalservices such danceas lution and intercepting storm water. to community, the services including coolingcarbon effect, sink, reducingpol- • Deliver generous spatial parks since green spacesprovide ecosystem `free´ • Provide versatile spacesfor future needs. munity. Some functions of such asystem to: could be Such asystem should flexible be and respond to a changing growingand com- parks,pockets community gardens, iconic city parks and larger civic plazas. integrated to needs be ties and supported green inthe spacesystem including mental qualities (Byrne &Sipe, range 2010).Awide of open spaceopportuni - densities,higher where public green spaceshave level ahigher of environ - Many of immigrants the inBrisbane and its environs come from cities with (BCC, 2006; Byrne &Sipe, 2010;Low Choy,(BCC, 2006) 31 ed in the cultural inthe anded landscape heritage. • Protect and support biodiversity, openamenity space, scenic that are includ- • Encourage and manage from energy renewable sources. and• Reduce energy water use, and reduce waste and pollution. • Improve and increase recycling and re-use of natural resources and facilitate environment-friendly cooling and heating system. • Well-designed buildings adapted to climate conditions that reduce energy and accessactivity centers. to• Easily opens space, services • Consolidation and compact urban form. strategies or characteristics to achieve sustainable outcomes: Future development SEQ inthe region to include is expected following the change strategies and Australian the Reduction Scheme(SEQRP, 2009:39). be bysupported 2020.Thiswill by statewide and national initiatives, climate have out set atarget to reduce carbon the footprint inQueensland by one-third land government´s vision for 2020,Toward Q2:Tomorrow´s Queensland, they Act 1994,Integrated Planning Act 1997and Water Act 2000.In- Queens the Queensland and its legislative instruments such as Environmental Protection Since 1994strategies for sustainable development have planning the guided in morestorms occur will frequently and with greater severity. numberthe of days over double 35°Cwill by year the 2030,andand floods Furthermore, concerning Queensland, Office the Climate of Change forecasts and characteristics the of cyclones and tropical storms (McMichael etal, 2006). (Kennedy, 2010; SEQRP, 2009:40) and underwater environments. Img. 17:Climate changesare a majorthreat to ourreefs

CHAPTER FOUR 3. Nature 2. Space 1. Serene Perceived dimensionsfrom thetheoriesofGrahn: been developed asfollowed: The finaldefinitionofperceived dimensions, usedinmy casestudy, has SEQ region´s conditions(Themethodwillbefurtherpresented later on). needs andrequirements ofBrisbaneandistherefore adapted from the guidance from theSCTRP´smethod.Themethodisdeveloped to meetthe case study ismainly basedupontheresearch from Grahn, butwithsome The definitionofPerceived dimensionswhich Ihave chosento useinmy social perspective. the needsanddemandsfrom usersinthearea, from arecreational and planning ofresort regions andwiderlandscapeareas, andseekto meet ous chapter. Themethodwas mainly developed to guideandsupportthe theories ofProfessor Patrik Grahn, which have beendiscussedinaprevi- of theirprojects developed seven different perceived dimensionsfrom the Stockholm´s Countyfor Traffic andRegional Planning(SCTRP)hasinone characteristics peoplepreferred intheiroutdoor environment. characteristics. Theaimwiththestudy was to evaluate which qualities/ covery opportunity, Safety &proper, which have beendeveloped from 15 four different perceived dimensions,Serene &Biodiversity, Nature, Re- Landscape (Landskapets Upplevelsevärden –vilka ärdeochvar finnsde?), Planning present intheirreport from 2007:Perceived Dimensionsinthe debate. Boverket, theSwedish NationalBoard ofHousing,Buildingand Nature characteristics to befound intheliterature andinthe on-going There are several different definitionsofPerceived dimensionsorof Definition ofPerceived DimensionsofUrban Green Space ES ININNERBRISBANE CAPTER FIVE–CASE STUDY ANDANALYSES OFGREENSPAC - 32 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Serene My working definitionsofperceived dimensions: (SCTRP, 2004:12-13) 7. 6. 5. Cultural 4. 3. Space 2. Nature 1. Perceived dimensions from theSCTRP`sreport: 2009) (Berggren-Bärring &Grahn, 1995;Grahn, 2005;Stigsdotter &Grahn, 8. Social 7. Prospect 6. Cultural 5. Refuge 4. Social, service &facility service Social, Cultural &historical Refuge &activity Rich inspecies&educational Nature &native plants Space &scenicamenity Service &Social Activity &Challenge Rich inspecies&Educational Wild Rich inspecies

CHAPTER FIVE Australian lifestyle. My choiceismainly basedupon: tiveness thatfor various reasons reflecting values thatcontribute to the in SouthBankParklands andtheCityBotanicGardens dueto theirattrac- My choiceofgreen spacesfor furtheranalyses inthecasestudy resulted the SouthBankParklands andtheCityBotanicGardens. The study area covers the inner3kilometres ofBrisbaneCityandincludes Study Area Img. 18:Thecasestudy area ofBrisbane. 33 journals found ontheweb oratdifferent libraries. the review was sourced from anextensive search ofliterature, articlesand interest for furtherreadings. Inadditionto thefieldstudies,material for challenges ofgreen spacesintheinnerBrisbane, which have aroused an den attheBrisbaneCity CouncilIhave beengiven anintroduction about with seniorplannerHelenFavelle andlandscapearchitect Anton Trenor from several coursesandtutorials atGriffithUniversity. By discussion environmental planninginSouthEastQueensland,have been obtained tutional arrangements andtheplans,programs andpoliciesthatsupport Contributory information andknowledge abouttheplanningtools, insti- classified asandtitledaqualitative analysis. dimensions). Furthermore, performed observations of thischaracter are ers, which form thebasefor implemented analysis (SWOT andPerceived geographical andcultural conditions,needs,prerequisites andstakehold usage, design,structure, physical assets,facilities, accessibility, location, and basicdatahasbeencollected by numerous observation regarding the chosenparks andgreen spacesinBrisbanegeneral. Thematerial back to Brisbaneinorder to extend anddeepenmy knowledge about year 2009/2010inBrisbane.Between February andMarch in2011Iwent The review hasincludedseveral fieldstudiesandobservations duringmy Material andbasicdata whole year • my goodknowledge oftheparks by visitthemalmostevery day for a • different structure, designandphysical asset • understandingswhy andhow they attract different stakeholders • theabilityto meettheneedsfrom theusers/visitors portunities • thelarge area thatoffers recreational, social,cultural andhistorical op- • theaccessibility exposed to several challengesandthreats • thecentral location,which make theparks notonly attractive butalso - - CHAPTER FIVE used inthe case study are presented asfollowing: The different perceived dimensionsandthewiderange ofcriteria thatare guidelines. aspects ofvalues which may beusefulinfuture environmental planning valuable than theother. Themethod seeks to includeandaddress several ity between theperceived dimensions,andnocharacteristics are more as theoriginalpurposeofSCTRPreport. There isnoorder ofprior within urban areas, andare notonly applicableonrural landscapeareas, Grahn, 1995).Theperceived dimensionsare developed to fitgreen spaces perceive, themore benefited you are from thevisit(Berggren-Bärring & The more characteristics thatare included inthepark andthemore you certain area, what you experience when you enter apark oragreen space. aim ofthemethodisto address possibleperceived dimensionswithina the fullreport see:Rapport 4:2001Regionplane- ochtrafikkontoret). The which makes itpossibleto apply themethodonselected parks (for and modifiedto fittheAustralian conditions,needsandrequirements, dimension. Thecriteria andtheperceived dimensionshave been adapted uated andanalysed from different criteria fulfilledwithinevery perceived SCTRP´s report andfrom Grahn’s theories.Thetwo parks have beeneval different perceived dimensions, which have beendeveloped from the tics withinanarea. Themethodusedinthiscasestudy consistsofseven dimensions may beausefulmethodto address importantcharacteris ning for outdoor environments (SCTRP, 2004).At thosetimes,Perceived a green spacearea from arecreational orasocialperspective when plan In someplacesinSweden itissometimescommonto value alandscapeor Perceived The Methods,ScopeandPurposeoftheReview dimensions-analysis study. the two different methods,whose results isshowed inthefollowing case cerns withinthefieldofgreen spaceshave beenevaluated andanalysed in All gathered information aboutthespecificparks andtheplanningcon - - - - - 34

Table 2:Perceived dimensionsanditscriteria. service &facility service 7. & historical 6. Cultural activity 5. tional &educa- species 4. plants native 3. amenityscenic 2. 1. Serene sions Perceived dimen- Social, Social, & Refuge Rich in Nature & Space & (Modifiedfrom SCTRP,al., 2004; et 2005; & Grahn Grahn Stigsdotter, 2009) shades benches, toilets, areas, open field, Well-cut grassed old features places, interesting ment, historical Built environ- bushes and trees structure,closed opened and Playgrounds, accessibleeasy High biodiversity, disturbing noise forest, no litter or Native plants, out points landscape, look rural views, tiful areas,Open beau- turbing elements birds etc.) no dis- (water, wind, natural sound Silence and care, Characteristics Type of Nature/ sports Barbeque, picnic, tain Educate, enter games Picnic, playing relaxation school tutorials, Walking, educate, biking ing, Riding, ning, bird watch- (Hiking),- run playing, socialise Picnic, walking, ing, walking templation, read- Relaxation, con- Activity - active engaged, social, Community, nated, engaged Outgoing,- fasci Identity, safety Curious, learning Relaxed, calm devoted Satisfied, relaxed, Peaceful, calm ence - experi Expected

CHAPTER FIVE solutions for maintainingthe attractiveness oftheprecinct. Thethreats these seekto openadialogue concerningpossible improvements ornew dimensions thesite didnotfulfilorwas shortof.Regarding opportunities first method/analysis. Weaknesses withinthepark refer to perceived the park refer to theperceived dimensionsincludedandfound from the complete themethodby applying aSWOT-analysis. Thestrengths within In additionto thefirstmethod(perceived dimensions) Ihave chosento during the60s(www.isu.edu). venture, by AlbertHumphrey, who ledaconvention atStanford University case, asite orpark area. Itwas originally developed to analyse business Weaknesses, OpportunitiesandThreats involved inaproject orinthis A SWOT-analysis isastrategic methodusedto evaluate theStrengths, SWOT-analysis Opportunities andThreats. Img. 19:ASWOT-analysis consistsofStrengths, Weaknesses, 35 in theSWOT-method. litter, distanceetc., have beentaken into accountandare furtheranalysed planning. Otherplanningcriteria suchasavailability, size,noise,variation, the debate aboutsustainabledevelopment withinenvironmental regional results from thesemethodswillgive materials andbasicdatato continue and puttheregions values, liveability andQoLatarisk.Hopefully the within thepark refer to challenges,future andpresent, which endanger

CHAPTER FIVE ern end. the Goodwill Bridgeatthesouthandby theVictoria Bridgeatthenorth- ern sideoftheBrisbaneRiver. Theparklands are connected to thecityby opposite theCentral BusinessDistrict(CBD)andreaches alongthesouth- South BankParklands are located atthedistrictofSouthBank,directly Overview South BankParklands Img. 20:TheSouthBankParkland location inBrisbane. 36 • SuncorpPiazza • More than twenty cafes andrestaurants. • Alongriverfront promenade with aGrand Bougainvillea Arbour. beque facilities. • Mixed nature ofrainforest, water andgrassed areas withpicnicand bar • The`Streets Beach´,which isaman-madebeachwithlifeguard crew. In more detailtheparklands feature: Arbour. provides thevisitors withastunningwalk alongtheGrand Bougainvillea a beautifulviewover BrisbaneRiver andtheCBD. Thepromenade also The parklands offer alongwalking trail andriverside promenade with cafes, restaurants, art galleries, musicstagesanduniversity campuses. events. Italsoprovides avariety ofrecreation opportunitiesthatconnect au). Thearea isvery popularandregularly hostfestivals, markets and visited by 11,000,000peopleannually (www.southbankcorporation.com. The parklands consistof17hectares publiclandandare approximately Structure andphysical design South BankParklands were opened(BCC, 2005). and lobbiedfor thesite to beredeveloped aspublicparkland. In1992the for commercial business,butthepublicsaw itspotential aspublicspace World Expo88was held,the government intended to develop thesite over 18millionpeople(www.southbankcorporation.com.au). After the al event, which was themed`Leisure intheAgeofTechnology´, attracted made Brisbaneaworld classcity(BCC, 2005).Thesixmonthsinternation- com.au). InThedecisionto stageWorld Expo88atSouthBankin1988, kets, theatres andperforming artare sited (www.southbankcorporation. Since then,SouthBankhasbeenanarea for cultural activities where mar- in 1893 forced the CBD to changelocationto the northern side of the river. Bank becameanimportantbusinesscenter ofBrisbane.Themajorflood since thedistrictwas discovered by European settlementin1840s, South Originally SouthBankwas ameetingplacefor indigenousgroups. But History - CHAPTER FIVE way StationandSouth BankRailway Station,allwithinwalking distance. Busway andSouthBankBusway, andby train from SouthBrisbane Rail to publictransportation andcanbereached by busfrom Culture Centre Riverwalk to thesouthernparts ofSouthBank.Thesite hasgoodaccess the parklands Awalk precinct. from Kangaroo Point takes you viathe the CBDyou cancross theVictoria Bridge to accessthe northernsideof and was openedin2001(BCC, 2005).Ifyou are ontheopposite sideof is apedestrianandcycling bridgelinkingSouthBankto thecitycenter The SouthBankParklands canbeaccessedviatheGoodwill Bridge,which Accessibility (South BankVisitor Center). slot telephones, evening andnight streetlights and aninformation desk such asbenches,bins,shelters from sunandrain, fresh water taps,public South BankParklands holdseveral features thatfacilitate convenience • GriffithUniversity • BrisbaneConvention &ExhibitionsCentre. • QueenslandConservatorium ofMusic • Awaterpark for children. • Tourists attractions, suchastheWheelofBrisbane. • TheNepalPeace Pagoda Img. 21:TheBougainvillea Grand Arbour. - 37 parking bays, located nearlifts. There are several services provided for To facilitate disabled groups theparklands are equippedwithdisabled sides alongtheBrisbane River (BCC, 2005). more than20kilometers oftracks, pathways, roads, bridgesandriver facilitate you travel through theparklands. BrisbaneRiverwalk connects Boardwalk, SuncorpPiazza, LittleStanley Street andStaley Street Plaza, by several entrees andwhere tracks suchasClem JonesPromenade, the offer avibrant andcommercial strip.By bicycle you may accessthesite for pedestrians,suchasClemJonespromenade andGrey Street,which When inSouthBankParklands there isawell-integrated walking trail brisbane.qld.gov.au). Brisbane River, andare operated by theBrisbaneCity Council((a)www. site. TheCityCatandtheCityferry stops atseveral terminals alongthe the parkland from theriverside highly increased theaccessibilityof When thefirstCityCatservicesopenedin1996,possibilityt ((a)www.visitsouthbank.com.au). be accessedviaGrey Street andcontainmore than800carparking spaces If you are entering theparklands by carthere are underground carpark to Img. 22:Overview over theparklands. o reach - CHAPTER FIVE ence serenity andescapeabusy citylife, fullofnoise,traffic and interfer Facility assets.What theprecinct isdeficient inisthepossibility to experi- Space &Scenicamenity, Refuge & Activity, Prospect, andSocial, Service& Concerning theperceived dimensionsinthepark, thesite clearly offers popularity. wherepoint, thecentral,easily further accessiblelocationcontribute to its South BankParklands animportantandmuchappreciated socialmeeting facilities, cafées andrestaurants. The fullserviceequipmentmakes the Streets Beach,thechildren´s water world, theGrand Arbour, barbecue people. Theprecinct includesmany arranged activity assets suchasthe different recreational andsocialactivities which attract awiderange of The opennessandwidegrassed areas contribute to anopportunityfor Perceived Dimensions bane CityCouncil(www.southbankcorporation.com.au). Brisbane cityintheDraft CityCentre Master Plansubmitted by theBris- 2005, when SouthBankParklands was recognized asapartofthecore of The visionofconnectingSouthBankto thecitycenter cameto fruitionin vided withhandicaptoilets ((b)www.visitsouthbank.com.au). from theSouthBankVisitor Center. Mostofthepublictoilets are alsopro - visitors including, wheelchairs andstrollers, which are available for hire Img. 23:TheStreets Beach. - 38 1986). teristics dependingontheir well-being and state ofmind (Grahn &Sorte, chose to visitanotherpark, sincepeopleare attracted to different charac- sets. Ifyou gooutseekingfor aquietandpeacefulmomentyou might and extroverted peoplesincetheparklands offer socialand physical as- children, studentsandtourists. Thesite may appealto motivated, engaged that only dorandom shortstays inthepark for aspecialoccasion,suchas may bethattheSouthBankParklands attract adifferent group ofvisitors requirement ofseveral more ofthedimensions?Onepossibleexplanation strongly. So,isthisarea lesspopularthanotherparks which meetthe is very notablesincetheparklands includethesecharacteristics very Culture, Prospect andSocialwere theleastpreferred dimensions,which and suffer from mentalillness.According to Grahn andStigsdotter (2009) cultural opportunitiesare notwhat you prefer ifyou are feeling stressed for aquicker recovery from astressful life. Therefore, activity, socialand ble persons,andhighlights theimportanceofpassiveness ingreen spaces ferred dimensioningeneral, especially for themoststressed andvulnera- As discussedearlier, Grahn (1995)argues thatSerene isthemostpre- remind you ofastressful andbusy life inthecity. lands, butthepresence ofdisturbances are always around thecornerto ences. However, you may findintimate, smallprivate spacesinthepark Img. 24:TheBrisbaneWheelby night. - CHAPTER FIVE range ofpeople, andmay includeactivities such asmarkets, food vend- • Different cultural, recreational andsocial assets,which attract awide tourists andtheurban population. to urban areas) scenic amenityandoutdoor recreation opportunitiesfor • Alarge parkland area thatcontributes to high biodiversity, (compared SEQ region, which are facilitated by: contribute to improve liveability andQualityofLife inBrisbaneandthe Most ofthestrengths thatare to befound intheSouthBankParklands Strength and evaluated duringthisrapport. the SEQregion, andthoseperceived dimensionsthathave beendiscussed The SWOT-analyse isbasedonthevalues, prerequisites, background of X =Criteria fulfilled lands: Table 3:Theresult ofperceived dimensions found inthe SouthBankPark 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Serene Perceived Dimensions Social, service&facility Cultural &historical Refuge &activity Rich inspecies&educational Nature &native plants Space &scenicamenity South BankParklands Strength, Weakness, OpportunityandThreat (SWOT) of (X) =Criteria partly fulfilled South BankParklands (X) (X) X X X - 39 scape thatreminds usoftheappearance ofaboriginaltribes thatonce • Improved historical connection andattachmentto thegenuine land • Daily andseasonalvariations concerning useandexperiences. different activities inthesite remains usofitscentral location. that isconstantly present from traffic, children, the Beachandfrom all the sible to escapethebusy cityfor relaxation andcontemplation. Thenoise contribute to theparklands serenity.is hard It andsometimes even impos • Even though theparklands offer several intimate spaces,few ofthem logues, andrefer to theshortcomings andmay include: perceived dimensionsandfrom previous readings, experiences anddia The weaknesses found intheparklands are basedontheanalyses of Weakness in aprivate sphere bringanadditionaldimensionto theprecinct. smaller intimate spacesfor different activities. Thenotionofalmostbeing • WhatSouthBankParklands doexceptionally well isoffer adiversity of range offacilities. or psychological impairment)to visittheparklands by supportingawide • TheSouthBanksite encourages disabledgroups (physical, intellectual vibrant city. the suppliesofrestaurants, cafées andcultural activities contribute to a • Street lights attheevening hoursandduringnighttime together with good connectivity to theBrisbaneRiver places • Theprecinct hasexcellent accessto publictransportation andinmost connect sites andsupportmovement between SouthBankandthecity. offer astunningscenicamenityover thewaterways andtheCBDpaths • Thelongriverside walk andtheBougainvillea Grand Arbour not only This isespecially appreciated duringthevery hotsummermonths. attract Brisbaneresidents, sincethesite works asasocialmeetingpoint. Australian lifestyle, which notonly appealto visitors and tourists, butalso • Thesubtropical Streets Beachandbarbecue opportunitiesfacilitate the sunbathing. ing, sportsevents, running,promenades, performing barbecues art, and - - - CHAPTER FIVE CityCat and CityFerry services shouldbetransformed to meet theBris- improved fuelefficiency, reduced engineexhaust andnoiseemissions, all • Following theexample ofthe newCitycat (2011),Spirit of Brisbane,with onstrate theirideas andvisions. land University ofTechnology (QUT)where plannersand architects dem been presented inanexhibition from GriffithUniversity (GU)orQueens gardens, openstorm water management systems. Initialthiscouldhave in existing green spacesfor example green walls, green roofs, community • Designfor newtypesofspaceswhere newsolutionsmustbeintegrated needs andlifestyle, including: ing future possibleimprovements according to existing conditions,values, The following opportunitieswithintheSouthBankprecinct are concern Opportunity parklands. and withtheBougainvillea Arbour reaching alongthecentral partofthe grassed areas withelementsofdifferent trees, bedandboarder plants teristics withfew variations. Thevegetation mainly consistsofwell-cut • Theplantationsanditsarrangements are very similarinitscharac- tion oftheparklands. River andimproved numerous water activities optimisetheuniqueloca- hours for amore vibrant andactive city. Goodconnectivity to Brisbane City CatandFerry servicescouldhave beenextended duringevening • Even though theprecinct hasexcellent access to publictransportation, whose locationisextremely exposed for wind,sunandrain. proved atsomeplaces,especially inconnectionto theVictorian Bridge • Shelters from thesunandrain, are generally good,butmight beim a localarea for urban residents. Parklands have beencriticisedfor mainly beingatourist place rather than for displacingoriginalresidents (Byrne &Sipe,2010:30).TheSouthBank • Thesite hasindifferent matters beenreferred to as the`HallofShame´ region. order to improve theknowledge/awareness ofindigenousvalues ofthe lived inthearea. Thismight beexpressed inaneducationalpurpose - - - - 40 each year bringssignificant stress factors andtensions to thesite caused • Thepopularity oftheparklands withmore than11,000,000 visitors propriate and unsustainable. communication between stakeholders make theplanningoutcomes inap- • Inefficientplanningstructure andinadequate strategies withnoorlittle growth, which putnative species inachallengingposition. in terms ofincreased precipitation andwarmth, result inimproved plant phere highly contribute to climate changes(IPCC, 2007).New conditions, January 2011.Increased levels ofgreenhouse gas emissions inouratmos the cityofBrisbanehave experienced several timesandasrecently asin it exposed to floodsandrisingsealevel, dueto climate changes,which • ThelocationofSouthBankParklands next to theBrisbaneRiver makes connection andattraction to thelandscapeanditssenseofplace. • To extensive migration (domesticandinternational) withnoorlittle it notalways seekto capture future needsandrequirements. • Population growth andurban development needto besustainablesince Quality ofLife withintheSEQregional landscape,including: There are several threats to befound thatendangertheliveability and Threat or yoga. services andprogrammed activities suchasdanceclasses,taichi,zumba • Theparkland shouldoffer more free, orsubsidised,outdoor informal region (Corlett etal.,2010). strategies whilst protecting thelandscapevalues andheritageoftheSEQ proactive approach facilitates climate changemitigation andadaptation cells, openstorm water system andincreased vegetation structure. A cal prerequisite sunradiation suchasheat, andprecipitation for solar • Inabetter andmore efficientway usetheenvironmental andgeographi- cal designofthepark, which would educate peopleinAustralian wildlife. forest withnative speciescouldhave beenintegrated to thecurrent physi • Basedontheenvironmental subtropical conditionsagreater sectionof qld.gov.au). bane CityCouncil´starget for smallercarbon footprint ((a)www.brisbane. - - CHAPTER FIVE was subjected to several floodsduringthe years (Hogan, 1982). Botanic Gardens alocated today) butcouldnotbefurther expanded and Mount Coot-thahaditoriginal site attheGardens Point (where theCity city center ((b)www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). Thenewer BotanicGardens in ern sideandborder theriverside attheeastern andsouthernsideofthe CityBotanicGardensDistrict. (CBG)runalong AliceStreet atthenorth dens inMountCoot-tha,located 7kilometers from theCentral Business Brisbane andshouldnotbemistaken for astheBrisbaneBotanicGar The riverside City BotanicGardens are theoriginalbotanicgardens in Overview City BotanicGardens Img. 25:TheCityBotanicGardens locationinBrisbane. - - 41 garden inorder to evaluate theirsuitability for asubtropical climate. paws, sugar cane,tobacco, ginger, coffee, nutsandgrape winesto the • Introducing exotic crops andplantssuchaspineapples,mangoes,paw started anactive plantingprogram, including: park officially openedin1855by thegarden´s curator Walter Hill,who plants collectioninQueensland(www.queenslandholidays.com.au). The proson colony. Theoriginalbotanicreserve isincludedinthefirstnative tablished by former convicts in1825who planted food crops to feed the The CityBotanicGardens are theoldestpark inBrisbane andwas es- History ((b) www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). At thattimetheformer curator´s residence was rebuilt into arestaurant tion center, theMangrove Boardwalk andtheRiverstage were established. moved. Thirtyyears later majorredevelopment started and theinforma- In 1958theCityBotanic Gardens were remodelled andthezoo was re- tors. • Establishingornamentalplantcollectionsintheparkto delight thevisi- Img. 26:TheBrisbaneskyline from thegardens.

- CHAPTER FIVE • CityGardens Café andRestaurant • Children´s Playground • BambooGrove thatconsistsof23species • Anzacpinesandconifers Features and attractions contribute to thepark´s popularity, including: and themainRotunda are annually includedintheCityBotanicGardens. Bridge. Concerts,exhibitions, family festival andshows attheRiverstage Street through theMangrove Boardwalk to thenorthernpartofGoodwill along theBrisbaneRiver from theintersection ofEdward Street andAlice The precinct offer opengrassed picnicareas andastunningpromenade age speciesandpresent day exotic andnative plantings(Murray, 2009). The gardens cover a20hectares large site of plantcollections,early herit Structure andphysical design livingheritage.com). large numberofhistorical andcultural heritagefeatures (www.brisbane- for itshigh historical values. Inadditionto theplantcollectionthere are a important non-indigenouscultural sites inQueenslandandisrecognized their creation ofartisticfeatures. TheCBGisargued to beoneofthemost Severalartists have contributed to thehigh heritagedignityofthepark,by Img. 27:Theriver walk. - 42 and special occasions ((b)www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). booking areas which are available for hire andoffer settingsfor wedding for children. Inadditional to the Garden´s facilities, there are 10outdoor tables andseats,public water taps,café andrestaurant andaplayground for disabledgroups, limited car parking spaces,wheelchair access,picnic dens more convenience andoffer shadedareas, publictoilets and toilets and abrochure. Several facilities make you visit attheCityBotanicGar guided walks enableexploration atyour own pace,includingfree map by experienced volunteer guides (www.queenslandholidays.com.au). Self- Free guided walks are available twice aday from Monday to Saturday, led There are several cultural andrecreational activities offered inthepark. • Weeping FigAvenue • Walter HillFountain • TheRiverstage andtheRotunda • Riverwalk alongtheBrisbaneRiver. creek system • Ornamentalponds,which was apartof theGardens original natural • Mangrove Boardwalk, a380meters longwalk thatfloatsonmud. • Jemmy MorrillandtheBrolgas sculpture Img. 28:Water HillFountain. - CHAPTER FIVE the gardens are open 24 hoursaday withpathways litatallhours. Independent ofyour choiceoftransportation to thegardens, when there, bike tracks are pointed out atyour services((b)www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). The Council´sbikeway mapfacilitate your planningroute where several fered by theBrisbaneCityCouncilandstop atAlice and George Street. By bus,there are free optionsinterms oftheLoopbuseswhich are of- and Eagle Station. services enableaccessfrom theriverside atthewharves ofGardens Point linking theCBDto theSouthBank(BCC, 2005).CityCatandCityFerry Bridge which was openedin2001andisthefirstpedestrian-only bridge, From thesouthernsideofcityyou may reach thesite viaGoodwill guide you ina10-15minutes walk from theCentral BusinessDistrict. ment HouseandtheQueenslandUniversity ofTechnology, which will Street attheBrisbaneRiver. Opposite theRiver you willfindtheParlia reaches from AliceStreet attheGardens Point andfrom George to Edward Goodwill Bridge)from where you may accessthegardens. Thegardens ment Houseentrance, intersection ofAliceandEdward Street andthe If walking to theCityBotanicGardens there are three entrances (Parlia Accessibility gardens from thesouthernsideofcity. Img. 29:TheGoodwill Bridgegive you accessto the - - 43 its historical andcultural background. mental ponds,sculptures andfountains have been given spaceto reflect been given for servicesandfacilities, andwhere plantcollections,orna The gardens seekto beagenuineandpeacefulsite, where lessspacehas nate theexperiences andbringarelaxing andsafe atmosphere. attractiveness according to Sorte (2005).Native andexotic speciesdomi give thepark dynamic andalsoarouse curiositythatcontribute to asite´s Rich inspeciesandNature, which are followed by Serene initspopularity, spaces are determined by theway we are usingthem. a shortstay duringlunchtime.Thedeisgnandtheaccessibilityto green and officeworkers from theCentral who gladly BusinessDistrict, enjoy to thesite andtheseveral characteristics fulfilled,appealcityemployees Parklands, includingamajorityoftheBrisbaneresidents. Theeasy access the gardens attract awiderrange ofvisitors compared to theSouthBank and disclosedstructure enableretreat andpersonalspace.Itseemslike amenity, Richinspeciescharacteristics, where avariation ofopenspace come. Theprecinct especially offers qualitiesofaSerene, Space&Scenic more peopleare benefitfrom itsusageandthemore popularthesite be- Grahn (1995)themore dimensionsthatare includedinthepark, the mented intheCityBotanicGardens. According to Berggren-Bärring and All ofthechosendimensionsfrom thismethodare more orlessimple- Perceived Dimensions able next to andaround thegardens (www.queenslandholidays.com.au). ability. There are toilets andcarparking spacesfor disabledgroups avail to allgates inthegardens andmostareas are designedfor frail oradis- Except from theParliament Houseentrance, disabledgroups have access - - - CHAPTER FIVE tourists andtheurban population. to urban areas) scenic amenityandoutdoor recreation opportunitiesfor • Alarge parkland area thatcontribute to high biodiversity, (compared SEQ region, which are facilitated by: contribute to improve liveability andQuality ofLife inBrisbane andinthe Most ofthestrengths thatare to befound intheCity BotanicGardens Strength residents. sions withinitsrange, which makes ithighly valuable for theBrisbane green spacefrom thecasestudy thatcovers mostoftheperceived dimen and evaluated duringthisrapport. TheCityBotanicGardens are the the SEQregion, andthoseperceived dimensionsthathave beendiscussed The SWOT-analyse isbasedonthevalues, prerequisites, background of Botanic Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) of City Gardens X =Criteria fulfilled Gardens: Table 4:Theresult ofperceived dimensions found inthe CityBotanic 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Serene Perceived Dimensions

Social, service&facility Cultural &historical Refuge &activity Rich inspecies&educational Nature &native plants Space &scenicamenity

(X) =Criteria partly fulfilled City BotanicGardens (X) (X) (X) X X X X - 44 public access, educationalopportunities couldhave beenmore extensive. • Even though thegardens consistofimpressive plantcollections for dialogues, andrefer to theshortcomings andmay include: ses ofperceived dimensionsandfrom previous readings, experiences and The weaknesses found intheCityBotanicGardens are based ontheanaly Weakness contribute to thegardens localcultural dignity. nual appearance oftheLord Major´sChristmasCarols atChristmastime, tional andinternational cultural attraction to thegardens, where thean- • Several concertsandshows which are heldattheRiverstage addna- reational andsocialactivities. • Large grassed areas offer organised, state-provided orspontaneousrec- its affection. to hire certainareas for wedding andspecialoccasionsalsocontributes to toilets make thegardens Theopportunity apopularsocialmeetingpoint. cafes, restaurants, shadedspots,day andnight street lights andpublic • Thewiderange ofdifferent facilities suchasbenches,seats,water taps, plants creates adynamic between closure andopenness. Australian cultural heritageandmustnotbeoverseen. Theinteraction of benefited from thesubtropical climate where thespeciesare apartofthe in aneducationalpurposefor residents andtourists. Theplantingsare tive, exotic, mature andrecently planted species,which couldbeused • Thelarge garden area includesagreat amountofplantcollections,na guided tours. • Thesite´s genuinely withitshistorical values facilitated by several free busy street life. opportunity for relaxation andcontemplation orjustadesire to escapea workers andinvite visitors to spontaneousrecreational attendances, an • Thevery central locationattheCBDattracts localbusinessandoffice reach thesite by theriverside. CityCat andCityferry servicesprovide visitors withopportunitiesto several entrances aswell aseasy facilitated pathsthroughout thegardens. • Easy access for pedestrian,cyclists anddisabledgroups, bothby having - - CHAPTER FIVE dens are needed where notice boards couldbeput outatevery entrance • More and easily accessedinformation aboutpublicactivities inthegar- great opportunityto play games andfor socialactivities. ground to cause lessdamage.Thisalsogives children inthegardens a conditions. After trees have beentaken down they are putdown onthe and keep native species(lichens,mosses,insects)survive attheiroriginal valued for itsbiologicaldiversity andare often leftatthesite to protect • InSweden for example deadtrees inparks andgardens are highly visitors. terfly species,beoffered intheCityBotanic Garden´s supply to satisfycity house, herb garden, Japanesegarden, minizoooraglass housefor but- traditional characteristics, shouldsomespecialfeatures such asabonsai • Even though theBotanic Gardens atMount Coot-thaconsistofmany needs andlifestyle, including: ing future possibleimprovements according to existing conditions,values, The following opportunitieswithintheCityBotanicGardens are concern Opportunity to theCBD, incasetherestaurant isclosed. drinks, which shouldbelocated atthenorthernpartofgardens, close • Asmallkioskwould have given you opportunitiesto buy anice-cream or public water tapsare neededinthegardens. • Duringhotsummerdays, especially for runnersandactives peoplemore would improve theattractiveness ofthepark. tion to thepublicaboutrecreational andsocialactivities inthegardens watching andbicycle hiring((b)www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). Theinforma- ed tours inthegardens. Neitherwas Ifamiliar withactivities suchasbird • Duringmy year inBrisbaneInever heard ofany free guidedorself-guid should beimplemented. Very few ofthespecieshave thatkindofinformation andanimprovement were taggedwithitsbotanicname,origin,ageandEnglish name. and landscapearchitect Iwould have wishedfor thatmostoftheplants gardens andto theuniqueregion ofSouthEastQueensland.Asaplanner foreign speciessinceithighly contribute to thequalitiesandvalues ofthe Many residents andtourists have aninterest inlearningaboutnative and - - 45 criticised for beingoutsidethepreferences ofascientific disquisitions. time attheGriffithUniversity. However, thebasic datamight therefore be influenced from literatures, articles,journalsanddiscussions duringmy based uponmy own observations andexperiences from theparks, highly tions andtheperceived conditionsmight occur. Thecasestudy ismainly to theAustralian conditions,somedifficultiesintransforming thedefini been appliedonothernationalitiesandare very well modifiedto adapt characteristics oftheSwedish landscape.Even though themethodhas The methodhasitsorigininSwedish planningtheoriesandisbasedupon Critic ofMethod garden which willface anuncertainfuture. climate changehighly affect thespeciesandplantcollectionsin 1855 ((b)www.brisbane.qld.gov.au). Changingweather conditionsdueto floods, which have beenthehard caseseveral timessincetheopeningin • Impactsfrom climate changemainly interms ofsea-level risingand daily activities. ed effects suchasnoise,exhausts, litter, dogdirtandstress/tension from • Thegardens locationattheCentral BusinessDistrictgives unappreciat- gardens inachallengingposition. • Urbanisation andpopulationgrowth from surrounded areas putthe Gardens, including: Quality ofLife withintheSEQregional landscape,suchastheCityBotanic There are several threats to befound thatendangertheliveability and Threat grove areas, suchastheMangrove Boardwalk intheCityBotanicGardens. climate changeandextreme weather events isto establishmore man- other speciescannotsurvive. Oneopportunityto reduce theimpactsof change (Alongi,2007).Mangroves grow insalineinter-tidal waters where store carbon, which make themanimportanttool incombatingclimate • Research hasshown mangrove plantshave anexceptional abilityto to inform visitors. - CHAPTER FIVE Botanic Gardens were both very popular and well attended. Their differ- ent strengths were possible to address because of the applied method of CONCLUSIONSDuring the years, several planning theories have been presented and Perceived dimensions. Sites that offer different characteristics also give guided the discussion on how the modern city should be design to im- different perceived dimensions to the visitor. Several positive experiences prove living conditions. Since the world´s population increase and more people are chosen a life in cities, the pressure on current open space is popular. Green spaces attract a wide range of people depending on its dif- rising. Scientists and planners have put forward different principle of ferentin a park, qualities means and several assets. strengths Even so, fulfilled, the awareness which also of how make and the why site green most green space planning, which in most cases seek to achieve sustainable spaces are more popular than others is crucial for the opportunity to meet development. Solutions in new forms and spaces for future growth must the needs for future generations. When designing for urban green spaces, be found, where consolidation and high dense structure is widely argued. residential need and geographical conditions, such as shade structures, Community gardens, green roofs and walls, and open storm water man- tree canopies, rain shelters, functional seating and barbecue facilities fea- agement are seen as future solutions for improving social, environmental tures must be calculated for. and recreational conditions. Positive perceived dimensions are facilitated by a well physical designed environment. However, when designing for attractive and useful green well-being and social life. Open space and greenery gives the landscape space the physical structure are important, but perceived dimensions of itsIt is unique widely characteristics argued green spaceand sense make of a placesignificant which contribution greatly improve to our live - our outdoor environment must be calculated for as well. Design solutions ability and quality of life. When it comes to Queensland and Brisbane, the and structural forms are irrelevant if the experiences from the greenery regions geographical, cultural and historical values rely on its open attrac- have a negative impact. Therefor qualities and characteristics those con- tive landscape assets. Brisbane is an attractive city, known for its beaches, tribute to positive experiences need to be addressed and further integrat- leisure pursuits and cultural identity. To managing and protecting those ed in green spaces. landscape values, several documents, polices, programs and plans have been developed. Even though they highlight and bring up the awareness of The results regarding weaknesses found in the two parks indicate the integrating landscape values in green spaces, few solutions for improve- absence of perceived dimensions. Weaknesses found in South Bank Park- ments are suggested. Open space strategies for protecting existing open lands were mainly the lack of serenity, where cultural and social asserts space, improving managing and linking key open spaces, are very well attracted the outgoing, active and extroverted visitor. The poor supply of accessible information and services were the main weaknesses in the City value management. I agree with Professor Low Choy that a “value-led” Botanic Gardens. approachdefined, but must without guide given open anyspace deeper strategies, solutions where to improvedcollaboration, landscape public participation and an open dialogue between stakeholders are essential. Threats and challenges within the parks were addressed by the SWOT-an- alyse, and from reviewed literature. In a global world we are put at similar The qualities and the unique sense of place that could be found in the Aus- risks where climate change, urbanisation and population growth are chal- tralian landscape are highly implemented in the green spaces of Brisbane. lenges every continent must cope with. Most of the threats and challenges within the region are also concerning the two evaluated parks from the lifestyle and offer a wide range of social, cultural and recreational op- portunities.The parks and Regarding gardens mywithin case the study, inner South Brisbane Bank reflectParkland the and promoted the City threats, due to its close location to the Brisbane River. case study, where flooding and sea-level rise were believed as the major 46 REFERENCES

Hard copy:

Alexander, L., A. (2008) Meaning of Place: Exploring Long-term Resident´s Attachment to the Physical Environment in Northern New Hampshire, Dis-

Alongi,sertation, D., AntiochM. (2007) University “Mangrove New forests: England Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change” in Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 1-13, Queensland, Australia

Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 35, pp. 330-4 Bangs Jr., H.P. & Mahler, S. (1970, ‘Users of local parks’, in Berggren-Bärring, A.-M. & Grahn, P. (1995) Grönstrukturens betydelse för Användningen,

Rapport vol. 95, no.Stadsrum 3, Sveriges människorum Lantbruksuniversitet, – att planera Alnarp för livet & Ultuna mellan husen, Byggforskningsrådet, Västerås

Borgström,Berglund, U. S. & (2009) Jergeby, ”Den U. (1998) nyttiga grönskan” in Stockholm – Den Gröna Storstaden, pp. 44-55, Samfundet S:t Erik Lind & Co, Korotan, Slovenia

Boverket (2007) pp. 19-21, 41-49

Brisbane City CouncilLandskapets (BCC) (2005) upplevelsevärden Living in Brisbane – vilka 2026 är de, Brisbaneoch var finns de?

Brisbane City Council (BCC) (2006) Open Space Strategy, Brisbane

Bucht, E. & Persson, B. (1994) Grönstruktur i städer och tätorter,

Utdrag ur Plan och Bygglagen, Movium, Alnarp in , vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 455-473 Burgess, J.; Harrison, C. M.; Limb, M. (1988) “People Parks and the Urban Green: A Study of Popular Meanings and Values for Open Spaces in the City”, Byrne,Urban J. &Stud Sipe, N. (2010) Green and open space planning for urban consolidation – A review of the literature and best practice, -

Urban Research Pro Byrne,gram, Issues J.; Sipe, Paper N.; Searle, 11, Griffith G. (2010) University, “Green Brisbane around the gills? The challenge of density for urban greenspace planning in SEQ”, in Australian Planner, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 162-177 47 Coen, S.E. & Ross, N.A. (2006) ‘Exploring the material basis for health: characteristics of parks in Montreal neighborhoods with contrasting health outcomes’, Health and Place, vol. 12, pp. 361-71

Corlett, C.; Elliott, S. A.; Han, J.; Lowndes, I.; Le-Quang, H.; Olsson, H.; Rolf, B.; Zhang, X. (2010) Strategic Framework for the Management of Landscape Heritage Values in the South East Queensland Regional Landscape - sity, Brisbane , pp. 2-14, Discussion Paper in the course Strategic Planning Studio, Griffith Univer Gold Coast City Council (2003) Gold Coast Planning Scheme, Amended November 2011

Goodall, B. (1987) “The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography”, in Penguin, London

Grahn,Green Infrastructure P. (1986) “Grönplanering Guidance (GIG) för människor”, (2009) Rapport in Stad from & Land, Land no.Use 44, Consultants Movium, Alnarp(LUC), England

Grahn, P. (1991a) ”Framtidens parker - parker att utvecklas i”, in Stad & Land, no. 91, pp. 21-41, Movium, Alnarp

Grahn, P. (1991b) ”Om parkers betydelse”, Doctoral Thesis in Stad & Land, no. 93, Movium, Alnarp

Grahn, P. (1992) ”Människors behov av parker – amerikansk forskning idag”, in Stad & Land, no. 107, pp. 28-36, Movium, Alnarp

Grahn, P. (2005) Svensk miljöpsykologi, pp. 249-253, Studentlitteratur, Lund

, no. 2, pp. 1-18 Grahn, P. & Stigdotter, U. (2003) ”Landscape Planning and Stress”, in Urban Forestry Urban Greening Landscape and , no. 94, pp. 264-275 Grahn, P. & Stigdotter, U. (2009) “The relation between perceived sensory dimensions of urban green space and stress restoration” in Urban Planning A planning model for designing sustainable and healthy cities - The importance of people’s need of recreational environments in an urban context, Grahn, P.; Stigdsdotter, U.; Berggren-Bärring, A. M. (2005) Grahn, P. & Sorte, J. (1985) ”Hur används parken? Om organiseradeSLU, Alnarp gruppers bruk av grönområden”, del 1, in Stad och Land, no. 39

48 Grahn, P. & Sorte, J. (1986) ”Parken Paradiset och Konsten att Aktivera sig”, in , vol. 2, pp. 6-9

Gregory, H. (1996) The Brisbane River Story - Meanders through Time. AustralianUtblick Marine och Landskap Conservation Society

Gregory, H. (2007) Brisbane Then and Now

Grönplan för Malmö (2003) Malmö Stad, Malmö, pp. 60, Salamander Books, Wingfield, South Australia

Gunn, A., M. (1978) , pp. 178, Pergamon Press

Hall, P. & Ward, C. (1998)Habitat: Sociable Human Cities: Settlement the Legacy in an of Urban Ebenezer Age Howard, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester

Hogan, J. (1982) Living History of Brisbane, Queensland, Boolarang Publications, pp. 126-127

Howard, E. (1902) Garden Cities of To-Morrow, London

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) B. Metz; O.R. Davidson; P.R. Bosch; R. Dave; L.A. Meyer (eds) (2007) Contribution of Working Group

III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom and New York, Jacobs,USA J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Pimlico, London

Kaplan, S. (1991) ”Parker för framtiden: Ett psykologiskt perspektiv”, Stad & Land, no. 91, pp. 5-16, Movium, Alnarp

Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S; Ryan, P., L. (1998) With People in Mind – Design and Management of Everyday Nature, Island Press, USA

Kennedy, R (2010) Subtropical Design in South East Queensland - A Handbook for Planners, Developers and Decision-Makers, QUT, Brisbane City Council and the State of Queensland

Kühn, M. (2003) “Greenbelt and Green Heart: Separating and Integrating Landscapes in European City Regions”, in Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 64, pp. 19-27 Low Choy, D. (2004) “The Regional Open Space Paradox”, inQueensland Planner, vol. 44, no. 3, pp12-15

Low Choy, D. (2006) “Opinion! Open Space – a `signature´ Brisbane attribute”, in Open Space Strategy from Brisbane City Council, Brisbane.

Low Choy, D. (2009) How Green Was My City Region: The relevance of past open space planning experiences to contemporary planning for the Brisbane metro- 49 politan region, Griffith University, Brisbane

Low Choy, D.; Wadsworth, J.; Burns, D. (2010) Identifying and incorporating indigenous landscape values into regional planning processes, Urban Research Program, Research Monograph 13, Griffith University, Brisbane

Luymes, D. (1997) “The Fortification of Suburbia: Investigating the Rise of Enclave Communities”, in Landscape of Urban Planning, vol. 39, pp. 187-203

Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City,Massachusetts, USA

Maat, K. & De Vries, P. (2006) ”The influence of the residential environment on green-space travel: testing the compensation hypothesis”, inEnvironment and planning A, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 2111-2127

Marilyn, M. (1975) “Decision Making in Allocating Metropolitan Open Space: State of the Art.” in Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, pp. 149-153, Kansas

McHarg, I. (1967) Design with Nature, New York, USA

McMichael, A.J.; Woodruff, R.E.; Hakes, S.; (2006) “Climate change and human health: present and future risks” inLancet , vol. 367, no. 9513, pp. 859-869

Minnery, J. (2004) The wonderful possibilities of the future: Town planning and Greater Brisbane. 11thInternational Planning History Society Conference, Bar- celona

Murray, F. (2009) City Botanic Gardens, Australian National Botanic Gardens, Australian Government, retrieved 2 September 2010

Office of Climate Change (2008) Climate Change in Queensland: What the science is telling us, The State of Queensland, Environmental Protection Agency. Brisbane

Pincetl, S. & Gearin, E. (2005) “The Reinvention of Public Green Space”,Urban Geography, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 365-384

Regionplane- och Trafikkontoret (SCTRP) (2001)Upplevelsevärden – Sociala kvaliteter i den regionala grönstrukturen, Rapport 4:2001, Uppsala

Regionplane- och Trafikkontoret (SCTRP) (2004)Upplevelsevärden i Stockholmsregionens gröna kilar, Rapport 1:2004, Uppsala

Sandercock, Leonie (1990) Property, Politics & Urban Planning: A History of Australian City Planning 1890-1990, USA

Searle, G. (2007) Sydney’s urban consolidation experience: power, politics and community, Research Paper 12, pp. 1-16, Urban Research Program, Griffith Uni- 50 versity, Brisbane

Sieverts, T. (2003) Cities without Cities: An Interpretation of the Zwischenstadt, London

Skoniezki, P. (2010) The Use Values of Green Spaces in the City – A Case Study of Järvafältet, Stockholm, Stockholm

Sorte, G., J. (2005) ”Parken för Homo Urbanism – stadsmänniskan”, in Svensk miljöpsykologi, pp. 227-240, Studentlitteratur, Lund

South East Queensland Regional Plan 2009-2031 (SEQRP) (2009) Queensland Department of Infrastructure and Planning, Queensland Government

Springgate, L. (2008) Defining Parks and Park Systems – From Recreation to Re-creation,American Planning Association, USA

Stedman, R. C. (2003) “Is it really just a social construction? The contribution of the physical environment to sense of place” inSociety and natural resources, vol. 16, pp. 671-685

Strategi för en grön struktur i Skåne (2004) Region Skåne, Malmö

Ståhle, A. (2005) Mer park i tätare stad: Teoretiska och empiriska undersökningar av stadsplaneringens mått på friytetillgång, Thesis,Royal School of Technology (KTH), Stockholm

United Nations (1987) “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development” in General Assembly Resolution, vol. 42, no. 187

Internet:

Australian Bureau of Statistics (a): Accessed 31/03/11 www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Products/3218.0~2009-10~Main+Features?OpenDocument)

Australian Bureau of Statistics (b): Accessed 31/09/11 www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/[email protected]/0/83DDE980E589FB5FCA256889000F8EBD?Open

Brisbane City Council (a): Accessed 15/01/12 www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-transport/public-transport/citycat-ferry-services/index.htm

Brisbane City Council (b): Accessed 18/01/12 51 www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/facilities-recreation/parks-and-venues/parks/city-botanic-gardens/index.htm

Brisbane Government – Living in Brisbane (a): Accessed 20/11/11 www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-culture.html

Brisbane Government – Living in Brisbane (b): Accessed 10/01/12 www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-government.html

Brisbane Living Heritage: Accessed 18/01/12 www.brisbanelivingheritage.com/01_cms/details.asp?ID=29

Governor – General of the Commonwealth of Australia: Accessed 11/01/12 www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2

Idaho State University: Accessed 25/01/12 www.isu.edu/acadaff/swot/index.shtml

Shelter Offshore, Living Abroad Guides: Accessed 05/01/12 www.shelteroffshore.com/index.php/living/more/living_in_brisbane_australia

South Bank Corporation: Accessed 14/01/12 www.southbankcorporation.com.au/our-heritage-and-milestones

Traditional Queenslanders: Accessed 20/12/11 www.traditionalqueenslanders.com.au/History-of-The-Queenslander.php

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Accessed 15/11/11 www.epa.gov/region1/eco/uep/openspace.html

Visit South Bank (a): Accessed 15/01/12 www.visitsouthbank.com.au/parking

Visit South Bank (b): Accessed 15/01/12 www.visitsouthbank.com.au/access-facilities

Queensland Government: Accessed 11/01/12

52 www.derm.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/planning_and_guidelines/environmental_legislation/integrated_planning_act/index.html

Queensland Government: Accessed 11/01/12 www.dlgp.qld.gov.au/regional-planning/

Queensland Government: Accessed 10/01/12 www.qld.gov.au/about/how-government-works/system-of-government/

Queensland Holidays – The official tourism site for Queensland: Accessed 18/01/12 www.queenslandholidays.com.au/things-to-see-and-do/city-botanic- gardens/index.cfm

53