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University Microfilms International 300 N. ZEEB RD., ANN ARBOR, Ml 48106 8129040
K is t e r, Jo a n n a H u n s in g e r
AN EMPIRICAL/INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE OF HOME AND FAMILY LIFE: AN APPLICATION OF THE METASCIENTIFIC THEORY OF JURGEN HABERMAS
The Ohio Slate University Ph.D. 1981
University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 48106
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University Microfilms International AN MPIRICAI/INTEREREUVE perspective o p HOME AND FAMILY LIFE: AN APPLICATION OF THE METASCIENTIFIC THEORY OF JURGEN HABERMAS
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Joanna Hunsinger Kister, P.S., M.S.
The Ohio State University
1981
Reading Committee:
Robert R. Bargar Approved By Donald P. Sanders
Joan E. Gritzmacher Adviser Academici Faculty of \ Educational Foundations and Research ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express a very special appreciation to my adviser, Bob Bargar, for nurturing a spirit of creative inquiry / throughout my graduate experience. Sincere gratitude is given to Bon Sanders who expressed confidence in me early in my program.
I wish, too, to thank Joan Gritzmacher for her interest and assistance in my work.
I would like to recognize Sonia Price and my colleagues on the curriculum task force in the state department for their support. I*Jy mother, Bernice Hunsinger, provided invaluable assist ance in typing the manuscript. Appreciation is also expressed to the teachers and participants in this study who made it meaningful and worthwhile.
Finally, to my sons, Scott and Chad, and my husband, Bob, I am especially grateful for their patience and understanding. VITA
December 18, 1942 ...... B o m - Circleville, Ohio
1963* • . • • ...... B.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1964...... Home Economics and Social Studies Teacher, Monroe School, Five Points, Ohio
1964-1967 ...... Home Economics Teacher, Westfall High School, Williamsport, Ohio
1967...... M.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
I967-I969 ...... Extension Home Economist Franklin County, Ohio
1970-Present...... Supervisor, Vocational Home Economics, Ohio Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Studies in Creativity and Human Development: Dr. Robert R. Bargar
Studies in Program Development: Dr. Donald P. Sanders
Studies in Home Economics Education: Dr. Joan E. Gritzmacher TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii
VITA...... iii
LIST OF TABLES...... vii
LIST OF FIGURES...... x
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Statement of Problem ...... 1 Philosophy of Home Economics...... 3 Technical Model of Curriculum: A Critique...... 6 Background for the Study...... 12 Purpose of Study...... 17 Definition of Terms...... 19 Overview...... 20
II. METASCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES OF KNOWLEDGE AND INQUIRY . . ". 21
Enpirical-Analytic Science...... 25 Hermeneutic Science...... 24 Critical Science ...... 26 Metascientific Perspectives in Home Economics...... 50 Critique of Objectivistic Orientation...... 54 Critique of Objectivistic Orientation to Inquiry in Home Economics. -...... 58 Summary...... » ...... 45
III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 48
Nature of Household Work ...... 48 Meaning and Significance of Home and Family Life .... 68 Problems and Concerns of Home and Family Life...... 76 Summary...... 80
iv Page
IV. RESEARCH RESIGN...... 62
Research Questions...... 82 Setting ...... 83 Population/Sample ...... ••• ...... 83 Methodology...... 86 Instrumentation...... 88 Rata Collection ...... 90 Analysis of Rata...... 92 Credibility of R a t a ...... 96 Limitations of Study...... 98 Summary...... 98
V. RATA ANALYSIS - TASK ANALYSIS...... 100
Demographic Rata...... 101 Frequency of Performance of Tasks ...... 105 Duration of Performance of Tasks...... 111 Criticality of Tasks to Family Well-Being ...... 116 Task Clusters ...... 121
VI. DATA ANALYSIS - PERCEPTIONS OF HOME AND FAMILY LIFE . . . 146
Demographic Rata...... 146 Question 1...... 190 Question 2...... 196 Question 3...... 164 Question 4...... • ...... 187 Question 5...... ^94 Question 6...... 201 Question 7...... ^09 Question 8...... 223 Question 9...... ^39
VII. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS...... 243
Summary of Major Findings ...... 245 Recommendations for Further Research...... 264 Implications for Home Economics Curriculum...... 265 Implications for a Theoretical Framework for Home Economics 272
APPENDIXES...... 278
A. Approval - Human Subject Review Committee ...... 278
B. Permission for Use of Colorado Task Analysis...... 280
C. Communication to Teachers and Superintendents ...... 282
v Page
S. Agenda - Training Meeting...... 286
E, Teacher Packet: Flow Chart and Instruments...... 288
F# Advisory Committee Members by Occupation...... 322
G. Locations of the 40 Sites ...... 324
H. Table 44 : Frequency, Duration, and Criticality of Homemaking Tasks - Mean Eatings...... 326
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 336
vi LIST OP TABLES
Table Page
1. Metascientific Perspectives of Knowledge and Inquiry .... 46
2. Research Questions...... 83
3 . Sites by Type of School District...... 101
4. Profile of Advisory Committee Members by Sex ...... 105
5. Profile of Advisory Committee Members by Employment Status . 103
6. Profile of Advisory Committee Members by Presence of Children ...... 104
7. Profile of Advisory Committee Members - Other Demographic D a t a ...... 104
8. Rank Order of Tasks Most Frequently Performed...... 106
9. Rank Order of Tasks Least Frequently Performed ...... 106
10. Rank Order of Tasks Most Frequently Performed by Sex .... 108
11. Rank Order of Tasks Least Frequently Performed by Sex. . . . 108
12. Rank Order of Tasks Most Frequently Performed by Employment Status...... 109
13. Rank Order of Tasks Least Frequently Performed by Employment Status...... 109
14. Rank Order of Tasks Most Frequently Performed by Presence of Children in the Home...... 110
15. Rank Order of Tasks Least Frequently Performed by Presence of Children in the Home...... 110
16. Rank Order of Tasks Requiring Most Time. 112
17. Rank Order of Tasks Requiring Least Time ...... 112
18. RankOrder of Tasks Requiring Most Time by Sex ...... 113 vii Table Page
19. Hank Order of Tasks Requiring Least Time by S e x ...... 115
' 20. Hank Order of 'I’asks Requiring Most Time by Employment Status. . . „ ...... 114
21. Hank Order of Tasks Requiring Least Time by Employment Status...... 114
22. Hank Order of Tasks Requiring Most Time by Presence of Children in the Home...... 115
25. Rank Order of Tasks Requiring Least Time by Presence of Children in the Home...... 115
24. Rank Order of Tasks Most Critical to Family Well-Being. . . 117
25. Rank Order of Tasks Least Critical to Family Well-Being . . 117
26. Rank Order of Tasks Most Critical to Family Well-Being by S e x ...... 118
27. Rank Order of Tasks Least Critical to Family Well-Being by S e x ...... 118
28. Rank Order of Tasks Most Critical to Family Well-Being by Employment Status...... 119
29. Rank Order of Tasks Least Critical to Family Well-Being by Employment Status ...... 119
50. Rank Order of Tasks Most Critical to Family Well-Being by Presence of Children in the Home...... 120
51. Rank Order of Tasks Least Critical to Family Well-Being by Presence of Children in the Home...... 120
32. Meeting Nutritional Needs Task Cluster Area by Sex, .... 128
33. Providing for Housing Task Cluster Area by Sex...... 131
34. Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products Task Cluster Area by S e x ...... 155
35. Cleaning and Maintaining Home (Selected Tasks) by Sex . . . 157
36 . Mean Eiequency Ratings of Task Clusters ...... 145
37* Mean Duration Ratings of Task Clusters...... 144
viii Table Page
38. Mean Criticality Ratings of Task Clusters...... 145
39* Profile of Interviewed Advisory Committee Members and Seniors by Sex...... 147
40. Profile of Interviewed Advisory Committee Members - Other Demographic Data...... 147
41. Content Areas to be Included in Home Economics Curriculum . 234
42. Content Topics in Personal and Family Development...... 234
43 . Content Topics in Basic Skills...... 239
44. Frequency, Duration, and Criticality of Homemaking Tasks - Mean Ratings...... 326
ix LISO? OP FIGURES
Figure Page
1, Distribution of 40 Sites ...... 102
2. Means Values, End Values, and the Entropic Drift Toward False End Values ...... 267
5. Proposed Model: Conceptual Framework for Home Economics Curriculum ...... 271
x CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Problem
There is a disjuncture between the philosophy of home economics,
past and present, and the dominant technical model of curriculum. A
question which is being debated among home economics educators today
is whether the aims of home economics education are more effectively
achieved by a task analysis approach to home economics curriculum or a
critical science approach, which is based upon scientific and philoso
phical formulation of practical problems in homes and families.
In the metascientific theory of Jurgen Habermas are perspectives which go beyond the present way of viewing knowledge and inquiry.
Applied to home economics curriculum, this theory provides a
conceptual framework for expanding the present technical model to be
congruent with the philosophy of home economics. The critical science
perspective mediates knowledge from technical and interpretive research.
It is the purpose of this study to provide technical and interpretive
data about home and family life which can be critically analyzed,
selected, and organized to provide knowledge which will be useful in the
development of a home economics curriculum.
The family is the primary Institution of society for the formation
of self through developing and educating the young. If the family
system does not function, then other systems are affected. The family
is recognized as vital to the economic, social, and political well-being of our nation. Aristotle, in Book 1 of his Politics on the theory of the household, was concerned with good households as basic to good societies. Both, he said, are needed for a good life.
The rising incidence of divorce, child abuse, teenage pregnancies, single-parent families, alcoholism, drug abuse, and mental illness is an indicator of family disequilibrium. While some authors have des cribed the family as "a haven in a heartless world" (Lasch, 1977), others question its capacity to provide emotional nurturance. Problems such as environmental pollution, inflation, and employment impinge upon the family, increasing the complexity of decisions which families make.
A strong, satisfying family life is one of our most important aspirations. Yet, Stinnett (1979) claims that despite the universali ty and Importance of the family there is little information or guidance concerning how to achieve a successful family life. He attributes this to the fact that research concerning family life and the popular media reports have largely focused on problems and pathologies. The consequence is that there is little foundation upon which to develop a positive model of family life education. Education for home and family life (home economics education) aims at strengthening the family system.
Family is defined as a unit of intimate, transacting, and inter dependent persons who share some values and goals, responsibility for decisions and resources, and have commitment to one another over time.
This definition focuses upon the meaning attached to family life as 3
distinguished from the sociological definition— that of a social insti
tution with structure and function.
Home provides a physical as well as symbolic setting for the
family.
In it are the artifacts used in daily living which give rise to the familiarity of the world, its customs and habits of intercourse between men and things and between men and men. The physical objects of the home and the setting of the home can provide (or deprive) those who are there an "at homeness" and a sense of continuity in one's personal life.- in one's culture, and in the world. Activities carried on in the home can also provide the opportunity for an intimacy of personal relationships which other settings in daily life do not afford (Brown & Paoluccl, 1979, p. 106).
Philosophy of Home Economics
The Lake Placid Conference in 1902 established the home and family as the focus for home economics and adopted this definition:
Home Economics is the study of the laws, conditions, principles, and ideals which are concerned on the one hand with man's immediate environment, and on the other hand with his nature as a social being, and is the study specially of the relation between these two factors.
East (1980) explicates further this historical definition. Study implies analysis. Laws indicate social contracts, implicit and expli cit, about how people live together in society. Conditions are empirical, describing reality. Principles mean explanatory rules that predict or show relationships. Ideals imply goals, norms, hopes, the way things ought to be. The physical environment refers to the artifacts, raw materials, and processes used in home production and consumption.
In this definition, home economics could be viewed as a philosophi cal study of relation between man and his environment. It concerns the connection of values which determine action and knowledge from scienti
fic inquiry. Brown and Paoluccl (1979) remarked that to conceptualize
home economics as a field concerned with people's search for and
determination of values and with the cooperation of philosophy and
science was remarkably farsighted at the turn of the century.
Aristotle said in "Politics":
Thus it is clear that household management attends more to men than to the acquisition of inanimate things, and to human excellence of property which we call wealth (McKeon, 1966, p. 1143).
Other historical statements seem to bind science and philosophy, including these by Ellen Richards:
Home economics stands for
The ideal home life for today unhampered by the traditions of the past.
The utilization of all the resources of modern science to improve the home life.
The freedom of the home from the dominance of things and their due subordination to ideals.
The simplicity in material surroundings which will most free the spirit for the more important and permanent interests of the home and of society (Lake Placid Conference, 1904).
A more recent statement of purpose was developed by the Home
Economics New Directions II Committee. Their concern was with the relationship of theory, which provides a knowledge base for home economics, and research, defined as scientifically structured investi gations about the family ecosystem. The focus of home economics is family in its various forms.
Home economics views the family as a major source of nurturance, protection, and renewal for the individual. As an educational force, the family significantly contributes to the qualitative development of its individual members and has the potential to prepare them for effective productivity for self and society (AHEA, New Directions 11, 1975).
While further documentation could be made, there is general
consensus in the literature that home economics is a field of
knowledge and service primarily concerned with strengthening family
life. A coalition of three professional organizations concerned with vocational home economics education issued this rationale statement
for home economics education:
Recognition of the relationship of well-ordered, quality home and family life to productive, satisfying work is implicit, if not explicit, in the history of vocational education legislation. From the earliest legislation to support vocational education to the present, the Congress of the United States has included funding for home economics education. The funding for the occupation of homemaklng implies acknowledgment of the fundamental Importance of the role of family life and the functioning of households to the economic, social, and political well-being of our nation (Position Paper, 1979).
Simpson (1979) recognizes the need to be concerned for what she termed "constants"— those unchanging factors as well as the current social and technological changes that impact on family life. Among the constants which she outlines are: belief in the importance of family life; the family function of preparing children to establish their own homes and families and thus provide for the continuation of family life; family needs for food, shelter, clothing; basic human needs beyond physical needs— security, affection, satisfaction; the need for creative expression, the character of the home as a collector and synthesiser of material and spiritual goods, and living together in human dignity and decency as a goal with which the whole world is concerned, including recognition of and respect for the unique worth of each individual, respect for individual rights and freedom, and acceptance of concomitant responsibilities.
Home economics is concerned with questions of what to do in areas of perennial concern (1) in the home and family and (2) in the culture or society to promote the quality of human life in the home and family
(Brown, 1978). Staaland and Fauske (1979) also emphasize the central role of the family, stating that home economics is a concern for the improvement of quality of life, with emphasis on the family. It is the family that is of paramount importance in the actualization of human potential. Historically and today, there is agreement that the family is the primary source for the formation of the self, and, as such, for the formation of society.
The assumptions on which home economics curriculum has been based and operationalized, however, have been criticized as dominated by a technological orientation (Brown and Paoluccl, 1979). This mirrors an analagous concern in educational curriculum, in general, as set forth by the curriculum reconceptualists.
Technical Model of Curriculum: A Critique
In this century, education and curriculum have sought to become more scientific. The technical model of curriculum has emanated from the behaviorlst orientation of the social sciences in America, with metaphors drawn from scientific management, engineering, and experimental psychology. In the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution, Bobbitt applied principles for scientific management to the school curriculum. The primary aim was that of efficiency. The empirical methods of the behavioral sciences were used to predict and control curricular phenonema.
Tyler's rationale for curriculum has influenced educators since
1950. The four-step process outlined by Tyler consists of stating objectives, selecting experiences, organizing experiences, and evaluating. It is an input-output linear process, beginning with objectives and concluding with evaluation. Evaluation in this schema is the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are being met.
Kliebard (in Finar, 1975) formulates the technical model of curriculum in a metaphor of production.
The curriculum is the means of production, and the student is the raw material which will be transformed into a finished and useful product under the control of a highly skilled technician. The outcome of the production process is carefully plotted in advance according to rigorous design specifications, and when certain means of production prove to be wasteful, they are discarded in favor of more efficient ones. Great care is taken so that raw materials of a par ticular quality or composition are channeled into the proper production systems and that no potentially useful characteristic of the raw material is wasted (p. 84).
Behavioral objectives, competency statements, and achievement tests constitute parts of a technical curriculum. Mager attempted to define objectives in highly precise, technical, and operational terms.
The quantified variable provides data that can be subjected to statistical treatment. The emphasis is more one of procedural elements rather than deliberated ends.
The technical model of curriculum avoids questions of .determining
what is most worthwhile. Monette (1979) says that no amount of
scientifically derived information can yield a judgment about "what
should be" because science deals not with normative considerations,
but with facts. The fallacy is in supposing that "what should be" can
immediately be derived from "what is."
According to Eisner (1979), the dominant image of schooling in
America has been the factory and the dominant image of teaching and
learning, the assembly line. Subtle nuances of language have
legitimized this image as in the shift in usage to instruction from
teaching, to learners from children, or to competencies rather than understanding.
In our culture, the knowledge industry is dominated by an attitude of behaviorism, accountability, and human engineering, resulting in a preoccupation with technique, control, and efficiency.(Van Manen, 1977).
This position echoes, in general, the criticism of the curriculum reconceptuali8ts.
The technical curriculum occurs within a set paradigm. Freire
(1968) proposes a paradigm shift in which there is a critical examina tion of the assumptions, values, and beliefs underlying the paradigm itself. He regards the technical model of education as a banking concept in which the students are the depositories and the teacher the depositor, finding this oppressive and dehumanizing. Freire calls for dialogic learning, in which there is emergence of consciousness and critical reflections on reality— an active rather than passive process.
The aim of education is not to adjust the learner to the system, but to
liberate from the system.
Monette (1979) is critical of the technical model, noting that some
topics and skills are not readily amenable- to quantitative measurement.
The emphasis on pre-determined, specific behavioral objectives, logi
cally ordered, devaluates the interaction of people. The open-minded
ness involved in human interaction is conceived as a flaw in the
logical system— an obstacle to the objective prediction and control of
educational processes.
To critique the technical model of curriculum is not to reject
it. The reconceptualists see this as one mode and construct an expand
ed conceptualization of curriculum. Pinar (1975) articulates this ef fort through examining the etymology of the Latin root of curriculum,
currere. Currere, meaning to run, involves the investigation of the
nature of individual experience: of artifacts, actors, operations, of
the educational journey or pilgrimage.
Kllebard (1975) also expresses the theme of travel in describing
a conceptualization of curriculum which goes beyond the technical
model:
The curriculum is a route over which students will travel under the leadership of an experienced guide and companion. Each traveller will be affected differ ently by the journey since its effect is at least as much a function of the predilections, Intelligence, interests, and intent of the traveller as it is of the contours of the route. This variability is not .only inevitable, but wondrous and desirable. There fore, no effort is made to anticipate the exact nature of the effect on the traveller; but a great 10
effort Is made to plot the route so that the journey will be as rich, as fascinating, and as memorable as possible (p.85).
The essence of the criticism of the technical model of curriculum
lies in this passage by Apple, (1975) stating that the problem is in
the assumption by educators that:
. . . in a fundamental ethic that all important modes of human action can be known in advance by educators and social scientists; that certainty in interaction among people is of primary import; and, underlying all of these, that the primary aspects of thought and sentiment of students should be brought under insti tutionalized control (p. 120).
The technical way of viewing curriculum is unquestioned
by many members of the curriculum field. The lack of self-reflective
ness has set the boundaries of curriculists' imaginations. Apple (1975)
argues these points:
(1) Educators, and especially members of the curriculum field, have taken an outmoded positivistic stance that disavows significant critical self-reflection - and have given it the name and prestige of the scientific method.
(2) Because of our lack of reflectiveness we have per ceived our dominant style of scientific rationality as being interest free, when this may not be the case, thereby contributing to an already strongly manipulative ethos of schooling.
(3) Educators may find it necessary to seek out forms of rationality that are less restrictive than those on which they have drawn so heavily in the past if they are in fact to design more humane educational environ ments (p. 121).
The intellectual foundations which Apple proposes for curriculum reconceptualization are based upon the work of Habermas. Habermas' studies are concerned with the tendency in modern, industrialized society to rationalize action. Instrumental or purposive rational 11
action is generalized into all aspect of man's world so that alterna
tives to posltivlstic and reductive models are not posed. Scientific
outlooks are so ingrained that they come to represent the values of the
curriculum, not merely ways to gain knowledge.
In an historical study of curriculum theory, Huber (1981) summari
zes the position of the critical curriculum theorists or the "reconcep-
tualists."
They protest dehumanization, technological rationality, the submission ot human consciousness, and the fragmen tation of social life. They affirm the Importance of the emotions and Intuition. Defining reality in terms that go beyond economic materialism to include spirituali ty, they criticize schools for cooperating in maintaining values which preserve social structure at the expense of the individual (p. 17).
The development of curriculum research has been hampered by the attempt to apply a reconstructed logic of physical science research according to Reid (1978). Curriculum research necessarily leads to a question of policy. Curriculum problems are practical problems which are moral rather than technical in nature.
Such research has to take account of historical perspec tives, of the meanings that participants place on events, of the social and political context of the curriiculum and of the moral and ethical bases on which decisions about the curriculum rest. It is, in character, naturalistic, humanistic, and interpretive. Though its data may be, in varying degrees, "empirical" its treat ment of data departs radically from the objectivist, reductionist paradigm in which much education research is cast (p. 36).
Reid stipulates that the pursuit of a humanistic strategy of inquiry must include study of opinions, wants, and values. Practical decisions must be based on judgments about facts, not on facts themselves. 12
Curriculum researchers, according to the reconceptualists, need
to acknowledge the legitimacy of the different meanings that different
people attach to facts and situations* It is accepted that problem
situations are open-ended. There is no attempt to converge on uni
versally applicable problem solutions.
Copa (19S0) criticizes research in vocational education as focus
ing on questions of means as opposed to means and ends. He charges
that researchers in vocational education have a knowledge base which
is restricted to empirical methods of doing research.
We are in search of formulas— laws which will allow us to predict or manage those doing vocational education or their students. . . These techniques are particularly useful to studying questions of means but are of much less use for questions of means and ends (p. 6)
Copa recommends hermeneutics or phenomenology to get to questions of meaning. This involves interpreting actions from the subject’s own perspective by revealing the meaning the act had for the actor.
Background for the Study
This study is a part of a program development effort of the Home
Economics Section, Division of Vocational Education, Ohio Department of
Education. A four-member committee from the home economics state staff was appointed to coordinate this effort for consumer homemaking pro grams in Ohio. The researcher is a member of that committee. The pro ject is directed by a task force composed of this committee, teacher educators, local supervisors, and teachers.
The predominant model for curriculum in vocational education is occupational analysis. Vocational education curriculum in Ohio is based upon an instructional system design (ISD), which is described as 15 a systematic procedure for assuring the application of planning and organization to vocational programs. The goal for which vocational education will he held accountable is preparing and assisting individuals to obtain meaningful employment.
If vocational education is to achieve its goal, it must systematically design an instructional program that is based upon occupational skill and technical knowledge requirements. Additionally, such a system must provide for the appropriate organization of educational resources in order to optimize the efficiency and effectiveness of the teaching-learning process (Shoemaker, 1976, p. iii).
The ISD (instructional Systems Design) model grows out of experiences in organizing curriculum for the training of employees in modem indus try. It is an eight step process:
(1) The first step is occupational analysis of what the successful worker must be able to do on the job.
(2) The second step is the selection of a course outline from the tasks included in the occupational analysis.
(3 ) The third step is the specification of instructional objectives in terms of the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains.
(4 ) The fourth step is the identification of the instructional strate gy derived in the fourth step.
(6) The sixth step in the system calls for a grouping of the tasks following the instructional strategy, providing for small and large group instruction.
(7) The seventh step calls for selecting the related technical instruc tion content from the occupational analysis to correlate with the duties and tasks as grouped and scheduled.
(8) The eighth step involves planning both formative and summative evaluation.
An occupational analysis is a process that examines an occupation and lists the performance skills and knowledge which the occupation requires. A task list, consisting of a comprehensive list of 14
statements which define actual units of work performed by practitioners
of the occupation, is sent to workers in that occupation. Priorities
are assigned on the basis of how often the tasks are performed and the
percent of workers performing the task.
Objectives are defined as a description of the performance learners
are to exhibit before considered competent.
Without clearly defining instructional objectives, it is impossible to evaluate a course efficiently and there is no sound basis for selecting appropriate materials, content, or methods (Shoemaker, 197&, P* 35)•
There are three components to objectives in the ISD model: outcome,
level of achievement, and conditions of performance. It is expected
that all students will be brought to at least a minimal level in all
tasks as specified by the objectives of the program. Evaluation is a means of determining how well both the instructor and the students attain the pre-deterrained objectives of the instructional program.
Task Analysis Approach to Home Economics Curriculum. Several states, Kentucky, Indiana, and Colorado, in particular, have developed a home economics curriculum based directly on tasks performed in the home. The Vocational-Technical Consortium of States, (V-TECS) conducted a five-state project to collect data for homemaking tasks.
Performance objectives are written for each task. In some states instructional modules are being developed for each objective. This is a part of a Performance-Based Vocational Education Project. This project is defined as an educational program in which the tasks 15
(or skills) to be acquired and demonstrated by the student as well as
the criteria (standards) to be applied in assessing the performance of
such tasks (skills) are made explicit, in advance of instruction.
The student is held accountable for meeting these criteria, and the
instruction is organized around the tasks (skills). The intent, then,
is to link the task analysis of homemaking to the planning and
development of competency-based curriculum.
Colorado recently completed a homemaker task analysis subject
using the DACUM (Design a Curriculum) technique and interviews of
homemakers. The rationale given for this project stated:
It was felt that if vocational consumer and homemaking teachers in Colorado were familiar with the tasks performed by homemakers throughout the state, then it would be possible for them to develop homemaking curriculum offerings that are relevant to the needs of today's homemakers (Abt et al, 1978, p. 1).
It is further stated in the report:
. . . that the implementation of the occupational analysis findings into local consumer and homemaking offerings will assist in the development of competency- based homemaking curriculums (sic) rather than those based upon knowledge. . . If consumer and homemaking programs are to be truly vocational then it will be desirable for teachers to stress the practical applica tion of home economics-related knowledge. (Abt, et al, 1978, p. 7).
There were a few home economics educators who expressed a need for a different conceptualization of curriculum for consumer homemaking education, with its orientation to the family rather than • the occupational world. This position is reflected by Hughes (1980).
Vocational programs which prepare students for a specific occupation or group of occupations have a clearly established training protocol. The training and criteria for assessing student progress are based on an 16
claboi’ate task analysis. In contrast, the complexity of work of the homemaker is not suited to this kind of task analysis. The work of the home is studied by professionals with an intent to make it easier or more pleasant, but the work is a series of basics interwoven with a person's or a family's own standards and values (p. 47).
Brown (1970) reinforces this view, stressing that tasks which
members of families perform at homo do not provide a conceptual focus
to home economics. If’we made analysis of tasks a focus;
We would not be of professional stature; technical preparation would be all that would be required of chose who practice home economics. This would be true for two reasons; (l) performance of the tasks would not require mastery of theoretical knowledge nor complex judgment reflecting significant human consequences and (2 ) the tasks done in the home change over time so that there v/ould be constant change in the focus of services pro vided to families and, therefore, in the subject matter of the field (p. 21). «■
Ohio Home Economics Curriculum Conference. A conference was held in February, 1900, to share ideas and to present diverse pers pectives of curriculum from other states. In attendance at.this conference were all members of the state .staff of vocational homo economics, teacher educators representing all seven higher education institutions certified for training vocational home economics teachers in Ohio, and representatives of local home economics supervisors'and vocational homo economics teachers. A summary presentation guided participants in classifying the characteristics of alternative approaches to the curriculum. Participants returned individual response shoots which wore analysed and incorporated into a schema for curriculum development. The portion of the curriculum project, which this study addresses-is an analysis of tasks-,performed in the 17
home, perceptions of the meaning and significance and problems and
concerns of home and family life of consumer homemaking advisory
committee members and seniors enrolled in home economics, with a
critical analysis of these data, and implications for developing a
consumer homemaking curriculum.
Purpose of Study
This study is an outgrowth of the researcher’s concern for the lack of fit between the philosophy of home economics and the
Instructional Systems Design model for vocational education in Ohio.
Habermas articulated an expanded conception of knowledge and inquiry with the elaboration of three metascientific philosophical frameworks:
1. Empirical-rational - based upon technical interests, instrumental action, and objective experience
2. Hermeneutic - based upon practical interests, communicative/ interpretive action, and intersubjective experience
3. Critical - based upon emancipatory interests, enlightened action, and subjective experience
The task analysis approach to home economics curriculum is in the realm of the empirical-rational perspective. However, both the historical and recent statements of home economics philosophy reflect a concern for ideals, for the practical problems of perennial concern in homes and families. This necessitates a critical perspective which mediates empirical-rational and hermeneutic knowledge to seek judgment about the ends to be sought in the quality of home and family life. 18
Brown (1978) claims that given the nature of practical problems,
it becomes obvious that neither strict science (positivistic science)
nor applied science is sufficient to provide tools of inquiry for the
solution of practical problems of the home and family.
The mode of inquiry required is one which not only pro vides us with reliable knowledge of things as they are and of what, in fact, results from certain events or conditions; it must also provide us with reliable knowl edge of what ought to be, of what is right and good (i.e. of value) (p. 24).
Bnpirical-rational science and hermeneutic science do not x'rovide
knowledge of what is good. Normative statements cannot be derived from
descriptive ones. However, empirical-rational science and hermeneutic
science provide data which can be critically analyzed, selected, and
organized to determine valued ends. These sciences can also be used to
accomplish these ends. According to Brown and Paolucci (1979)* home
economics should utilize empirical-rational, hermeneutic, and critical
science.
The metascientific perspectives of Habermas provide a framework
that goes beyond positivistic science in providing modes of inquiry.
It is the purpose of this study to apply the metascientific framework of Habermas to provide:
1. Data concerning tasks performed in the home, including duration, frequency, and criticality of performance of household tasks
2, Data concerning: (a) the micro questions of perceptions of (l) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to home and family life
(b) the macro questions of perceptions of (1) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to home and family life 19 The data will he critically analyzed, selected, and organized to provide empirical knowledge, understanding, and critical reflections which will he useful in the development of a home economics curriculum.
Definition of Terms
Colorado Occupational Analysis of Homemakers task list: List of tasks
performed hy homemakers; generated using the DACUM (skill profile)
process.
Critical science: Based upon emancipatory interests, enlightened
action, and subjective experience. Bnpirical-rational science: Based upon technical interests, instru
mental action, and objective experience. Family: A unit of intimate, transacting, and interdependent persons
who share some values and goals, responsibility for decisions and
resources, and have commitment to one another over time. Hermeneutic science; Based upon practical interests, communicative/
interpretive action, and intersubjective experience. Homemaker: A person who has accepted partial or total responsibility
for the care of self and/or another person. Household work: Production of goods and services needed for the
family to function in today's world. nnal (task) analysis: A process that examines an occupation
and lists the performance skills and knowledge which the occupation
requires. Practical •problems: Problems requiring judgments about what to do.
Task: A distinct collection of steps or elements performed by a worker
that are logical and necessary to achieving a single objective or
output. Task list: A comprehensive list of statements which define actual 20
units of work performed by practitioners of the occupation.
Vocational consumer homemaking advisory committees; Composed of a
cross section of community members for the purpose of advising and/
or reviewing the vocational consumer homemaking program.
Vocational consumer homemaking program; Located in secondary school,
with the purpose of preparing males and females for the occupation
of homemaking. Programs may include classes with the following
content areas: child development, clothing and textiles, consumer
education, family health, family relations, foods and nutrition,
home management, and housing and home furnishings.
Vocational education planning district: One of 102 districts in Ohio
formed for the purpose of providing vocational education; consists
of joint vocational schools or comprehensive schools with vocational
offerings and feeder schools.
Overview
The remainder of the study is organized in five chapters.
The theoretical base for the study, metascientific perspectives of knowledge and inquiry of Habermas, is presented in Chapter II.
Chapter III consists of the review of literature. The research design is reported in Chapter IV. Findings from the task analysis are reported in Chapter V, and findings from the perceptions of home and family life are in Chapter VI. Chapter VII contains the summary, recommendationsf and implications. CHAPTER II
METASCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES OF KNOWLEDGE AND INQUIRY
While the quantity of information expands at an exponential rate,
the orientations or perspectives on the nature of knowledge and Inquiry
also change. These perspectives provide a philosophical framework for
social theories of man and society and a theoretical base for this
study. The term "orientation" refers to the way one views the world,
a Weltanschuauung. Van Manen (1977) says that an orientation has the
uncanny quality of encapsulating the person who has learned to adopt
it. It is, then, particularly critical for researchers to be aware
of and able to critique these perspectives of knowledge and inauiry.
Jurgen Habermas provides a systematic critique of theories of
knowledge and inquiry, particularly the dominance of positivism. He analyzes and synthesizes a wide range of works, including the phenomeno
logical and hermeneutic traditions of inquiry. The meanings explicated
from interpretive methodology are further viewed in relation to the social, political, and economic conditions of life in a critique of ideology.
Habermas, a German social theorist; was born in 1929 and educated in German universities. Only a small portion of Habermas' work has been translated into English. Habermas sees his work as located between science and philosophy.
Habermas has developed a comprehensive theory, an expanded
21 22
conception of rationality, In which he distinguishes among three
cognitive interests: the technical, the practical, and the emancipa
tory. These in turn guide three metascientific perspectives on inquiry:
the empirical-rational, the hermeneutic, and the critical. The term
"metascience" refers to a scientific discipline which accumulates know
ledge about the scientific enterprise— a philosophy of science, a
Wissenschaft.
The expression 'interest" is intended by Habermas to indicate the unity of the life context in which cognition is embedded. The interests
result from a sociocultural life form from which we apprehend reality.
These interests serve to direct our knowledge and systems of action.
Each cognitive interest unites a particular configu ration of experience, action, knowledge, language use, human development, species evolution, social organization, and specialized form of inquiry. (Milczarek, 1979, p. 50).
Technical questions are posed assuming goals as givens. The problem becomes one of the rational goal-directed organization of means and the rational selection of instrumental alternatives toward these goals. Knowledge is functional. Things, events, and conditions are viewed as capable of being manipulated. The object is one of external nature. Technical interests are frequently associated with technique and efficiency.
Practical interests are intersubjectively constituted. They are based upon communicative action aimed toward understanding of meaning.
Practical knowledge is gained through the medium of language and social interests.
Emancipatory interests aim at reflection on oneself. Self- 23
reflection leads to insight— according to Habermas, making the
unconscious conscious. Emancipatory interests are concerned with
freeing self-formative processes from conditions such as false
consciousness, distorted communication, cultural encapsulation, or
hidden ideologies, all of which serve as constraints toward the devel
opment of Individual autonomy. Individuals must mediate between their
own interests and those of the community through a process of self
reflection which frees them from rationalization at a personal level
and from an ideology at the level of collective action.
Empirical-Analytic Science
Empirical-analytic science originated with the rise of natural
science in the seventeenth century, and was developed in the Vienna
Circle as a reaction against metaphysics. It has its roots in an
intellectual tradition of positivism. The manifesto of the Vienna
group was to further and propagate a scientific world view. Knowledge
should be certain, consisting of logical truths. Ideally, knowledge
should be final.
According to Radnitzky (1973) the dominant image of man in the
Anglo-American or English speaking world is programmed by logical
empiricism. The rise of pragmatism and behaviorism gave further momen
tum to this orientation in America. In this milieu, one places into the center man's behavior and studies man in relation to his component parts. The philosophy of science associated with this image of man may be characterized by a psychology which becomes typically behavior
istic, physiological psychology, and psychometrics. The theory 24 underlying such research includes systems theory, cybernetics, and behavioral theory.
Theories in the empirical-analytic sciences comprise hypothetico- deductive propositions. Methodology consists primarily of observation, often taking the form of experimental design or hypothesis checking in which conditions are controlled. Results are corroborated through replication, thereby producing universal, generallzable explanations of nature. The cognitive interest is that of technical control or' prediction over objectified phenomena. Empirical-analytic knowledge can assume the form of causal explanations or conditional predictions.
Knowledge in the empirical-analytic orientation is nomological, consisting of facts, principles, generalizations, and laws of cause and effect. Empirical knowledge is assumed to be value free. Man acts upon his world; theory and practice are separate. Science and philoso phy become antipodal ways of knowing. That which is subjective lies outside the realm of reason.
Hermeneutic Science
An intellectual movement with origins on the continent of Europe, the hermeneutic-dialectical school of philosophy, is beginning to influence the English-speaking world.
In the philosophy of science in the United States the lines are now drawn more sharply than before: a logicist ahistoric approach on the one hand is giving way to a historical, phenomenological, dialectic approach on the other (Radnitzky, 1973, p. iv).
Hermeneutic understanding, according to Habermas (1971),
"grasps life experience in its entire breadth." The term "hermeneutics" 25
was coined in the early seventeenth century to refer to the interpre
tation of texts. Applied hermeneutics is closely connected with the
problem of communication, particularly between different, languages
and different cultures. The significant question is: What meaning
does this text have? Hermeneutic inquiry focuses upon man in the
social world.
The object of hermeneutic inquiry is cultural meaning or under
standing in terms of the meanings people give. Its key concepts are meaning, language, and history. The hermeneutic method, particularly
as set forth by Gadamer, has as its task a discovery of knowledge in
the sense of Verstehen ' (understanding) that cannot be attained by the
strict or empirical-analytic sciences. Hermeneutics culminates in the
Verstehen of the most deep-lying final aims of works of art and of
cultures and epochs as wholes.
Understanding involves the disclosure of human life worlds. Life experience is constructed in communication with other life experiences and is expressed symbolically. The researcher is concerned with sub jective meaning. Reality is intersubjectively constituted through reconstruction of life experiences so that the meaning structure pro vides a common understanding between subject and investigator.
Knowledge is situational-interpretive. Habermas (1971) quotes
Dilthey:
An infinite wealth of life unfolds in the individual existence of particular persons in virtue of their relations to their milieu, to other persons, and to things. But every single Individual is at the same time a point of intersection for structures that per meate individuals, exist through them, but extend beyond their lives (p. 156). 26
Hermeneutics is concerned with individual life histories and with social systems. Hermeneutic disciplines also contribute to the perennial historical dialogue which humanity has been conducting about the meaning of life as well as about ultimate goals concerning the practice of life. This is done through making accessible the meaning of texts and of actions.
Hermeneutic science can also Include an empirical focus— that of constructing conceptual categories from common sense meanings. The purpose is to understand the. inner "life-world" of the individual and of social groups in the cultural setting. Brown and Faolucci (1979) quote Schutz:
Meaning is not a quality inherent in certain experi ences emerging within our stream of consciousness, but the result of an interpretation of a past experience looked at from the present Now with a reflective attitude. As long as 1 live in my acts, directed toward the objects of these acts, they do not have meaning. They become meaningful if I grasp them as well- circumscribed experiences of the past and, therefore, in my retrospection. Only experience which can be recollected beyond their actuality and which can be questioned about their constitution are, therefore, subjectively meaningful (p.90).
To achieve validity, the researcher must avoid preconceived categories for the research, but discover the meaning of the person(s) being studied.
Critical Science
The work of the Frankfurt School and Habermas, in particular, is generally considered to be the most significant advance in critical theory since Marx. Most of the members of the Frankfurt School were 27
influenced at an early stage in their careers by more subjectivist,
even idealist philosophies. (Jay, 1973}, A theme of German idealism
is that of restoring the human dimension to the critique of knowledge.
According to Marcuse (1960), German idealism rescued philosophy from
the attacks of British empiricism. The Frankfurt School attempts to relate through critical theory the object of knowledge to the consti
tutive activity of the subject within a historical context, a unifica tion of theory and practice, reflection and action. An important feature of critical science is its orientation toward the praxis of life through the emancipation of the individual from the hypostatlzed forces of society and the emancipation of mankind by becoming more aware of structures that bind them.
Habermas (1971) criticizes both the empirical-analytic and the hermeneutic sciences as comprising a scientistic consciousness, based on the model of science.
Much as the cultural sciences may comprehend their facts through understanding and little though they may be concerned with discovering general laws, they nevertheless share with the empirical-rational sciences the methodological consciousness of describing a structured reality within the horizon of the theoretical attitude. Historicism has become the positivism of the cultural and social sciences (p. 303).
The research-guiding interest underlying critical theory is interest in the development of knowledge. It does so through incorporating empirical-analytic and hermeneutic sciences, but adding the dimension of reflection. An essential component of critical theory is the elimination of false consciousness on the individual level and the critique of ideologies on the level of collective action. The cultural 28
conditions in which one lives are reflected upon critically.
Habermas expands upon Freud's theory of psychoanalysis to provide a method for self-reflection. Psychoanalytic interpretation is con
cerned with those connections of symbols in which a subject deceives
itself about itself. It seeks to uncover mechanisms of self-deception and ego-defensiveness. If one is inhibited by unconscious motives or nonfunctional patterns of action, one is not emancipated from unrecog nized dependencies. Analysis frees individuals from the constraints of blind compulsions and false self-understandings. To Habermas analysis has immediate therapeutic results because the critical over coming of blocks to consciousness and the penetration of fal se objecti- vations initiates the appropriation of a lost portion of life history.
Analytic knowledge is self-reflection.
The model of the psychoanalytic encounter is transposed to the criticism of ideologies on the level of society. Habermas refers to a reconstruction of the self-formation of developmental processes, imply ing the need for studying the historical genesis of knowledge. A successful reconstruction also raises an "unconsciously" functional rule system to consciousness. Each critical reconstruction is a self- understanding that breaks down the constraints of past forms of consciousness.
An adequate comprehension of the present requires both a critique and retention of the past stages within a theory of the totality (Schroyer, 1973, p. 30).
The methodology for critical inquiry consists of communicative competence. Habermas' examination of psychoanalysis concludes that as a theory and therapy of systematically distorted communication, it 29
necessarily presupposes a general theory of non-distorted communication. In his inaugural lecture at Frankfort University, Habermas declared:
"What raises us out of nature is the only thing whose nature we can
know: language" (Habermas, 1976, p. xvii).
The methodology of self-reflection is accomplished through authentic dialogue and undistorted communication. However, it is recognized that authenticity of dialogue and freedom from distortion or constraint in communica tion is dependent upon social institutions which permit and protect such communication (Brown and Paolucci, 1979, p. 97).
Habermas asserts the need for questioning the conceptual frame of
reference, looking for consistency between the conceptual system and
life. This leads to a new level of metatheoretical communication. The
dialectic process is concerned with the open and critical examination
of the interconnectedness of ideas. Through dialectical reasoning, one
can examine different ideas to discover underlying common meanings.
The two positions of empirical-rational and hermeneutic knowledge and
inquiry may not be contradictory when viewed in the more comprehensive
framework.
The political aim of critical social science is preventing society
from becoming closed. It was a tenet of the Frankfurt School that basic
psychological concepts had to be integrated with basic socioeconomic
concepts because the perspectives of an autonomous ego and an emanci
pated society were essentially interdependent.
Critical science is committed to unlimited inquiry and permanent
dialogue, with the aim of improving the human condition by liberating man from hidden assumptions, and enabling humankind to determine,
consciously and actively, its own way of life. Critical reason gains
power over dogmatism. Knowledge is normative. Ethics committed to 50
emancipatory interests provide a unifying principle for critical
theory.
Habermas' critical theory is important especially for contemporary social thought in that it is put forward not only as a social theory of man and society, but also on a meta level, as an epistemology of research practice and theory development in social science (Van Manen, 1975, p. 20).
The relation of the phenomenon of insight to critical reflec
tion is not mentioned by Habermas. The language used by Habermas
related to self reflection is rational in nature, indicating a process
of verbal-analytic reasoning. Insight, however, involves an intuitive mode of knowing. Insight frequently occurs in a simultaneity of per
ception and is expressed in symbolic language. Jung (1964) believed
that insight leads to ideas that lie beyond the grasp of reason. Thus,
critical science in this study is used in the more inclusive sense to
refer to both reasoning and intuitive modes of knowledge. Critical
science increases the researcher's freedom. It liberates from the
influence of traditions and of styles of thought by making these
influences visible. Critical theory is averse to closed philosophical systems.
Metascientific Perspectives in Home Economics
Viewed from the analytic-empirical perspective, home economics would be a technical or applied science. Theoretical knowledge is translated into the invention of means to given ends.
.Practice constitutes help provided to families or to industry in the technology of producing goods or operating a business enterprise, or to consumers in the consumption of technological products. Manage ment of the home is important as the efficient achieve ment of unexamined wants and desires (which may be created by dominant social forces outside the family). Management is also used in getting people to change through techniques of behavior modification, human engineering,and systems analysis of cultural and institutional systems (including the family) (Brown and Paolucci, 1979, p. 87).
Instrumental values related to the efficiency of means to reach ends
are upheld, while intrinsic values, considered subjective, are avoided.
In this perspective there is no consideration of the meaning of existing
social conditions or the condition of the human psyche, only that for
the objective reality or observable world as it is.
Analytic-empirical knowledge is purposed to be value-free and hence
is inadequate for solving human problems for which there must be valued
ends. The researcher's role is to describe the world as it is, not to
change it.
Hermeneutic science would provide for an understanding of the mean
ings which people give to home and family life. To have knowledge of
subjective factors would help in identifying reasons for action. It may assist in explaining what underlies people's responses to practical problems in home and family life. The analysis of concepts complements
the collection and processing of empirical data.
The analytic view helps us to see how language impoverishes or enriches our conceptual understanding and practice (including the practice of science) and that language is impoverished or enriched in turn by clarity and intersubjective validation of concepts (Brown and Paolucci, 1979, p. 90).
Hermeneutic sciences are critized by Habermas as not dealing with false consciousness. The results of hermeneutic sciences are also des criptive. Values are accepted as they are. The hermeneutic sciences then also do not provide a basis for transforming life in homes and 52
families.
Normative statements cannot be developed from descriptive sciences.
If home economics is a critical science, its professionals would reject as arrogant the monistic view of knowledge held, respectively in analytic- empirical science and interpretive science. Instead, they would hold a more comprehensive view of knowledge which would accept both sciences as necessary for the practical life adding a critical function of science. In the role of critical scientists, home economists would be critically conscious of social forces affect ing families in their functions of self-formation and of contributing to the formation of society (Brown and Paolucci, 1979, p. 100).
Research, then, would involve hybrid modes of inquiry and would not be limited to data collection and processing. Habermas sees theory and practice connected through the critical sciences. Home economics as defined in the 1902 Lake Placid Conference is a philosophical sub ject, with a concern for relation, while the study on which it depends is empirical in nature and is related to events and phenomena. Neither empirical-analytic or hermeneutic science is sufficient to provide tools of inquiry for the solution of practical problems of the home and family.
Critical theory is mediated by the two lower cognitive interests of instrumental action and communicative interaction. Habermas asserts that all practical questions which cannot be answered by technical prescriptions, but which also require a self-understanding, go beyond the cognitive interests in empirical and interpretive science.
Once a practical problem has been identified in the tension between some "given" (factual) and the "ideal" (contrafactual) state, a thorough knowledge of inter pretive science and of empirical-analytic research and theory development must be available to the critical social actor in order to move the "existing" or "given" state of affairs toward the "possible" or more "ideal" state (Van Manen, 1975).
Practical problems are defined as problems about what to do, and are referred to in philosophical writings as "uncertain practical questions." That is, the grounds on which decisions should be made are uncertain. "Problem" is used to mean a difficult question. The usage of "practical" does not refer to expedience, but derives from praktisch, pertaining to conscious thought processes which reach ful fillment in action.
Brown (1978) stipulates that if the purpose of home economics is to aid persons in solving practical problems of perennial concern regard ing the quality of human life in the home and family, and if the solu tions to those problems lie in the environment of the home and family and/or in the larger environment of the culture and society, then the substantive content of the field of home economics takes on a means- ends orientation. The formulation of problems as practical, then, includes both theoretical and technological knowledge. Where theoreti cal problems are concerned only with thought, practical problems are concerned with thought based upon action. Stated in research language, home economists are concerned with defining dependent variables which bear upon conditions of the individual in the home and family and upon conditions in the family as a group.
Practical problems are solved in action. In practice, then, critical science seeks to initiate needed social change.
It is not a data-gathering science but the results of data-gathering in other sciences are used in inter preting the contemporary human situation, in determin- «
34 ing what actions are possible and the consequence of those possible actions. It brings a normative position to practical discourse and action: the position of human emancipation (Brown and Paolucci, 1979. p. 98).
Relevant knowledge from emnirical-analytic research and from
interpretive science would be criticallv selected and organized
for use.
Brown and Paolucci (1979) present three criteria for selection of
nractical Droblems:
1.The general categories of Droblems chosen, as dis tinguished from sub-Droblems in each cateeorv, should be persistent problems in that thev are con fronted from generation to generation of families and even by the same generation over time.
2. The sub-categories of problems (in the general categories) must take into account that these more specific problems people confront differ with developmental changes in the history of the individual and in the history of a family.
3. All problems are chosen in light of concerns for the future, i.e., their significance for transformation .in personal development and in social systems (p. 68).
Practical problems are perennial in that the roots are largelybased on procedural "how to" questions rather than practical "what to do"
concerns. When the conceptual framework is based upon perennial rather
than immediate problems or issues, it is possible to develop a sophisti- • cated and cumulative knowledge base.
Critical science, with its emancipatory interest, contributes to the transformation in the formation and maturing of self and in the formation and control of social institutions (Brown and Paolucci, 1979, p. 71).
Critique of Objectivistic Orientation
Social theorists from a variety of orientations have expressed an 55
emerging awareness of the limitations of the prevailing conception of
reality. Embodied in the writings of the social critics (Goodman,
Marcuse, Roszak, Radnitzky, Fromm) and philosophers, particularly of
the Frankfurt School, is concern for the one-dimensional world of
empirical-analytic science.
A major convergence of contemporary philosophy seems to have
emerged in opposition to positivistic philosophy. Phenomenology,
(Husserl), existentialism (Heidegger) neo-Marxism (Habermas) and
hermeneutic philosophy (Gadamer) have all generated a critique of ob
jectivism.
Whether the source of the contemporary crisis is conceptualized as "objectivism" (Husserl), "technicity" (Heidegger), or "instrumental rationalization" (Habermas) the essential podnt is that the modern industrial world has severed theory from the practioe of life. All these viewpoints converge in their critique of the modern identification of knowledge and/or reason with the products of strict science (Schroyer, 1973, p. 28).
The relationship between theory and practice has assumed
in industrial society a distinctly instrumentalist nature. Fay (cited
in Ball, 1977) asserts that engineering has come to embody our concep
tion of how knowledge can guide our actions, not only in the natural world, but also in our medical practices, political institutions, and dealings with the psychological states of others and even ourselves.
Identifying with only one form of rational action blinds persons to alternative ways in which knowledge may be relevant in their lives, leading them to formulate and value only one kind of theoretical knowledge, and encouraging a kind of domination in their social lives. 56
Objectivism or objective consciousness is not, as Roszak (1969)
insists, "uniquely in touch with the truth," but is an arbitrary con
struct in which a given society has invested meaningfulness and value.
Science, under the technocracy, has become a total culture dominating the lives of millions for whom dis cussions of the theory of knowledge are so much foreign language. . . Objectivity as a state of being fills the very air we breathe in a scientific culture; it grips us subliminally ja all we say, feel, and do (p. 216).
A fundamental interest of Habermas is the critique of the ideolo gical character of instrumental and scientific conceptions of reality that dominate our society. A theory of knowledge and research in the scientistic ideology is limited to the explication of the scientific method. In a discussion of scientific revolutions, Kuhn (1970) criti cizes factual scientific investigation as rarely producing major novel ties, conceptual or phenomenal.
Sometimes, as in a wave-length measurement, everything but the most esoteric detail of the result is known in advance, and the typical latitude of expectation is only somewhat wider (p. 34).
Empirical-analytic science is applied to technical-instrumental problems toward conditions of predictability, control, and efficiency. With an instrumental orientation, people are treated as objects, with a loss of critical personal and interpersonal dimensions.
. . . a peculiar danger arises when the process of scientification transgresses the limit of technical questions, without, however, departing from the level of reflection of a rationality confined to the techno logical horizon (Habermas, 1971, P* 255).
Logical empiricism, according to Radnitzky (1973), creates an anit-metaphysical attitude in its intellectual milieu. World-picture 37 hypotheses are not the concern of logical-empiricists. Rather, they have institutionalized the fallacy of totalization, the dogmatic belief that positive sciences are capable of answering all questions, that "science" is privileged over all other modes of learning.
The old philosophical questions of what is good, what is wisdom and of the art of living, they are all transformed into "scientific" questions: what is it that people tend to maximize their intentions toward, a question which we can answer by statistical studies of history and sociology. Thus this approach paves the way for the worship of large numbers and for the tyranny of the majority— the majority is always right (p. 49).
Radnitzky charges that logical-empiricists equate testability and meaning.
To the sound idea that testability is sufficient but not necessary for meaningfulness, one added the converse assertion, and ended up equating meaning (information-content) with verification (truth- condition), thereby confusing semantic-ontological problems with epistemological problems (p. 138).
Schroyer (1973) advances the thesis that contemporary establishment social science is essentially a science of managerial rationality. Precise quantification and systematic decision-making are the basis for purposive rational action or instrumental reason.
Technocratic strategy is guided by "neutral" standards of scientistic rationalizations, being unconcerned with cultural values. An unintended consequence of this one-sided concept of reason is a crisis of human subjectivity and the disenchantment and secularization of our world views.
Positivism, according to Habermas, marks the end of the theory of knowledge. Positivism is consistent with the principle of scientism in which the meaning of knowledge is defined by what the sciences do and can be gained through the methodological analysis of scientific procedures.
Objectivism deludes the sciences with the image of a self-subsistent world of facts structured in a law like manner; it thus conceals the a priori constitution of these facts (Habermas, 1971» P» 69).
Epistemology is replaced by methodology. The objectivistic approach to inquiry excludes inter-personal and personal dimensions of experience. Habermas articulates an expanded conception of inquiry to include hermeneutic and critical, as well as empirical-rational science theories. Hermeneutic science adds an intersubjective dimension.
Hermeneutic inquiry formalizes and gives methodolo gical rigor to the kind of interpretive understanding that always takes place in ordinary language and social interaction (Milczarek, 1979* p. 60).
The root activity of critical science theory is enlightened reflec tion. Critical science inquiry aims at uncovering false consciousness in individuals and ideologies in society in order that individuals may act autonomously and responsibly..
Critique of Ob.iectivistic Orientation to Inquiry in Home Economics
A metatheory (theoretical inquiry into theorizing) is an epistemolo- gical activity which may make explicit how the source ideas for doing research are unexamined. An expanded conception of inquiry provides for a comprehensive view beyond the empirical-rational perspective. This view may be helpful in identifying neglected areas of research and alters native research perspectives for the home and family. Much of the research in home and family life is empirical-
rational science. Home economists, according to East (i960), have
concentrated research on the immediate physical environment, with little
study of relations. Analysis is the preferred way of thinking. East
protests that home economics has limited itself to the scientist's
view.
We focus on what works to solve a particular problem in a particular instance. We abstract each piece of family living from the whole and treat it as a separate entity. Analysis is necessary; but synthesis is, too. Synthesis is the process of putting parts back together in new ways to produce new creations (p. 182).
Since the positivistic sciences are based on the presuppositions
of mechanical function of what is studied and of value neutrality,
Brown (1980) argues that such a mechanistic view is intellectually
faulty when applied to human beings. Prediction and control of what
is studied is inappropriate when applied to home and family life since
humans are capable of directing or re-directing their own action.
Brown contends that knowledge of the positivistic sciences (natural
or social) to which professionals of recent decades have been
exposed is inadequate. The mode of inquiry in the empirical analytic
sciences has a less useful role in home economics than the hermeneutic
and interpretive sciences according to Brown. Knowledge so acquired would include a personal and subjective orientation that would
cultivate a global view of human relationships and synthesize over arching conceptions and attitudes.
The lack of an adequate and generally accepted framework for viewing family needs, activities, functions, and responsibilities is viewed by Magrabi (1980) as a major concern. She outlines the need for 40
an integrative framework— one that clearly displays the essential relationships between family food behavior, child rearing, financial practices, and other sectors of family life; one that displays the decisions families make and the bases on which they decide. Without such an integrative framework, Magrabi foresees the family being dominated by single issue politics and less able to identify common interests and concerns.
Referring to the integrative mission of home economics, Horn
(1981) asserts the need for knowledge drawn from many disciplines ". . . because the problems of families do not fit conveniently into narrow categories. The "New Age Synthesis" predicted by Toffler (1980) lends further credence to a shift from fragmentation of family activities to the family’s assumption of a more holistic central role in people's lives, including the nurturance and education of young children.
From early studies in home economics to the present, there is a concentration of literature on tasks performed and time use in household work. There is an emerging body of literature contained in the rubric
"New Home Economics" which relates to household work. It is based upon an economic model of household behavior. In a market economy, the accumulation of wealth through profits is necessary for the economy to succeed. Personal satisfaction is held to be effected through consump tion of commodities. In a society oriented toward consumption of commodities, everything is for sale and everything has a price. This has led to the attempt to price the services of a homemaker. Much of this is in response to legal cases in which there is loss of services of the homemaker (Hall, 1975? Nelson, 1977)- Economists have debated the contribution of housework to the GNP.
A large research field has emerged which is based upon rational effi ciency— improving the management of the home. Yet Glazer (1980) observes that there is a resistance of housework to rationalization.
In an analysis of women's domestic labor under capitalism, Gardiner
(1975) emphasizes that emotional needs cannot be rationalized or social ized. Emotional needs cannot be met on the commodity market, but are based on direct personal relationships within the family. In discussing the socialization of women's domestic labor services, Gardiner concluded that it is impossible to produce genuine substitutes in the form of commodities.
Lopate (1974) traces the history of what she termed the "irony of the home economics movement." Rationalizing housework, its "scientifi- cation," that is,the belief in a science of organizational efficiency, and the attempt to parallel home management with the principles of business and industry, contribute to a sexual division of labor and a national system of attitudes and behaviors for women in the home.
While economic analysis is rigorously deductive, the economic paradigm applied to the family has been purchased at the price of obliterating most of the trees from the forest (Sawhill, 1978). The problem lies in attempting to fit variables and observed relationships to a micro-economic doctrine. Sawhill concludes that personal values and psychological needs met by marriage, children, and family life will be the final arbiters of choice.
Rossi (1978) states: 42
Because our aocial-science theories are themselves rational structures, there may be a tendency to assume that the behavior we study is Itself rational. . . Too often what can be measured is taken to exhaust what needs explanation. It is not clear that any metric can catch the emotional components in the meaning a child has to adults, with the result that such meanings are not likely to appear in a benefit or cost side of the economist's equation (p. 252).
This view was echoed by Berk (1980) in his critique of the "New
Home Economics." Household production, in contrast to factory produc
tion, is personal, and the entities exchanged have symbolic content
and situated meaning. Thus there is a need for interpreting housework
in both empirical and ideational terms.
In the metascientific theory of Habermas, the economic paradigm
is rooted in empirical-rational knowledge. Critics of this economic
paradigm point to the omission of consideration of psychological and
interpersonal needs— that area that lies within hermeneutic modes of
inquiry. The economic paradigm as a conceptual frame of reference
alone is inconsistent with life.
Poster (1978) says, in his work on the critical theory of the
family, that with a dominant empiricist tradition, historians have
come to the field of family history without a clear sense of what the
significant questions are. Studies of the family tend to cluster around the effects of given characteristics of families on dependent variables such as marital satisfaction or marital stability. The major purpose of these studies is to predict and/or control behavior.
Criteria for inclusion of research in the "Review and Synthesis of Research on Home Economics Education" for the past two decades 43
included presence or absence of guiding hypotheses. Favored considera
tion was given to those involving testing of theoretically derived hypotheses and studies utilizing experimental or quasi-experimental
designs (Nelson, 1970 and 1979). This necessarily excludes hypothesis-
generating research.
Christensen (1965) in a now classic volume, Handbook of Marriage and the Family, described the period from 1900 to 1950 as an "emerging-
science" period, with empirically oriented scholars. Survey research was factual, descriptive, and not given to over-generalization.
Campbell and Converse (1972) claim that we know little about the detailed interplay between objective situations and the way people assess them subjectively. As an example, sociologists have tended to view the growing divorce rate with alarm, particularly since a few national studies have consistently shown that people who are divorced at the time of an interview indicate they are quite unhappy. Statistics linking divorce and suicide are well known. Other observers suggest that perhaps divorce is preferable to being locked into a corrosive marriage. The meaning of divorce for both children and spouses has been left largely to speculation. What is important is that the impressive change in rates, while a critical datum in itself, can be interpreted in very different ways when questions of human meaning of the change come to be asked.
In a summary of 1,100 family-related research projects funded by the federal government, Wakefield, Allen, and Washchuck (1979) conclud ed that "conceptual clarity is severely lacking." They also charge that 44
there appears to be no rationale for the use and organization of
theory and concepts. One-half of the studies were related to "problem" families, which they note is a significant emphasis on deviance.
A traditional fora of the nuclear family was implicit or clearly stated in almost all of the research reports studied by Wakefield. A breakdown of the topics through which families were studied was given in two categories. For families interfacing with society, the research studies were distributed as follows: 10 percent - work roles; 13 percent - social norms; and 10 percent - family structure or composition.
The topics related to the internal family system were: 29 percent - system dynamics— sex roles, marital interaction, divorce adjustment;
18 percent - socialization— child rearing practices; 15 percent - family styles - value/power structures, practices outside the norm; and 4 percent kinship relations.
In an anthology of contemporary theories about the family, Burr
(1979) asserts that the knowledge-building enterprise of family research is worldwide and growing rapidly. In America, the emphasis has been on microstudies of contemporary issues of mate selection, marriage, and divorce, sex and fertility, family interaction, and family transactions with community and kinship networks. Less than 15 percent of the writing concerns macro issues of family and society. Further, there is a reported upswing in methodological sophistication, including increas ing attention to representative sampling and use of probability statis tics in analysis of data. However, the authors of this volume found little relevance of the studies to a body of theory. While the number of hypotheses explicitly identified and tested increased, there has 45
been no attempt to go beyond verification to link propositions together
into more complex propositions or to integrate these into theories un
til recently. American family research is described as disjunctive,
not adding significant new knowledge and showing little evidence of
imagination in the formulation of creative hypotheses. Findings are
presented in the form of correlations without a search for understand
ing. In the search for universalities of family life, Rossi (1978)
found a loss of awareness of the diversity and complexity of family
life.
The family viewed as the primary institution for the development
of the young and the emphasis in the home economics definitional state ment on relational phenomena are incompatible with a one-dimensional, empirical-rational theory. There is, then a disjuncture between the body of research based upon an empirical investigation of external reality and the personal and interpersonal search for meaning and understanding in home and family life. Brown and Paolucci (1979) predict that the gap between theoretical knowledge from analytic- empirical sciences and practice will increase, while the intensity and number of human problems will also increase.
Summary
In Table 1 is a summary of the major distinctions among the three metascientific perspectives which were made in this chapter. It would seem that methods of inquiry in home economics would reflect both a scientific and philosophical orientation. That is, empirical data could be collected and analyzed to describe and/or predict and control phenomena and events. There is a need, however, for creative research TABLE 1
KETASciarriFic perspectives of knovledce and inquiry
UimenBlon Ihpirlcal-Analytic Rcrnoneutio Critical
Cognitive Zntereeta Tochnical Practical Enancipatory Hiilooophiool Roots Positivism Hermeneutic, Critical Theory, (Frankfort Phenomenological School) Purpose/Tolos Predict, control Authontio Intor- PYoedom from False Consoious- explain phenomena oubjeetive ness, Hlddon Ideologies Understanding of Inner Lifo Vorld System of Aotion Instrumental Communicate Baonclpatlve Knowledge Fhcts, Principles, Understanding, Critical Knowing, Combining Bnpirlaal Bata Vcrotohon Reflection and Action Method Bcperimontation, Con Construction of Self Reflection trolled Observation, Shored Moaning Practical Biscourse Hypothesis Tooting Thoory Hypothotico-Doductive Interpretivo/ Normative Communicative Perspective of Tochnical, Applied Based upon Meaning Fooue upon Peronnial Practloal Homo Economice Science Civcn Homo and Problcma-Volue Questions to be Family Life Solved in Reflection of Action Home Economics Analysis of Tasks Per- Construction of Practical Reasoning, Using Bata Heocarch Oriontation formed in the Homo) Shared Meanings of from Enpiricol-Analytio and Hypothetieo-Deductive Homo and Family Hormeneutio Sciences to Frano Studies of Variables Lifo Practical problcms/Yaluo Questions Predictive of Pheno and Actions which may Lead to mena in Homes and Transformation of Individuals, Families Families, and Sooiety 47 in hone economics to apply the three metascientific perspectives to mediate "between theory and practical problems. The importance of relational phenomena necessitates a place for interpretive science in home economics inquiry. The need for a critical science perspective is contained in this recent mission statement for home economics:
The mission of home economics is to enable families, both as individual units and generally as a social institution, to build and maintain systems of action which lead (l) to maturing in individual self-formation and (2 ) to enlightened, cooperative participation in the critique and formulation of social goals and means for accomplishing them (Brown and Paolucci, 1979» PP* (46-7). CHAPTER III
REVIEW OP LITERATURE
The review of literature is organized around three major topics:
(l) the nature of household work; (2) the meaning and significance of home and family life; and (5) problems and concerns related to home and family life. The literature is drawn from many diverse fields.
Nature of Household Work
The significance of housework, particularly for women, lies in the fact that it constitutes a major aspect of their lives and shapes much of their daily experience of the world. In addition to its eco nomic and political importance, housework is of major social-psycholo gical significance to women, * According to Berk and Berk (1979)» housework is one of the more neglected aspects of American life. There has been little concern with the character of routine activities that people undertake in their homes: the care and rearing of children, the use of leisure time, household work, and the like. Ferree (1980) created models which con ceptualize the meaning and purpose of housework, suggesting that it is a far more complex and differentiated occupation than male-biased sociolo gy has recognized.
The change from the productive household to one of consumption, including the movement of families from the farm, seems to characterize the change from the pre- to the post-industrial era. However, there is
48 some evidence of a trend toward a simpler life style, in which
people grow and preserve their own food and repair their own homes.
Other changes in American society, particularly in the last decade,
include further diffusion of household technology; the increased
entry of women into the labor force; the increase in the number of unmarried women; the increased number of childless couples; the prominence of the women's movement, with its emphasis on increasing the values of women's time and the sharing of household responsibili ties by men; the increased education of women; the increased income of families, making possible the purchase of technology or outside help; and the decreased size of housing units and increased use of rental units and apartments, which require less care.
Many of the studies related to household work are based upon time use. The rationale for the study of time use rests in the assumption that time use gives insights into the values of people and society.
Robinson (1977) says that whether time is wisely or unwisely spent bears heavily on the quality of societal life. While time spent in the aggregate in housework is not included in this study, it closely relates to the frequency and duration of tasks which are included in this study.
The nature of the work in the home changes; however, the asser tion that technology has significantly reduced time spent in household work is challenged. Studies of time spent for work in the home have yielded remarkably consistent results across cultures and over time. 50
Time Spent in Housework. A report on the length of a housewife's day appearing in an American Home Economics Association Journal in
1917 showed that 28 housewives (21 on farms and seven in towns) spent six hours and ten minutes each day on household tasks. Early studies reported long working hours for women, hut this included farm as well as household work. Ward (1920), in reporting a survey of over 10,000 farm women, found a working day to be 11.8 hours, including farm work. Seventy-nine percent of the homemakers used kerosene lamps;
6l percent still carried water; and 54 percent carried in coal or wood to feed the stoves and to kindle the fires.
33y a singular anomaly the census places farm women with other homemakers in a class of those having "no occupation." The testimony of the ten thousand farm women would indicate that the farm woman might be better described as one having ceaseless occupation so varied and insistent are the demands made upon her (p. 437 )•
Other early studies yielded fairly consistent results in hours spent in housework: 51.6 hours per week (Wilson, 1929); 52 hours for city homemakers; to 51.4 hours for rural homemakers (USDA, 1944).
Weigand (1954) reported an average homemaking time of 47.6 hours per week, but noted a significant difference between employed homemakers, with 28 hours per week spent in household work, compared tc full-time homemakers with 52.5 hours. Cowles and Dietz (1956) found an average time spent in homemaking of 52.8 hours.
More recast studies include Manning (1968) who found a total time for homemaking tasks of 52.9 hours; Iyerly (1969) who compared time spent by one parent homemakers (4 2 .7 hours) with two parent home 51 makers (51*1 hours)} Hall and Schroeder (1970) who reported an average
time spent of 4 9.5 hours per week} and Rohinson (1977) finding 6 .5 hours
per day. Vanek (1974) reported 55 hours per week for nonemployed women
and 26 hours for employed women. British housewives averaged 77 hours
in one study (Oakley, 1974).
The classic studies in this field were by Walker and Woods at
Cornell University. The time-use study there has been an on-going
project by a team of researchers and has been used to give families,
lawyers, legislators, and economists a measure of household work and
what it would cost to replace the work at home with hired services.
In the Walker and Woods (1976) study, 1,296 families were inter
viewed. Pull time homemakers averaged about eight hours per day} it
decreased to about five hours for those employed full time. Employed
women reported a total of 66 to 75 hour work weeks, combining job and
household duties. Sanik (1979) in comparing two-parent, two-ciiild
households, reported the average time spent as 7*5 hours per day. For married women in full time jobs the work day is probably longer than it was for their grandmothers.
In a twelve country multinational comparative study of the use of
time, sponsored by the European Coordination Centre for Research and
Documentation in Social Sciences, there was a consistency of time spent for housework both among countries and with the research data in the
United States (Szalai, 1972). Americans spent no less time on house work than people in countries with far less household technology.
Despite dramatic differences in technology and labor saving equipment across the sites, there was little 52
confirmation in the data of time differences. In many East European sites, significant portions of time were spent hewing wood and drawing water before other house hold chores could be undertaken. The investigators attributed the reasons for the similarities in time despite technological differences to the fact that more things are being done in the technologically advanced countries, , • This upward adjustment of expectations means that gross time allocations for household obli gations remain quite similar, and we would count this pattern as yet another example of an intriguing strain towiard constancy in the structure of our time budgets (p. 127).
Time Use in Specific Household Activities. Household work was broadly defined by Walker and Woods (1976) as the production of goods and services needed for the family to function in today's world. It includes marketing; management and record keeping; food preparation and after-meal cleanup; house care and maintenance; yard and car care; washing, ironing, and special care of clothing; and physical and other care of family members.
In both historical and current studies, food preparation is the most time-consuming activity. In 1917 (AHEA), 65 percent of the time was spent in food-related activities. This time gradually decreased:
47 percent (Wilson, 1929); 53 to 40 percent (USDA, 1944); to 36 percent in 1968 (Manning). When wives were not employed, total time spent on all food preparation activities increased from an average of 2.3 hours a day in one-child families to 4.1 hours a day in families with five and six children (Walker and Woods, 1976). For employed homemakers,
1,6 hours per day was spent in food preparation activities.
Care of the house, including cleaning, repair, and upkeep 53
ranks second in housework time use studies (AHEA, 1917; Warren, 1940;
Cowles and Dietz, 1956; Manning, 1968; Hall and Schroeder, 1970).
Walker and Woods (1976) reported an average of 1.6 hours spent in care
of the house for non-employed homemakers and 1 .2 hours by employed homemakers.
Care of family members includes physical and nonphysical care. In the 1917 AHEA, study, mothers of children under two years of age spent a little over two hours per day caring for them. Nonphysical care accounted for 53 percent of all time reported for family care and physical care, 43 percent by Walker and Woods (1976). Time reported by
Walker and Woods in care of family members was 1.8 hours per day for non-employed homemakers and .8 hours for employed homemakers.
In the multinational study, compared to other countries both men and women in the United States gave very little time to children's homework and much time to transporting children. United States home makers give a large amount of attention to the young child, but unlike the French, they greatly reduce the time spent with the child care after the age of three (Stone, 1972).
While total time used for household work has not diminished in over 60 years, the nature of the work has changed. For activities such as child care, time use has increased for chauffering children to education and social functions. In general, there is a decrease in amount of time for food preparation, but this is more than offset by an increase in time for marketing (Walker and Woods, 1976). 54 Sanik (1979) and Hall and Schroeder (1970) found a slight decrease
in time spent for clothing, but confirmed an increase in marketing time
from earlier studies. Robinson (1977) renorted that over the last
20, 50, or 100 years, there were increases in marketing, child care,
and travel, with decreases in routine housework.
Attempts have been made to explain the persistently long hours
of housewives.
In today's affluent world, we have expanded our goals and our reasons for doing household work to encompass more and more that we want: more acquisitions to be cared for; more rooms to clean; a bigger yard to mow and plant and prune; more clothes to care for; more foods to choose from in the market and more exotic recipes to prepare to tempt our more cosmopolitan palates. . . For a variety of reasons, it takes a good deal of time contributed by all family members— mother, father, and children— for a family to operate success fully as a household (Walker, 1973f p. 7)»
Glazer (1980) in a review of literature concluded that advertising
and mass media have created new "standards" of consumption and markets
for goods and services. Laundry is done more often, and family members have more clothing. Houses are supposed to be cleaned each week rather than seasonally.
If less time is required for producing food and clothing, time must be added for shopping. While technology has significantly affected laundry procedures, time spent has increased, presumably because people have more clothes than in the past and wash more often. Time spent in family care has also increased. Vanek (1974) observed that today's mother is expected to care for the child's social and mental development in addition to the traditional concerns of health, discipline, and 55 cleanliness.
Significant Variables Affecting Time Use in Household Work.
Several variables emerge in the studies us significant in amount of time spent in household work. Sex is associated with greater differ ences in time use than any other variable (Robinson, 1977). This was controlled in most of the other studies as only housewives were interviewed. Robinson also predicted employment and parenthood as significant variables. Becoming a parent had more effect on time use than becoming a spouse, although both roles demanded proportionately more from women than men, particularly in child-rearing. The number of children in the household, age of the youngest child, and employment of homemakers were found to have the best relationship with time use by
Walker and Woods (1976). Those who spent the most time at household tasks were typically full-time homemakers between ages 26 and 40 with children under 13 years of age and a dog or cat or both (Hall and
Schroeder, 1970). There is no linear relation between education and family care time; the same is true for the predictors of marital status, number of adults in the household, home ownership, race, religion, and income (Robinson, 1977). Vanek (1974) reported rather surprising results— that rural homemakers spend no more time in household work than urban ones.
In a study of the way urban dwellers allocate their time to dif ferent activities in the course of a day, a similar series of signifi cant variables were found. Work status has a primary effect on the total amount of discretionary time, with sex and child-care responsi- 56 bilities having additional, but secondary effects (Chapin, 1974). • < 1. Sex. Women performed over 80 percent of the housework and child care in Robinson*s (1977) study. Husbands of employed women reported little more contribution to housework than husbands of women not in the labor' force.
Not only was the male contribution to household and child care duties unaffected by the burdens imposed by children and by the wife’s outside employment; it was barely affected by marriage itself. Thus, we find that men who were not married spent about 85 percent of the time on housework that their married counterparts did, and the same proportion held true for single women (Robinson, 1977, p. 149).
Berk and Shih (1970), Araji (1977), and Parker (1966) contradicted
Robinson's finding of the male's role in child care. Egalitarian behavior was reported for child care. However, there was concurrence with Robinson's summary statement that married women have an unequal role in housework. Walker and Woods (1976) substantiated this finding.
The husband contributed in addition to his regular employment an average of 11 hours each week to household.work. If his wife is employed outside the home, the husband's average weekly household work contribution does not increase. The dominance of the women's role is evidenced by the fact that only housewives were surveyed in early studies, hielding little comparative data.
In a study of task distribution within the family by Parker (1966), women carried the central role in performance of traditional female household tasks: i.e. 72 percent cleaned; 72 percent prepared meals.
Men performed traditionally.male tasks; 89 percent ddd household repairs. Child care was a shared responsibility. In the area of food 57 preparation, couples shared the least.
Cooking, laundry, and cleaning were exclusively feminine activi ties in about four-fifths of the blue collar families studied by
Komarovsky (1967), Contributions of wives and husbands were found to agree with stereotypic female and male tasks in a study by Berk and
Shih (1980). The researchers concluded that it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the household remains de facto a woman's workplace.
In a study of young Ohio families (Hunt et al 1980), husbands and wives shared the role of decision maker and implementer in a number of tasks. Tasks which were usually the major responsibility of the husband included what car to get, whether or not to buy life insurance, buying the car and life insurance, making housing arrangements, and repairing things around the house. Wives' responsibilities included decisions regarding home decoration or furnishings, the family dinner menu, child care practices, and the family laundry. Keeping track of money and bills was a shared task. Husbands and wives shared in the decision making regarding housing, vacations, controlling family finances, food budget and choice of doctor.
Vanek (1980) in a synthesis of research, summarized the findings which pointed to sex-typing of household work as so deeply ingrained that the basic household tasks are not redivided when a wife enters the labor force. As a result employed wives work about 8.5 hours per week longer than married men. Employed mothers of young children put in an
80 hour work week. Berk and Berk (1979) concluded that it is fair to say that the employed wives hold down two full-time jobs: one in the 58
market and one in the household.
5Qb multinational study also fits this pattern. Despite the wide
cultural diversity across the samples, the expected sex role differenc
es turned up in very marked form at all sites. The women in the house
hold, whether employed or unemployed, shoulder almost all of the house
hold burden (Szalai, 1972).
2, Bnulovment. An inverse relationship exists; as the number of
hours in employment outside the home increases, the number of hours
given to household work decreases. In the Walker and Woods study
(1976) homemakers who did no work in the labor force averaged about
eight hours per day in household work. This time decreased to seven
hours per day for those employed one to 14 hours per week; to six hours
for those employed 15 to 29 hours per week, and to about five hours for
those employed 50 hours per week or more. Employment was a major
variable in most studies of household work (Weigand, 1954> Fethke and
Hauserman, 1979» Hall and Schroeder, 1970; Iyerly, 1969; Vanek, 1974?
Sanik, 1979).
Robinson (1977) also found employment as significant to time spent, noting that becoming employed can commit up to half of one's waking hours to job-related matters, Vanek (1974) discovered that nonemployed women spend 55 hours per week on housework, contrasted with 26 hours for employed women. In the multinational study, employed women spent much less time than full-time housewives on housework or other activi ties associated with homemaking, such as grocery shopping or gardening.
Szalai (1972) reported that despite some cross-national variations in 59
the exact figures , it is fair to say that employed women devote only
about half as much time as full-time homemakers to homemaking activi
ties, and this ratio holds equally as well for all the central compon
ents of such labor, including food preparation, laundry, and grocery
shopping.
3. Children. The presence or absence of children in the home, age
of youngest child, and the number of children in the home are all
factors affecting time spent in housework. Time given by homemakers
to the care of a child under one year was three times that given to a
child between one and six, and twelve times that given to a child of
grade school age (Wilson, 1929). The care of a child less than one
year of age, according to Warren (1940), seemed to require about 1,000
hours a year over and above the homemaking time required for an adult,
in addition to the extra time for laundering.
The closest relationship in the Walker and Woods (1976) study was
found between time used for physical care of family members and age of
the youngest child. Homemakers with children under age 13 spent more
hours per week on the average at all household tasks than did those with
all children aged 13 or older— 57.6 and 49*8 hours, respectively (Hall
and Schroeder, 1970).
This variable was also salient in the multinational study. There was a strong correlation between proportions of households with child ren under the age of four and total time allotted to child care. De
mands of children on parental time were similar across the countries 60
(Szalai, 1972).
Task Analysis of Work in the Home. Nelson's (1980) study of Costa
Rican homemakers is significant methodologically. Concerned with
household work time studies as impersonal aggregates of data, Nelson
found a way of combining tie'se data with the interview data on attitudes
toward housework. Two different dimensions for construction of house
hold activity patterns were conceptualized. A behavioral pattern is
derived from observations of what people do within a certified time
span. The ideational activity pattern is a verbal construct derived
from what people say they or others will do, do regularly, or have
done. Nelson discovered that observed activities or behavioral
patterns of the Costa Rican homemakers are not equivalent data with the
ideational pattern. Because of the salience of time in human lives and
the variations in cultural interpretations of time, Nelson broadened
the metric of time to include the meanings attributed to it in a par
ticular context or cultural setting.
Monts and Barkley (1976) identified essential living skills per
ceived as important by men and women in their role as a family member,
an individual, and as an employee. It was assumed that some essential
living skills would be unique for each role and others shared by
various combinations of roles. While the instrument was designed to have the largest number of essential living skills for the family role,
the respondents selected the largest number for the individual role,
followed by the family role, and fewest for the employee role. The homemakers in the study indicated more family role skills as necessary for females than males. There were greater similarities of essential
living skills needed for the two roles of family member and individual
than any other of the possible role combinations. The skills which
were important for all three roles were primarily managerial— planning
and organizing, meeting time schedules, accepting responsibility, and
doing extra work,
A major study in Colorado (Abt, 1978) identified those tasks per
formed by homemakers. Using the DACUM technique, homemaking tasks
were identified by ten subgroups of Colorado homemakers. Data obtained
in this study included the identification of 820 homemaking tasks which
were edited to 146 on the basis of being one of the five most important
tasks within a duty statement, being ratable in terms of frequency of
performance and time spent, being brief and clear, and using appropri
ate occupational terminology. An interview instrument consisting of
these 148 tasks was administered to homemakers for frequency, duration,
and difficulty of performance.
The task performed by the lowest number of homemakers was "utilize
carpools." Others performed by less than half of the homemakers in the
interview sample related to budgeting for specific items, caring for
children, estate planning, selecting housing, caring for pets, and
entertaining business associates.
The most frequently performed tasks were maintaining personal hygiene and grooming, feeding pets, and preparing meals. The tasks
performed least often were selecting housing, making arrangements for moving family and household goods, and obtaining licenses and tags for 62
pets.
Tasks requiring the least time to perform included filling vehi
cles with fuel, making beds, and disposing of trash. Requiring the
most time were providing and maintaining yard and garden and providing
for housing. In general, caring for pets and providing for family
health and safety were the duty areas requiring the least time.
Tasks perceived as most difficult were selecting housing, making
arrangements for moving family and household goods, selecting a vehicle,
and dealing with family crisis. The easiest tasks were included in
the duties of managing time and caring for pets. The most difficult
duties were providing housing and providing and maintaining yard and
garden. Least difficult task cluster areas were managing time and
caring for pets.
Cognitive and Affective Components of Household Work. While technology has reduced the amount of physical work required for home- making, it has increased the cognitive requirements. Changes in the pace of life and in the educational and occupational commitments of young wives contribute to a more complex setting for family life.
Steidl (1975) studied the cognitive. dimensions of attention, judgment, and planning as a means of understanding homemaking task complexity.
Of the tasks with high cognitive requirements identified by res pondents, food tasks comprised the largest group, followed by family tasks. The food tasks included meal preparation, cooking, planning meals and food marketing. The family tasks were most often baby care and child care and upbringing. The high cognib ive tasks were rated as complicated by 66 percent of the homemakers.
Low cognitive tasks were especially centered around cleaning. -
Washing dishes, washing clothes, and ironing were all included in this
category. Low cognitive tasks were judged so because timing was not
critical? they were considered easy jobs or routine; and they required
little skill, knowledge, or experience. The low cognitive tasks were
almost always rated uncomplicated.
When asked why a task required a great deal of attention, judgment,
or planning, the following areas were cited: (l) quality and quantity—
aesthetically pleasing results, successful outcomes; (2) timing— deci
sions about amount of time or when to do a task; (5) process or proced
ural— planning how much, when, what to use; how to proceed; (4 ) family
or human relations involved— pleasing self and others; preferences and
needs of others; (5) cognitive or thinking skill and knowledge.
Berk and Berk (1979) found a number of sequential constraints that
affected household activities. Meal preparation contributes the most
ordinal structure with child care and laundry a distant second. Over
the course of a household day, as much as a third of the activities are
constrained by some sort of necessary order.
Affective dimensions of homemaking tasks have also been studied.
Some tasks are almost traditionally liked (cooking, baking, and child care) and others disliked (dishwashing, ironing, and cleaning). The characteristic most often identified with liked tasks is "pride in results" (Maloch, 1963) and "pleasure derived from results" (Steidl,
1975b). Other characteristics of most liked tasks identified in the 64 Maloch study are: satisfying, adequate equipment, results are appre ciated by the family, like supplies and materials, like time spent, can set own pace, and almost always completed as planned. Reasons for liking tasks cited in the Steidl study were: interesting, varied, creative, satisfying, and others' enjoyment and appreciation of the results.
Characteristics of the least liked tasks were: short-term re sults, dislike time spent, monotonous, not creative, uses little mental skill, and another adult not generally present (Maloch, 1963). Short term results, monotony, non-creative dimensions, and time consumption were identified by Steidl (1975b) as characteristics of least liked tasks.
Steidl (1975b) also compared affective and cognitive dimensions of homemaking tasks. A majority of the most liked tasks were high cognitive, while a majority of the least liked tasks were low cognitive.
The most liked tasks were family and food tasks. Steidl conclued that the distribution of reasons for liking the tasks indicate variability associated with content and context of work, but with a decided empha sis on the personal meaning and interpretation of task performance.
Satisfaction with Housework. Oakley (1974a, 1974b) approached housework with a more comprehensive question— that of satisfaction of housewives with housework. She concluded that the perception of the low status of housework is almost universal. Seventy percent of the women interviewed were dissatisfied with housework. Monotony is a conunou experience. In comparing work activities of housewives and factory workers, Oakley found that housewives experience more monotony,
fragmentation, and social isolation in their work than factory workers.
Loneliness is a frequent complaint, paralleling the finding from
industrial sociology that the opportunity to engage in social rela
tionships with other workers is one of the most prized aspect of any
job. Autonomy is the most highly valued dimension of the housewife
role.
In a study of working class wives, Komarovsky (1967) drew a sharp distinction between their satisfaction with the housewife role and the dissatisfaction of college-educated women which she had discovered in an earlier study. In the study of working class wives, women expressed esteem for the housewife role, while they also verbalized discontent.
Unrelieved responsibility for children and a feeling of being tied down were sources of discontent.
In a national survey (Campbell, Converse, and Rodgers, 1976), the same findings held: the level of satisfaction with housework varied according to educational level. Over one-half of those with less than a high school education were completely satisfied with housework, as contrasted with only one-fifth of college graduates. Younger women were less likely than older women to be satisfied with housework.
However, the proportion of women who said that they were "completely satisfied" with their housework (44 percent) was somewhat higher than the proportion of employed people who were completely satisfied with their jobs (36 percent).
Lopata (1971) found that 38 percent of the women in her interview 66 study felt that children— watching them grow, seeing them happy—
gave the most satisfaction in the homemaking role. The second category
"relations,"(including ability to satisfy and make the family happy,
response, appreciation of being needed and love) was chosen by 21 per
cent of the homemakers as contributing to satisfaction. A clean, neat
house was important to six percent. Lopata concluded that the import
ance of motherhood is shown by the fact that the homemaker is seldom
defined as having her most satisfying relations in the role of wife
(8 percent).
Berk and Berk (1979) attempted to measure affect in their study of
household activities. However, they noted the limitations in their
quantitative study where pleasure one gains in playing with children is
treated the same as the pleasure one gains in watching a soap opera.
They did conclude that the employment status of the wife seems relative
ly unimportant for the affect items. In contrast, the presence of young
children was significant. Overall, when there were young children in
the house, time is deemed less pleasant. The researchers suggest tin. t
the tradeoffs between child care and leisure have a substantial impact
on the psychic reward.
In an interview study of working class women, Ferree (1976) con
cluded that overall, housewives are comparatively dissatisfied with their lives. She asserted that the dissatisfaction felt with housework even by many of the women who remained full-time, housewives can be traced to the low self esteem, social isolation, and powerlessness it promotes. Full-time housewives were more dissatisfied with their lives than either part-time or full-time employed wives. Berk and Berk (1979) reached the same conclusion, observing that the psychic rewards from
employment may well exceed the psychic rewards from much of housework.
Compared to market activities, the isolation that home-bound wives
experience is substantial. In general, market employment is more
pleasant than a large number of household activities. Women who have
held labor force jobs are greatly affected by employment experience, no
matter what the status, and rate the housewife role lower than those
who have remained at home (Bose, 1980; Nilson, 1978).
An analysis of statistics from the National Center for Health led
Bernard (1972) to conclude that there is spectacular evidence for the
destructive effects of the occupation of housewife on the mental and
emotional health of married women. She compared the relative incidence
of the symptoms of psychological distress among housewives and working
women. Fewer than expected of the working women and more than expected
of the housewives suffered from nervousness, inertia, insomnia, tremb
ling hands, nightmares, perspiring hands, fainting, headaches, dizziness
and heart palpitation. In all except one of twelve such symptoms, the working women were overwhelmingly better off than the housewives.
Nilson (1978) hypothesized that the position of housewife has, in general, moderate prestige. This was supported in her study. A house wife had higher prestige than all but professional and managerial positions. Nilson noted that there is an anomaly in this finding, since the theory of occupational prestige is grounded in predictability by educational and income levels. Housewives are not paid a salary, although their services are of significant value. The position does not . 68
require formal preparation. Nilson suggested that the role may be
holding its prestige because it has become a luxury option, especially
in working class households where the husband earns too little to
support the family comfortably. Also contributing to. the high
prestige ratings are the social and artistic facets of homemaking.
Older respondents accorded the housewife significantly more prestige
than did younger ones. • •
Meaning and Significance of Home and Family Life
The family has often been studied in terms of demographics,
economics, and politics. When it is studied for these purposes, its
own coherence tends to be absorbed by concerns for other institutions.
Poster (1978) asserts that the family can be studied as its own center*
of intelligibility, generating its own problematics, when it is viewed
as the place where psychic structure is internalized.
A number of conceptual frameworks haye emerged as a theoretical
basis for family research and teaching. Symbolic interactionism, a
system for viewing the personal relationships among family .members, is
the model for many studies, including those related to marital or parental role expectations, perceptions, evaluations, and performances.
Structural functionalism, which stresses the functions of the family in
society and the functions of subsystems within the family, and the
family life cycle (developmental) frameworks have also generated
research.
Poster (1978) refuted the structural-functionalist position as
assuming, that the kind of, reality contained in family experience is no different from the kind of reality contained in any other region of
society. In the Farsonian case, norms, roles, and values enacted in
a business transaction are no different from norms, roles, and values
in the family. However, the family is different from the economy, not
only in the functions it performs, but the values it contains.
Nock (1979) used the "Quality of American Life Survey" as a basis for investigating whether the stages of the family life cycle correspond to empirically meaningful events in the lives of family members. His findings suggest that the concept cannot be operationalized into a variable, but that it is useful as a conceptual tool, illustrative principle, or didactic technique.
The theoretical frameworks used by family sociologists in their research and teaching were studied by Hays (1977) • Respondents were offered choices including developmental, symbolic interaction, comlict theory, exchange theory, Freudian psychology, structural-functional!sm, and "no-single approach." The "no-single approach" was the dominant finding. Hays concluded that the sociology of the family is still in what Kuhn (1970) would call a pre-paxadignatic stage.
Perhaps this is crucial to the dilemma of home economics educa tors who find conflicting data in the family research. If one accepts the assertion of Hays that the sociology of the family is pre-para-; digmatic, then it would appear that exploratory, hypothesis-generating research is needed.
The field of the family is dominated by an empiricist tradition, and according to Poster (1978) is without a clear sense of what the 70
significant questions are. While demographic studies are needed,
quantitative data cannot pose the important questions. Much of the research in which variables have been quantified have yielded insignifi cant findings.
Marital Satisfaction. In an analysis of marriage research, Burr
(1979) offered evidence that little agreement exists on the meaning and use of terms such as marital "adjustment," "satisfaction," "happiness," and "success." The term "marital quality" is employed to encompass the range of traditional dependent variables in marriage research, and is defined as a subjective evaluation of a married couple's relation ship. The research field related to this is labelled "atheoretical."
The limitation to theory construction is the lack of parsimony and the mass of complex interrelationships.
Multiple regression analysis of data from the General Social Sur veys of 1973, 1974, and 1975 was used by Glenn and Weaver (1978) to predict effects of ten independent variables on the reported marital happiness of white males and females, ages 18 through 59• There were weak or nil relationships for all of the variables, including age at marriage and socioeconomic status— both variables for which theory predicts strong relationships.
Sims and Paolucci (1975) measured mothers' subjective attitudes about family life and their role as parents, using the Parental Atti tude Research Instrument. The results of the analysis were inconclus ive, indicating that caution should be exercised when assuming that a priori scales measure what they purport to measure. Survey data from 1971 and 1978 showed that a large majority of
all married men and women expressed a high level of satisfaction when
asked, "All things considered, how satisfied are you with your family
life— the time you spend and the things you do with members of your
family?" As expected, men and women who were separated or divorced
were substantially less likely to see their family life as favorably.
The aspects of a person's life situation, such as sex, race, income,
education, religion, or place of residence, have no influence on a
person's satisfaction with family life (Campbell, 1981).
Evidence is conflicting regarding the relationship between mar riage and psychological well-being. Bernard (1972) claimed that marriage in the United States is distinctly beneficial to most husbands but is much less beneficial or actually detrimental to wives. Other research refutes this. Glenn (1975), using the General Social Surveys, found that married persons reported greater personal happiness than widowed, divorced or separated or neveiMnarried persons for both males and females.
In the study by Bradbum and Caplovitz (1965), the presence of children in the household appeared to increase the likelihood of marital tension; 41 percent of those with children living in the household have high marital tension as compared with 24 percent of those having no children in the household. Those men who were high on the marital tension index were less likely to spend a lot of time with their children and generally indicated that they were not as good fathers as they would like to be. Noting that there has "been little research on "strong" families,
Stinnett (1979) found six qualities that stood out among families
that were rated as strong: appreciation for each other; spending time
together (this time was structured to he a togetherness time); good
communication patterns; commitment to promoting each others' happiness
and welfare; high degree of religious orientation; and ability to deal
with crises in a positive manner. Stinnett observed that most of
these qualities that were found to characterize strong families have been found to be lacking in families that are having severe relation
ship problems and in families broken by divorce. Similar findings were affirmed by Bean (1979) in a study of undergraduate students' perceptions of family strengths.
Quality of Life. Pew, if any, studies have been directed specifi cally toward the meaning and significance of home and family life.
There has been research to identify indicators for quality of life.
Quality of life is generally defined as those components which satisfy an individual both physically and psychologically over a period of time.
Quality of life indicators selected by respondents in a study by
Wallace (1974) were those which exemplify the higher levels of needs on
Maslow's hierarchy. She concluded that persons in the United States presumably have fulfilled basic needs and are able to focus on satisfy ing higher level needs.
Campbell and Converse (1972) advanced the thesis that ultimately the quality of life is in the eye of the beholder. Other sociologists claim that since satisfactions and dissatisfactions are almost impossi- 73 tie to observe directly, quantitative substitutes must be used to
identify or measure. Campbell and Converse argue that correspondence
between such objective measures as amount of money earned, number of
rooms occupied, or type of job held, and the subjective satisfaction
with these conditions of life is weak. People evaluate their achieve
ments in relation to their levels of aspiration and this varies greatly
from person to person.
In the national longitudinal study of the high school class of
1972 (Peng and Holt, 1977 and- 1979)» 20,872 persons two and one-half
years out of high school responded to the question of how important
each of twelve domains is in their life. The highest response— 85 per
cent— was for "finding the right person to marry and having a happy
family life." Being successful at work was second. When the same
study was repeated at five years out of high school, the question was
re-phrased to ask how well the given statements expressed quality of
life to them. The highest percentage responded to '''having sustained
personal relationships— loving and being loved."
Campbell (1981) asserts that American society has been dominated by the concept of "economic man"— that is that human welfare and happi ness depends primarily on the satisfaction of man's economic needs, his needs for material things.
Because we have not felt confident about how to define or measure happiness we have contented ourselves with measuring those things we felt sure we could count, income and material goods. We have made economic welfare a surrogate for well-being because well-being is too "subjective" (P.-2 5 ) . In his review of a series of national surveys, Campbell hypothe
sized an emergent change toward "psychological man." He cited
Allardt's simplified version of Maslov' a hierarchy in which Allardt
classified the basic human needs as (l) having— satisfied through the
material and impersonal resources an individual has and can master;
(2) relating1— concerned with love, companionship, and solidarity; and
(3) being— denoting self-actualization and the obverse of alienation.
She premise was that there would be greater conoem for the needs of
"relating" and "being" since the Second World War. In comparing data
in 1957 and 1978, economic advantage seemed less important in determin
ing sense of well-being than the psychological need for relating and
being, thus supporting the hypothesis. Rokeach (197?) held that the
fields of anthropology and sociology are more concerned with values
as dependent variables, and psychology is more concerned with values as
independent variables.
The dependent variable in a large-scale study by Bradbum and
Caplovitz (1965) was the self reported answer to the question: "Taking all things together, how would you say things are these days— would you
say you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?" While the researchers acknowledged that self reports yield different classifica
tions of individuals from those provided by psychological tests or experts' ratings of clinical interviews, they based their study on the assumption that self reports are not any less (or more) valid than expert ratings. Self reports have the virtues of face validity, % directness, and ease of use. The researchers hypothesized that there
would be a high degree of overlap between self reports and experts' 75 ratings. In the aggregate, men and women did not differ in degree of reported happiness. However, important sex differences emerged V • when marital status was considered. Single men were twice as likely as single women to report being "not too happy." Respondents who were not married were considerably less happy than those who were. The researchers concluded that being married is in fact more important for the happiness of men than of women.
One national probability survey of 2,164 households on the quality of American life was based upon the premise that the relation ship between objective conditions and psychological states is imperfect and that in order to know the quality of life experience it will be necessary to go directly to the individual himself for his description of how his life feels to him. Campbell, Converse, and Rodgers (1976) . recognized that this assumption will lead researchers into the "subjec tive world of perceptions, expectations, feelings, and values."
The major purpose of the quality of life survey was to measure satisfactions felt with fifteen domains of life experiences. "A happy marriage" was the most important domain as a predictor of general well being or life-satisfaction, closely follovedby "a good family life."
These two categories were followed by good health. Persons who were currently single reported much less satisfaction with life than married persons. The lack of satisfaction shown by women and men who were divorced or separated was described by the researchers as "quite remark able. " In reporting average levels of life satisfaction for respondents of different marital status, only those persons currently married had a 76 group score above the mean. Separated or divorced persons had a
standard score over -0.5 below the mean. Widowed persons had a group
score slightly below the mean, while single persons scored lower.
The major contributors to satisfaction with family life were
the individual's relationship with his children and his spouse, a con
clusion supported by the relative dissatisfaction of those single
people who lack these elements of their family constellation. The
researchers were relatively unsuccessful in explaining the variance
with satisfaction with marriage. They suggested that satisfaction in
the private domains may depend more on idiosyncratic experiences and
personality traits than in other areas of life. Overall, they conclud
ed that the domain of family life held significant meaning to the
respondents.
Problems and Concerns of Home and Family Life
In a cross national study, with a sample of 863 million people
from twelve countries, including westernized, underdeveloped, Middle
Eastern, and the Carribean nations, Cantril (1965) reported concerns of
the people. The vast majority of both hopes and fears revolving around
the complex of well-being rest in: a decent standard of living; oppor- * tunities for children; health; a good job; a house, land or business
of one's own; and a happy family life.
In the low income countries, people were worried about their
standard of living, tending to blanket out aspirations concerned with health, happy family life, job improvement* and children's welfare.
People in more affluent countries tended to include the fulfillment of 77
other aspirations in their definition of a decent standard of living.
Cantril concluded that
. . . the overall picture in the world today i3 one of people definitely aware that living should consist of more than subsistence; a happy homo life, good health, opportunities for children, and some ownership are among the essential ingredients people feel are potentially available to them and that they deserve in their search for a good life (Cantril, 1965, P» 281).
A three-round Delphi survey was used by Colby (1980) to identify
issues about which families will need to make decisions within the next
decade. This study was a part of a consumer-homemaking curriculum
project. Families have greater than an 80?o or more likelihood of mak
ing decisions about inflation and values to pass on to their children
in 1979-1982. The following issues had a 60% or more likelihood: being able to beat inflation, resource conservation, adolescent alcohol ism, and evaluating traditional values in the face of changing values*
Summarizing the list of issues v/hich families v/ill have a 6096 likeli hood of making decisions about in 198J-1986, the following cluster areas appeared: worthwhile, satisfying life; moral climate; relationships; communication in families; divorce; stress (particularly related to multiple roleo of women); parenting (conveying value systems shift from child-centered parenthood to personhood, fewer children); careers (es pecially for women); life style; outside agencies usurping traditional familial roles; elderly; energy; material resources; housing, and
‘technology.
In a national survey by Yankelovich (1977)# one major problem was voiced by-parents in every part of the country and.from all socio- 78 economic classes: fear and anxieties about drugs and the serious threat they present to the welfare of their children and their families.
Inflation and the economy was also a major concern. Other problems in rearing children which were mentioned by parents in the survey included violence of television and its potential impact on children.
Hunt et al (1980) studied perceptions of problems of young Ohio families. For both husbands and wives, financial management and housing decisions were the most frequently mentioned areas of potential difficulty.
Lopata (1971) discovered in interviewing housewives about the problems peculiar to that role that 33 percent skipped over to the role of mother by immediately mentioning difficulties with children.
Host of the mothers of pre-adult children list difficulties in child rearing and worry over the behavior of their offspring when asked to explain the problems peculiar to housewives. Older women are more prone to list "family" problems. Financial limitations were frequently mentioned. Many respondents felt conflict between obligations to themselves and the duties of child care. The submergence of one's individual personality to the demands of the family expresses this sentiment.
The problems and frustrations found in the social role of mother in Lopata's study were distributed by the characteristic of education.
The least educated women were likely to state that there are no prob lems, that "you know what you have to do and do it." -Problems which are mentioned generally relate to house maintenance or task duties.
The high school graduate tended to list specific problems: money, 79 disciplining children, and the fighting of offspring. She wants to control her children and is product-oriented, wishing for clean, quiet, and well-behaved children with a clean, neat house. The more educated woman tended to be relation-oriented and worried about her ability to be a, good mother, defining this role as complex and as requiring devel opmental socialization. The educated woman has mastered or feels competent to solve the tasks or technical aspects of life.
Lopata (1971) postulated that motherhood without problems, as I perceived by the less educated women, possibly reproduces formulas and depends upon a complete disregard of the needs of children within modern urban society. Motherhood concerned with the development of children's abilities may have more problems, but it attempts to bring the facilities of society and of the self to the growth process.
In Lopata's study, housewives were defined as women responsible for running a home, whether they perform the tasks or hire them done.
She found that the majority of women, when asked "What are the most important roles of a woman, in order of importance?", identified mother, wife, and housewife regardless of whether they were employed. However, she also observed that young American women are not preparing for the social roles of housewife-wife-raother in the educational system. Wien asked whether the modern woman is properly trained for her role as a homemaker, only 23 percent responded affirmatively. Lopata found that the higher the educational level, the more likely the respondents were to feel that modern women are not adequately trained for homemaking.
She concluded from her interviews that women who are performing the role
kW. ' — . 80
of housewife in a complex and creatively competent manner see it
as requiring many different areas of knowledge, while women who perform it minimally with little interest or originality assume that it does not require much skill. It must be noted that this study included only women. As the women's movement creates changes in societal awareness of egalitarianism and sex equity legislation mandates changes in school programs, the National Center of Educational
Statistics already indicate rising enrollment of males in home econo mics classes.
Summary
The quantitative dimensions of housework have been well documented, particularly with reference to time spent on tasks. There is a sub stantial literature related to the effects of three variables— sex, employment, and children— on housework. Less well documented are the cognitive and affective components of housework and the interrelation ship of work in the home and quality of home and family life.
Several conceptual frameworks have emerged as a theoretical base for family research. However, much of this research has yielded insig- . nificant findings. Pew studies have been directed toward perceptions of the meaning and significance of home and family life. The concept of "economic man"— that human welfare and happiness depend primarily on the satisfaction of man's economic needs— was challenged. One set of researchers acknowledged that it is necessary to enter the "subjec tive world of perceptions, expectations, feelings, and values." Data from several national surveys were analyzed for indicators of well being or happiness. A good family life and a happy marriage were the most important predictors of general well-being or life satisfactions.
In all of these studies, subjects responded to a priori categories.
The few studies which reported problems and concerns related to home and family life recognized a happy home life as a goal, but emphasized standard of living and inflation as major concerns. Vlhen the question of problems and concerns was limited to the role of housewife, those related to parenting*-- difficulties with children and development of children’s abilities ™ were most often mentioned.
It would appear that an in-depth study which examines both empiri cal and interpretive data concerning tasks performed in the home and interpretive data of perceptions of meaning and significance and prob lems related to home and family life might provide more complex, richer knowledge about homes and families. CHAPTER IV •
RESEARCH DESIGN
The major purpose of this study, is to apply the metascientific framework of Habermas to provide:
1. Data concerning tasks performed in the home, including duration, frequency, and criticality of performance of household tasks
2. Data concerning (a) the micro questions of perceptions and (1) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to household tasks
(b) the macro questions of perceptions of (1) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to home and family life.
The data will be critically analyzed, selected, and organized to provide empirical knowledge, understanding, and critical reflections useful in the development of a home economics curriculum.
Research Questions
The research questions under investigation are listed in Table 2.
82 table: 2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Metascientific Home Economics Node of Inquiry Research Questions Perspective
Enpirical- Technical Task Analysis: What homemdcing tasks are most often performed? Rational tasks per Frequency and What homemaking task3 require the most time? formed in duration of What homemaking tasks are perceived to be the home performance and most critical to family well-being? criticality to family well- being Hermeneutic Meaning and Interpretive Given the 13 broad task clusters in the task significance science: list (managing money, caring for and improving of home and Construction of self, caring for family members, meeting family life subjectivity nutritional needs, providing for housing, shared meaning providing and caring for clothing and textile products, managing time, cleaning and main taining home, providing transportation, planning for social events and entertaining, providing and maintaining yard and garden, and caring for pets): Why is each con sidered important or not important to home and family life? Bo the qualitative data corroborate the task analysis? Are there significant perceptions that are not con tained in the task list? What particular observations or recurring themes occur in expressing the meaning and significance of home and family life? TABLE 2 (Continued)
Metascientific Home Economics Mode of Inquiry Rsearch Questions Perspective Perspective
Critical Practical Critical reflection Given the 13 broad task clusters in the Science problems: and practical task lists, what are major problems or Significant reasoning: Mediates concerns related to each cluster? Do the perennial technical and inter qualitative data corroborate the task problems; pretive data analysis? Are there significant perceptions Pose intel that are not contained in the task list? lectual and What particular observations or recurring moral problems; themes occur in expressing problems and may require concerns of home and family life? transportation of self meanings leading to enlightened action. 85 Setting
3 M b study is a part of a statewide curriculum project of the
Home Economics Section, Division of Vocational Education, Ohio Depart
ment of Education* The curriculum project is being directed by a task
force composed of representatives of the state vocational home econo
mics staff, teacher educators, local supervisors and teachers. The
researcher is a member of that task force.
The curriculum is to serve consumer homemaking programs in Ohio
schools, in which students are prepared for the occupation of home-
making. Consumer homemaking programs may include classes with the
following content areas: child development, clothing and textiles,
consumer education, family health, family relations, foods and nutri
tion, home management, and housing and home furnishings.
Population/Samele
Every secondary vocational consumer homemaking program in Ohio has
an advisory committee. This may be a continuing committee or one that was formed for the purpose of reviewing the program as required in the
Ohio State Plan for Vocational Education. This committee, plus senior
students enrolled in each home economics program, constitute the population.
There are 102 vocational education planning districts in Ohio.
Each year, 20 percent of these districts participate in a statewide vo cational education program review conducted on a five year rotation.
The twenty percent is distributed geographically over the state and represents proportionally rural, urban and major city school districts. 86
These schools are on a rotation schedule. The systematic stratified
sample ^selection is consistent with that used by the Research and
Evaluation Unit of the Vocational Education Division, Ohio Department of Education, to satisfy the statistical sampling requirements of the
United States Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics.
The sample for this study is composed of two schools in each of the 20 vocational education planning districts reviewed in 1979-1980.
This consisted of 40 advisory committees, five members each, plus one class of senior students enrolled in home economics in those 40 sites.
Advisory committees are composed of a cross-section of community mem bers. Guidelines for membership on consumer homemaking advisory com mittees specify the inclusion of an educator, a parent of a present student, a former student, and other representatives of the community.
Methodology
Kaplan (1964) cautions that the cultivation of methodology is neither necessary nor sufficient for successful scientific endeavor.
Excessive effort can be diverted from substantive to methodological problems, so that we are forever perfect ing how to do something without ever getting around to doing it even imperfectly . . . By pressing method ological norms too far we may inhibit bold and imagina tive adventures of ideas (p. 25).
The methods of empirical-analytic science are well-formulated and methodologically rigorous. Since hermeneutics and phenomenology are on the leading edge of what Kuhn (1970) would term a "paradigm shift," these methods of inquiry are less well defined. 87
Methods of data collection used in this study include validating a task list, questionnaires, and interviews. The task list is struc tured to gain quantitative data. The task list was administered to validate identified homemaking tasks from the Colorado Occupational
Analysis of Homemakers for duration and frequency of performance, and criticality of performance to family well-heing.
Since the more comprehensive questions in this study are in the exploratory stages of research, less structured methods were selected.
The questionnaires and interview instruments are open-ended.
Lofland (1971) counseled that the fullest condition of participat ing in the life and mind of another human being is face-to-face inter action. The object of the intensive interview is to elicit rich, detailed description of the phenomenon being investigated rather than to determine the frequency of predetermined kinds of things.
An interview gives informants free rein to describe the situation as they see it, thus making better use of informants' skills and in sights. (McCall and Simmons, 1959)* Difficult-to-quantify variables are probably less distorted by unstructured interviewing than by an abortive effort to operationalize them for quantification by a survey. "There is no magic in numbers; improperly used they confuse rather than clarify"
(McCall and Simmon^ 1959» P» 23).
The questionnaires were given to 200 advisory committee members and
725 senior students. Only advisory members received the task list and were interviewed. (See Flow Chart, Appendix £)• 88 Instrumentation
It was the decision of the Ohio curriculum task force to use the
' Colorado task list because it met the following criteria: (l) it was
generated by homemakers; (2) it is current; and (3 ) it is comprehensive.
The Colorado Occupational Analysis task list was developed using
the DACUM process. DACUM is defined as a skill profile (occupational
analysis) that can serve as a curriculum plan and/or evaluation instru
ment for student skill attainment in occupational training programs.
The general areas of competence or duties required in the occupation
are defined and each is subdivided into these tasks that enable an
individual to competently perform the duty.
The DACUM procedure is interactive, utilizing small group brain
storming techniques to generate a chart or diagram of the task struc
ture for the occupation. Tasks were identified by ten subgroups using
DACUM: rural, low income, male, before children— single, during child
ren— couple, single parents, after children, Hispanic, Black, and native
American. Definitions used in the Colorado study are:
Homemaker: a person who has accepted partial or total responsibility for the care of self and/or another person
Task: a distinct collection of steps or elements performed by a worker that are logical and necessary to achieving a single objective or output
Occupational Analysis: (process) a systematic procedure for identifying the jobs belonging to a particular occupational area; (product) a document in which the duties, tasks, and/or steps relevant to an occupation or occupational area are presented
The more than 800 unique tasks identified in the homemaker work
shops were reduced to 146 on the basis of (l) being identified as one 89
of the five most important tasks within a duty statement, (2) being ratable in terms of frequency of performance and time spent, (3) being brief and clear, and (4 ) using appropriate occupational termin ology.
Permission was granted to use the Colorado task list (Appendix B).
Upon the recommendation of the Ohio curriculum task force and analy sis from the pilot test, a minor editorial revision eliminated two task statements and modified one. The Colorado Occupational Analysis
Project was funded by the United States Office of Education. The task list. (Form C) was administered to 200 consumer homemaking advisory committee members.
The unstructured interview, sometimes referred to as intensive interviewing with an interview guide, was chosen as the most appropri ate methodology to answer the global macro questions pertaining, to home and family life.
The open-ended interview and questionnaire instruments were de.»r sigpad to approach perceptions of home and family life comprehensively as well as to provide interpretive data to compare and contrast with the task list data. The open-ended questions are rooted in hermeneutic methods of inquiry. Hermeneutic inquiry aims not at comprehension of objectified reality, but through a methodical discipline of everyday language communication at an intersubjectivity of mutual understand ing.
The questions are based upon the premise that reality is socially constructed. 90
. . . The sociology of knowledge must concern itself with whatever passes for "knowledge in a society, regard less of the ultimate validity or invalidity (by whatever criteria) of such "knowledge" (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, P» 3).
The micro questions of (l) the perceptions of meaning and signifi
cance and (2) the problems and concerns related to household tasks
(Form B) directly correspond with the categories in the task analysis.
The macro questions (Form A) relate to the more comprehensive research
question of (l) the perceptions of the meaning and significance and (2)
the problems and concerns of home and family life.
One class of senior students in each of the 40 sites completed
Form A as a questionnaire. Forty percent of the advisory committee
members (two in each site) were interviewed using Form A, and forty
percent received the questionnaire, Form B. As noted previously, all
of the advisory committee members completed the task list.
Bata Collection
The'instruments were pilot tested in two sites. Modifications
were made in the instruments and procedures after analyzing the results
of the pilot test. (The approval from the Human Subject Keview Committee
is in Appendix A.)
Two vocational home economics teachers in different schools in
each of the identified 20 vocational education planning districts in Ohio were selected by their state supervisors to administer the instruments in their schools. Letters were sent from the Ohio Bepart- ment of Education seeking their cooperation in this study. Copies of the letter were sent to principals, and an explanatory letter to 91
superintendents. (Appendix C)
A one-day training meeting was held for the 40 vocational home
economics teachers. An overview of the consumer homemaking curriculum project was shared. (The agenda for this meeting is in Appendix D.)
The researcher for this study presented the rationale and procedures
for this project. The afternoon session was directed toward inter viewing strategies, particularly stressing those involved in un
structured, probing interviews, with opportunities to practice inter viewing skills. The teachers received packets containing all of the instruments and procedures. (Appendix E)
Procedures
Senior students in the consumer homemaking class with the highest enrollment of seniors completed the questionnaire, Short Form A. The purpose of the study was explained to those participating; participa tion was voluntary. Students were given one class period to complete the questionnaire.
Advisory committee members with the first two names alphabetically were selected for the interviews. The purpose of the study was ex plained and participation invited. The vocational home economics teacher interviewed the two identified advisory committee members, using Form A as a guide, with probing questions as needed to clarify or expand their answers. A data sheet and the task list Form C were then explained and left with these two advisory committee members.
The data sheet, tape, and task list were all combined in one envelope for each subject and submitted to the principal investigator for 92
analysis. Each form had a code number.
Advisory committee members vith the last two names alphabetically
were selected to complete the questionnaire. Form B. The purpose of
the study was explained and participation invited. The vocational
home economics teacher reviewed the directions for Form B and the
task listr Form C, and left them along with the data sheet. Question
naire Form B, task list Form C, and the data sheet were all combined
in one envelope for each subject and submitted to the principal investi
gator for analysis.
The same procedures were followed for the fifth advisory committee
member who received only the data sheet and task list Form C. The flow
chart outlines the procedures given to the teachers.
Anonymity was preserved for all respondents.
Analysis of Bata
Bnpirical data, according to Habermas, abstracts from all connec tions with life history. The specific objectification of reality serves to mold subjectively tinged concrete experience. In terms of data analysis, then, Habermas sees empirical data as adapting to a priori universal categories.
For hermeneutic understanding, however, the problem is reversed; hermeneutics grasps individual life experience in its entire breadth and is quasi-inductive methodologically. The data from hermeneutic inquiry must be interpreted in the context of life experience concen trated around individual meaning. All practical questions which cannot be answered adequately by technical prescriptions, but which instead 93 also require a self-understanding within their concrete situation, go beyond the cognitive interest invested in empirical science.
Descriptive data in this study consist of people's own written or spoken words. Qualitative methodology requires a phenomenological perspective, that of Verstehen. empathic understanding. There is an attempt to grasp meanings from the other person's point of view. As
Bogdan and Taylor (1975) suggest, the individual is not reduced to an isolated variable or to an hypothesis, but is viewed instead as part of a whole.
The methods by which we study people of necessity affects how we view them. When we reduce people to statistical aggregates, we lose sight of the sub jective nature of human behavior. . . Finally, qualitative methods enable us to explore concepts whose essence is lost in other research approaches (p p . 4 - 5 ) .
The premise for the qualitative analysis in this study lies in the assumption that there are some qualities which cannot be reduced to quantitative terms without denying their reality.
The empirical task list data were subjected to frequency analysis, using the Statistical Analysis System program. Listings of the 144 homemaking tasks by mean ranking for frequency of performance, duration of performance, and criticality or importance of family well-being were generated. The tasks were further analyzed according to three variables: by sex; by employment status-employed outside home 15 hours or more or not employed or employed less than 15 hours per week; and by presence or absence of children in the home.
There are 15 task cluster areas in the task list. The mean score for each task was averaged to form a composite for each task cluster 94
area by frequency, distribution, and criticality. Criticality of tasks
is reported in percentages. This is also broken out for each of the
13 task cluster areas.
One set of questionnaires Short Form A given to senior students
was received from each of the 40 sites. Each set was reviewed and two
forms selected for further analysis on the basis of completeness and
diverseness of response.
The open-ended questionnaire and interview data were descriptively reviewed for recurring themes and particular detailed individual obser vations. Quantitative and qualitative data were compared and contrast
ed to seek relationships to bridge the gap between what is known about the immediate "dailiness of life" as found in the tasks and the more profound world of home and family life.
Schatzman and Strauss (1973) provided a useful distinction between
"straight" description and "analytic" description. In straight des cription, the analyst finds classes in the data which correspond with those commonly used in classificatory schemes in the discipline. In analytic description, the organizational scheme is suggested or mandat ed by the data. The authors noted that considerably novelty in des cription is thereby achieved. According to McCall and Simmons (1969) analytic description is primarily an empirical application and modifi cation of scientific theory rather than an efficient and powerful test of such a theory. This study employs analytic description to apply the xnetascientific theory of Habermas.
To generate theoretical ideas, (described by Glaser (1969) as new concepts and their properties, hypotheses, and inter-related 95
hypotheses) the analytic method cannot be confined to simply coding
first and then analyzing the data. The analyst is constantly redesign
ing and reintegrating theoretical notions as the data are reviewed.
The analytic method chosen for the qualitative data in this study is
the constant comparative method.
The constant comparative method is concerned with
generating and plausibly suggesting (not provisionally testing) many properties and hypotheses about a general phenomenon. • , Some of these properties may be causes; but unlike analytic induction others are conditions, consequences, dimensions, types, processes, etc. and like analytic induction, they should result in an integrated theory (Glaser, 1969* P» 219)•
It is basic to the procedure that the conceptual categories emerge
from the data. The data are coded for organization and abstraction of
concepts to generate or suggest theory.
In a more comprehensive sense, the data was subjected to what
Berger and Luckmann (1967) term "phenomenological analysis." This method, they say, is purely descriptive and is best suited to inter preting subjective processes and meanings.
The reality of everyday life is taken for granted as reality. It does not require the additional verification over and beyond its simple presence. It is simply there, as self-evident and compelling facticity. I know that it is real. While I am capable of engaging in doubt about its reality, I am obliged to suspend such doubt as I routinely exist in everyday life (p. 22),
The phenomenological analysis of everyday life, or of the subjective experience of everyday life, "refrains from any causal or genetic hypotheses, as well as from assertions about the ontological status of the phenomena analyzed" (p. 20). Testing of the theory is left to more rigorous, quantitative methods.
Matrix tables were constructed to examine relationships among
data. Applicable portions of these data were reviewed for implications
for practical, perennial problems in home and family life.
Credibility of Data
The issue of credibility of data in qualitative analysis is a major concern to researchers. Methodological rigor must be weighed
against questions of significance.
We must use all available weapons of attack, face our problems realistically and not retreat to the land of fashionable sterility, learn to sweat over our data with an admixture of judgment and intuitive rumination, and accept the usefulness of particular data even when the level of analysis available for them is markedly below that available for other data in the empirical area (Binder, cited in Webb, 1966, p. 184),
Questions of validity and reliability are raised in establishing the credibility of research data. Reliable measures yield consistent results. The process of clarifying and probing in interviews and the possibility for Verstehen (subjective understanding) may contribute to more reliable results than rigid indices through the provision of internal checks and responsiveness to the data.
In qualitative research, Glaser emphasizes that the constant com parative method is not designed to guarantee that two analysts working independently with the same data will achieve the same results. The process is an interactive one between researcher and data. In quali tative research,. Schwab (1979) claims that the importance is shifted away from replicability and toward the issue of the quality of data collection and analysis. McCall and Simmons (1969) specify the establishment of validity of the construct-indicator relations as essential before carrying out empirical research. Conversely, with interpretive research, validity is established during and after the study. They fu rt h e r insist that construct validity can never be finally established, but must depend upon positive results, in a great number of studies.
Questions of validity in quantitative research tend to focus upon whether the instrument measures what it purports to measure.
Quantitative researchers characteristically demonstrate the validity of their findings through statistical tables and measures, and they therefore are likely to feel comfortable when defending their observations. Yet, if one were to ask them to defend the validity of the categories, one by one, upon which the tables and measures rest, they would be in essentially the same boat with the field researcher (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973, P. 134).
There is no attempt to ascertain either the universality or the proof of suggested causes or other properties.
The question remains of how to establish credibility in quali tative research. Guiding principles for this study included:
1. "Being certain that every proposition is derived from the data, that the data are demonstrably empirical; and examining for logical relationships to the propositions; providing characteristic illustrations and matrix tables from the data,
2. Searching for negative cases or alternative hypotheses.
3. Checking the propositions against the experiences of others.
4. Using a codified procedure for analyzing datar— the constant comparative method.
5. Checking the internal consistency of the reports, particularly looking for contradictions . 98
6. Utilizing training procedures to reduce potential for interviewer bias and preserving total interview on audio tape to check reliability of the interviewer.
7. Requiring and preserving data in its natural state so that it could be re-analyzed.
Limitations of Study
This is an exploratory rather than hypothesis-testing study. It is not intended to predict or explain variables affecting home and family life. The population for the study is representative of advisory committee members for consumer/homemaking programs in Ohio.
Empirical data from this group cannot be generalized to the total population, however abstraction of concepts leading to theory may be inferred to larger populations.
There may be constraints related to the recall required in the task analysis. Further, the study may be hindered by its reliance on self-report and self-revelation. The use of in-depth probing * questions should ameliorate this concern.
A portion of the study consists of interviews which will not be conducted by the principal investigator. There was a one-day training session for the interviewers.
Summary
Empirical and interpretive data were generated to address the research questions under investigation. The sample consisted of 200 vocational consumer homemaking advisory committee members and 725 senior students in the 40 sites geographically distributed across the state of Ohio. Advisory committee members validated identified homemaking
tasks from the Colorado task list. Additionally, 40 percent
responded to an open-ended questionnaire related to household tasks,
correlating with the categories in the task analysis. Another 40
percent were interviewed with the more comprehensive research
questions of perceptions of the meaning and significance and problems
and concerns of home and family life. One class of senior students in
each of the 40 sites completed a questionnaire also addressing the
comprehensive research questions relating to home and family life.
Eighty student questionnaires were used in the analysis in this study.
The task list data were subjected to a frequency analysis, with mean ranking reported for tasks by frequency and duration of per formance and criticality to family well-being. These were further analyzed by the variables of sex, employment status, and presence or absence of children in the home. Mean rankings for the 13 task cluster areas were also reported.
The constant comparative process was used to analyze the inter pretive, descriptive data. Matrix tables were constructed to examine relationships among data.
The findings for the task data are reported in Chapter V and perceptions of home and family life in Chapter VI. The final chapter contains the summary, recommendations, and implications. CHAPTER V
DATA ANALYSIS - TASK ANALYSIS
The findings for the study are presented in two chapters. This
chapter presents data from the task analysis based upon the methodology
described in Chapter XV. The research questions addressed in this chapter are:
1. What homemaking tasks are most often performed? What homemaking tasks require the most time? What homemaking tasks are perceived to be most critical to family well being?
2. Given the 13 broad task clusters in the task list (managing money, caring for and improving self, caring for family members, meeting nutritional needs, providing for family health and safety, providing for housing, providing and caring for clothing and textile products, managing time, cleaning and maintaining home, providing transportation, planning for social events and enter taining, providing and maintaining yard and garden, and caring for pets): Why is each considered important or not important to home and family life? Do the qualita tive data corroborate the task analysis? Are there sig nificant perceptions that are not contained in the task list?
3. Given the 13 broad task clusters in the task list, what are major problems or concerns related to each task cluster? Do the qualitative data corroborate the task analysis? Are there significant perceptions that are not contained in the task list?
The chapter is organized into five parts: (l) demographic data - description of the locations of the 40 sites and a profile of respondents; (2) frequency of performance of tasks; (3 ) duration of
100 101
performance of tasks; (4 ) criticality of tasks to family well-being;
and (5) analysis by task cluster areas.
Demographic Data
Location. The 40 sites in the study were distributed geograph
ically as shown in Figure 1 and by type of school district as given in
Table 3* (See Appendix G for a listing of the 40 sites.)
TABLE 3
SITES BY TYPE OF SCHOOL DISTRICT
Type of School District Humber Percent of Sample
City 17 42.5
Exempted Village 2 5.0
Local 21 52.5
Total 40 100.0
Sample. Forty vocational home economics teachers gave the task
list to 200 consumer homemaking advisory committee members in Ohio.
Forty percent of the advisory committee members (80) also received an
open-ended questionnaire which corresponded with the categories in the task list. There was a 100 percent response in the study.
Table 4 illustrates the distribution of A/C members by sex. 102
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FIGURE 1 DISTRIBUTION OP 40 SITES 105
TABLE 4
PROFILE OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS BY SEX
Sex Task List Questionnaire Number Percent Number Percent
Male 42 21.0 14 17.5
Female 158 79.0 66 82.5
Total 200 100.0 80 100.0
Table 5 illustrates the distribution of A/C members by employment
status. Nearly one-third of the 200 respondents listed their occupa
tion as homemaker. Thirty-seven other occupations were listed. (See
Appendix F for a listing of the occupations.)
TABLE 5
PROFILE OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS
Task List Questionnaire Employment Status Number Percent Number Percent
Employed 15 hrs. per wk. or more 118 59*0 50 • 62.5
Not employed or employed more than 15 hrs. per wk. 82 41*0 30 37*5
Total 200 100.0 80 100.0
Table 6 illustrates the distribution of A/C members by presence of children (under 18) in the home. TABLE 6
PROFILE OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME
Task List Questionnaire Presence of Children in the Home Number Percent Number Percent
Children (tinder 18) living at home 122 61.0 46 57.5
No children living at home 78 59.0 54 42.5
Total 200 100.0 80 100.0
Table 7 presents additional demographic data. These data are not
treated as variables in the task analysis.
TABLE 7
PROFILE OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS -. OTHER DEMOGRAPHIC DATA •
Task List Questionnaire Demographic Categories Number Percent Number Percent
Marital Status
Married 162 81.0 71 88.8
Divorced or Separated 15 6.5 1 1.5
Widowed 5 2.5 2 2.5
Single 20 10.0 6 7.5
Ethnic Group
White 189 94.5 75 91.5
Black 11 5.5 7 8 .8 105
TABLE 7 (Continued)
Task List Questionnaire Demographic Categories Number Percent Number Percent
Age
Under 18 10 5»0 4 5*0
19 - 55 75 57.5 26 32.5
36 - 50 82 41.0 30 37.5
51 and over 35 16,5 19 25.0
Educational Preparation- Highest Level Completed
8th Grade 7 5.5 4 5*0
12th Grade 92 46.0 33 41.5
College, 4 years or more 101 50.5 45 55.8
Location
Urban (more than 2,500) 115 57*5 46 57.5
Rural (less than 2,500) 85 42.5 54 42.5
Frequency of Performance of Tasks
Frequency of task performance was indicated on a six-point scale:
0=task is not performed; 1=occasionally, less than once a month; 2-
one time a month; 3=two to three times a month; 4=one or more times a
week; and 5=one or more times a day. The tasks most frequently per
formed are listed in Table 8 and those least frequently performed in
Table 9. Routine tasks associated with personal care and housekeeping were performed most often. Driving was third on the list of tasks done daily, followed by preparing meals. Most of the other tasks 106
TABLE 8
RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED.
1. Maintain personal hygiene and grooming.
2. Keep things picked up.
3. Drive a vehicle.
A. Prepare meals.
5. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment.
6. Wash dishes and utensils.
7. Make beds.
8. Give compliments for tasks well done.
9. Provide moral support for family members.
10. Provide time for rest.
TABLE 9 RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED
1. Use mass transit.
2. Prepare estate planning information sheet and update regularly.
3. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods.
4. Make wise pet selection.
5. Obtain license and tags for pet. 107 performed frequently were associated with relationships, in the family.
Tables 10-15 show the rank order of tasks most and least frequent
ly performed by demographic variable. Of the three variables— sex, employment status, and presence of children— sex seemed to create the most change in the configuration of the top ten tasks. Seven of the most frequently performed tasks were different for males and females.
The tasks seemed to follow traditional sex roles, with the women pre paring meals, washing dishes, and making beds. As would be expected, five of the tasks most frequently performed for those persons with children living at home were in the cluster area of caring for family members. Only one task from that cluster area was in the top list of persons with no children living at home.
Less than 50 percent of the persons in the study performed tasks related to using mass transit and carpools. Three of the tasks related to pets were performed by less them one-half of the respondents.
Estate planning and moving household goods also were done by fewer than one-half of those in the study. These findings held across the three demographic variables.
From 25 to 40 percent of the respondents indicated that they did not budget money. This pattern appeared in other tasks related to budgeting, including planning budgets for food, health care, home repairs, social activities and transportation. Over 25 percent did not have an accounting or filing system and 44 percent did not have a will*. Twenty-eight percent did not develop a schedule of routine household tasks. In general, those tasks which have to do with the planning process were either not performed or were performed rarely 108 TABLE 10 RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED' BY SEX
Male Female______
1. Maintain personal hygiene 1. Maintain personal hygiene and and grooming. grooming.
2. Drive a vehicle. 2. Prepare meals.
3.5 Provide time for rest. 3. Wash dishes and utensils.
3.5 Provide a pleasant, harmonious 4. Make beds. home environment. 5. Keep things picked up. 5. Give compliments for tasks well done. 6. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 6. Regulate lighting, ventilation, humidity, and temperature. 7. Wash kitchen cabinet and counter surfaces. 7. Show love and affection to children. 8. Drive a vehicle.
8. Dispose of trash and garbage. 9. Store and handle food safely and properly. 9. Practice energy conservation in the home. 10. Provide moral support for family members. 10. Set priorities for use of time.
TABLE 11 RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED BY SEX
Male______Female______
1. Use mass transit. 1. Use mass transit.
2. Prepare estate planning infor 2. Make arrangements for moving mation sheet and update family and household goods. regularly. 3. Prepare estate planning infor 3. Utilize carpools. mation sheet and update regularly. 4. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods. 4. Make wise pet selection.
5. Make alterations to clothing. 5. Entertain business associates. . 109 TABLE 12
RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS
Employed 15 hours per week Not employed or employed less or more______than 15 hours per week______
1. Maintain personal hygiene 1. Maintain personal hygiene and grooming. and grooming.
2. Drive a vehicle. 2. Prepare meals.
3. Keep things picked up. 3.5 Keep things picked up.
4. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 3.5 Wash dishes and utensils. home environment. 5. Make beds. 5. Prepare meals. 6. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 6. Regulate lighting, ventil home environment. ation, humidity, and temperature. 7. Wash kitchen cabinet and counter surfaces. 7. Give compliments for tasks well done. 8.5. Give compliments for tasks well done. 8. Wash dishes and utensils. 8.5. Store and handle food safely 9. Provide time for rest. and properly.
10. Practice energy conservation 10. Provide moral support for in the home. family members.
TABLE 13
RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST. FREQUENTLY PERFORMED BY EMPLOYM
Employed 15 hours per week Not employed or employed less or more than 15 hours per week
1. Use mass transit. 1. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods. 2. Prepare estate planning infor mation sheet and update 2. Make wise pet selection. regularly. 3. Select housing. 3. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods. 4. Use mass transit.
4. Make wise pet selection. 5. Obtain license and tags for pet. 5. Obtain license and tags for pet. TABLE 14
RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME
Children (under 18) living at home No children living at home
1. Maintain personal hygiene and 1. Maintain personal hygiene and grooming, grooming. 2. Show love and affection to 2. Keep things picked up. children. 3. Prepare meals. 3. Keep things picked up, 4. Wash dishes and utensils. 4. Drive a vehicle. Make beds. 5. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 6. Provide time for rest. 6. Give compliments for tasks well 7. Drive a vehicle. done. 8. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 7. Wash dishes and utensils. home environment. 8. Prepare meals. 9. Dispose of trash and garbage. 9. Provide moral support for 10. Wash kitchen cabinet and family members. counter surfaces. 10. Teach children to accept responsibility.
TABLE 15
RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST FREQUENTLY PERFORMED BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME
Children (under 18) living at home No children living at home.
1. Use mass transit. 1. Make arrangements for substitute 2. Make wise pet selection. child care. 3. Make arrangements for moving 2. Prepare estate planning infor family and household goods. mation sheet and update. 4. Prepare estate planning informa 3. Make arrangements for moving . tion and update regularly. family and household goods. 5. Obtain license and tags for 4« Use mass transit. pet. 5* Select housing. 111
by the majority of respondents. One interesting finding was that 38
percent of respondents do not sew clothing and 25 percent sew less than
once a month.
Duration of Performance of Tasks
The time spent in performing tasks was rated on a six-point scale:
0=task not performed; 1-less than one hour; 2-one hour; 3=two hours;
4=three hours; 5=f°ur or more hours. The tasks requiring the most time
are listed in Table 16; those requiring the least time are in Table 17.
They did not form a pattern from any one task cluster area. Over one- half (59%) of the respondents indicated that entertaining guests
required three hours or more. Nearly one-half (48%) said that they
spent four hours or more in providing a pleasant, harmonious home
environment.
Tables 18-23 show the tasks requiring the most and least time by demographic variable. As in the listing by frequency, traditional sex role differences appeared. Yard and gardening chores appeared in the top ten tasks by duration for men while laundry, preparing meals, nurturing children, and selecting furniture were in the women's list.
When listed by employment status, there was little difference in the duration data. Those not employed indicated more time spent in pre paring meals, laundering, nurturing, and supervising children. There was a strikingly similar pattern of response between those respondents who' are not employed and those with children (under 18) living at home. Nine of the tasks appearing in the top ten tasks by duration of performance were the same. 112 TABLE 16
RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING MOST TIME
1. Entertain guests in the home*
2. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment.
3. Celebrate special occasions.
4. Shop for goods and services.
5. Pursue personal hobbies and interests.
6. Provide time for rest.
7. Prepare meals.
8. Show love and affection to children.
9. Mow and trim lawn.
10. Launder or dry clean clothing and linens according to fabric characteristics.
TABLE 17 RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING LEAST TIME
1. Use mass transit.
2. Utilize carpools.
3. Obtain license and tags for pet.
4. Prepare estate planning information sheet and update regularly.
5. Make arrangements for substitute care of pets. TABLE 18 115 RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING MOST TIME BY SEX
Male Female
1. Entertain guests in the home. 1. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 2. Provide time for rest. 2. Ehtertain guests in the home. 3# Continue education formally/ informally. 3. Celebrate special occasions. 4. Select a vehicle. 4. Launder or dry clean clothing and linens according to fabric 5. Maintain safe and attractive characteristics. landscape and garden. 5. Shop for goods and services. 6.5. Celebrate special occasions. 6. Pursue personal hobbies and 6.5. Mow and trim lawn. interests. 8. Shop for goods and services. 7. Prepare meals. 9. Pursue personal hobbies and 8. Show love and affection to interests. children. 10. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 9. Select furniture for the home. home environment. 10. Provide time for rest.
TABLE 19 RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING LEAST TIME BY SEX
Male Female
1. Utilize carpools. 1. Utilize carpools. 2. Use mass transit. 2. Obtain license and tags for pets. 3. Obtain license and tags for pets. 3. Prepare estate planning informa tion sheets and update regularly. 4. Make arrangements for substitute pet care. 4. Utilize carpools. 5. Identify fabrics and their 5. Make arrangements for substitute characteristics. care of pets. TABLE 20 114
Ra n k o r d e r o f t a s k s r e q u i r i n g m o s t t i m e b y e m p l o y m e n t s t a t u s
Unployed 15 hrs. per wk. or more Not employed or employed less than 15 hrs. per week
1. Entertain guests in the home. 1. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 2. Celebrate special occasions. 2. Entertain guests in the home. 3. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 3. Celebrate special occasions. 4 . Provide time for rest. 4 . Prepare meals. 5. Select a vehicle. 5. Shop for goods and services. 6. Pursue personal hobbies and 6. Pursue personal hobbies and interests. interests. 7. Shop for goods and services. 7. Launder or dry clean clothing and linens according to fabric 8. Continue education formally/ characteristics. informally. 8. Show love and affection to 9. Mow and trim lawn. children. 10. Maintain safe and attractive 9.5. Supervise the activities of landscape and garden. children. 9.5. Mow and trim lawn.
TABLE 21 RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING LEAST TIME BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS
Unployed 15 hrs. per wk. or more Not employed or employed less than 15 hrs. per wk.
1. Use mass transit. 1. Use mass transit. 2. Utilize carpools, 2. Obtain license and tags for pet. 3. Prepare estate planning informa 3. Utilize carpools. tion sheet and update regularly. 4 . Make arrangements for subsitute 4 . Obtain license and tags for pet. care of pets. 5. Make arrangements for substitute 5. Make wise pet selection. care of pets. TABLE 22 115 RANK ORDER OF TASKS REQUIRING MOST TIME BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME
Children (under 18) living at home No children living at home
1. Entertain guests in the home. 1. Entertain guests in the home. 2. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 2. Celebrate special occasions. home environment. 3. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 3. Celebrate special occasions. home environment. 4. Show love and affection to 4. Provide time for rest. children. 5. Pursue personal hobbies and 5. Supervise the activities of interests. children. 6. Shop for goods and services. 6. Shop for goods and services. 7. Continue education formally/ 7. Pursue personal hobbies and informally. interests. 8. Select a vehicle. 8. Prepare meals. 9. Launder or dry clean clothing 9. Mow and trim lawn. and linens according to fabric characteristics. 10. Cultivate relationships with in-laws. 10. Mow and trim lawn.
TABLE 23 RANK ORDER OT TASKS REQUIRING LEAST TIME BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME
Children (under 18) living at home No children living at home
1. Use mass transit. 1. Make arrangements for substi tute child care. 2. Obtain license and tags for pet. 2. Use mass transit. 3. Utilize carpools. 3. Prepare estate planning infor 4. Make arrangements for substitute mation sheet and update care of pets. regularly. 5. Prepare estate planning infor 4. Utilize carpools. mation sheet and update regularly. 5. Obtain license and tags for pet. 116
Again using mass transit and carpools, estate planning, and pet care ranked lowest in time required. These findings for the five tasks requiring the least time held across demographic variables.
Mean scores of less than one were recorded by men for five clothing tasks and two foods tasks. Mean scores of less than one were recorded by women for several tasks related to automobile maintenance and to home maintenance. Several tasks related to health care had low scores for duration of performance.
Criticality of Tasks to Family Well-Being
Criticality of tasks was indicated on a five-point scale: 1= unimportant; 2=moderately unimportant; 5=®oderate; 4=moderately unimportant; 5=important, The tasks deemed most critical to family well-being are listed in Table 24; the least critical tasks are in
Table 25. Ninety-four percent of respondents rated the task, "show love and affection to children" as important. The second task in priority was paying bills, checked as important by 91 percent. Eight of the top ten tasks rated as critical to family well-being are in the task cluster area, "caring for family members."
Tables 26-31 show criticality of tasks by demographic variable.
The findings are consistent across the three variables. The only exception was for those not employed or employed less than 15 hours per week and those with no children living at home. In both of those categories "plan time alone with spouse" appeared in the top ten tasks by criticality. "Encourage family members to develop to maximum potential" was also listed by those not employed. 117 TABLE 24 , RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING
L. Show love and affection to children
2. Pay hills.
3. Provide consistent and appropriate discipline for children.
4. Teach children to accept responsibility.
5. Maintain, personal hygiene and grooming.
6. Nurture the marriage relationship.
7. Teach children respect for self and others.
8. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment.
9. Provide moral support for family members.
10. Give compliments for tasks well done.
TABLE 25
RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING
1. Use mass transit.
2. Collect information about new products.
3. Entertain business associates.
4. Perform simple carpentry.
5. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods. TABLE 26 118 RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY SEX
Male Female
1. Show love and affection to i. Show love and affection to children. children. 2. Teach children respect for self . 2 ,- pay hills, and others. , . 3. Provide consistent and appro- hility°n a°C respons1** priate discipline for children. 4. Teach children to accept 4. Nurture the marriage relationship. responsibility. 5. Provide consistent and appropriate 5 • Maintain personal hygiene and discipline for children. grooming. ^ e t> f n 6* Provide a pleasant, harmonious 6.5. Pay hills. home environment. 6.5. Provide moral support for family ?# Nurture the marriage relationship, memo 6irs # ...... , , . , 8. Teach children to accept responsi- 8. Maintain personal hygiene and hility. grooming. .. , , 9. Provide moral support for family 9. Give compliments for tasks well members done. „ „ ^ , . 10. Give compliments for tasks well 10. Provide a pleasant, harmonious TABLE 27 RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY SEX Male Female 1. Use mass transit. 1. Use mass transit. 2. Collect information about new 2. Collect information about products new products. 3. Read and utilize cookbooks. 3. Entertain business associates. 4. Make wise pet selection. 4. Make arrangements for moving 5. Explore alternatives for family and household goods. acquiring home furnishings. 5. Perform simple carpentry. TABLE 28 119 RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS Employed 15 hrs. per week or Not employed or employed less more than 15 hrs. per week 1. Show love and affection to 1. Provide consistent and appropri children. ate discipline for children. 2. Maintain personal hygiene 2. Teach children to accept and grooming. responsibility. 3. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 3. Show love and affection to home environment. children. 4.5. Pay bills. 4. Nurture the marriage relation ship. 4.5. Provide moral support for family members. 5. Teach children respect for self and others. 6. Teach children respect for self and others. 6 . Provide moral 3upport for family members. 7. Nurture the marriage relation ship. 7. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. 8. Teach children to accept responsibility. 8 . Plan time alone with spouse. 9. Provide consistent and appropri 9. Encourage family members to ate discipline for children. develop to maximum potential. 10. Give compliments for tasks 10. Give compliments for tasks well done. well done. TABLE 29 RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS Employed 15 hours per week or Not employed or employed less than more 15 hours per week 1. Use mass transit. 1 . Collect information about new products. 2. Collect information about new products. 2 . Use mass transit. 3. Entertain business associates. 3. Make arrangements for moving family and household goods. 4. Prepare estate planning informa tion sheet and update regularly. 4. Entertain business associates. 5. Perform simple carpentry. 5. Perform simple carpentry. TABLE 30 120 RANK ORDER OF TASKS MOST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME Children (under 18) living No children living at home at home 1. Show love and affection to 1. Nurture the marriage relation children. ship. 2. Teach children to accept 2. Maintain personal hygiene and responsibility. grooming. 3. Provide consistent and appropri- 3. Pay bills. ate discipline for children. 4. Show love and affection to 4. Pay bills. children. 5. Teach children respect for 5. Provide consistent and appropri self and others. ate discipline for children. 6. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 6. Provide moral support for home environment. family members. 7. Maintain personal hygiene and 7. Plan time alone with spouse. grooming. 8. Provide a pleasant, harmonious 8. Provide moral support for home environment. family members. 9. Teach children to accept 9. Nurture the marriage relation responsibility. ship. 10. Teach children respect for self 10. Give compliments for tasks and others. well done. TABLE 31 RANK ORDER OF TASKS LEAST CRITICAL TO FAMILY WELL-BEING BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN IN THE HOME Children (under 18) living No children living at home at home 1. Use mass transit. 1. Collect information about new products. 2. Entertain business associates. 2. Use mass transit. 3. Collect information about new products. 3. Perform simple carpentry. 4. Utilize carpools. 4. Entertain business associates. 5. Perform simple carpentry. 5. Water yard and garden. 121 The tasks related to mass transit, collecting information about new products, entertaining business associates, performing simple car pentry, and moving family and household goods were least critical. These formed a similar pattern across demographic variables. Task Clusters Pertinent data from the frequency analysis of the task list and descriptive data from the questionnaire are presented for each task cluster. The directions for completing the questionnaire informed respondents that the task cluster area referred to the tasks which were listed in the task list. Respondents were asked two questions for each task cluster area: (1) Why is this important or not important to your home and family life? and (2) Generalizing to families you know-— what are major problems or concerns related to . . . (the task . cluster area)? The remaining portion of the discussion on task clusters presents a comparison of mean ratings for each of the task clusters by frequency, duration, and criticality of performance. Managing Money. Tasks related to managing money ranked both high and low on the criticality scale. Paying bills was the second ranking task overall as the most critical. Regulating cash flow to meet payments and setting goals and priorities for use of money also were considered critical to family well-being. Estate planning and seeking legal advice rated low for both frequency and duration. Sixteen percent of the respondents do not use credit, and less than one-fourth viewed credit as critical to family well-being. While only eight percent of the men in the study 122 do not balance a checkbook, 29 percent of the women do not perform the task. Not surprisingly, the majority of respondents on the questionnaire said management of money is important to provide for necessities, the basic needs of life. Some suggested that wise management allowed one to have money for special needs, such as emergencies, hobbies, enter tainment, vacations, and a college education. Money management is instrumental in helping families reach goals through prioritizing spending and controlling resources, "so you end up getting what you really want." Over one-half of the respondents saw management of money as providing stability and security, reducing stress to families. Two persons indicated that money management was not important for them, one because she was single and the other because her family was grown. The task list for money management seems to be comprehensive and inclusive of the majority of statements made in the questionnaire. Investing money was an omission that was mentioned. There were some overarching problems which add a dimension of information to the task list. These problems relate to personal feelings and interpersonal relationships which stem from decisions regarding money. The special problems of the elderly who have to live on a fixed income were mentioned. Other respondents said that with job layoffs and inflation, wise management means little. There must be money to manage. For some, the economy creates feelings of helplessness, of conditions beyond their control. Conflict regarding money was viewed as a major problem in the marital relationship, being cited as the chief cause of arguments in 125 families. Others mentioned the problem that may occur when the wife is dependent upon her husband in financial matters. Distinguishing between wants and needs was related to the problem of social pressures. The belief that money can buy happiness or a materialistic philosophy was a concern to some. Another dilemma not directly addressed in the task list was whether two incomes are a necessity to a family or desirable, and the consequences to the family if a mother should work. A related problem was the difficulty experi enced in balancing work and family needs. In addition to technical skills, the respondents saw communication and interpersonal relation ship skills as vital to this task cluster area. Caring for and Improving Self. One of the tasks in this area was performed most frequently overall, that of maintaining personal hygiene and grooming. Dealing with family crisis was performed least often, but had a high mean score for criticality. Pursuing personal hobbies and interests ranked fifth overall in time spent. Over one-fourth of the respondents indicated that they do not follow a physical fitness program. However, this task rated in the top third overall for criticality. This area was deemed important for providing self esteem and self confidence. Maintaining outside interests and continuing education are important, a way of continuing to grow. As one said, "When we stop learning, we stop living," The criticality ratings for this task, however, were only at the fiftieth percentile. For a number of persons in the study, this statement is representative: "One must be positive 124 and content with self before he/she can contribute to a marriage or family.11 One of the goals expressed by those in the study for this task cluster is that of self actualization-fulfilling one's potential. Host of the respondents incorporated the tasks from the task list in their open-ended responses. Among the problems related to this area was the excessive use of television, particularly when it replaces hobbies, reading, or the pursuit of continuing educational opportuni ties. Spectator recreation rather than involvement in physical activi ties was another problem. Related to this area is the problem which occurs when one mate "outgrows" the other, the typical situation occurring when the husband participates in the outside world and the young mother is totally occupied in the home. This was viewed as contributing to conflict, and in some cases separation and divorce. Related to that issue for women was the importance of being able to support oneself if needed. The dilemma of the "displaced homemaker" was cited. Retired persons in the study expressed the problem which occurs when people reach retirement and lack outside interests. One woman described the difficulty of blending self interests with family interests. This was related to the number and age of children. Caring for Family Members. Ranking first for criticality overall was the task, "show love arid affection to children." It was performed by 94 percent of the respondents. Over 85 percent of those in the study rated these tasks as important: Provide consistent and appropriate discipline for children. 125 Teach children to accept responsibility. Nurture the marriage relationship. > • • Teach children respect for self and others. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment. Provide moral support for family members. The two tasks, "show love and affection to children" and "provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment," were in the top four tasks in this cluster area for frequency, duration, and criticality. "Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environment" was the second ranked task overall in time spent. There was little difference by sex in this area. When there were no children living at home, the task "nurture the marriage relationship" achieved first place ranking for criticality. Two tasks in this cluster area were rated low for frequency, duration, and criticality: "make arrangements for substitute child care," and "set short and long-term goals for family." Only three percent of respondents thought that utilizing community programs was important. This cluster area generated the most comments. A3 one woman said, "This is the number one priority for a good family life." Caring is a way of expressing and showing love, of establishing family ties. Availability of parents to children, of family members to other family members, was cited as contributing to the significance of this area. The importance of nurturant skills in parenting was stressed. One respondent was not certain whether the task of guiding children in 126 developing a value structure was included in the task list* In general, the tasks in the task list were supported in the questionnaire data, hut additional tasks and dimensions of tasks were suggested. One respond ent observed: "The tasks listed sure idealistic and considering human failings they could include the word 'try* in most cases." Ill health of family members created a particular set of problems. One woman said that seeing her husband through a critical illness was an important task to her. Others mentioned coping with the fatigue which occurs when caring for a sick child. Some of the respondents had elderly family members living with them or assumed some responsi bility for elderly relatives. The need for including extended family in this cluster area was noted. Referring to the elderly, one person said: "Self esteem must be supported all life long." The conflict that occurs between work needs and family needs was viewed as a critical problem to many families. One working mother said that the tasks listed become more problematic or complex when both parents work outside the home and do not have the time or energy to devote to caring. The importance of prioritizing family in one's life was stressed. Outside activities and interests were also viewed as conflicting with family time. Family members going in different directions seemed to be the norm. One person saw a problem in families abandoning responsibility to others, letting television, school, or friends shape values. Parents who do not support children by attending school and organizational activities were criticized by those in the study. 127 The major problem of families that was cited by the respondents is lack of togetherness of families. This is not reflected in the task list. A general comment was that it is difficult to reduce this area to task statements. For example, one task statement reads: ’’provide for family discussions." For some respondents, this meant that family members were available to each other when needed. As one person noted, "Most families care for their children's needs, but do not take time for their problems." Others mentioned the importance of listening skills--"really listening." The whole area of communication skills is much more complex than this statement reflects. Meeting Nutritional Needs. Two tasks were rated high in this cluster area across all three measures, frequency, duration, and criticality: "prepare meals" and "store and handle food safely and properly." Preparing meals rated fourth overall for frequency, duration, and criticality. Teaching nutrition to family members was not performed often. This area evoked the greatest differences by sex as shown in Table 32. 128 TABLE 32 MEETING NUTRITIONAL NEEDS TASK CLUSTER AREA BY SEX Percent Not Performing Task Male Female Evaluate nutritional needs of family members 37.2 7.1 Identify nutritional components of food 45.2 18.5 Make a shopping list 2.5 5.1 Plan food budget 48.8 30.9 Plan meals and snacks according to nutritional needs and family preferences 46.5 7.1 Prepare meals 9.3 - Purchase groceries 11.6 1.9 Read and utilize cookbooks 60.4 5.7 Store and handle food safely and properly 21.4 1.2 Teach nutrition to family members 55.8 24.3 There was also a difference by employment status. Only 73 percent of employed persons said they prepared meals more than once a day, compared with 93 percent for those not employed or employed part-time. Meeting nutritional needs is, of course, essential for good health. Some persons noted that nutrition can affect personality and general well-being. As one respondent said, "Food is costly, but lack of adequate nutrition is more costly in terms of grouchy people and lost work time." 129 The social meaning of food, although not reflected in the task list, was emphasized by several respondents. Mealtime is the only time the family is together to talk over the day. There are many happy memories associated with holiday dinners with the whole family or the extended family. As in previous task cluster areas, there were problems and dimensions of tasks not in the task list. Several people mentioned the significance of creativity in food preparation. Decisions of whether there is enough time and energy to prepare meals at home, whether it is better to eat out, or how much processed foods to use were concerns, particularly for working couples. Related to eating out was the problem of determining nutritional values of foods, especially those of meals eaten in fast food establishments. Management of food preparation includes a complexity of factors. One person noted that it should require imagination as well as knowledge and skill. The problems of children and food generated a number of responses. Cereal advertisements on television created problems for some families. As one mother said, "It's easier to give in to children's desire for junk food than to argue with them," Some saw increasing consumption of low density nutrient foods as an adult problem as well. One person observed that working parents have little control over what children eat. One mother shared this dilemma: "Seven children all liking different foods." Special dietary problems were mentioned, including diabetes and anorexia. Overweight was viewed as a major American problem that is 130 related to this task cluster. Providing for Family Health and Safety. Practicing preventive medicine was done most frequently and was rated second in the cluster for duration and criticality. Obtaining regular medical and dental checkups and eliminating safety hazards vere in the top three tasks in this cluster for all three measures. The cluster area as a whole ranked low for frequency and time spent for tasks, but was second in the task clusters for criticality. Tasks such as applying first aid and home nursing techniques and identifying symptoms of illness may not occur frequently or require much time to perform, but they are considered critical. Health and safety are essential to a family's well-being. Several respondents mentioned the importance of practicing preventive medicine. One person cited the adage, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Problems in this area included lack of knowledge of first aid and safety procedures. Teaching children health and safety practices was not specifically listed, but should be according to some respondents. The other problem area is that of alcohol and drugs. As some respondents noted, these are used as an escape from problems. One person observed that as family life breaks down, more kids are on the street and susceptible to the influence of drugs and alcohol. Adults also have problems in this area, as in the abuse of medication. A number of persons mentioned the necessity for, but high cost of health insurance as a problem. This did appear in the task list in the area of managing money. 131 Providing for Housing. Selecting housing was the most critical task; making use of personal talents in home decorating was performed most frequently; and selecting furnishings required the most time. Hanking in the bottom five scores for frequency and criticality overall was making arrangements for moving family and household goods. This task cluster area had major differences in percentage of those who performed the task by sex as shown in Table 33. TABLE 33 PROVIDING FOR HOUSING TASK CLUSTER AREA BY SEX Percent Not Performing Task Male Female Arrange furniture in a functional and attractive manner 30.9 2.5 Coordinate colors and styles in decorating 38.0 7.1 Explore alternatives for acquiring home furnishings 54.7 21.1 Make arrangements for moving family and household goods 61.9 63.7 Make use of personal talents in home decorating 40.4 9.0 Select furniture for the home 33.3 10.8 Select housing 54.7 50.3 The housing area ranked low overall. Most of the tasks were related to furnishings. Only the task "select housing" ranked in the upper half for criticality. Selection of a home is a major investment for a family. There is a concern that inflation is putting home ownership out of the reach of many. Homes were viewed as providing security as well as shelter. Homes are a way of expressing creativity. Personal touches make a house a home that a family enjoys. One person said, "A home provides identity and a feeling of self worth and a little control over one's own lifestyle," The home is a major physical influence in our life. Others cautioned, however, that a home should not be most important in one's life. "The shell we live in takes second place to how we live, the quality of our lives together," The problems in housing primarily center on finances. Apartment rents, housing prices, and mortgage interest rates, that is inflation in general, has "set dreams and goals far beyond many people's capacities," Related to this is the fact that many people have al ready overextended themselves, buying housing beyond their means. One person stated that buying an expensive home sometimes necessitates the return to work of the mother of a young family. The other area that is not directly mentioned in the task list was described by these two persons: Many families stress looks of the home and forget that people need to live and play there. There is too much emphasis on the prestige of having a big home, expensive furniture, and special carpets. When children are not allowed in a living area, life is very tense. In general, the task cluster area of housing is interwoven with others managing money, caring for and improving self, caring for family members, providing for family health and safety, and cleaning and 133 maintaining the home. Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products. The tasks requiring the most time, performed most frequently, and deemed most critical were all related to laundering. Respondents with children at home reported laundering more frequently and spending more time. The task performed least frequently and considered least important was "sew clothing for self and/or family." However, those persons with children living at home had higher mean scores for sewing. Again, there were major differences in this task cluster area by sex, as shown in Table 34. TABLE 34 PROVIDING AND CARING FOR CLOTHING AND TEXTILE PRODUCTS BY TASK CLUSTER AREA Percent Not Performing Task Task Male Female Choose proper laundry cleaning agents 51.1 2.5 Determine how much to spend for clothing 23.2 14.1 Evaluate family's wardrobe needs, suitability and safety of clothing 4 1.8 14.1 Sew clothing for self and/or family 74.4 28.3 Identify fabrics and their characteristics 60.4 24.5 launder or dry clean clothing and linens according to fabric characteristics 34.8 Make alterations to clothing 76.7 14.8 134 TABLE 34 (Continued) Percent Not Performing Task Task Male Female Mend and repair clothing 58.1 2.5 Select clothing and accessories 9.3 1.9 Sort clothes for laundering 27.9 1.9 Store clothing properly 11.6 1.9 The descriptive data for this area brought a variety of responses. Clothing enhances self esteem and is important to success in the business world. Others, however, said that it is not too important. "Clothing needs only to be utilitarian." Another said that should her income be reduced, buying new clothes would be one of the first things to go. This statement reflects a general consensus about the clothing task cluster area: "Necessary, but not of the magnitude of importance of some of the other task clusters." The specific tasks in the task list were supported in the questionnaire. However, as in the area related to foods and nutrition, the social and psychological qualities and meanings of clothing are not reflected in the task list. Conflict in families, particularly between teenagers and parents about clothing styles and expenses, was related to this area. Managing Time. Planning time alone with spouse was first on both the criticality and duration scales for this task cluster area. Those persons with children at home ranked it lower than when there were no children at home. Setting priorities for time was done most 135 frequently. Developing a schedule of routine household tasks rated low for both criticality and frequency. Over one-fourth of the respondents did not perform this task and one-half reported a frequency of less than once a day. Although it may be expected, there was little dif ference in this task cluster by employment status. One person responded to this area with a question, "What time?" Management of time was viewed as important to achieving goals. Providing family time was a goal of most persons, balanced with time for self. Representative comments included these: As a wife and mother, time management is very important. Giving each individual family member attention and love, but also allowing yourself some freedom and time is important. We like to try to manage our time so we as a couple have time to be alone sometimes, but also spend time with kids. Because of the little time we have together as a family, this task is extremely important to us. We sometimes have to remind ourself of priorities. Outside activities and work schedules seem to fragment families, leaving little family time. Time management is a weak point in our family and I suppose the reason is that we are so busy with school, work, clubs, and sports that we don’t have the time to manage it. Scheduling time together as a family is difficult because of teenagers’ part-time job schedules. When work crowds family time, family problems are created. The management problems of the dual career family were emphasized. One person said that time management is as important as money management. Another saw as a problem the failure to realize the 136 value of tine in a short life. Not all respondents agreed that time management is important. One person said that quality is much more important than quantity of family time. Another noted that management of time is often associated with efficiency-— doing the most possible with the time we have. However, he suggested that rather than filling every moment with constant activity, there should be time for reflection and introspection. Again, the task list seemed to include most of the technical aspects associated with managing time. However, the descriptive data pointed to the value questions which underlie the constant choices one makes in the use of time. Cleaning and Maintaining Home. Seven tasks in this task cluster ranked in the top 15 overall for frequency of performance. The task, "keep things picked up," rated second overall in the task list. The other six tasks were: Dispose of trash and garbage. Make beds. Practice energy conservations in the home. Regulate lighting, ventilation, humidity, and temperature. Wash dishes and utensils. Wash kitchen cabinet and counter surfaces. Practicing energy conservation in the home was rated highest for criticality. Caring for furniture required the most time. 137 Nine of the 22 tasks had significant differences of percentage performing the task by sex* Fewer females than males performed simple carpentry. Traditional sex roles again are evident in this task cluster area as shown in Table 33* TABLE 35 CLEANING AND MAINTAINING HOME (SELECTED TASKS) BY SEX „ , Percent Not Performing Task Male Female Care for floors appropriately 32.5 3.8 Care for furnishings 34.8 2.5 Clean and disinfect bathroom 32.5 1.9 Clean and maintain appliances 33.3 2.5 Make beds 26.1 1.2 Perform simple carpentry 13.9 46.4 Select household cleaning and main tenance equipment and supplies 34.8 3.2 Wash dishes and utensils 18.6 0.6 Wash kitchen cabinet and counter surfaces 18.6 0.6 A home that is well cared for has physical, social, and emotional meanings* For some, clean well-maintained homes were important for sanitation, health, and as a protection for an investment. Several people noted that homes are a social gathering place for entertaining. For others, pride, satisfaction, and self-esteem stem from a home that is well cared for. "I always feel better when my home is clean." 138 Conversely, others said they were depressed when their home was not in order. Conflicts in standards among family members was a source of stress. Some questioned whether the hassle in getting children to clean their room is worth it. One of the task statements reads, ''share cleaning and maintenance responsibilities with family members." As a number of respondents pointed out, this is more of a communication/relationship problem than a technical skill. Some respondents did not find this task cluster as important to their family well-being as other task clusters. Typical of those responses are these statements: This is less important to me than time spent with my family. A clean house isn't always a loving home. Important, but not at the expense of family happiness. Some people saw a trade-off between a clean home and the enjoyment of family activities. "A clean home is important, but it doesn't have to be spic and span all the time. Children need a home they can live in and not be afraid of bringing friends home to." Another stated the case more strongly: "An immaculate house could mean neglected children." Providing Transportation. Driving a vehicle was performed most often, while selecting a vehicle required the most time. Less than 13 percent used mass transit, the lowest rated task overall. There were some differences by sex. More men than women performed vehicle maintenance and selected a vehicle. 139 Transportation is vital for work and school. However, location is a determinant of the type of transportation needed. Public transportation is available to some. Those in rural areas stressed their reliance on the family automobile. An increase in carpooling was mentioned by some persons as a response to the energy problem. The problem area most often mentioned, in addition to the rising costs of automobiles and fuel, was that of teenagers and cars. The social pressure, that is, teenagers expecting to own their own cars, and the need for transporting them to so many activities were problems to many families. Planning for Social Events and Entertaining. Entertaining guests in the home and celebrating special occasions ranked first and third respectively overall for time spent performing the task. Only two tasks were rated in the upper half of the task list for criticality: '•use socially acceptable etiquette" and "celebrate special occasions." "Entertain business associates" rated low in criticality and frequency overall. Celebrating special occasions was rated higher in frequency and criticality by those persons with children living at home. Although entertaining guests ranked first in time spent, it ranked in the lower third for criticality. This task cluster was not considered important to family well being. For those who did include socializing and entertaining in their lives, it was viewed as an escape from work, getting away from "everyday hum-drum," and as important in maintaining friendships. Many people responded negatively because they do not formally 140 entertain. Several tasks referred to the planning process. However, their entertaining tended to be spontaneous, such as inviting friends in to play cards or talk. Some respondents were critical of the task list for not including more direct reference to family activities. One person complained that there are not many activities for the whole family to enjoy away from home. The fact that families do not engage in activities together was an often expressed theme. Among the problems related to this area was overemphasis on television as a medium of entertainment. Concern was expressed that young people do not know how to entertain themselves except with television. Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden. Mowing the lawn was performed most frequently and required the most time. Safe operation of lawn equipment was considered most critical. Approximately one- fourth of the respondents did not have gardens. Only slightly more men than women mowed lawns. This task cluster area was viewed as important in maintaining the value of the home, as a source of self satisfaction, a feeling of accomplishment, a good hobby, good therapy or exercise, and for its aesthetic value. Por some, it provides opportunities for visiting with neighbors. Gardening also meant family togetherness and was considered to be a family project. Vegetable gardens were cited as helping with food expenses. One problem that was mentioned in this area was expressed by the elderly as difficulty in maintaining their yard and particularly in securing assistance for yard work. Another problem area related to the increasing number of multiple-family dwellings. There is often no clear-cut responsibility for the premises in apartment complexes. Caring for Pets. Providing for the nutritional and medical needs of pets ranked in the top of the task cluster for frequency, duration, and criticality of performance. Percentage of tasks not performed in the area of pet care ranged from 36 to 62 percent. This task cluster was lowest of the thirteen in both frequency and duration measures. In criticality, it ranked tenth. Respondents were divided on this issue. Por some, pets were not important. Others mentioned that pet care is a means of teaching children responsibility. Being responsible and caring for pets can add to self worth. Pets were viewed as a source of love and companionship, very important to some respondents in the study. Animal care is excellent training for caring for other people since it builds love and caring responsibilities. Pets are great for kids. Living things help us learn to love, care for, and respect others— also to experience birth and death. All children should have the opportunity to love and care for a family pet. They give back so much for the amount of time and money it takes to care for them, A pet becomes as much a part of the family as a child. Counter poised to these statements reflecting positive values of pets were the same ideas expressed as problems. Pets serve as a substitute for children. 142 Transference of affection to animals rather than people is destructive. Other problems included neglecting pets or letting pets run loose. Animals were viewed by one person as adding to the noise and confusion of a home. Explaining the death of a pet to children was of concern to some persons in the study. Again, the tasks listed are technical ones, emphasizing the physical care of pets. The descriptive data, however, point to the meaning of pets in people's lives. Task Clusters - Mean Ratings. The mean ratings for frequency for each of the thirteen task cluster areas is presented in Table 36. Task clusters performed most frequently were "managing time," "caring for and improving self," and "caring for family members." The two task clusters least often performed were "providing for housing" and "caring for pets." Table 37 depicts the mean duration ratings of the task clusters. Task clusters requiring the most time were "cleaning and maintaining the home," "providing and maintaining yard and garden" and "planning for social events and entertaining." Least time was spent caring for pets. The mean criticality ratings for task clusters are shown in Table 58. The mean ratings are high, verifying that most of the tasks are considered to be critical to family well-being. The task cluster considered most critical was "caring for family members," followed by "providing for family health and safety" and "managing time." Considered least critical to family well-being were "providing for housing" and "planning for social events and entertaining." 143 TABLE 56 M E M FREQUENCY RATINGS OP TASK CLUSTERS Task Cluster Mean Rating * Managing Time 3.4201 Caring for and Improving Self 3.3117 Caring for Family Members 3.1786 Meeting Nutritional Needs 3.1386 Cleaning and Maintaining Home 3.0754 Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden 2.1259 Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products 1.9118 Providing Transportation 1.7786 Providing for Family Health and Safety 1.7510 Managing Money 1.6791 Planning for Social Events and Entertaining 1.4968 Providing for Housing 1.1067 Caring for Pets 1.1067 * 0=task is not performed; 1=occasionally, less than once a month; 2=one time a month; 3=two to three times a month; 4=one or more times a week; 5=°ne or more times a day 144 TABLE 37 MEAN DURATION RATINGS OP TASK CLUSTERS Task Cluster Mean Rating * Cleaning and Maintaining Home 2.5723 Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden 2.0954 Planning for Social Events and Entertaining 2.0813 Caring for .Family Members 2.0047 Caring for and Improving Self 1.9959 Providing for Housing 1.9730 Managing Time 1.6627 Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products 1.6517 Meeting Nutritional Needs 1.4562 Managing Money 1.3100 Providing Transportation 1.0997 Providing for Family Health and Safety 1.0966 Caring for Pets O.7106 * 0=task is not performed; 1=less than one hour; 2=one hour; 5=two hours; 4 =three hours; 5=four or more hours 145 TABLE 38 MEAN CRITICALITY RATINGS OP TASK CLUSTERS Task Cluster Mean Ratings * Caring for Pamily Members 4.5231 Providing for Pamily Health and Safety 4.5945 Managing Time 4.5055 Meeting Nutritional Needs 4.1789 Caring for and Improving Self 4.1721 Managing Money 4.1659 Providing Transportation 4.0545 Cleaning and Maintaining Home 4.0527 Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden 5.9194 Caring for Pets 5.8696 Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products 3*8604 Planning for Social Events and Entertaining 5.7927 Providing for Housing 5.6507 * 1=iunimportant; 2=moderately unimportant; 3=moderate; 4=moderately important; 5=important CHAPTER VI DATA ANALYSIS - PERCEPTIONS OP HOME AND PAMILY LIPE This chapter presents data concerning perceptions of (1) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to home and family life. The research questions addressed in this chapter are: 1. What particular observations or recurring themes occur in expressing the meaning and significance of home and family life? 2, What particular observations or recurring themes occur in expressing problems and concerns of home and family life? Demographic Data Forty percent of the 200 consumer homemaking advisory committee members -who completed the task list (80 persons) were interviewed on audio tape by the 40 vocational home economics teachers, A question naire following the set of interview questions was given to one class of senior students in each of the 40 sites, A total of 725 question naires were received, 527 from females and 198 from males. These questionnaires were reviewed by the researcher and two forms selected from each site for analysis on the basis of completeness and diverse ness of response. The data in this chapter are based upon the taped interviews of 80 advisory committee members and questionnaires from 80 students. Table 59 illustrates the distribution of A/C members and seniors by sex. 146 147 TABLE 39 PROFILE OF INTERVIEWED ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS AMD SENIORS BY SEX A/C Members Seniors Sex Number Percent Number Percent Male 21 26.3 22 27.5 Female 59 73.8 58 72.5 Total 80 100.0 80 100.0 Table 40 presents a profile of interviewed advisory committee members by other demographic data. TABLE 40 PROFILE OF INTERVIEWED ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS - OTHER DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Demographic Categories Number Percent Efarployment Einployed 15 hrs. per week or more 41 51*3 Not employed or employed less than 15 hrs, per week 39 48.8 Children Children (under 18) living at home 54 67.5 No children living at home 26 32.5 148 TABLE 40 (Continued)' Demographic Categories Number Percent Marital Status Married 63 78.8 Divorced or Separated 8 10.0 Widowed 2 2.5 Single 7 8 .8 Ethnic Group White 77 96.3 Black 3 3 .8 Age TJnder 18 3 3.8 19 - 35 29 36.3 36 - 50 39 48.8 51 and over 9 11.3 Educational Preparation - Highest Level Completed 8th grade 1 1.3 12th grade 37 46.3 College, 4 years or more 42 52.5 Location Urban (more than 2,500) 45 56.3 fiural (less than 2,500) 35 4 3.8 149 The remainder of this chapter is organized around the nine questions given in the adult interviews and student questionnaires. 1. Describe words, associations, or pictures that come to your mind for the word home. Can you picture a room? Why do you think you selected that room? What are you doing? What meaning does it have? 2. Describe words, associations, or pictures that come to your mind for the word family. Think of a picture of a family. How many people are in the picture? What are they doing? Why did you select that picture? 3. What do you recall from your experiences in home and family life that is significant to you? Why was it important? What made it meaningful? 4. Why do you think homes and families are important to people? 5. How would you describe a good or "ideal" home and family life? 6. Thinking of families in 1800, now, and the year 2,000: What has changed? What has remained the same and likely will remain the same? What is likely to change? Do you think these changes are for the better or worse? Why? 7. Thinking of people whom you know in your community, what are major problems and concerns which affect their home and family life? 8. What are conditions in society which may prevent families from becoming what they would like to be? 9. What could we do in home economics classrooms that would make a difference in the home and family life of students— now and in the future? Quotations by advisory committee members are indicated by "A" and seniors by "S." The themes which emerge from these data are summarized in Chapter 711. The intent here is to summarize the data by questions with the view to communicating the diverseness and richness of responses. 150 Question 1. Describe words, associations, or pictures that come to your mind for the word home. Can you picture a room? Why do you think you selected that room? What are you doing? What meaning does it have? Physical, social, and psychological attributes of homes were represented in the descriptions of homes. Nearly all of the responses included social and psychological dimensions. "A home is not just material things— it's people," represents a frequent response. The following observations also reflect the meanings of home: More than a house, it's the relationships of a family. (A) Many houses aren't homes. It takes a lot of living to be a home. (A) A place to be with family. (A) House that's filled with love. (S) It's a family that makes a house a home. The home you have is only what you and your family make of it. (s) Home is where your heart is. (s) Love sums up the entire definition of the word home. (S) Home means that there is love and affection there, (s) A home is more than a house; it is a feeling. It is filled with memories and shared with someone you love. (S) The home was also viewed as providing shelter— a physical attribute. A few respondents chose to describe a house, for example: "I see a little yellow house with a white fence around it and daisies in front." The relationships in a home seem to distinguish the term house from home. One senior capsulized this idea when he said: "Homes are made by families— a place where people may share their ideas, experi ences, and love with each other," 151 Refuge, security, and warmth all characterized the psychological dimensions of the word home. The home as a refuge was expressed by these adults: Place to relax from work. A respite from the world— that's where we go to recuperate from whatever1s happening. Whenever the battles were going bally, home was a place where you could always go, be welcomed, and helped if you need it. Home was viewed as a place to be safe, a place to go for protection, a place to call your own— "to hang your hat." A related concept is that of stability. One adult pictured her grandmother's home because she had moved a lot and ihere was no specific house that she could call home. Por one student, however, home did not offer security. Home is a prison, a place of insecurity and little importance to me. I'm not important around home and I feel trapped and lonely. I sometimes feel I don't belong there— like I'm not supposed to be there. "A warm feeling" characterized a number of responses. Home was described as a "place where you like to be that is always cozy and welcoming. It's not what's in the home, meaning material things, but the atmosphere." For many persons, home is a place to be yourself. One adult noted that home is a place where you don't have to worry about making impressions. Composite responses, reflecting both psychological and social attributes were also recorded by these seniors: Place where I get support, love, feel safe, and get guidance. 152 Place to go where you can feel free and comfortable, secure and protected. The word home is different from house. Home means security and family, a place that will always be there when you need it. Perhaps one adult summarized for many when he said: "I’d rather be there than any other place." Daily Activities. Daily activities, although they may seem humdrum, form the "very rhythm and texture of life" (East, 1930), Thus, respondents were asked to mentally picture themselves in a room, the activity in which they are engaged, and an interpretation of its significance or meaning. When asked to picture a room in a home, both adults and seniors divided almost evenly between the kitchen/dining rooms or the family/ living rooms. Additionally, some students pictured their own bedroom. Reasons given for selecting the room centered on time, particularly spending the most time in that room. The other major response was togetherness, indicating that room as the space where the family is all together. One mother chose the kitchen because when her children come home from school, it is the first place they go. The question, "What are you doing?", elicited three major re sponses: watching television, sitting around the dinner table conversing, and relaxing or talking in the family/living room after dinner. Other activities less frequently mentioned were reading, doing homework, sitting in front of the fireplace, playing games or cards, and listening to music. 153 While -watching television was the most frequent response, it seemed to have little meaning. When asked what meaning it had for them, seniors responded: None— just passing time. Only time everyone's together. Looking at tv does not have a meaning. Most of the family centers their day around the television. Its meaning is that we lack the most important meaning of the family— communication. Spend most of my time watching tv. One of the adults said that she watched television because "there's nothing better to do," Others were more critical of television watching. We are not doing television in our living room. For a lot of years we have not had television in our living room and I think it's made all the difference in the type of home life we had. We had four children and the television didn't fit into family discussions, (a ) Because of television, togetherness, playing games together, is missing in our home and a lot of homes, (a ) Both adults and students pictured their family around the dinner table. The meanings given did not relate to nourishment and sustenance, however. Typical of the adult responses is that the evening meal is a time for talking and sharing. One mother said that it means pride in having her family together. It is a time for enjoying each other's company. For some, it was the only time they were together. Other meanings given included love shared together, happiness, fellowship, closeness, and memories. Miany respondents emphasized that it is important for families to eat together. 154 Seniors also related that' mealtime was the only time their families are together. Mealtime and visiting with one another after eating are highlights of the day. At the end of the day we talk about the events of the day. I have the opportunity to talk about problems I had that day and also share exciting happenings. For one student, the family together at mealtime represented something which she would like .to achieve: "Just once I wish we could eat together as a family." The time after dinner in the family or living room was pictured by many persons in the study. It is a relaxed time of family • togetherness where families share their day's activities. Wien asked the meaning of this time, responses included: a warm feeling, security, belonging, closeness, sharing, love, little tension, and understanding. The following responses are illustrative of these meanings: Family is in harmony. They care and love one another and like each other's company. (A) There is an invisible bond that brings our family together through sharing love, thoughts, and problems. (A) Awareness of other's feelings. (A) Someone cares about what you're doing. (A) Signifies casual, warm, loving relationship in our family. (A) Deepest meaning is togetherness. (S) It's the time when the family communicates and relates to each other. (S) Place where we openly express our feelings. Me .become closer as a family. (S) 155 The little things in life are important, (s) I remember the good times we had there— the warmth of the room. It is full of wonderful memories, (s) The whole day long each family member has their own thing to do, so home is where they are no longer that individual working, but working as a unit. (S) Leave behind the hustle of a busy day. (s) When you talk, it brings you closer together, (s) It makes me feel someone cares about me and what I’m doing, (s) One student reported seeing each family member doing something dif ferent in the family room, observing that a family can be together, but also be individuals. Another student specified that the room isn't so neat that he feels -uncomfortable. Those students who pictured themselves in their own bedroom said that it is a place to be alone, to get away from it all. "I feel in charge of my life there," Peace, quiet, and security seem to prevail there, as described in these responses: In this room I do a lot of thinking and dreaming. I am away from everybody in my room. I have a dead bolt lock on it so my stepfather can't steal anything out of it. Just thinking about my future, I usually go to my room when I get into an argument with my parents. Sometimes images of home expressed disharmony, as in this student's response. I can see my mom and stepdad.' In the family room sits my stepdad watching tv. Mom is in the kitchen cooking dinner, very noisily, because she is getting no help from my stepdad. She just got home from work. My stepdad has been sitting in the same place for five 156 weeks, My mom is depressed. Summary. A contrast was drawn between the concept of house, a physical structure, and home. Home was described in terms of its social attributes, the love and relationships within, and in psycho logical dimensions, a refuge from the world, a place of security, and a warm feeling, The daily activities of life portrayed families before a tele vision set, conversing around the dinner table, or relaxing after dinner in the family/living room. The dominance of the television in daily life was tempered by the inability to express any meaning which it may have, "Just passing time" perhaps best exemplifies the tenor of these responses. The most striking observation in analysis of the total re sponses to this multi-part question was the number of times the word "togetherness" was mentioned. Over one-half of the respondents specified togetherness as the meaning for the activity which they imaged in their mental picture of a home. Others alluded to the quality indirectly through seeing care, love, concern, and sharing in their family. "The little things in life are important" concluded one senior in describing his picture of a home. Responses were pre dominantly positive in nature. Question 2. Describe words, associations, or pictures that come to your mind for the word family. Think of a picture of a family. How many people are in the picture? What are they doing? Why did you select that picture? The people in families— husband, wife, parents, children, brothers, sisters— were usually the first associations with the word 157 family. Extended or multi-generational family was also frequently raentioncd— grandparents, aunts, uncles,. and cousins. Positive images or associations included togetherness, love, caring, sharing, unity, warmth, safety, happiness, concern, communica tion, cooperation, security, respect, trust, responsibility, laughing, closeness, happiness, understanding, relationships, patience, comfort, celebrating, sacrifice, honesty, pride, protection, and being needed. For others, images of family revealed conflict. Arguing, fighting, disagreements, screaming, anger, conflict, misunderstanding, ; and hostility represented these perceptions. The seniors revealed diverse perspectives of family life. These perspectives incorporated both structural and value dimensions of families. A loving group of people who live and share their experiences with each other. People who you love and try to help you with your problems. Love, caring, and concern when someone is sick or has problems, A group of people living together in a peaceful environment. More than one person living happily together. Group of people who are able to share their thoughts and ideas and events of their day, who try to under stand each other and who love each other. A .family can consist of two or more people sharing a home, loving, and considering everyone's feelings. Working together when times are hard or things got rough or for any trouble that comes up, We arc all important to each oilier. 158 Very special people in my life. A theme that was expressed frequently was that of the importance of love. Without my family's love, I don't know what I'd he like. (S) With love you can overcome a lot of obstacles, (s) I think of happiness and an evergrowing love that usually endures all heartaches and misfortunes. (S) Families were also viewed as a source of security. In families, there is someone you can always depend on, someone to look to for help, assistance, and guidance. Some, however, described their families in conflict. The word family should mean love and understanding, even when everyone else in the world is against you, but it seems to me that family really stands for fighting, yelling, and everyone for themselves, (s) I picture my dad as referee, my mother and brother yelling, and everyone for themselves. (S) Others came from divorced families, I have no real family. My parents are divorced and I'm in the middle of it. (S; I picture not a complete family, falling apart, arguments. It's not a very happy thought. It can cause destruction and depression, (s) One student expressed desire for her family to be together again. "When I think of family, I wish that my mother and father were still together with my brothers and me." "A family is the closeness that I wish we had more of" was shared by another student. Family Picture. Most persons pictured their immediate family, but some saw an extended family. Others responded from their families 159 of origin. Pets were sometimes included in the mental picture of families, Some persons specified that pets axe an important part of the family. The mental pictures portrayed families in everyday activities as well as special occasions. Some composed pictures wistfully— of families which they would like there to he. Both adults and seniors pictured families talking together at the dinner table. Interpretations given to this picture included: Sharing the things that are most significant in our lives that day. (A) Most enjoyable time when together. (S) Most families today don't find, or take, the time to gather around the dinner table. This is so very important. (A) Watching television again was given in a substantial number of mental pictures of families, (it was the most frequent response given in the first question.) No meaning or significance was given this picture by the adults in this study, although watching television was mentioned by many of them. From seniors, a majority of whom included watching television in their pictures of a family, came these responses to the significance of watching television: It's what we do all the time. Because that's about the only thing a family does together. I think families should communicate more than ours does. Seems like an average American family. Families working and playing together were mentioned in the mental images of families, but not as frequently as other responses. One adult found work fun when it's done together. Vacation and camping were 160 viewed as special times when families are together and enjoying each other. One person saw this as a time when the family members were "away from tension." Some saw families sledding or building snowmen. Characteristic of meanings given to these activities were these responses: Enjoyment from the little things in life, (a ) It's people sharing happiness together, (s) The single image most often cited was the family together at Christmas with the extended family, relatives eating Christmas dinner, or the family opening gifts on Christmas morning. "Everyone is home for Christmas" was typical of a number of responses, implying the significance of this event for them. Family traditions are important. One adult lamented, "It is too bad that this is the only time we get together anymore." One adult's extended family has been able to be together for Christmas for over fifty years, with the exception-of the time during World War II. He noted that it is a time of giving and concern for the happiness of others. Seniors also recorded Christmas as a meaningful time for their families. They saw it as a time for family togetherness and happy memories. "Christmas is a time of love and sharing happy moments with family members." The same pattern of responses was given for Thanksgiving, birth days, Sunday dinners, weddings, and family reunions-— those times when families are gathered for a special occasion. Those persons with grown children valued the times when they came home to visit. 161 Pictures of Other Families. Seven students shared pictures of families other than their own. Description of family Why it was selected My neighbor's family I selected this picture because I can where adults are remember so clearly how good I felt playing with children to be with them even though they are not related to me. It was like they were my family and we were having a lot of fun. Mother, father boy, That's considered an ideal family, girl, all smiling but it's not mine. Family of five (with Because I was with a family like that two dogs) talking and last week and it was fun. having fun My picture is very I selected that picture because that's distorted and out of what I have, not what I want. Lack of focus communication means lack of family life, A father, mother, and I never had the chance to do things little boy and girl like that with my family when I was walking through the park little because of the divorce. I on a sunny spring day, was forced to grow up at a very hand in hand early age. Future family, smiling I want my family to be together- understanding happy, loving, understanding. I don't want it to be a battlefield like my family. A family playing games Because very seldom does our family get together like this. Others, for reasons they did not give, pictured television shows— "Eight is Enough," "The Waltons," and "Little House on the Prairie." One student, however, pictured his family as the television show, "Family Feud," with "yelling, tension, aggravation, fighting, and wartime." Pictures of Families with Problems. A small portion of the adult responses, but nearly one-third of the student responses gave 162 evidence of some form of family disharmony. The dominant image for these families was depicted as "arguing and fighting." Representative comments include the following: That's all they do. Shows our family communicating with each other. I selected that picture because nobody in our family gets along. Because our family isn't close and don't share things like families are supposed to. Physical abuse or violence characterized some of the seniors' family pictures. In one case, an alcoholic parent was linked to abusiveness. Others just pictured their parents as drunk or at the bar. Illustrative of this pattern of family life are these vivid descriptions: I see our family yelling and fighting with each other and a lot of slapping and hitting. That's what goes on at my house everyday about two or three times a day. Dad comes home from the bar, starts yelling and hitting me and mom. My brother is crying because he's so scared. It happens a lot and I'm really getting tired of it. I see five people in my family. Four of them are home, one is out drinking— that's my family. Several students pictured their family before divorce. I see my family playing games and all getting their picture taken. How the family is broken up and we can look at that picture and see how happy they used to be. , I see my mom, dad, and all of us when we were little. We are all in it, including my parents who are now divorced. This picture is probably always going to be my favorite. 163 My mom, dad, and sisters. Now just me and my dad axe living together in a trailer. I think it would he nice to he together. I feel let down when all of my family got separated. Closely related to the images of separated families were these two comments from students with stepparents. I picture only me and my brother. I never classified my mother's second husband as part of the family. My family is not a happy one. Ify stepdad is lazy and does very little for himself. M(y mother used to be a very independent lady. She isn't now. She takes the slack my stepdad gives her. We have grown up to hate my stepdad (over four years) and my mother's alliance with him against us is upsetting to us. Still other students living in physically intact families alluded to "something missing in our relationship," "a lack of family unity." Everyone is doing their own thing. I selected this picture because it seems like we are never together, physically or mentally. In my picture the father is sitting in the chair half asleep, watching tv. The mother is tired. She has worked all day and has to come home to a dirty house, wash clothes, and fix supper. The kids (teenagers) are on the phone all evening and every once in awhile their father would ask them to get cigarettes and an ash tray. That would be it. When I think of family, I think of my mother standing with my sister and our dog and two cats. But I'm not in the picture. I don't feel like a part of my family. Summary. Togetherness, expressed in pictures of extended family gatherings or of the immediate family engaged in activities, was a common thread in responses to this question. For those persons 164 experiencing an unhappy family life, the lack of togetherness or family unity was cited. This was particularly evident in the state ments of students who pictured their families before a divorce. For these students, the times when they were together as a family before the divorce were happy and filled with good memories. Pictures of families range from happy and joyous times, as when celebrating the holidays and sharing family traditions, to unhappy circumstances— conflict, divorce, abuse. Television was mentioned by a majority of students in their pictures of families because that is the way they spend most of their time. For the pleasant family experiences including dinnertime conversations, playing together, camping, and vacations, the meanings which were given centered on love, caring, sharing, and happy moments and memories. Question 5. What do you recall from your experiences in in home and family life that is significant to you? Why was it important? What made it meaningful? Responses to this question were most varied and detailed. Therefore, the analysis will be reported in two parts: first for k/c members and then the seniors. The significant experiences are organized around three major themes: relationships, family activities, and family crises. Advisory Committee Members • Relationships - Advisory Committee Members. Discussion of the day’s activities at the dinner table or after dinner were given as significant experiences. These times represented sharing, caring, and concern. Also mentioned were times when family members sought 165 help with problems. As one person recalled, "We solved a lot of things at the supper table." Communication was viewed as vital to relationships. A kiss, hug, or spontaneous show of affection was important as a way of expressing love in families. Parent-child relationships were recalled from two perspectives by respondents, either describing their own parents or themselves in a parenting role. The birth of a child was a significant experience. Adoption of children was significant for one adult. Seeing children grow and develop was another theme which was expressed frequently. It is reflected in these two responses: Rearing children is extremely rewarding, sometimes frustrating. Kids are so different. It's a chal lenge to raise them. Everyone has to be treated as an individual. Each is unique and has a valu able contribution to make. Each one by developing his own personality has made the family a richer place for all of us. I very much enjoyed babyhood and the marvels we saw happening everyday in our family. There were a few off days during the teenage years, but we've had a lot of fun with teenagers. They were all teenagers at the same time. It wasn't easy but it was very worthwhile. Economically these days it would be a lot harder to raise a family of four children. Over one-third of the adults in the study cited the influence of their parents as a most significant:experience in their lives. Describing her parents as encouraging and supporting, one woman said: I don't know what I'd be today if it weren't for my parents being behind me. Even as a child I knew I had parents who cared. I tried to make them proud of'me# It's important knowing you are a part of the family and that you are loved for what you are. It gives you security that you are wanted. 166 The relationships in the family of origin were viewed as significant in influencing parenting practices. "The family we come from molds the kind of family we'll become as adults." The construct of dependability, described as parents being there when needed, was crucial to one set of respondents. This was manifested in two patterns of response: (l) parents attending and supporting activities, such as school plays and musicals, and (2) mother being home after school. Illustrating the first category are these statements: My family attended all of my school activities. It gave me a warm good feeling and good memories. When I was growing up, my parents were always there for me. Whenever I was involved in some things at school or at church they were there watching whatever I was doing, even if it was a wee bit part in a play. I really felt im portant to the family. I felt a real sense of belonging and loving. The time after school evinced poignant memories. The experience most frequently shared focused upon mother being home after school, listening to the events of the day. Some described that time in terms of sensory experiences such as the smell of cookies baking. The meanings associated with mother being home after school were given: I recall a warm, good feeling. When I brought my first instrument home from school, a saxophone, my mother was there. That was important to me. Someone was there after school to talk with. It gave me security. 167 My mother was always there. I always looked for her'. She wa3 glad to 3ce us. You're homo safe, away from pressures. Everyone needs to feel as if they belong. One woman observed that mothers are expected to be the center of the family, but when the father assumes a major role, it is meaningful. The influence of fathers was mentioned slightly more than that of mothers by the adults in this study. One man described his father in this way: My father v/as fairly strong in the old Butch school— Holland Butch. He read a lot and was a self taught man. I was a Bepression child. Food v;as rationed out by my father.' We were to eat it all. Wo couldn't have seconds of anything but bread. He would observe our man ners and our posture. My mother was too per missive and easy going, but she provided a balance in the family. After I had the op portunity to go away to' college and graduate school, I learned so much from books, so many theories and philosophies. I thought back over the things I got from my father— that you can only get from someone who cares. One woman, whose mother had died when she was young, was reared by her father. She recalled that there was- love in her family, •although not necessarily a physical show of affection. She described her family in thi3 way: "We made fudge, churned butter, and did many things together.' We were so poor, but rich in many ways." • Parental admonitions were recalled by some. My dad preached, "If you can get along with your own family that may be all you can accomplish in tliis world." It became a value to me. My father taught all of us: "Tliis is a family. One is for all an all is for one. If something happens to one, it lias happened to all of us." Tlie.ro were neve 11 of us. I grow up during the Depression when families wore moving from city to city looking for 168 work. If you didn't stick together, the whole family would fall apart. That was the most important thing I learned from my experiences. If any of my brothers or sisters need help, I'd be there. There is a bond that united our family in bad as well as good times. Mothers were often seen in a teaching role. One man described his mother as influential in his life and shared how it has affected his children, Ifly mother— she' s kind of like the godfather. Her dominance is not by her actions. It's more out of respect for her and the desire for her to be proud of us. The most significant influence my family had on me is making me the best I could be, but accepting me if I did not quite make it. My daughters who are married said that I raised them that way and they are raising their daughters that way. For some, the quality of family life was perceived negatively. My husband and I grew up in a generation where we didn't have anything to say, weren't allowed to have anything to say. Children should be seen not heard. We don't raise our kids that way. I try to remember what it was like growing up. My parents made me to be what they wanted me to be. I came from a re pressed home. They were bringing me up in fear— not to bring them disgrace, rather than out of love of what we could be. I allow my children to be more expressive. I want to make my home different from when I was growing up, because the parents said and the children did. My parents were awfully strict. I want more communication with my children. I want them to be a part of the family together. I want my children to have a better life than what I had. I want my house to be a home. The significance of time parents spent away from home was related by this respondents My father worked 98 hours per week when I was growing up and my mother was away from home working too. My father seemed like a stranger living in our house. 169 It helped me make the decision that I would not he a stranger to my children. Family Activities - Advisory Committee Members. Early childhood memories, holidays, and family traditions as well as a number of family activities were all cited as significant experiences. "Doing things together" was a prevalent response, eliciting warm memories, feelings of sharing love, belonging, and closeness. One woman, however, voiced the concern that her family doesn't have time to be together. Rides on Sunday afternoon were remembered as a time of being together. This time represented: Getting away from the hustle and bustle. Mother and dad together were more pleasant toward each other and more interested in what we were doing. One woman recalled that as children the family went everywhere together. Everyone was welcome. Today there are lots of places where your children are not invited or included. It used to be the whole family was invited. I cherished those family experiences. Visiting grandparents and summers spent with grandparents were significant memories for some. It's important to know your roots— your grandparents, aunts, and uncles. My kids like hearing stories from grandma about times when she was a girl, about washing clothes on wash boards, and making clothes from sacks. Vacations and camping were recalled as happy times, filled with good memories of families being together. "We're together and can talk more" was a typical comment. For others, it represented time away from a busy daily life. ~t 170 Father worked a lot of overtime hours. There were eight children in our family. At vacation time everyone was more relaxed. We got to spend family hours together. Father was so tired after work that only on vacations could he get away. Other wise he didn’t have time for us. Childhood memories ranged from nostalgic, pleasant memories to a wish for better times. This contrast is reflected in these two responses: I remember spending time as boys working together on the farm and Sunday afternoons fishing in the creek and riding bicycles. We couldn't wait till we got older. Now I wish I could have it back. I was in a large family during the Depression. We didn't have much money. We had barely the necessities of food. We had to make do with what we had. I worked at 12 years of age. I had to earn my own money through college. It was a nervous strain. We agreed that our daughters wouldn't have to work that hard. Holidays, traditions, and family gatherings formed another cluster of significant experiences. Holiday gatherings that are multi-generational are important because of the love we shared together. Grandparents made it meaningful. On Christmas morning, we would get up early and open presents. Putting colored eggs on the tree and Easter egg hunts were also memorable. The family was there, happy, and having a good time. It brought everybody close. Holidays, Christmas, birthdays, Sundays, family reunions— all times for everyone to get together. There wasn't the rush of the work day. There was time to share together. Family Crises - Advisory Committee Members. Crises were pre cipitated by illness, accidents, and deaths in families. Conflicts in families, separation, and divorce also created family dysfunction. 171 Pulling together to get through a crisis was a common thread in describing the effects of illness and accidents on families. When my sister, age 5» got hit by a car. We thought she was going to die. When she got out of the hos pital she had to learn to walk and talk. The family stuck together in time of crisis. We were worried and that brought us closer. Some persons described the death of their grandparents as significant in their lives. Others lost parents when they were young. My father died young. I was the oldest child in the family and so assumed responsibility for chores. I realized the responsibility of growing up was mine. The morning we found out my father had been killed in an automobile accident was unforgettable. I was not quite five. Prom that day on, my family life was different from the majority of kids. Everyone had to do responsibilities around the house. It affected my older brother the most. He had difficult times adjusting and had behavior problems in school. Unfortunately, my younger brother doesn't remember my father. It's kind of sad that we're not able to talk about it. My mother had personal problems coping. I'm a stronger person for it. The reason I'm so driven to get an education is because I don't want to be like my mother. She struggled at menial tasks— cleaning hotel rooms. Conflict in families left a vivid impression. When my parents fought and one threatened to leave, I can remember hurting inside so bad. I didn't care if they fought, just so they stayed together. Every child feels that way. The significance of family support in time of crisis was shared by this man: I recall times when our personal problems needed support. I'm thinking of my separation and divorce from my first wife when my family did support me and stay by me. And I'm thinking of a mental breakdown that my brother-in-law had and how a call 172 from my sister brought my brother from California and me from Ohio to the hospital. A few adults recalled physical punishment and abuse. In the two transcriptions which follow, one person describes her unhappy memories, while the other woman is still struggling with the effects of her early home life. I had a different kind of family life because I was separated from my mother quite often. She was mentally ill. I had a stepmother by the time I was 13» Father was strict. I got some really bad punishments that today they would call child abuse. Straps. . . I don't feel I would ever get to the point where I would abuse any one of my children. My mother never really wanted me. When she was pregnant with a younger sister, she took no re sponsibility for her. She didn't have a crib or anything ready. Mother said she was raped and didn't want her. I had full responsibility for the new baby as she grew up. I did not have a normal childhood. I married right after graduation to a high school sweetheart. He got pleasure from pain and sex. At that period in my life there was no one to talk to so I tried to fulfill my role. After 15 years I divorced. When I married, my younger sister felt deserted and mother turned her against me. To this day my sister dislikes me. The family relation ship is so bad, I consider them dead, including my mother. Divorce is clearly a traumatic experience. However, it affects families in different ways as these responses illustrate: Since my parents were divorced, I appreciate my own family more. I've learned to enter all relationships more cautiously and tentatively. Everything wasn't truthful in my parent's relationship. My mother and father were divorced. Our home life was not a together type family. In the fourth grade, my mother remarried. My stepfather was more of a father than my first father. With my stepfather, I recall going every place together, even on Sunday drives. All of a sudden we started having a family. It brought a family atmosphere into the house and also into my heart. 173 A divorced father expressed this perspective: Watching the kids grow up is very significant. I try to take the kids as much as possible to school events. Their mother usually doesn't take them. I know the kids still care about me. I have open visiting arrangements. I can go over anytime I want to. I like that. I put the kids before my own social life. I love my kids. One divorced man shared his feelings and insists about family life: For the last three years I've been without a total home and family, being divorced. There is a void, an emptiness that I don't like. I don't feel to tally a human being without sharing or giving. I like doing things for others but I want to do it for someone special. I don't have anyone special. It has been difficult for me to accept. I only see my children at specific times. If on a Tuesday night, I would like to do something special, there is a limitation for me, I guess what I'm trying to say is that it doesn't seem as though I'm as complete as I feel I should be. There's a missing link because I do not have a marriage partner, a home, something I could build for or work towards. Seniors Relationships - Seniors. Times when parents showed care, love, concern, and understanding, and when parents were there in times of need were cited as significant experiences by nearly one-half of the seniors. Talking over problems with parents was also cited frequently. The phrase "my parents caring about me" appeared often in students' comments. Typical of meanings attached to this experience were these: I believe they will be there when I get out on my own. I feel good about their caring. I always knew I was wanted and loved. It's the most important thing to me. One student recorded this experience; I remember the time I went to a rock concert and when I got home I saw how concerned they were and how this affected them. They were uncertain about my safety and when they found out I was all right they were extremely happy. It made us closer. Closely related to caring parents were those experiences which students described as showing love. When parents say "I love you," shows of affection, and a general feeling of love, togetherness, and closeness were given as significant experiences. These were important to students because: These qualities are essential needs of each human being. Helps you know they care. Perhaps this student best captures this category of response: I have always had love and someone there to help if I needed it. I have always felt safe in my home. It makes you a more confident person. Knowing some one loves you is very important. Even a touch was recalled by one student as the most significant experience: "When my sis-in-law put her arm around me at grandma's funeral. It showed me she cared." The importance of understanding between parents and children was expressed by this student: My parents try to understand me and I understand where they are coming from. It's a beautiful picture of family life, I like it! We have meaning in our communication— we don't have a superficial relationship. 175 "Parents putting trust and faith in me" was important for one student because: It gives you strength you need in this world. Their trust has helped me make mature decisions. You feel better when your parents don't question everything you do. The presence of parents in time of need was a significant experience for many students. I remember the times I was down or depressed and my mother told me she loved me. I recall the times ■when one of us was in need of support and the family helped them. One time my dad called off from work because I was sick. It showed me how much he cared. It made me love him all the more. When I'm feeling down I can always go home and be somebody important to my family, no matter what the outside world is like. Everyone needs that sense of important— -that I do make a difference, that I'm not just a face in the crowd. It's a feeling I will always know, no matter how old I get. When I got into trouble my parents were there to help me out. There wasn't anyone else to turn to. They were very understanding. One student recalled an incident in a shopping mall when she was only five years old and was lost from her mother. She described her feeling of being scared, of trying to comfort her crying brother, and how she felt when she found her mother. This left a vivid impression. A fight with a boyfriend precipitated a crisis in one student's life. She felt "totally down," but she said, "I'll always remember the many nights my Mom would come into my room in the middle of the 176 night and stay with me because I would be crying." For some students, experiences with grandparents were important. I remember having my grandmother living with us when I was younger. It helped shape my morals and helped me get a great perspective on life. She was an older person who helped me become the person I am today, Two of the students were mothers themselves; they described the relationship with their own child as significant. For one student, the most significant experience in her life was having sex. "It made me feel important with the person I was with." Two students listed "moving out" as being a significant experience. For one, it meant independence, "no more rules." For the other student, it meant little because he said he had been fending for him self for years. He wrote that otherwise he would not have survived. One student lived in different foster homes. The meaning he gave this was: "I felt unwanted and I learned to be independent." Experiences with pets were significant in some students' lives. Losing a pet was an emotional experience. Others described the meaning the pet had for them. % closest friend lived over a mile away. I was always with my dog. He was veiy special, a part of my family. While many students described their families in terms of qualities of caring, love, and concern, others were more specific. Communication, talking and having someone listen, -constituted a major thread of response. My father works swing shift. My mother is a beautician and works odd hours and my younger brother always has some kind of school activity. Many times I stay up late just to be able to 177 talk to my dad. It isn’t often that our family gets together. Another significant experience that was mentioned frequently was talking about problems. When I got into trouble, me and my parents had a long talk. It showed they really care for me. Talking about my problems and feelings to both my mom and dad— I feel cared about and loved and not like I'm just dirt. It makes you feel wanted. Being able to talk to my parents about problems I'm having. It seems that they are the only people who understand. You know there is some one there when you need them. If I have any problem at all that I need to share, I have someone to talk to, I was in desperate need to be close to someone and for them to listen to me. It helped me through a tough situation. Nearly all of the responses directed to relationships centered on the parent-child dyad; however, one student cited a significant experience with his brother. My brother is a one-man athletic team and the other night he lost his first match of the season. I saw how he felt and went in to talk to him. I had gone through what he was experiencing. It brought us closer and it felt good. It really did something for both of us. Not all relationships are happy ones. Conflict emerged in over one-third of the responses. As one student said, "My family life isn't the easiest one in the world," Divorce and problems with stepparents often represent a conflict situation, but these topics are treated in the section on family crises. Conflicts in this section are those that are not judged to be of crisis porportion as interpreted by the students. 178 Lack of communication in families was viewed as a problem by many students. "I could never talk to my mother and father openly," was a typical comment. Another student said that he could relate better to outsiders than to his own family. "Getting yelled at a. lot as a child" was a significant experience to one student. She went on to says "Wjy father won't even speak to me without yelling." Communication was perceived as lacking in this family: My parents didn't listen to me when I had trouble. Home is not really a word in my vocabulary. The significance of home is a house to me. "There is a quality missing in our relationship," related one student. When children do something wrong, they are just crying for help. Parents don't answer those cries. There was a big lack in the amount of love and understanding that was needed and the amount that was given. For some students, fighting and arguing represented the significant experiences in their family life. We are always arguing and I hate to argue. It is a rare occasion when my whole family is home and at peace. I hate to say it, but I recall mostly bad things. Our family isn't close and we argue a lot. I think I've learned that when disciplining children you should use positive reinforcement rather than negative punishment. I believe that was a major mistake of my parents. One student related that he was kicked out of his house twice when he had a fight with his mother. Problems with siblings were also mentioned. My brother and I fight all the time. It's 179 really strained our relationship. We don't get along at all and so it upsets our parents. If we didn't fight, everyone would be happier. Getting ignored because my brothers are always in trouble is what I remember. I keep ray grades up and don't get in trouble and try to do my best while my brother gets D's and he gets all the attention. I don't get any rec ognition. I still keep trying and don't give up cause I want a lot out of life and you just can't give up. Keep on going, no matter what. Perceptions of being rejected can be devastating as related by this student: One time my dad got really mad at us kids cause we complained all the time. We had a super big fight. My dad said he didn't want any father's clay presents from us cause lie wished we weren't his kids, We all cried all night cause we were afraid we would have to be put in orphan homes. When my dad cooled off, he realized how much we all loved each other. This student describes a problem in relating to his family: Whenever something happens to me, my parents try to be understanding, but it never seems to help. I can't seera to relate to people who really care about me. They seem to want to make me somebody I'm not. A portrait of her life was painted by this student as she listed first the significant experience and then its meaning for her. My grandmother - She was great to me. We were close, I went everywhere with her. My real father - I always wanted to meet him. My horses, cats, guinea pigs - Someone I could talk to. Driver's license - Cot me away from home. Boyfriend - Showed me love. Family Activities - Seniors. The little things familids do together, talking at the dinner table, playing games, working together, Sunday drives, were recalled as significant experiences 180 by several students. Holidays, family traditions, and family gatherings represented another category of response. Other students described vacations, camping, or other special occasions. A walk in the woods, picnics, Sunday brunch and sharing the Sunday paper, baking cookies, playing games, and working together were some of the significant recollections of students. For one student, dinnertime was important because her family tried to be there to share how their day went. She added that it meant taking time out of your life for each other. Eating together was important to a number of students. One student described "our good night, God bless you that we share before we go to bed" as significant in her life. It repre sented the love and caring she felt in her family. Other experiences that were shared and their meaning included these: Buying a pint of ice cream at the end of a hot summer day. I learned to appreciate little things and to understand that money doesn’t buy happiness. I recall my father coming home from work when I was very young and my jumping up into his arms and my mother tucking me into bed. I can see my brother in the rocking cradle my uncle built. These were all important and meaningful because they gave me a feeling of love and security. I can remember when we were all little we used to go to the park and play wiffle ball and my dad was happy and he'd laugh and smile. In the winter we'd go tobogganing and sledding. Those were really great times. % dad doesn't laugh as much any more. He's usually worried. Everyone is just getting older and going their own way. Playing catch and wrestling with my father and helping my mother wash and dry the dishes were important times because my parents were there. Some kids do not have the chance of both mother and father being next to you all the way. 181 Some students recalled specific times with their fathers. Working with my father in the gas station we owned was something I remember. I loved doing things to help my dad. I wanted him to be proud of me. The times we worked there together brought us closer as father and daughter. My parents are divorced now, but I always held on to the station memories. % experience was when me and my dad went fishing. Because me and my dad hardly ever do things together. Spending time on Sundays with my father. It was the only time I really saw him. It was important because of just seeing and talking to him. Celebrations of holidays, birthdays, weddings, births, and anniversaries were recalled as times when families are together. As one student said, "It's a time when we let each other know how we feel about them when otherwise we don't seem to have time to." For others, these were times they will never forget, times of sharing joy and happiness. Just being together as a family was significant for many. Vacations and camping trips also held good memories. One student said that now her dad works weekends so they can't go camping anymore. Another student spent summers with her grandparents. She found it important because her grandparents gave her full attention and showed affection. Summarizing this pattern of response, one student said: Mjy family is very close. We do many activities together— camping, fishing, drives, games, skating, and taking an hour at the supper table after eating. We can depend on each other— they will always be there. There's trust and love. Love is important, not money or material things, but love, caring, and togetherness. You can't do that by yourself. 182 Family Crises - Seniors. Family crises generated a number of significant experiences in students' lives. Death, illness, accidents, and divorce comprised the majority of responses although other personal and family crises were mentioned. Death of grandparents was most often mentioned, although some students experienced the loss of a parent or brother or sister. When asked the significance or meaning, the most common response was: "It brought us closer together." Referring to the death of a grandparent as a significant time in their life, students shared these feelings: Everyone stopped to realize that we never spend enough time together. I lost a lot of security. I never thought about losing him (grandfather) and when I did it really hurt! I realized how you could be healthy one day and the next day it's all over. This made me love and respect my family a lot more. Two students told of the death of their father. I think God took him away for a purpose. We became a little closer. Last year my dad died, A family is very important and sometimes it takes bad experiences that happen to make someone realize how important the family really is, how much they mean to you. I never really was close to my family, but when he died I really needed my family. Sometimes it takes bad things to make someone wake up, and I regret that. Serious illnesses in families brought the same response. The effect is that of bringing families closer together. Referring to when her father almost died, one student said: "It made the rest of the family pull together. It is meaningful because I appreciate him more." 183 Divorce was a traumatic time for many students. According to some, it changed their whole life. The intensity of the significant experience is evident in these two statements: I recall the day my mother left and my parent's divorce. It was important to me because I would only have one parent after that and I wouldn't be like all the other kids anymore. They all lived with their mother and father. I realized that things were going to be different. It made changes in my life that are confusing and depressing. I need to talk out my problems with both my mom and dad. Another student shared as the most significant experience in her life: "My parents getting divorced and then having to go to court to see who will win me to live with them." Divorce was not always perceived negatively. One student described a divorce in his family in this way: It was important because it made my mom and dad happier than they could have been living together. Learning from the divorce experience was another general response from students. When I found out how unstable my family is, it helped me grow up and learn more about people.. Children get into more trouble than they would if parents stayed together. It convinced me to choose a wife I'll respect forever and to try to keep the family together. Once you've gone through this experience, you're more careful in choosing your future partner. ; When I get married, make sure it's forever cause it can do real damage to kids of divorced parents. I never want to go through anything like that again, lfy dad still loves my mom. 184 Remarriage of divorced parents creates stepparents. Students described-relationships with stepparents as significant-— both positively and negatively. An example of contrasting responses follows: When my mother remarried and my stepfather adopted my sister and I, I started to feel I belonged and that my life was taking form and shape and meaning. I don’t consider my stepmother a part of our family. She and I don’t get along at all. Moving was perceived as a crisis incident by two students. One student described his feelings in losing all of his friends. Another student said that he moved often and never had good friends or buddies. A baby with birth deformities created a crisis for one family. Referring to this as a significant experience in her life, one student said: "If it hadn't been for love and God we would never have made it. If something happens to any part of our family, we all stick together." Pregnancy was a crisis for one young woman. She described it as a time in her life in which she learned not to trust people. One student told of her drug problem and how her family is helping her to overcome it. "I still get high on special occasions, but I seem to want to stay home more and more. I love my family." Coping with a mother's mental illness was described by this student: It was important finding out what was wrong with my mother when she was always depressed and grumpy. It seemed as though she was taking it all. out on me. I was doing practically everything in the 185 house and she was finding fault with it all. I was on the edge of totally giving up on everything and my school work showed it. A fight with her mother resulted in a suicide attempt for one student. I’ve been depressed all my life and I needed psychiatric help, but I couldn't tell my family. When I cut my wrist, I got help. Now I'm not as depressed and I get along better with others. Family violence touched some students. They described occasions of physical abuse, hitting, and slapping in their families. This traumatic experience was shared. % sister married young because she was pregnant and only 15 years old. Her husband has a drink ing problem and always beat her. After she had the baby, he beat her time and time again. She left him and came to our house. A night went by and everything was OK. Then the next night was terrifying. He came to my house with a gun and was going to shoot all of us, even the baby. It was horrifying! No Significant Experience. No significant experience in home and family life was reported by three students. As one student said, "I recall nothing from my past experiences." Two other students gave these reasons: All of my family is living at home, but they aren't real close. The only thing we have in common is that we live in the same house. There's more to life than watching tv. Summary. Family life was viewed in good times— the happy things t families do together, and in tragic circumstances— death and violence. The analysis was organized into three categories of 186 response: relationships, family activities, and family crises. The family of origin was a strong influence for many adults. Parents being there for children when needed represented security. The same finding held for seniors. Showing care, concern, and love were significant to both groups. The students emphasized the importance of communication— having someone to talk to about problems. Conflict occurred in both sets of responses. "Fighting and arguing" characterized a number of the students' perceptions of their families. Lack of communication was also cited. Recollections of family activities included those that might be classified as "the little things in life" and special occasions. In the first category were those moments when families talked together after dinner, played ball in the yard, and took a walk in the park. It represented togetherness, love, and sharing. Holidays, family gatherings, vacations, and other special occasions comprised the other category of responses. The fact that families were together was most often cited as the significance of the event. These were also considered times of joy and sharing, providing happy memories. The activities represented times away from the "busyness" of everyday life. A recitation of crises comprised the final group of responses. There was a similarity between adults and students, both in the types of crises and the meaning and significance given to them. Death and illness were viewed as drawing families closer together. Physical abuse and violence was reported by both groups. 187 Divorce vas listed as a significant experience more often by seniors than adults. For all, it was traumatic. "It changed my whole life" was a typical description. For others, it made them different. Several students told how they learned from it, that they would enter marriage more warily. A few students saw divorce as a way out of an unhappy situation. One divorced father shared his feelings and insights, describing a missing link in his life. The human condition was portrayed in the responses to significant experiences in home and family life. The question seemed to generate more than superficial responses; many seemed deeply introspective. Question 4. Why do you think homes and families are important to people? The family was viewed as vital by every person in this study. Some persons saw families as giving meaning to life, as something or a reason to live by. "Families shape your life," commented one adult. Families were also viewed as a source of deep satisfaction. The joy in watching children grow and develop was cited. Other respondents shared these thoughts about why families are importants It’s the whole purpose in life. Makes you complete. Families make you happy. Providing for Development of Children. The family has a nurturant and educative function. This was succinctly explained by this students "Family is the very first encounter of what life is about after you're bom. Your family are the people you're around most, so you learn almost everything from them." A general motif 188 was that of families influencing, molding, or shaping children's growth and development. The nurtuxant function was expressed by many respondents. Families provide love, care, trust, and understanding. Children need to know they are wanted, loved, and needed. One adult described families as a miniature society: "You learn to survive there before moving out into the world. The family offers support, love, and protection." Nurturing self concept was distinguished as critical to child development by these two adults: Just giving birth to a child doesn't give the child an awareness of who he is. We must convey to him that he has self worth and value. Not everyone children come into contact with out in the world is going to help them have a good image of themselves. "Families teach you a lot about life." "You learn to live with people and share." "People learn to love and be loved in families." These comments lend credence to the view that families have an educative function. Much emphasis was placed upon families as a source of values. As one student observed: It is where we learn what is important in life. Our whole adult life is determined by what we learn in our homes as children, I think we tend to treat others in all situations as we have been treated and that goes back to our earliest experiences. ,The pre-school years were viewed as critical by these two adults: Homes are very important for teaching values and principles to children before they get influenced by the outside world. Your contact with children is reduced drastically when they start to school. 189 It's important what you learn in the home. It's five or six years before you start school. The little things, the way you act, how you interact, values, are all learned in the home. The educative function was summarized by one student who described families as "a learning ground for life's tests." Roots. "There is something special, about knowing who you are and where you came from," typified responses from those listing roots as why families are important. Families were viewed as a "place to stem your life from." The term roots was also used to describe family traditions and customs that are passed down through generations. A sense of permanence and psychological stability was reflected in another group of responses. Persons in this study valued a lasting relationship. They saw homes and families as important in providing an enduring1 relationship. One student described a friend who had been shifted among foster homes, of his feeling unwanted, and of his fear that there is nowhere else to go. Referring to families, a common theme was that sometimes they are all you have or can depend upon in this world. A typical response was that there is comfort in knowing that your family is there for you. Refuge. Home was viewed as a haven or refuge, a place to which to retreat, an escape from the outside world. "Without a center base in one's life, the world would be too confusing," said one senior. "A place you can call your own" was another strain of response. Said one senior, "We all need to feel that we have our own little comer 190 of the world— a place and people to call our own." Love. "Everybody needs love" was a shared perception of both adults and students. Other representative comments, all from students, regarding the importance of love were: Having a loving family is the most important thing in life. You need someone to love and someone to love you. You can’t live without it. You need love in order to survive. If you can find love in no other place, you should be able to depend on your family. One student spoke from her experience. People need lots of love. It's very important. If you don't have love you feel unwanted. I know, and that's a really terrible feeling. Teenagers run away because they feel unwanted. Belonging. Belonging was perceived as a basic need. Most- people need a sense of being a part of something. Being wanted and needed was mentioned by both adults and students in telling why homes and families were significant to them. Associated with a sense of belonging was the function of families in preventing loneliness. One student said, "If there weren't families I think there would be a lot of lonely people. Others concluded that most people do not want to be completely alone. As one man said: I feel sorry for men my age who are living alone. I don't know if I could make it alone. The prob lems I had here at school last year— I think there were some days I couldn't have made it back here if I hadn't the support of my wife. My 191 Bister sent notes that helped me through the dark days. Acceptance. Homes and families were significant to both adults and students as a place where you will always be accepted and always feel welcome. Elaborating upon the theme of acceptance, adults shared these thoughts. Families accept you as you are. In society, it's a competitive world. In a family you don't have to be competitive. A place to go where you're accepted for what you are. You don't have to prove anything to anyone. Home is a place to be yourself and not have to worry about making impressions. Outside of your home, you are concerned if you will be accepted, about what you say, what you do. In a home you shouldn't have to feel that way. Self Worth. Families give a sense of worth and importance. People gain identity and meaning in families. A person would feel worthless if he never had anyone that cared, or anyone to care for. A home and family makes a person feel needed and important, (s) Families are one place a person has a chance to feel important. In so many places they're just one in a group— a face in the crowd. They get the sense that no one cares, (a ) Companionship. "Everyone needs people" exemplifies this category of response to why homes and families are important. "Someone to talk to," "someone to share feelings with," and "someone to listen" clarified this idea. One adult emphasized the importance of having someone to share holidays with. Others mentioned having 192 someone with whom to share problems and happy times* Everyone needs someone to share with. Everyone needs love and security that only a family can give. It is a special kind of caring, that not even a best friend can give, (s) People need each other. There is no one, although some people may think so, who can get along by him or herself. You have a feeling you belong to family. There's a bond, a unity, (a ) Security. "A place to go in time of need" characterized a sizable number of responses. You need someone you can rely on, v/ho will be there when you need them. One student's comments were repre sentative of many: "Families are a form of security— something you can fall back on if you need them." This idea is underscored by these respondents: If I go out to make it on my own and I don't succeed, I can always come home and I know I'll be accepted, (s) A place where if everybody else in the world has rejected you, you can always go home. (A) Bobert Frost's quotation was cited by one adult: "Home is the place where, when you have to go there, they have to take you in." One respondent described the family as a security blanket. You go out in the world and know someone loves you and that you are not alone. The family was also described as "insurance," that there is somewhere to go and someone to love and be loved by. "Home keeps you together as a person," voiced one adult, going on to say: "Anyone feels freer to spread wings if they have a base to come back to." 193 Summary. There was no ambivalence as to the importance of homes and families to people. I’amilies give meaning to life and provide for the development of the young. Others saw families as providing roots, a place to be. Homes and families were a refuge, a haven from pressures of the outside world. Homes and families were also import ant in meeting basic human needs: love, a sense of belongingness, acceptance, self worth, companionship, and security. These adult responses summarize for many: I think we're b o m with the instinct of wanting to belong, to share, to love. And that's fulfillment! It's important to have a place to go where you are appreciated and loved and needed. No matter what you do in the outside world, you can go home and be accepted for yourself. I can't imagine a life without a home or family. Historically families are a basic unit. I don't see any other form of unit that is any more effec tive to meet needs of family members. I don't see how communal families can provide the lasting need like you get from a close knit family. In families a child gains a sense of belonging, of who they are, and a sense of being important to first this small group, the immediate family. They gain their security there. We all have basic needs that are met in a home, not an institution— love, security, knowing we're wanted. One man shared this thought: I thought at one time I would never marry and that I would be a bachelor all my life and not have children. Then all at once you’re 65 and how do you say Merry Christmas to a blank wall? 194 Question 5. How would you describe a good or "ideal" home and family life? Togetherness. Over two-thirds of the persons in this study used the term togetherness in describing an ideal family. Family members being together and spending time with each other was considered important. One description focusing on the togetherness theme pictured the ideal family as one who: "eats together, plays together, goes places together, and goes to church together." The importance of providing time for family activities was stressed by a number of respondents. Communication. Good communication was identified by over one- half of the respondents in this study as vital to an ideal family. Responses suggest that open communication is the key to a successful marriage and to a good parent-child relationship. The importance of families taking time to talk and listen was stressed. The role of non-verbal communication in families was described by these two adults: Can communicate by looking at people, by sensing others’ feelings. I can tell when my family walk in whether they've had a good or bad day. Being able to talk about problems was often given as a description of an ideal family. Others clarified this idea to being able to discuss problems rationally, logically, or sensibly. Coping with problems was «he central idea in these three descriptions by adults of a good or "ideal" family: 195 There is no way life can he without pitfalls, burdens, or trials, A family can*t grow or mature if they haven't had to work out problems together. Problems will exist. Kids misbehave, refrigerator doesn't work, dog gets loose. Little problems mount up, but family can cope. Everyone has problems. It's how you go about solving your problems that counts. Many divorces are caused because people quit communicating. While most of the answers given to this question were positively stated, there were a number of statements expressed in negative terns. Ideal families were described as: Not fighting or arguing. (S and A) Not living with parents who complain, (s) One where my mother is not shouting at me all the time, (s) To be able to discuss your problems with parents without getting a lecture or yelled out. (S) As one person commented, "Lack of communication leads to frustration and resentment." A number of responses focused upon listening or being listened to. A constellation of meanings may be inferred from one student who described the ideal family as one who "listens instead of assumes." Psychological Needs. The ideal family serves basic human needs. Love, care, and concern were most frequently mentioned. Families show love and affection; love is freely given. There is concern with giving as well as receiving. One adult said that trite as it may sound, giving 110 percent is what is needed. Another adult identified three types of love which he considered important to families: spiritual, emotional, and physical. 196 A strong marriage was viewed as central to good family life. However, some recognized that a marriage has to be made to work, that marriage partners have to want it to work. One adult observed, "Marriage is a tough job." Families should accept you for what you are, not what they want you to be. Homes and families are a place where you can be yourself. One adult shared this description of good home and family life: "A place where you can honestly bare your hopes and dreams and won't fear being scoffed or laughed at." In supportive families there is acceptance even when you fail. Security was also identified as a quality of good families. For students, security means that parents stand behind you. "Everyone's willing to be there for the next guy when he's down." Homes should also provide a refuge from the troubled world— a place to relax. Physical Needs. An adequate income was given by some of the respondents as a necessary condition for an ideal family life. In describing ideal home and family life, one adult cited having sufficient money for necessities, but not luxuries. A student from a large family wanted a house that was big enough and heated properly. These two statements from adults also address the economic need; In an ideal home, you have enough money, but not too much. You're happy with that you have. You can live within your means. I probably mentioned having enough money first because I grew up in a family of seven children, with second hand clothes. There was never enough of anything. I grew up with money problems. 197 Structure. Of the responses which specified a given family structure as the ideal, the traditional nuclear family was most often cited. However, most people in the study did not identify any structure in response to this question. Nurturing Children. The nurturant role was identified by a large number of respondents in describing the ideal family. One adult said that he felt strongly that the most important thing parents could do for kids was to spend meaningful time with them. Several persons emphasized that children should be wanted and loved by both parents. In good families, parents are perceptive to the needs of children and are extremely interested in the welfare of the whole child. In the ideal home, a number of persons pictured mother home for the children after school. This was true for both adults and students. The presence of mother in the home during the pre-school years of a child's life was also viewed as ideal. Other respondents focused upon the father's role in parenting. One student saw as the ideal situation a father who has a stable job which allows him to spend time with his children. An adult described the role of a father: "He interacts with kids, goes to soccer, and makes a point of being involved in his child's activities." One response simply said, "When you come home from school, one of your parents is home to greet you and ask how your day went." Others emphasized that mother and father both participate in rearing children. Another stated that both parents are important because of 198 their ability to contribute unique qualities to a child. The availability and accessibility of parents to children reflected the views of many, as in this response: A child feels somebody's there if I need them. They care about me. If I have a problem that's who I can go to. Providing for intellectual, emotional, moral, and spiritual development of children was a function of the ideal family, Reading books, providing creative activities, and supporting the child in school were examples of what ideal families should do in fostering intellectual development. Families should show affection, hugging kids often, and be supportive in time of need. Moral development is facilitated through iting a good example and helping children develop principles and a good foundation for life. Providing for spiritual development was also mentioned. The general nurturance functions were also viewed as important in ideal families: giving guidance, discipline, and love. One adult mentioned the importance of controlling television, noting that it helps set your own values, not the values of others. A comfortable home environment was also mentioned, with one respondent suggesting that children should feel comfortable in bringing their friends home. A good home feels lived-in; children axe not afraid to go into a room. According to the adults in this study, parents should: Give love and guidance to children so each recognize that they axe worthwhile and have a mission to fulfill in life. Be certain each individual, even a small child feels an important part of the family and is happy he is where he is in his stage of development. 199 Encourage.children to express feelings. Expose kids to a lot of things so that they can make choices and when their choices fail, one of the things the parents should do is provide some solace in the midst of their frustrations. Build confidence. Homes are a place where you can feel, "If I can succeed here, I can succeed in whatever I want to do," Respecting individuality. Recognition of the uniquenesses of individuals and individual needs was another motif that emerged in describing the ideal family. People expressed the need to: Allow kids to enjoy friends and time on their own. (A) Respect each other's individuality, (a ) Allow children to be themselves, not molded into something, (s) Not restrict people's growth or creativity, (s) Others mentioned a tension between individual and family needs* suggesting the need to: Bo things together, but let each person maintain their individuality. (A) Blend individual and family needs. Sometimes I need to get away. At other times I sacrifice those to family needs, to build a snowman together or picnic together. (A) Allow a private spot and provide for togetherness also, (s) For one mother, this tension was resolved in going to work after her children were in school. I stayed home until my children went to school. I went to work and I know for my own mental well-being, it's better than staying home all the time. 200 Other. Other descriptors of the ideal home and family life included these: (l) grandparents a part of the family; (2) pets in the home; (3 ) no drugs or alcohol; (4 ) good health; and (5) liking one's job. Traditions are important in an ideal family. Beligion was mentioned by some respondents as sharing spiritual bonds in families and a strong belief in God. Television shows were also cited as depicting the ideal family, including "Eight is Enough," "The Waltons," and "Little House on the Prairie." Summary. A thread that was implicit in many responses was the importance of valuing the family. Career needs have to be considered, but should not be your first priority. You have to know your first priority is with your own family, not career. Some younger men put their careers first and families suffer, (a ) The ideal family was most often portrayed in terms of togetherness, good communication, and as fulfilling psychological needs. These responses summarize the findings in these areas. A family that spends a lot of time together, talks openly, relates problems, travels to gether, talks about future together, shows love, appreciation, concern and understanding, (s) In a good family, all members are accepted, re spected, and loved, and know that they are under stood and wanted. There's give and take, mutual forgiveness and helpfulness. There's the desire to help one another to realize his full potential to grow and develop and be the best person possible. All members of the household are friends, (a ) A family that doesn't just live together, but communicates and really gets to know and under stand each other. (A) Emphasis is on people, not things, (s) 201 Some respondents believed that both a husband and wife were important to an ideal family. However, a single person gave this view: "Being a single person and self sufficient in my own home ha3 been most creative and productive for me," A number of responses centered upon the importance of spending time with children as well as the nurturant functions of parenting. One parent said, "It is so important to spend time with children and to listen,", Respondents also emphasized the need to recognize the uniqueness of individuals and to balance family and individual needs. An ideal home and family life was perceived as one. in which family members grow together. There is room to grow and become your own person. A metaphor of a coral reef was used by one man to describe the ideal family. It is made of minute characters that join together to make a strong structure. Families share goals. One student shared this insight: "People the world over are the same. They wish the best for their family." From an adult came this thought: Good family life can't be purchased. It has to be earned and has to be treasured. . It i3 never static; it's always moving. You can't regard it as an expensive vase that's going to be there forever. Today is the mo3t important day in my family's life. Question 6. Thinking of families in 1800, now, and the year 2,000: What has changed? What ha3 remained the same and likely will remain the same? What is likely to change? Do you think these changes are for better or worse? Why? 202 What has changed? Perceptions of families in the 1800's and today were remarkably similar from all of the respondents. Families in the 1800's were portrayed as a solid, "together” unit, dependent upon each other for physical needs, hut independent of society. Family members shared in order to survive. Concern was for securing the basic necessities of life~food, clothing, and shelter. People struggled to make a living, but there seemed to be strength in the face of adversity. Respondents pictured the family of today as less close. Human needs are satisfied outside the home more than they used to be. Shorter working hours were viewed as a positive change. According to the respondents, the family was the focus in the 1800's. Now everyone has his/her own interests. In the 1800's, most meals were eaten together. Today members of families are fragmented. With the fast pace of life, family members go in many directions with little time to talk or be together. There are many forces pulling people away from families. Now family members work apart instead of together. Another reason given for families being more fragmented was mobility and the shift from extended to nuclear families. In the extended family, children had many adults with whom to relate. One adult observed that the extended family in the 1800's lived near each other and helped, but it was a narrow world. Technology was perceived as introducing many changes in the home. Conveniences in the home, processed foods, and the automobile were mentioned by most respondents in this study as contributing to change. Changing roles of men and women constituted another cluster of responses to this question. Role reversal is occurring, that is, men are assuming more roles in the home, and more women are working outside the home. Men are not as likely to he considered the head of the household. Some mentioned that there is more freedom for women to choose whether to marry, to work, or to have children. What has remained the same and likely will remain the same? This question created some consternation. Some people could not think of anything that is the same or is likely to remain the same. Those who did respond had very similar comments. The importance of families seemed to be a persisting value. Students said: Family will always be the most important relationship in life. The feeling that everyone needs some kind of family— whether blood related or not. Family ties will always be needed. The family will always be the most important factor in your life. Adults expressed this idea also: The older you become, the more your family means. I think the family will always be a basic unit. Families provide roots. Basic human needs— love, security, and nurturing the young, remain the same. "Everyone needs someone there for them," was another thread of response. Love between parents and children was specified by several respondents. Family traditions and the celebration of holidays with family members were viewed as enduring. So also were 204 perennial problems of families such as those that occur in the relationships of husband-wife, siblings, and parent-child. What is likely to change? Do you think these changes are for better or worse? Why? These responses were selected as representa tive of those of persons in the study: Likely to Change For Better or Worse and Why Breakdown of Worse - Churches have lost effectiveness. Schools institutions are doing more discipline than homes. (A) Breakdown of Worse - Families will be less and less important. family The home will just be a stopping station. You need an emotional attachment, (s) Increased divorce Worse - Family is most important unit in a person's life and if it becomes less cohesive, a person doesn't have any place to turn, (a ) Worse - Now in the family, marriage, and society, I see a lack of commitment. People are unable to work at their marriages. Through that, love becomes more meaningful. (A) Worse - But I don't blame changing times. I blame people. The 1970's was the decade of "me-ism"— me first! (s) Worse - There is going to come a time when all you have left is your family, but. the family is going to be gone, (s) Mixed - It depends. It may save the mother and children from beatings and arguing, (s) Worse - Makes unhappy people. Divorce is legally easier, but not emotionally, (s) Increase in Worse - I don't call it a family. Both mother single parent and father are needed. Can get too much of families mother and father if only one influence. Need a balance. (A) 205 Likely to Change For Better or Worse and Why Increase in Worse - Parents will continue to fail at single parent parenting unless they get their own lives and families priorities straight, (s) (continued) Worse - The children b o m might not know the safety and security that I was raised with, (s) Worse - A child needs two parents to fully enjoy growing up. (s) Possible decrease Better- - Eamily ties might get closer. In the in single parent past decade a lot of kids have grown up and families experienced what it's like to live in a single parent home. Possibly they might try to put the family back together when they're married. (A) Increased number Worse - Premarital sex may result in abortions, of people living early pregnancies, or early marriages ending in together divorce, (s) Better - I think it's better to live together before marriage than to get married and in a few years get a divorce, (s) Roles changing; Worse - There will be more children in day care more women centers or home alone after school (A) worldng Worse - I valued my mother being there when I came home after school. The kids I encounter don't have a chance to communicate with their parents. (Teacher) Worse - If a child has to go to day care all day, then something is lost. You miss the first step or the first word. Now my kids can come home from school excited and I'm here, (a ) Worse - It's hard on parents and kids when both parents work, (s) Better - Men will be more apt to take on re sponsibilities. Men feel a lot of pressure in jobs; they're tired of having all the responsibility. (A) Better - Will create more equal sex roles. Role of father has changed dramatically; he does more with his wife and children. (A) 206 Likely to Change For Better or Worse and Why Roles changing; Better - Women are people too, not just objects more women of reproduction, (s) working (continued) Better - There are more opportunities for choice for women, (a ) Better - Gives a woman more of a sense of accomplishment. (S) Worse - Families won’t be as secure. (S) Mixed - As a woman, I think changes are for the better. For the family. I'm not sure. If there is one parent at home whom the child can rely on, that's OK. The idea of Mom being there is reassuring. (A) Trend from Worse - Young people lack a relationship with extended to the elderly. (A) nuclear family Worse - We're missing a lot by not having grand parents and family close to spend time with. My grandfather lived with me. It was like living history. (A) Busyness; less Worse - In this fast pace we don't have time to family give support. We brush a problem off and don't togetherness listen. Results in poor communication, (a ) Worse - It seems we should have more time to spend together, but the children are going one way, the parents another. (A) Worse - Love is lost in the crowd in this "hurried" world. Parents and children are growing apart, (s) Increased Worse - People want more out of life and think materialism they don't need a family, but they are lost without it. (s) Worse - People have more things, but do they have more enjoyment of each other? (A) Worse - People are too concerned with financial success, but I've never seen so many unhappy people as I have today. It's become too much of of a "me, myself, and I' society. (A) 207 Likely to Change For Better or Worse and Why Increased Better - I think there is a trend away from the materialism excessive pursuit of pleasux’o and material goods. (continued) Young people are beginning to return to tradi tional values. They are waiting until marriage or at leaot later to become active sexually. (A) Increased Better - Projecting in the year 2,000, v/e may have technology robots which will free homemakers for more growth. Hopefully working women will have very challenging careers. (A) Better - Life is going to be easier, (s) Worse - We're becoming too dependent on those things, (S) Worse - I-hope we don't use more convenience foods. They're not as nutritious or palatable. A meal becomes just eating to survive. V/e used to have some very good conversations over food. (A) Increased \7orse I hope our small town never becomes a urbanization/ metropolis. Nov/ I know my neighbors and every- • sophistication body up the street. Cities are so cold, (a ) Worse - Kids are bored and turn to drugs. As kids, we had lead soldiers and dolls. You used your imaginzation. How you just sit and watch the toys. There's nothing t© stir kid-'s imaginations today, ‘(a ) Worse - Kids can't dig holes in lawns to make a cave underground because they would ruin the perfect lawn dad has spent hours and hours and dollars and dollars to maintain. Where do kids learn to bo creative if- v/e don't provide, them the opportunity? (a ) Worse - Homes are professionally decorated. They are cold. Little things like pillows you make, are creative. Nov/ Someone else made them, (A) Influence of Worse - People.spend less time talking, (a ) television Worse - It .inhibits imagination, (A) Worse - Television has become the focua of at tention inn lead of each other. ’(:>) 208 Likely to Change For Better or Worse and Whv Influence of Mixed - Television is a mixed blessing. It brings television the world to us, but people don't play games or (continued) seem to have as much fun together when they just watch it. (A) More open Better - Families are able to have more open communication discussions. They're able to discuss sex; it's a healthy situation, (s) Return to Better - I see family life swinging back more traditional conservatively. People are going to see that values; self they didn't solve problems by changing marriage sufficiency partners. (A) Better - In the future, people will move back to the old way of doing things. We can't keep going like we are now— it's a rat race! (a ) Better - Families may do things together, Will bring back cohesiveness. Better - I think we'll be much more conscious of the need for conservation of our natural and •unnatural resources. We're more likely to be concerned with waste and making do with what we have. (S) Better - Our family is cutting wood. It's a family project. We join together and help our neighbors cut wood. Neighbors are beginning to know each other. (A) Better - Because of the costs of transportation, we may not be able to get food out of season. We may go back to preserving food. I think there is value in being self sufficient, (a ) Summary. One adult answered this question with a question. "Will there be a family?" Another asked, "Will the family be a unit or just each person doing his/her own thing?" While a majority of respondents pointed to the current trend toward family disintegration, more divorce and single parent families, others believed that there will be a return to families as the focus in people's lives and that 209 some of the functions which society is performing may he returned, to the family. Nearly all of the respondents underscored in some way the meaning and significance of families in people's lives. Question 7. Thinking of people whom you know in your community, what sire major problems and concerns which affect their home and family life? Problems which occur in interpersonal relationships were identified by 96 percent of the persons in this study. Lack of communication was the most frequent response. People are unable, unwilling, or do not take time to talk and/or listen to each other. When they do, there is often misunderstanding. Fighting and arguing were recorded as major problems and concerns by one-third of the seniors, but only a few adults. A typical student response was: "Parents fight with each other. They don't communicate." The adult responses were generally phrased as "lack of communication" or "family conflict," Parent-Child Conflict. Parent-child conflict and communication problems were mentioned by about one-third of the students directly and alluded to by others. It was labelled a "generation gap" by some. Parents and children do not talk to each other or cannot understand each other. Disagreement over values was given as a source of parent- child conflict. Some students mentioned turning to peers for support when they couldn't get along with parents. lack of Caring. Lack of caring among family members and specifically in the parent-child relationship was cited by almost one-fourth of the respondents. As some students said, there is not 210 enough love in families. One student shared a feeling that his parents wanted him to leave. Children feeling unwanted or not needed and perceived lack of parental love or affection were common themes in student responses. One student said that kids are getting into trouble to try to get a reaction from their parents. Other students observed that many parents are not prepared for parenting responsibilities. One student captured the essence of the problem: There is a lack of security in many homes. Kids are afraid to go home with their problems for fear no one there will care or listen. Self-centeredness was cited both by students and adults. Self- centered persons were accused of thinking more of themselves than their family. A student commented, "Each is out to get all they can and won't think of the other person." Parents are so wrapped up in their own problems, they don't pay attention to their children. Said another student: Society pounds in your head to look out for #1 • People take this in and eventually only care about their own feelings and wants. This ends up hurting some people and making everyone more isolated. Many communication problems which were cited focused upon someone not taking time to listen. One mother gave "thinking you are too busy to listen" as a major problem, describing this scenario: "Don't bother me now. I have to scrub my kitchen floor." That kitchen floor can wait. If a child has something to tell you, if you don't listen now, ten years from now there may be a serious problem and they won't tell you. My mother said, "What do I want them to remember— a clean house or a good time?" 211 Another respondent observed that what a person is saying is not always what they are meaning. "It requires time and involvement to really listen." One adult expressed the problem of unconcerned parents: You never see either parent at school or at organizational activities. Parents don't take time to listen. Many are too centered on their own life. They need to be available— -especially when a child comes home from school. Child Neglect. The problem of child neglect was mentioned by a number of students. One student described this pattern: "Children are left to do as they please. They grow up, have children, and it starts all over again." The problem of child abuse was listed by one-fourth of the respondents. One student saw it as a problem that causes "unending confusion, unhappiness, and pain." Another de scribed a case of incest. In general, parents who do not accept responsibility for children were described as contributing to child neglect. Infidelity. Infidelity was recorded by one-fifth of the respondents, more from students than adults. It was described in various ways, including: parent's affairs, adultery, mother and father being unfaithful, and running around or cheating on each other. Other Conflicts. Specific areas of conflict that were mentioned in families were money, sex, in-laws, and discipline of children. Role responsibilities, particularly the division of household work, 212 was another source of conflict. Three adults mentioned the problems of middle-age, particularly the disenchantment of women who have stayed home to rear children and then find themselves alone when the children leave home. A minister in the study described problems in relationships and his advice: Relationships is an area where most people have trouble in their lives. Many times family life goes sour because of something that’s not very significant, but it becomes the wedge that then creates further problems and complications for couples. I tell young couples of Perry Como's song, "You always hurt the ones you love, the ones you didn't want to hurt at all." It's a basic truth about people. Others described the problems which occur when people do not accept responsibility for relationships. In our society when people are dissatisfied, they look first to changing their circumstances. I don't think this is a viable answer. When families were more together, they depended on each other. I don't think families now pay attention to the needs of brothers or sisters who have problems, such as poverty. There's not the closeness. You used to worry and take them in. Now everyone thinks there's welfare for them. Divorce. Over one-third of the respondents cited divorce as a major problem. The effects on children were most frequently given as concerns. One woman who has been married 25 years noted that many couples her age are breaking up. She queried, "How can you be together for so long as a family and then go your own separate ways?" Another adult had this to say about divorce: Almost everyone in my graduating class is getting a divorce. They married fresh out of high school without being independent. I don't think you can 213 recapture now what you missed when you were 18 years old, They want a piece of life and are going after it. They are bitter, especially the wives. It's worse if there are children. One student protested that people use divorce as an escape from minor problems. The consequences of divorce were problematic to this students "Divorce or broken homes affect how people lead the rest of their adult lives." Students recorded divorce as a major problem, saying: Divorce scares me. It is definitely a major problem that concerns home and family life. It can have a bad effect, mainly on children. Many times they feel it's their fault. Divorce can ruin your life. One adult summarized the effects of divorce on people she has known. It was hard on the couple and very hard on the self esteem of the individual who is not asking for the divorce. The children suffer. They are the victims. They get caught in between. Single Parents. The problem of single parents merited attention from about one-fourth of the respondents. It was approached from both perspectives, that of the parent and the child. These responses are from single parents: There's a missing link. One remaining member has to become mother and father. This puts a strain on the children because they do not have the experience and guidance of both parents. The remaining parent has to put more time, love, and effort into the home. Children frequently withdraw, are lonely, and feel left out. For single women with families, money is the biggest problem. And fear of what your kids are going to get into because you're not there. The only way you can survive at work is to not think about your kids. The guilt, fear, and worry wouldn't let you work. 214 The problem from the students’ perspectives centered upon "always being bounced back and forth between mother and father," Some students observed that single parents are not always able to provide financially or emotionally for the children. Stepparents. Another core of problems centered upon stepparents. "Children fighting with stepparents a lot" was a typical description of the problem. Another student outlined the problems that resulted from a divorce and remarriage in her family: "The feeling of the children that they’re not wanted. Being an outcast in the eyes of the stepparents." Three students in the study listed as a major problem, "being hated by stepparents." Elderly. The problems in providing for the elderly were of concern to some families. One adult stated it this way: Many people in nursing homes hate their families for putting them there. Young people need to think about what they're going to do when they can no longer take care of themselves. We need to improve the system of caring for the elderly. A student described the problems which occurred in her family with a grandmother, whom she described as senile. She voiced concern for being prepared for the aging process herself. Others expressed concern that we have abandoned our responsibilities to the elderly. Someone noted that the elderly have a lot to give. Teenage Pregnancy. Teenage pregnancy was viewed as a major problem by both adults and students. Forced marriage, abortions, and the inability to provide financially for babies were related 215 problems. One adult summarized a group of responses in her statement: She active sexuality of teenagers is one of the enemies of the home. Girls and boys become in volved in pregnancy before they are prepared for it. It's a negative experience. Conception and birth should be a positive experience for men and women. If it's negative it's just another obstacle or hindrance to a happy marriage and a happy family. Other teen problems, including peer problems, suicide, and running away from home, were recorded. Alcoholism. Alcoholism was viewed as a major problem by one- third of the adults and students. The problems created by an alcoholic parent were devastating. Drinking was often linked with fighting and sometimes abuse. 'Tty father is an alcoholic and our family is always fighting and arguing over silly things." "Alcohol can destroy a family" typified a number of responses. One student said that it is a problem when families don't spend their money on food, which is needed, but just on beer. Another described this situation: Ity brother and his wife are going to get legally separated. He is an alcoholic and he can't take any responsibility. Everyday we would dread him coming home because his whole personality did a complete turnaround. He was grumpy and just brought gloom into the house. Now that he's gone, things have more or less returned to normal. Drug Abuse. The problem with drugs ranked with alcoholism in percentage of response, but a larger proportion of students rated it as a problem. It was described from the parent's point of view: The drug situation is a universal fear of parents. It is all pervasive. Parents don't 216 recognize symptoms and don’t know how to control it. There is a lot of tension in homes because of in volvement in the drug culture. I hope this has peaked. Students had this to say: Drugs control your life. It always hurts the family. In our community there are more parents doing drugs in the presence of their child. Drugs mess you up a lot. Parents and kids go out to bars together and use drugs together. They don’t care about family life, A friend of mine is on pot and I see what it’s done to his family. His parents are very hurt by what he's done. One adult suggested that adults are using medications to cope with stress, and that in some cases, this borders upon drug abuse. Economy. Over one-third of the respondents said money was their major problem. Another one-fourth gave problems which are related to the economy, including women working and job security. A constella tion of family problems was linked to the economy, variously termed inflation, money, or financial worries. The most common response related to money issues is typified in this statement by an adult: "All arguments in our family stem from money." Others underscored this problem. The worse the economy gets, the harder it is for families to get along together. Money leads to so many arguments. Housewives feel trapped. They can't afford to get out, and are frustrated by not getting things they want for the home. The economy puts a strain on parents and kids. It makes individuals more irritable. Students observed: Lack of money is a homebreaker. Parents fight a lot over money issues which upsets the children. Money is the major problem. It creates heavy tension, anger, and depression, all of which definitely affects the family members. Coping with limited means was an expected response. One adult said that people buy a home and then go to work to keep it. "Ho matter how hard you struggle, you can't get ahead." It causes problems in family life. "We have bills we are having trouble meeting," was repeated by both students and adults. A student voiced this concern: "It's pretty bad when you have to sit and wonder where your next meal is coming from." This student summarized succinctly: "Money-— it's terrible how it rules our lives." Working Women. The need for women to work was second only to arguments and conflicts in families as an effect of the economy on families. It was listed by over one-fifth of the respondents as a problem. As one adult said, "If the woman prefers to be home, but is forced to work because of the economy, there can be a lot of strain and stress." Several mentioned the management problems of time and energy required to cope with working and being a homemaker, wife, and mother. One working mother described the guilt and stress involved in trying to live up to a "super mom" image. Another working mother shared her concerns: 218 When you get home from work, the kids want to tell you about everything that's happened and you're tired and don't want to hear about it right now. Students have this to say about working mothers and/or parents: When children sire left alone, sometimes they have to prepare their own meals and do things for which they are not ready. Both parents work outside the home now and no one seems to have time to talk. Both parents working causes stress and conflict. It affects the whole family. Several respondents linked the phenomenon of working mothers with the problem of neglected children. When children are left alone, they often get into trouble. Some students noted that they are not able to participate in activities if their parents are not home to provide transportation. Busy-ness. This woman has captured the elusiveness of this concept which included a sizable number of responses— over one- third of the total. We get caught up in a whirl of things. There is no time to visit. Today we have automatic washers, dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, blenders. Nothing's hard like it used to be, but still no one has time. I don't know what the reason is. One student said it for many: "Most people are too busy to take time to spend with their families." Several people mentioned that the only time when families seem to be together is mealtime, and that appears in jeopardy. As one student said, "Children come home and pop something into a microwave oven and eat in ten minutes. This cancels your dining room idea." The question was raised: Should 219 we look at school activities? Are they interfering with family life? Another statement of this problem was made by a parent: There are too many outside commitments, parti cularly in the family with teenagers who are active in sports. They've sold out to sports— no family meals together. It's hard on family life. It puts too much pressure when you try to wrap too much into a day. Lack of togetherness. Lack of togetherness was a common theme in both sets of data from students and adults. One student posed the concern for meaningful time in families: "Parents don't spend an hour of meaningful time a week with the children so they find recognition elsewhere." "Eveiyone doing his/her own thing and going in different directions" drew a substantial number of comments. According to one student: There is a problem if parents don't spend time with their children after work. Kids grow up too soon. When they're 14» 15» or 16 they've done everything and then turn to the anti-social. They get into sex, drugs, and alcohol. Don't try to buy them off. One woman said that a problem she sees in families is that of putting off things you enjoy. My mother passed away when I was younger. My parents had planned to do many things when they retired, but because of her death they were unable to do them. My father always advised me not to put off recreation. 111 health and older years may prohibit you from taking vacations. We have done a lot of family outings that we would not have done had it not been for this experience. Work Schedules. Work schedules and pressures from the work place were viewed as a major contributor to the decline of family unity. As one student said, "Father is away too much, doesn't spend time with 220 his family, so the children sometimes feel he just doesn't care." Another labelled some fathers as "workaholics;" in his view fathers work entirely too much. One adult pointed to the relationship between work and the family: "If you're not happy with work, it's hard to be happy at home." Materialism. Another set of problems seemed to emanate from the value position of materialism. One adult described it as trying to find happiness in things, observing: "Happiness is to be found in yourself." Student commented: People think they have to have dollars to be happy. It's a problem when people think money can buy love. Living up to societal or peer expectations was related to this problem; it was frequently described as "keeping up with the Joneses." There is a tendency to want to outdo one another. One parent described school pressures: There is tremendous pressure on parents from schools. It puts parents in the middle. We've had a lot of problems financially and schools put pressures on kids. Then they pressure parents. Cheerleading was expensive. Our daughter had to get a job due to peer pressure. It cuased a lot of strife between us. A student defined social pressure in terms of living up to an idealized image of a family. The ideal family is one where father works, mother stays home and cleans, and all the kids go to college and become doctors and lawyers. A decline in moral values was of concern to many persons in the study. Others perceived a lack of spiritual or religious values. 221 Impersonal World. The impersonal world in which we live was also viewed as a problem. This concern was expressed in different perspec tives: The grocer used to give an apple to the children. Now they are pre-packaged and you can't even buy just one. It's a plastic, artificial world. We live in an apartment. I do not know the people who live above me or beside me. I don't even know their names. I feel that I'm isolated. Valuing Families. Several persons in the study pointed directly to the need to place families first in their lives. The first state ment is typical of a number of student responses concerning problems in homes and families: Parents taking other interests first before their family. (S) Sometimes a job will interfere with family life because the job becomes so important to a person they forget about their family, (s) Family spends more time with the television than with each other, (s) Many people put their social life first. I believe priorities should be with God and the family, (a ) (Referring to work and home life) We live in different worlds. If people realized they have one responsible unit in their life— and that's themselves in relationship to the people in their family, if they looked to the family as their -primary responsi bility, then maybe that which they did in the earning of a livelihood, in the enjoyment of recreation, in the things for which they spend their money— they might appreciate these things more. (A) Summarv- The responses to this question form a rather lengthy list which could be grouped in a number of ways. The four themes which comprise most of the major problems and concerns in families are related to (l) interpersonal relationships; (2) drug and alcohol abuse (5) the conomy; and (4 ) valuing families. 1. Interpersonal relationships. These include communication problems, parent-child conflicts, lack of caring, child neglect, infdelity, divorce, single parents, stepparents, the elderly, death and illness, and teenage problems, including teenage pregnancy. 2. Drug and alcohol abuse. The problem of an alcoholic parent was described by many in the study. Students shared concerns about drugs. One student said that children look to others, particularly peers, to get positive strokes which they don't get at home. 3. The economy. A number of responses centered on conflict in families resulting from money problems as well as simply not having enough income for necessities. The need for women to work was related to the economy along with the problems of unsupervised children and a parent not being home for children when needed. The configuration of problems that relates jobs and families are summarized by this woman who lives in a city suffering from unemployment in steel mills: The biggest problem is the loss of jobs due to the mills slowing down. The area depends a lot on the steel mills. It is affecting families because men feel they aren't fulfilling their roles. Financial difficulties are causing marital problems. Men have too much time on their hands and turn to alcohol— -a major concern in our area. This sometimes results in abuse to the family. One student summarized this whole set of problems by asserting that there is not enough money or love in families. An adult expressed it this way: 225 The family is breaking down, but we still need love. We need to mix the two— the economics and the love and get both of them working well. Then the family unit will stay together. Indi viduals will have to have less greed and more compassion. Change will have to take place in the mother and father's heart. Teach children to not value things, to look more to spiritual fulfillment. 4. Valuing families. A major set of problems stemmed from the demands of activities or outside interests which leave little time for family. Student responses reflected this concern: There is a lack of parental guidance with parents either not having time, not caring, or not realizing their child's needs. Families go their own ways, get up by themselves, eat separated, go in and out at different times and they probably don't know each other in a manner of speaking. Each person changes each day. If you haven't seen your mom and dad for only fifteen minutes a day or less, then you don't know each other. There was an intense feeling by some of the respondents for the need to put families first in their lives. Believing that families give meaning to life, this man said: The pressures of society and pressures of earning a livelihood sometimes cause some of these needs to lose their importance until finally after you have pursued and done all that you feel is neces sary to cope with life today, you feel empty and without meaning. Question 8. What are conditions in society which may prevent families from becoming what they would like to be? This question brought the most unanimity of response. The condition listed most often was the economy. Other conditions in cluded work, societal/peer pressures, television, and lifestyles. 224 Economy. Insufficient income, the stress in families caused by lack of money or conflicts over money, expectations beyond means, and the rising costs due to inflation, particularly of food and housing, comprised most of the responses related to the economy. This student succinctly stated the problem: "Children want more. Parents work more. There is more stress." The American dream is out of reach. Others mentioned the problems of poverty and inequality of income. One student commented that money isn't everything, but it helps! One mother of grown children said: "We couldn't raise four kids now on our wages," Unrealistic expectations were given by some as contributors to the money problem. Credit is the main source of our problems. We bought as we could find the means to buy. Now everything has a down payment. Young people start out first class all the way. They have to keep up with the Joneses. (A) Couples get married and expect the two story, four bedroom house with two cars in the garage. (A) Others mentioned rising costs. We sometimes worry about enough money for food. A bag of groceries costs more each week. Not being able to afford housing. People are locked into where they axe. Because of the costs of utilities, we had to change our lifestyle. One woman had this to say about her experience with the welfare system. Welfare destroys families and destroys incentive. I was on welfare. I know. They penalize you for 225 working. Welfare is not enough to live on, so you try to find ways of making money that aren't legal or you don't report it. You have to become a prostitute, thief or cheat in order to survive on welfare. I worked five hours a day scrubbing floors in schools and my welfare check was cut so that at five hours work a day for a month, I ended up working for $10. Give me some reason to want to help myself. The largest group of responses centered upon the stress and conflict which occur in families as a result of economic concerns. Puts tension on the whole family. Husband and wife or parents and children argue over money matters. (A) Many families break up because of arguing over money and how it should be spent, (s) Some people believed that money problems could be overcome. There are lots of things you can do for little money. We have a canoe and go out and fish all day. Just digging for worms is fun. Going to the zoo doesn't cost much either. (A) Economics is the least important concern to me. I've seen good families with little money or lots of money. It's the people in the family who make the family, (a ) Most families can overcome economic problems and stay together. These responses reflect the views of those who were concerned about the materialistic emphasis in our society: Even people who have money are busy acquiring more money. (A) We need to turn away from material things to spiritual values, (a ) Work. A second condition in society affecting families is linked both to the economy and the family, that of work. Availability 226 of jobs was a major concern: Eighteen year olds can't find jobs. They are staying in the parental home and there are conflicts. (A) If the parent isn't able to find a job, frustrations are usually taken out on the kids, (s) Job relocations result in problems for children in changing schools. (S) Job layoffs upset the whole family, (s) Ve had to go to the city for a job and move our family from the small town where we've always lived. The complexity of the problem as it relates to families is illustrated by this woman: Because people can't get a job, they come home angry, go out and drink, and come home angry again. I've seen battered women and children. Not every one has the ability to cope with stress. The stress caused by work-related concerns and the effects on family members were recorded by many persons in the study. Typical responses follow: You can't risk changing jobs even if you don't like it. (A) Sometimes people have to drive up to 50 miles to a job. It takes away family time, (a ) Because of work schedules, people don't get to enjoy each other or the children. The children are given things, but they lack security. Sometimes they seem lost, (s) Stress on jobs causes fighting in families, (s) With shift work, there is less time to spend with families. You may not be able to go to PTA and Scouting activities, (a ) When both parents work to support a family, there's 227 sometimes a lot of tension and a lot of arguing. A father may have to work at night so the kids grow up hardly knowing their father, (s) Some felt that jobs and/or money become more important than time for family. One adult commented that with all of the compe tition to move up in the world, no one is content where they are, so they work harder to achieve more, and more time is spent worrying about their job. Working mothers were viewed by some as a condition in society which may prevent families from becoming what they would like to be. One respondent labelled the phenomenon of mothers working as a mixed blessing. It has the potential of being a negative factor, especially if the mother is unable to give the intangible— the love, help, attention, and support when she is home. I see the problem of children coming home from school and needing a parent. (A) Another adult shared this view; It can be a problem when both parents have to work. Parents are ill trained to raise kids in a complex world anyway. Then they aren't even around to help their kids. Students mentioned the loss of security, particularly of young children, when mothers are not in the home. The management problems of the working woman were given by this woman: "Women feel pressure to work, then feel pressure of the dual role— the homemaker and the working wife." Another working mother commented that it is very difficult for her to cope with her work and home because her husband does not offer help. 228 Societal/Peer Pressure. Living up to others' images of what ' you should be or should do characterize this group of responses. One example given is that society's idea of the perfect family is husband, wife, one son, and one daughter. A number of families do not fit this model. One woman viewed the problem in this way: Man is supposed to be the "man." Woman is to be loving and giving. Kids are to be angelic. Not being allowed to be yourself and fitting into someone else's image is the problem. A woman who doesn't want to stay at home or be a homemaker may stay home because it's her husband's image of what she should be. (A) The media received criticism by several persons. The media has made physical pleasure so centra? to life. The youth are experimenting sexually and we have many teenage mothers and fathers. They are not psychologically and physically prepared, (a ) We want satisfaction now in our instant gratifi cation society. A lot of things are geared to make us dissatisfied with our lifestyle. We have more things to do, more places to go than anybody on the face of the earth. We've not learned how to benefit from them, (a ) Peer pressure was viewed both from the parent's and student's perspective. Parents said this: Parents feel helpless against those forces which they aren't around to deal with. No matter how hard you try as a parent, there are outside pressures which are more influential than your own. Prom the students were these comments: Kids experience peer pressure to do things their parents have taught them not to do. Teenagers are tempted daily at sex, alcohol, and drugs. The temptation is strong. 1 229 A number of students recognized the problems of sex, drugs, and alcohol as relating to peer pressure. Others, however, saw them as an escape to personal problems. Some students mentioned teenage suicide as a problem. Television. Television was listed as a separate category, although in some ways it contributes to the problems of societal/ peer pressures and expectations. It seems to generate a complexity of its own dealing both with creating passivity in persons and a lack of communication in families. Television was also criticized as contributing to a set of values that frequently are incompatible with those of parents. "Television is the fuzzy blue babysitter. When you're tired of children, you tell them to go watch tv," said one mother. Television was not mentioned positively in the study. Typical comments from adults concerning the effects of television on families included these: Television forces a family to be passive and not relate to each other, but to the tube. Add to that what you're seeing on tv— garbage, poor values, negative influence. Society has provided a bad. set of models* Television has interfered with family life. People used to entertain themselves and have their own games and creative crafts. Now we are not as active as a family together. We are spectators. Television, if not controlled, becomes the center of a fmily's life. It is a negative influence. There is a complete lack of communication when we are watching tv. We are watching something that doesn't pertain to our lives or our family. If we were to turn off the tv, there would be time in the evening to do all those things we 230 are constantly saying we don't have time to do. Take the television out of the house and families would he happier. Another group of responses from adults centered upon the values which television programming present. Unfortunately my daughter gets out of school while soap operas are still on. At the ripe old age of 14, she's talking about things I don't think she's ready to know yet. They're exposed to sex and violence before they're able to handle it. Tele vision removes sensitivity to violence, murder, and sex. It puts pressure on parents. Young kids get some very distorted viewpoints. There is too much sex and poor morals. It's hard to fight it. If children don't get to watch it, they're different from their friends. I'm about ready to block the tv set off. They constantly stress it's a young world we live in. Everyone has to be beautiful, sexy, and everyone sleeps with everyone else. There is no model role identification such as "My Three Sons" when I was growing up. Television leads us to believe that everything is perfect in love and marriage. It builds unrealistic expectations. It's a fantasy in their mind instead of reality. Television portrays lifestyles which are detri mental to families, emphasizing sex, money, material things. Television tends to fragment the family. As one person observed, "If you're watching tv instead of conversing, you're like five separate individuals." Students also objected to the influence of television, pointing to both the reduction of family togetherness and to the excessive amounts of sex and violence. Lifestyles. The fast pace of life or the "hurriedness" of life, as one student called it, was given as a condition of life vihich affects families. The causal factor most often associated with this phenomenon was outside activities or pressures. As one student said, "There are so many outside activities. We’re scheduled to death." Other student comments included these: With the fast pace of living, we don't stop and take time for each other. Husbands and wives and children all get caught up in it. The family is never home together. Everyone is too busy. Parents come and go in different directions and at different times. They don't take the time for old-time family togetherness. School activities received a large share of criticism. There are too many elementary school activities, too much organized activity. It prevents family togetherness. It's a family splitting kind of thing. Our family life isn't our own. (A) Schools should allow students when they come home to do family things, (a ) One adult summarized in this way: Schools, society, churches seem to think they have to have a new activity to offer. We get so involved in activities outside the home. There's not enough time in the day. We need to question, What is this activity going to do for me or for the child? Will it help them grow? Other. While nearly all of the responses could be organized into the five categories, one other condition was mentioned by three persons in the study— education. One person pointed to the defi ciencies of the educational system in serving his son. A student expressed concern that a school which did not pass a bond levy in his community may keep him from obtaining the necessary credits for 232 graduation. Critical of education in general, this man stated: I think education emphasizes job importance or passing an ACT test. We’re forgetting the many people who are not succeeding. We’ve categorized children in schools. We need people in the teach ing profession who are excited about helping people learn. It's amazing what happens when a child gets turned on. Today our kids are so wrapped up in their frustrations of trying to find out who they are, what they should do, and where they should go in their life. Summary. The five conditions which may prevent families from becoming what they would like to be were: (1) the economy, (2) work, (3 ) societal/peer pressures, (4 ) television, and (5) lifestyles. 1. The economy. Those problems related to the economy focused upon inadequate income, rising costs, and the stress in families caused by money. As one student said, "Parents bring their problems home with them and take out their frustrations on their kids." 2. Work. Availability of jobs, unemployment, work schedules, and working mothers produced a complexity of problems. One student described this pattern of reaction: "Parents are worried if they can't give you enough to make you happy. And they work harder and their jobs make them unhappy." Stress and tension in families as well as lack of time together were attributed to job stress and excessive work schedules. 3 . Societal/peer pressure. Societal pressures were viewed as the "keeping up with the Joneses" syndrome. Media influence was a contributing factor. Peer pressure was viewed as conforming behavior, and for adolescents most often involved sex, drugs, and alcohol. 253 4. Television. Television as a condition affecting families, elicited strong response, particularly from the adults in the study. The concern was voiced that television created passivity in persons and lack of communication in families. The other problem centered upon the values portrayed. The insensitivity to violence was per ceived as a serious effect of television. 5. Lifestyles. "Busy-ness" was cited as a condition which emanates from the demands of outside activities on families. Schools were criticized for contributing to this problem with a number of scheduled activities. The major effect on the family is one of frag mentation, pulling the family apart. While there seem to be a number of societal conditions affecting families, they are not necessarily beyond the control of families. Some respondents pointed to ways of coping with the economic situation, including this comment: ’’When we subscribe to the idea that money brings happiness, we forget the little things in life." Question 9. What could we do in home economics classrooms that would make a difference in the home and family life of students— now and in the future? The responses for this question were tabulated for seniors and advisory committee members in Table 41• 234 TABLE 41 CONTENT AREAS TO BE INCLUDED IN HOME ECONOMICS CURRICULUM Seniors A/C Members Number Percent Number Percent Personal and family development 80 100.0 76 95.0 Home and family problems 80 100.0 25 31.5 Values and goals 24 30.0 21 26.3 Consumer economics 16 2 0.0 39 48.8 Basic skills 14 17.5 53 66.3 Nutrition 2 2.5 10 12.5 Personal and Family Development. There is a clear recommendation from both students and adults for including personal and family development as a part of the curriculum. Six major topics were suggested within the personal and family development area. These are listed in Table 42. TABLE 42 CONTENT TOPICS IN PERSONAL AND FAMILY DEVELOPMENT Aj,ea Seniors A/C Members Number Percent Number Percent Relationships 43 53.8 32 4 0 .0 Parenting 36 45.0 46 57.5 Communication 17 21.3 11 15.8 235 TABLE 42 (Continued) Seniors A/C Members Area Number Percent Number Percent Importance of families 17 21.3 6 7.5 Sex education 10 12.5 11 13.8 Stages of development 6 7.5 The topic of relationships included giving and receiving love, what to look for in a marriage relationship, how to get along with people, particularly husband-wife, parent-child, and peers, and the area of emotions. Both responsibilities and skills of parenting were recorded as topics for inclusion in the curriculum. Adults used the term "realities of parenting" to imply that children grow and make demands. As one person said, "Children are real people. They don't laugh, and coo all the time." Home economics curriculum was charged to "get across that children are both parents' responsibility, not just the mother's." Many parenting skills were listed, including knowledge of prenatal care, infant, and child developmental stages. The nurturing skills were also emphasized: patience, discipline, developing trust, taking time to listen. Accepting children, helping them feel impor1- tant, and encouraging them to do well were all suggested as essential content. Concern was expressed that parents often lose nurturant skills as their children get older. One adult noted that there is a tendency to revert back to the patterns of child rearing when you 236 were growing up if you don't have some parenting education. The topic of communication focused upon listening skills. Student comments emphasized the prevention of family arguments including the development of reasoning skills and the ability to solve problems. A representative comment from a student was this: Teach how to communicate— that' s the problem with most marriages. Teach how to sit down calmly and talk problems out and not to just start screaming and yelling. The importance of families should be stressed in a home economics curriculum. Respondents also suggested that a part of the curriculum should focus upon family ties, commitment to marriage, the importance of primary relationships, and the meanings given to the family. A school administrator said that human sexuality can be taught better and more meaningfully in home economics than in health. "The sexual relationship is not just physical, but it's also awareness of emotional needs." Another adult supported this: "In health, there is too much emphasis on scientific aspects, and not enough on the emotional. One adult said, "I wasn't prepared." From students came these suggestions: Stress that sex is an adult decision and senior and junior high school students aren't adults and are not prepared for such a commitment. Should know about the risks and responsibilities they are taking on when fooling around at such early ages. They should know about every birth control method, the diseases that are caused, about what drugs and alcohol do to you. They should know these things before their lives are ruined. While no students spoke to stages of development, adults had much to say: 237 Teach that interests and desires change from age 18. Include adult stages. At 20 I felt I had to get married. At 30 I'm searching for myself. I want to do something on my own. We need to understand our own development as well as a child's. Help students see that while they axe growing and changing, so are their parents. Discuss critical periods in marriage. Teenagers don't think beyond age 25. They think of a child only as a baby. The life cycle includes more than the next ten years. Home and Family Problems. Home and family problems were listed by all of the students, but by only 31 percent of the adults as sug gested content for home economics curriculum. In addition to family problems, 24 seniors listed adolescent problems, including problems with peers. The problems given by seniors and adults were similar, including: marital problems, lack of communication, divorce, loss of jobs, single parents, stepparents, financial, death, illness, sex, drugs, child abuse, family fights, drinking, incest, adultery, parenthood (birth of first child), empty nest period (when children leave), dual role homemaker workload, accidents, sibling rivalry, and teenage suicide. One adult suggested that realities should be taught: "I am so concerned about misconceptions that are sometimes taught, for example that marriage means living happily everafter. Women can never count on a male to support them all their life.” Another adult sug gested helping adolescents realize that they are not the only one experiencing problems. 238 Values and Goals. Values and goals were listed by about one- fourth of the persons in the study. However, this area drew some insightful recommendations. Teach kids how to set some kind of goals in life, to be able to achieve something out of life, (s) Discuss the real meaning of life, (s) Help us to decide how we want our families to be. (S) Teach the importance of a family, not to spend all of your time at the job. (s) Decision-making and planning for the future should be taught, (s) Talk about "what should be," a personal philosophy. (A) Evaluate needs and set priorities. (A) Discuss life options— career, marriage, parenting, (a ) Consumer Economics. Consumer economics was given by one-half of the adults and 20 percent of the students as recommended curricular content. Budgeting, setting up home finances, investments, banking, credit, comparative shopping and dealing with salesmen were among the topics suggested. Others noted the importance of understanding the economic system, Basic Skills. Almost four times as many adults as students listed basic skills as essential content. Five content topics were suggested within the area of basic skills. These are listed in Table 43» 239 TABLE 43 CONTENT TOPICS IN BASIC SKILLS Seniors A/C Members Area Number Percent Number Percent Poods 8 13.3 18 22.5 Clothing 3 3.8 12 15.0 Housing 2 2.5 9 11.3 Home Management 1 1.5 12 15.0 Home Nursing - - 2 2.5 Pood preparation was most often recorded as a content topic in basic skills. Seven persons said that meal planning, main course meals, or basic food preparation should be taught, but specified that this did not include gourmet foods. One adult said, "Practice every day cooking. Ify home ec wasn't practical. We learned fancy things. It didn't help me a bit." Others stressed the importance of being able to plan and prepare meals economically. Of the few persons who mentioned clothing, only four listed sewing. One adult thought students should be helped to make decisions regarding whether to sew or buy clothes. Finding suitable housing, negotiating rental leases, and home repairs were given as topics in the housing area. Management of time, energy, and money were viewed as an essential part of the curriculum. Respondents also suggested including conservation of energy and natural resources in home economics classes. Nutrition. Two major needs were suggested in the area of nutrition: motivating students to improve eating habits and providing information about nutritional needs and sources of nutrients. Summary. Ihom adults in the study came these general suggestions for home economics curriculum content: Make sure that whatever is taught in home economics is connected with the family unit. Help kids who come from problem families in seeing the potential for families. Should be a life-oriented class. Teach things kids are going to use throughout life. Show them the options open in life. Getting schooling after marriage and children is very difficult. Teach problems of marrying too soon. If I had it to do over again, I would have lived more. Discuss the real problems of life and teenagers in place of so much technical learning on cooking and sewing. Values are more important than cooking and sewing. Stress that material things are not as important as I thought. Teach aesthetics and creativity as well as skills. Teach how to provide a home rather than maintain a house. Basic skills are necessary, but the main emphasis is going to have to be on decisions. Should I spend all of my time making those clothes or would it be wiser to buy? There doesn't need to be as much emphasis on the basic skills— -just an understanding. Stress homemaking as an important role in life. Students made these suggestions: I think we should be taught how important love, hope, and understanding are and how to deal with conflicts, battles, and problems of everyday life that may seem trivial, but be very important, and how to know the difference. More about being single and out on your own should be included in the curriculum. I think a lot of students need to know how to support themselves. This reaches far from cooking and sewing. This really is of no great importance. What we as young people need is help to handle emotional situations. Have more courses on in-depth subjects: marriage, sex, dating, families, children, and more on nutrition instead of "how-to’s?1 like following a recipe or cutting out a pattern. Learn to cope with our problems rather than covering them up with drugs and alcohol. Teach kids not just how to cook, clean, and sew on buttons, but how to start caring and sharing with people. Teach that life should be the most important thing to you, so love and devote all of your meaningful time to the ones you love deeply. Help individuals understand themselves which could lead to understanding people more. There should be a place where some kids who want to could come and talk out their problems. Maybe so many kids would not commit suicide or be starting up on drugs and alcohol. Learn why our parents come home from work mad and upset. Do a unit on family life for teenagers with real talking on why kids feel as they do. That's why there's so many kids on drugs. They have family problems and pressures and mainly just want a little attention, but when they try to talk, no one ever listens. Nothings— because no one listens to us. 242 Adults mentioned the value of teaching through personal experiences, case studies, role playing, and utilizing home experiences. Students supported these recommendations and particular ly emphasized the need to discuss problems. Students' comments included theses I feel if the teacher could talk less and give projects, more people would be interested. If the students could experiment more, the class would be a success. In experimenting, I mean going out and asking real questions about apart ments and other things dealt with in class. In class have days where they can express their fears and have time to talk about their future. Have rap sessions where students can find out what their classmates think and feel about teenage problems. Discuss specific problems in your home— parents fighting, divorce, alcoholics, peer pressure. Teachers should visit kid's homes. Twenty-one respondents made recommendations that a course in home and family living should be required. An even larger number (43 persons) stressed the importance of including males in home economics classes, indicating that homemakers today are both sexes. The value of home visits was stressed by both students and adults. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS The problem upon which this study was based is the disjuncture between the philosophy of home economics, past and present, and the dominant technical model of curriculum. The metascientific theory of Habermas formed the theoretical base for the study. The three metascientific perspectives-— empirical-rational, hermeneutic, and critical science— provided a Weltanschauung, a comprehensive con ception of knowledge and inquiry for viewing the home and family. Implicit in this study was the need to recognize the diversity and complexity of family life. The purpose of the study was to apply the metascientific theory of Habermas to provide: 1. Data concerning tasks performed in the home, including duration, frequency, and criticality of performance of household tasks. 2. Data concerning (a) the micro questions of perceptions of (l) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns related to household tasks. (b) the macro questions of perceptions of (l) meaning and significance and (2 ) problems and concerns related to home and family life. The data were critically analyzed, selected, and organized to provide empirical knowledge, understanding, and critical reflections useful in the development of a home economics curriculum. 243 244 The sample was composed of 200 consumer homemaking advisory committee members and 80 senior students in home economics. Advisory committee members validated homemaking tasks from the Colorado task list. Additionally, 40 percent responded to an open-ended question naire related to household tasks, corresponding with the categories in the task analysis. Another 40 percent were interviewed with the more comprehensive research questions of perceptions of (1) meaning and significance and (2) problems and concerns of home and family life. One class of senior students in each of the 40 sites completed a questionnaire also addressing the comprehensive research questions relating to home and family life. The task list data were subjected to a frequency analysis, with mean ranking reported for tasks by frequency and duration of per formance and criticality to family well-being. These were further analyzed by the variables of sex, employment status, and presence of children in the home. The constant comparative process was used to analyze the inter pretive, descriptive data. Matrix tables were constructed to examine relationships among data categories. The remainder of this chapter is organized in four parts: (1) a summary of major findings? (2) recommendations for further research; (j) implications for home economics curriculum; and (4) implications for a theoretical framework for home economics. Summary of Ma.ior Findings She summary of this research study is presented in relation to the research questions. Task Analysis. The first set of research questions centered upon the task' analysis of homemaking. What homemaking tasks are most often performed? What homemaking tasks require the most time? What homemaking tasks are perceived to he most critical to family well-being? Given the 13 broad task clusters in the task list (managing money, caring for and improving self, caring for family members, meeting nutritional needs, providing for family health and safety, providing for housing, providing and caring for clothing and textile products, managing time, cleaning and maintaining home, providing transportation, planning for social events and enter taining, providing and maintaining yard and garden, and caring for pets): Why is each considered important or not important to home and family life? Bo the qualitative data corroborate the task analysis? Are there significant perceptions that are not contained in the task list? Given the 13 broad task clusters in the task list, what are major problems or concerns related to each task cluster? Bo the qualitative data corroborate the task analysis? Are there significant perceptions that are not contained in the task list? The tasks most frequently performed are associated with personal care and housekeeping. Of the three variables studied, sex, employment status, and presence of children, the task list by frequency of performance was most altered by sex. Seven of the most frequently performed tasks were different for males and females. The tasks seemed to follow traditional sex roles, with the women preparing meals, washing dishes, and making beds. Por persons with children living at home, there were more tasks frequently performed from the 246 cluster area of caring for family members. The single task requiring the most time was entertaining guests in the home. Providing a pleasant, harmonious home environment also scored high for duration of time spent. Again, traditional sex role differences appeared. Yard and gardening chores appeared in the top ten tasks by duration for men, while laundry, preparing meals, nurturing children, and selecting furniture were in the women's list. There was a similar pattern of response between those persons who are not employed and those with children (under 18) living at home. When rated for criticality to family well-being, the task "show love and affection to children" was first. The second task in priority was paying bills. Eight of the top ten tasks rated as critical to family well-being are in the task cluster area, "caring for family members." The task cluster which was performed most frequently was "managing time," followed by the clusters related to caring for self and caring for family members. The cluster requiring the most time was "cleaning and maintaining home." Most critical was the task cluster, "caring for family members." The cluster area, "caring for pets," ranked low on both the frequency and duration measures. The summary by each task cluster is based upon two sources s (1) quantitative data from the frequency analysis of the task list, and (2) descriptive data from the questionnaire related to the task clusters. 1. Managing Money. The current of thought in the descriptive data pointed to money as instrumental in helping families reach goals through prioritizing spending and controlling resources. Paying hills was the second ranked task overall on the criticality measure. Although the tasks were technical, the descriptive data pointed to the interpersonal and communicative problems related to money. Une recurring theme in the descriptive data was conflict about money as a source of stress in families, including marital and parent-child relationships. Money was cited as the chief cause of family arguments. The problem of whether a mother should work was also raised. The conflict of materialistic versus non-materialistic philosophies emerged as a theme. The pervasive belief that money can buy happiness or that happiness can be found in material things was considered a major concern to families. 2. Caring for and Improving Self. The tasks in this area were performed frequently. One of the problems related to this area focused upon the theme of self and other. Balancing personal needs for growth with family interests was also expressed as a concern. Children in the family intensified the tension between personal and family interests. Continuing education and pursuing personal hobbies help individuals develop self esteem. Individuals who axe growing and have a positive sense of self worth were perceived as better able to contribute to a marriage and family. Related to this was the problem which occurs when one mate "outgrows" the other. The dilemma of the "displaced homemaker" was cited, in which women who have been 248 dependent for a number of years find themselves alone through the death or divorce of a spouse and without marketable skills. 5. Caring for Family Members. This task cluster was considered the most critical to family well-being. Seven of the tasks were rated as important by over 85 percent of those in the study. The task "show love and affection to children" was the most critical task overall. Providing a pleasant, harmonious home environment also ranked high in all three measures. Caring is a way of expressing and showing love. The task statements in this area were criticized by some respondents as too simplistic. One of the examples given was the task statement, "providing for family discussions." This involves communication skills, particularly the ability to listen, as well as providing time. There were several problems and concerns in this task cluster. Of particular import was the conflict which occurs between work needs and family needs or between the demands of outside activities and interests and family time. These problems are aggra vated when both parents work. A second major problem viewed by respondents in this study is the lack of togetherness of families. Families are not together for mealtime and do not spend time together. The third major concern focused upon family conflict. The effects of divorce on children were also cited. This task cluster represents a complex set of issues which the task list statements do not reflect adequately. 4. Meeting Nutritional Needs. This area was viewed as important to physical and mental health. Preparing meals and handling food 249 rated high on all measures— frequency, duratior, and criticality. This- area also evoked the greatest sex differences. Women assumed major responsibility for meeting: the nutritional needs of family members. The social meanings of food were emphasized, particularly those associated with mealtime as a family togetherness activity and special meals with the extended family. This was not reflected in the task list, however, Most of the problems and concerns in this area did not relate to the tasks either. The influence of television advertising, particularly for cereals and junk foods, created problems for mothers. Management problems were also mentioned, such as the decision of whether to prepare food at home or to go out to eat. Use of processed foods was another decision area of concern mentioned by respondents. 6. Providing for Housing. Selecting housing was considered a critical task. Overall, however, this cluster ranked low in critical ity. This may have occurred because the majority of tasks are related to selecting and arranging furnishings. Homes were viewed as pro viding security and identity, as well as shelter. Coping with the rising costs of home ownership and rents was a major concern. The value question was also raised: Is the house a status symbol, with expensive furniture and special carpets? Or is it a home where the family enjoys living and playing and children feel comfortable in bringing friends? 7. Providing and Caring for Clothing and Textile Products. This task cluster ranked low in the criticality scale. The tasks which 250 required the most time and were performed most frequently were related to laundering. The task performed least frequently and considered least critical was that of sewing. The tasks in this area also followed traditional sex roles, with women responsible for care of clothing. Clothing was viewed as enhancing self esteem and as being important in the business world. As in the foods task cluster area, the social and psychological qualities and meanings of clothing are not reflected in the tasks. Conflict in families over clothing styles and expenses occurred particularly between teenagers and parents. 8. Managing Time. Management of time was viewed as important to achieving goals. Outside activities and work schedules were perceived as contributing to the fragmentation of families. Planning time alone with spouse was rated the most critical task in the area. The management problems of the working wife were often described. However, others emphasized that quality of time was more important than quantity and questioned the "efficiency ethic." While the task list included most of the technical aspects associated with managing time, the descriptive data pointed to the value questions which underlie the constant choices which one makes in the use of time. 9. Cleaning and Maintaining Home. Several tasks in this area were frequently performed. Again, this area was distinguished by sex role differences, with women performing nearly all the tasks. The proportion was reversed for the task, "perform simple carpentry." A well-maintained home was important as a protection for an 251 investment. Many persons noted feelings of pride and satisfaction in their homes. Conflicts in standards presented problems in this area. There was a trade-off in some instances between a clean home and the enjoyment of family activities. 10. Providing Transportation. Transportation is vital for work and school. Availability of public transportation is limited. Those in rural areas stressed their reliance on the family automobile. In the task list, most persons indicated that they drive vehicles, but more men than women performed vehicle maintenance and selected a vehicle. A major problem area identified by several of the respond ents in the study was the use of the family car by teenagers. The need to transport children to activities created problems for some families. 11. Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden. This task cluster was viewed as important in maintaining the value of the home. It also provided social/psychological meanings, a sense of pride, accomplishment, a hobby, therapy, and aesthetic value. Safe operation of lawn equipment was one of the critical tasks, while mowing the lawn was performed most frequently. One problem in this area was the difficulty experienced by the elderly in obtaining, assistance in yard and garden chores. The other problem area related to multiple family housing, where there is often no clear-cut responsibility for yard and garden areas. 252 12. Caring for Pets. This task cluster drew the most diverse response. For some persons, pets were not important. For others, pets were regarded as a part of the family. Pets were considered valuable as a means of teaching responsibility to children. Pets were also a source of love and companionship. Providing for the nutritional and medical needs of pets was the most frequently performed and most critical task. One of the problem areas related to explaining the death of a pet to a child. Meaning and Significance of Home and Family Life. The second set of questions pertain to the meaning and significance of home and family life. These data are based upon the research question: What particular observations or recurring themes occur in expressing the meaning and significance of home and family life? Data for this question were provided through interviews of 80 consumer homemaking advisory committee members and questionnaires from 80 senior secondary students in home economics. The same set of open-ended questions was given to both groups. Several themes emerged in describing the meaning and significance of home and family life. These include love, security, acceptance, refuge, and roots. 1. Love. Four different constructs are identified in ascribing meaning and interpretations to love: (1) romantic-emotional love; (2) physical-sexual love; (5) agap4-caring love; and (4) companionate togetherness love. 253 Two of the constructs which were mentioned were not elaborated in detail by respondents in the study. Romantic love was most often described in the hopes and dreams of the students. Physical love was expressed in two perspectives. Sexual love was one component. Showing affection— a touch, a hug, or kiss— was significant to many persons as a way of manifesting love. AgapA love and companionate love were emphasized by those in the study. AgapA is the unselfish love of one person for another. May (1969), in Love and Will, interprets agapA as esteem for the other and concern for the other's welfare. Everyone needs love, to love and be loved. For the respondents, love was often equated with a feeling of being wanted and needed. There was concern for giving as well as receiving, an egoless love. A family crisis such as illness, death, or personal problems often elicited the response of drawing families closer together through mutual care and'concern. Adults and students, when citing significant experiences in their lives, often recalled a caring moment, a time when someone showed concern. Caring was also mani fested in being listened to and understood. Non-verbal communicative messages were yet another way of showing care and concern. Belonging was perceived as a basic need served by families. Most people need a sense of being a part of something. Families help to prevent feelings of loneliness. "Everyone needs someone" was a common theme in the study. Companionate love was the major descriptor of love and, indeed, comprised a substantial portion of the total response in the 254 Interviews and questionnaires. Companionate love was expressed as having someone to talk to, to share feelings with, and to listen. This occurs most often in the context of family togetherness. The concept of meaningful time together was critical to some in the study. There were two major currents in discussing family togetherness. Daily activities comprised one group of responses. Mealtime and evening time when the family is gathered together were particularly significant as times for sharing events of the day, enjoying each other’s company, and in general contributing to a sense of family unity. The images of home and family strongly supported the quintessen tial quality of families in providing companionate love. The little things families do together, Sunday drives, playing in the park, a walk in the woods evoked warm memories. Family members take time for one another. One student described the activities of her family, and ascribed this meaning: "Love is important, not money or material things, but love, caring, and togetherness. You can't do that by yourself." Celebrations of special events— holidays, birthdays, weddings, family gatherings, vacations, camping trips, and other family outings— comprised the other category of description of family togetherness. Many of the adults recalled nostalgic memories of such times when their families were together. Family traditions were important to many. The meaning given centered upon sharing love and happiness. Some persons in the study pointed to family togetherness and companionate love as something which money cannot 255 buy. 2. Security* Home was viewed as a place to be safe, secure, and protected. There is always somewhere to go. Security was described by some respondents as a sense of being wanted. Dependability was described as the family being there in time of need. Respondents often associated it with a feeling of security. Dependability was second only to togetherness as a major thread of response in describing the meaning and significance of families. It was important to respondents in the study for a parent to be home after school and to attend and be supportive of their children's activities. In times of crisis, family members draw closer together. Crises, such as death or illness of loved ones, create emotional needs which are best met in families. Security was also represented as having someone to go to with problems. Students described feelings of security when they could share concerns and have someone listen. Some respondents viewed their family as all they have or can depend on in this world. 5. Acceptance. Families accept you for what you are, not what they want you to be. Home is a place where you can be yourself. As one respondent said, "No matter what you do in the outside world, you can come home and be accepted." Carl Rogers' theory of unconditional positive regard is supported in this study. Rogers defines this construct in a therapeutic context; 256 It involves the therapist's genuine willingness for the client to he whatever feeling is going on in him at that moment— fear confusion, pain* pride, an ger, hatred, love, courage, or awe. It means that the therapist cares for the client in a total rather than a conditional way. . . he does not simply ac cept the client when he is behaving in certain ways, and disapproves of him when he behaves in other ways (Rogers, 1961, p. 62). Self worth was associated with being cared about. Recognizing children as worthwhile is a major nurturant function of families. It is important to accept and recognize children's individuality. People gain identity in families. There was discussion by some respondents of a sense of being just a face in the crowd in an im personal world. Homes and families create a sense of importance, an assurance that someone is interested and cares about them. 4. Refuge. Christopher Lasch's (1977) notion of the family as "a haven in a heartless world" was sustained in this study. Images of home portrayed it as a respite from the world, a place to relax and unwind from the worries of the outside world. The artifacts in the home have meanings or psychic qualities which help to create an emotional haven. Home is a place to call your own, "to hang your hat." 5. Roots. This construct was used to indicate not only one's genealogy, but the traditions and customs that have been passed down through the generations. There is something special about knowing who you are and where you come from. Home and families provide a place to be from. 257 When asked to cite significant experiences, many persons recalled the influence of their parents in their lives. The extended family was a part of images of the family and was often included in recol lections of family gatherings and holidays. The death of a grand parent was a significant experience to some respondents. Persons in the study valued a lasting relationship. There is a sense of commitment, permanence, and stability in home and family life. The home and family was viewed as an enduring institution. Problems and Concerns of Home and Family Life. The third set of questions pertain to problems and concerns of home and family life. These data are based upon the research question: What particular observations or recurring themes occur in expressing problems and concerns of home and family life? Data for this question were provided through interviews of 80 consumer homemaking advisory committee members and questionnaires from 80 senior secondary students in home economics. The same set of open-ended questions was given to both groups. The problems and concerns for the purposes of this discussion arose from two sources. First are those problems which tend to arise within the configuration of the family. These include divorce, family conflict, missing qualities in the relationship, adolescent concerns, and death and illness in the family. The other category originates in conditions in society which are external to the family. The economy, work, societal/peer pressures, television, and lifestyles were viewed as preventing families from becoming what they would like to be. 258 1, Divorce. Divorce was a traumatic experience for those in the study. However, there is no concise explanation for its effects. For some, divorce marked the end of a time of constant conflict and brought peace. However, it more often brought troubled times for the divorced partners, but particularly for the children of divorce. "It changed my whole life" and "I was different from other kids" typify the comprehensiveness of the impact of divorce. A significant experience for one student was going to court to see which parent would "win" her to live with them. Divorce was described as damaging children's lives and as creating.feelings of confusion, depression, and insecurity. 'When asked to create images of families, many persons pictured their families before divorce. The meaning given was that these were viewed as happy times. Several respondents expressed a desire for their families to be united again. One student, however, saw divorce as a way of saving mother and sisters from beatings and arguments. A divorced man in the study described his feeling that there was a missing link in his life, an emptiness. Some of the students living in divorced families indicated that they would be more cautious in entering marriage and would try harder to make it work. Perspectives of single parent families were presented by the parent and the child. Single parents expressed problems coping with the emotional and financial stress. They noted that their children had problems for which they had to be both mother and father. 259 Compounding this was their own need for, but lack of, support* The problem repeated by the children of divorce was that of being back and forth between their mother and father, and a lack of stability in their lives* Others expressed the desire to be able to discuss problems with both parents. Remarriage of divorced parents creates stepparents. For some students, this brought stability and security to their lives. For others, it was a major source of conflict. They did not feel wanted and in some cases described being hated by stepparents. 2. Family Conflict. Lack of communication was the most frequent response to the direct question concerning problems and concerns which affect home and family life. Fighting and arguing were the most cited manifestations of the problem. Lack of communication occurs when people are unable, unwilling, or do not take the time to talk and/or listen to each other. In some instances, images of home and family reflected disharmony. One adult recalled her parents fighting: "I can remember hurting inside so bad. I didn't care if they fought— just so they stayed together. Every child feels that way.” Some students described yelling and screaming as a typical pattern of communication in their home. Others felt that no one listened. One student described her negative behavior as a cry for help and a need to be heard. Other areas of family conflict mentioned in the study were money, sex, in—laws, and discipline of children. The division of 260 household work was yet another source of conflict. A surprising number of students mentioned infidelity as a problem in their family. Physical abuse was experienced by some persons in the study. One adult recalled being abused by a stern father, saying: "God wiped out some memories." Those students who were abused often associated it with alcohol. A scenario repeated in several places in the study was of a father stopping at the bar, coming home, starting a fight, and then abusing his wife and children. Child neglect was also recorded as a problem. The problem of children being left alone is intensified when both parents work or when a single parent cannot be home with a child, particularly after school. 3. Missing Qualities in the Relationship. Togetherness was the most common theme in expressing the meaning and significance of families. Conversely, lack of togetherness was viewed as a major problem. 'When families do not spend meaningful time together, the quality of family life deteriorates. Adults in the study expressed a concern that many persons iio r.o-c accept the family as their primary responsibility in life. This concern was echoed by students who expressed it as parents placing other interests before their family. The tasks of placing family first and of providing for family togetherness are also subject to the demands of work and outside activities. Lack of caring was a concern. One student expressed it this way: "Kids are afraid to go home for fear no one there will care or listen." For some students, perceptions of being rejected by one’s 261 family were devastating. Another problem stems from materialistic values— thinking money can buy happiness or love. Some respondents observed that they did not take the time to enjoy the little things in life. A number of respondents expressed concern for the decline in religious and moral values. 4« Illness and Death. Coping with the emotional strains of a serious illness or the loss of a loved one was problematic to re spondents in this study. Teenage depression and suicide were also recorded as problems. Several respondents addressed the responsibili ty of families in providing for the elderly as a problem area. 5. Adolescent Concerns. While alcohol abuse was mentioned, the drug situation was described as a univeral fear by parents. Students saw drugs as controlling one's life. "Drugs mess you up a lot," said one student. Teenage pregnancy was another concern which generates a complexity of problems— early marriage, abortion, disruption of schooling, and the demands of child care. 6. Economy. Insufficient income, expectations for a standard of living beyond one's means, and the rising costs of living due to inflation were viewed as contributing to stress in families. The American dream of home ownership is out of reach for many families. The central role of money in people's lives was a concern of one students "Money— it's terrible how it rules our lives." Conflicts about money are the major source of family arguments according to the respondents in this study. Problems related to the 262 economy add to the stress of parents and children. A typical scenario was described by one respondent, and repeated by others: "Parents fight a lot over money issues. This upsets the children." 7. Work. Availability of jobs was a major concern. One woman described the reactive effects which can occur when people cannot find jobs: "They come home angry, go out and drink, and come home angry again. I've seen battered women and children." Work was also viewed as a source of stress, particularly when work schedules prevent families from being together. When jobs and/ or money become more important than time for family, the quality of family life deteriorates. The phenomenon of working mothers created several concerns. Students valued having their mothers home after school. Others described a loss of security when their mother returned to work. Working women had dual role management problems. Most of the women still assumed responsibility for the major share of household work. 8. Societal/Peer Pressure. The media creates dissatisfaction with one's lifestyle, contributing to the general problem described as "keeping up with the Joneses." Peer pressure, according to both students and adults, exerts a strong influence on adolescents. As one student said, "Teenagers are tempted daily at sex, alcohol, and drugs. The temptation is strong." 9* Television, When asked to image homes and families, many persons portrayed families in front of television sets. When pressed for meaning, few could articulate one. Looking at television did not have a meaning. It was viewed as creating passivity in persons and a lack of communication in families. When families are watching tele vision, they generally are not communicating with each other. Values portrayed by television created another set of problems. Emphasis on sex, money, violence, material things, and stereotypes demonstrate values which may be detrimental to families. Television may induce an insensitivity to human feelings, according to some respondents in the study. It is difficult for families to mediate the influence of television, because it is so pervasive. 10. Lifestyles. The fast pace of life, or what some respondents labelled "busy-ness,” was viewed as creating problems for families. Members of the family are not home together. School activities, particularly athletics and music, were criticized as overscheduling students' time. Time together was valued by family members, particularly dinner time. However, outside pressures and activities compete for family member's attention during this time of day. The major effect on the family is one of fragmentation, of pulling the family apart. Related to changing lifestyles, respondents reflected upon the increasing sophistication and urbanization of society. They associated a sense of impersonalization and isolation with these conditions. 264 Recommendations for Further Research 1. Findings from the task list were similar to those in the Colorado study. It is recommended that if the task list is used by local advisory committees that it be divided. Respondents found it time consuming to complete. 2. This Btudy sought to replicate the Colorado task list. The Colorado study included the BACUM process, which this study did not. It may be useful to repeat the DACTJM process to generate or refine another homemaking task list. Prior to further research, it is recommended that should the Colorado task list be used, it be refined with consideration given to the different levels of generality and specificity in the tank statements. It may be helpful to ask if there are additional tasks which should have been included in the task list. If the instrument is refined, more complex statistical analysis may be applicable. 3. There were very different perspectives provided by the qualitative data and the task list. For example, in the task cluste.’ area, "managing money," the qualitative data pointed to the importance of communication and relationships in dealing with conflicts about money. The task list, however, was comprised primarily of the technical aspects of money management. It is suggested that further research be directed toward the qualitative aspects of the work of the family in order to supplement the task list data. 4. This study was exploratory and descriptive in nature; findings can be used to suggest further research. Case studies might be 265 conducted to gain further insights into home and family life. The themes generated in this research might he framed as research questions to probe further dimensions of the themes in greater depth. Hypotheses could then be developed. In addition to themes, there vere many specific problems and concerns which could be addressed in further research. 5. The need for additional qualitative research regarding the home and family is vital. There is a dearth of research in this area. If the purpose of home economics education is to strengthen families, then it is imperative that there be research which helps to identify quality home and family life. The research paradigm which is based upon a reconstructed logic of physical science research is clearly inadequate for this task. The strategy of inquiry must consider human meanings, purposes, and values. These are qualities that cannot be expressed in quantitative terms. 6. There is a need for an integrated theory of home economics. It is recommended that there be future research projects to study the family holistically in order to develop models for home economics education. Implications for Home Economics Curriculum The findings in this study provided empirical knowledge, under standing, and critical reflections useful in the development of a home economics curriculum. Implications for a conceptual framework for curriculum are also drawn from the findings. Implications from the Task Analysis. One of the problems that would occur if competency statements for a curriculum were designed directly from task statements is the risk of reductionism. There were 144 tasks in the task list. With the exception of the task cluster, ••caring for family members," the tasks were technical in nature. The descriptive data, however, provided a very different perspective to the same listing of 144 tasks. These data dealt with the meanings which people gave to the various aspects of home and family life. For example, descriptive data in both the foods and clothing area pointed to the importance of social and psychological factors in addition to technical skills. In the housing area, concern was ex pressed for the overemphasis on appearance of a house to the detriment of family relationships. In all of these areas, the processes of valuing, communicating, facilitating relationships, and managing are interwoven. The five task statements in the task cluster "caring for pets" all involved a physical act. However, caring for pets was cited in the descriptive data as helping children to learn the meaning of care and to develop responsibility. Pets were a source of love and companionship. In the task cluster "managing money," the descriptive data pointed clearly to conflicts about money as a major source of stress to families. In addition to the technical skills involved in managing money, respondents saw interpersonal relationship and communication skills as vital. 267 In the empirical-rational perspective of Habermas, technical questions assume goals as givens. The problem becomes one of applying rational goal-directed means toward these goals. The tasks are then instrumental. Hawley and Hawley (1975) constructed a model which is useful in illustrating this discussion. To prevent curricular entropy, the authors say, we need a clear notion of the difference between means values and ends values. Figure 2 illustrates this model. End Value: Religious expression is an important part of human’s existence Means Value: Church is a useful False End Value: means of religious Entropic Everyone should expression go to church Drift FIGURE 2 MEANS VALDES, END VALDES, AND THE ENTROPIC DRIFT TOWARD FALSE END VALDES When tasks become the organizers for curriculum, there is the risk of viewing them as end values, thus resulting in entropic drift away from true end values. Entropy is defined as: the natural tendency of systems to break down, 'lose their special purposes, become undiffer entiated, and fall into sameness and chaos. (Hawley and Hawley, 1975» ?• 24) Implications from Perceptions of Home and Family Life. To espouse quality home and family life as the ultimate purpose of home economics is to imply a desirable state. There is little qualitative research in this area. The findings in this study contribute to a 268 conceptualization of quality home and family life* There was an overwhelming vote of confidence placed in the family. The family was viewed as an enduring institution which will remain as the source of fulfillment of the basic human needs for love9 security, and non-conditional acceptance. There was a conviction that families can best provide for the nurturance and education of the young, their intellectual, moral, social, emotional, and spiritual development. Homes and families also provide for physical needs— food, clothing, and shelter. However, the economic perspective was rarely mentioned by respondents in addressing the meaning and significance of families. These findings support two studies reported in Chapter III. Wallace (1964) found that quality of life indicators selected by respondents in her study exemplified the higher levels of needs on Maslow's hierarchy. She concluded that persons in the United States presumably have fulfilled basic needs and are able to focus on satisfying higher level needs. Cantril, in an international study, found "a happy home life" was first in a list of qualities which people desire for a good life. He concluded that the overall picture in the world today is one in which people believe that living should consist of more than subsistence. There was no ambivalence as to the importance of homes and families to people. Even those persons in unhappy homes still saw families as important, expressing hope for a better future. For some respondents, families give meaning to life, a raison d fetre. Homes provide a refuge from the world, an emotional haven. Families are a source of deep satisfaction. They provide roots, a place to be from, and an enduring purpose in life. EJnerging throughout the study were value questions, for example What to do regarding the consequences of divorce. What to do about television. What to do about family conflict. What to do about lack of time for family. Individual respondents posed these kinds of value questions: Should we eat out or at home? Should I have a clean house or play with my children? Should I sew or buy clothes for the family? Should I return to work and put my children in a day care center? Should we have a pet? These are practical problems, defined as problems about "what to do." They are solved through action. A curriculum organized by task clusters would contain the topic, "caring for family members." However, the practical problem orientation would be, "what to do regarding the nurturance of children." When physical and social entities become reified in faulty problem formulation, we focus on such things as food, clothing, shelter, existing eco nomic systems, laws affecting the home and family as (presumably desirable) objects in themselves without regard for knowing or judging their human consequences. In doing so, we ignore the signi ficant human problems of the home and family con cerned with human spirit and personality and focus on immediate fashion, economic events, legal re quirements, and social institutions or practices as givens not to be criticized (Brown, 1979> P. 18). Proposed Curriculum Model: Manor Recommendations. The meta- scientific perspectives of Habermas which formed the theoretical base for methodology of this study also apply to implications for curriculum. Should the data have reflected the empirical-rational perspective, then a task analysis approach would be a logical organizer for the curriculum. However, the tasks, which are written in performance or observable behavior terms, did not emerge in the qualitative, descriptive data. Even the questionnaire in which the questions corresponded with the tasks produced data that primarily focused upon expressive rather than instrumental dimensions. Respondents, when asked for recommendations for home economics curriculum, suggested value questions and the importance of addressing problems of home and family life. The data from the interviews and student questionnaires focus upon the human condition. Within the realm of home economics curriculum are those problems which relate to human life in homes and families. Implications for curriculum necessitate both hermeneutic and critical science perspectives as well as the empirical-rational perspective. The hermeneutic perspective focuses upon intersubjective understanding and interpreting the structure of meanings. The empirical-rational perspective provides instrumental, technical knowledge. The critical science perspective is rooted in normative knowledge, practical problems, or value questions of "what should be." The following recommendations are based upon an application of the findings in this study to the model in Figure $. The proposed model for a conceptual framework for home economics is adapted from Optimum Quality of Human Life in Homes and Families What To Do Regarding What To Do Regarding PERENNIAL PROBLEMS Nurturing Children Interpersonal and Family Relationships THEMES Companionate Love/ Agape Love Togetherness_____ Caring PRACTICAL PROBLEMS What to do regarding What to do regarding the decision to marry time for work and or not to marry______family ______ Organize tasks to save time and energy______ Set priorities for TECHNICAL TASKS/ use of time SKILLS Plan activities for families to do together FIGURE 3 PROPOSED MODEL: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR HOME ECONOMICS CURRICULUM (Application to a Sample Curricular Area) 272 that of Brown and Paolucci (1979)* 1. The ma.ior recommendation is that the conceptual framework for home economics curriculum he organized by -perennial or enduring •problems regarding the quality of human life in hones and families rather than by tasks. Other perennial problems in addition to those illustrated in Figure 3 might include what to do regarding: managing a home, family economics, feeding the family, clothing the family, and housing the family* 2. The themes which emerged in this study regarding the meaning and significance of home and family life provide substantive focus for the perennial -problems. 3* The problems and concerns expressed in this study may be formulated as practical problems, problems of "what to do.1* 4* The technical tasks or skills, including those validated in this study, are instrumental to. or means of solving practical problems of home and family life. There were additionally tasks or skills that were suggested in the qualitative study that did not appear in the task list. Implications for a Theoretical Framework for Home Economics Implicit in the term "home economics" is an historical dialectic. In the tenth Lake Placid Conference held in 1908, home was defined as "the place of shelter and nurture of children" and as representing "those personal qualities of self sacrifice for others for the gaining of strength to meet the world." Economics, however, meant "the management of this home on economic lines as to time and energy 273 as well as to mere money." This historical dialectic was manifested in this study. The home and all it encompasses was represented in the findings from the hermeneutic data in terms of relationships and the psychological and emotional dimensions of experiences. Economics, with roots in the application of science to improving environmental conditions and the organizational efficiency in the home, was represented in this study in the empirical-rational data related to the tasks of homemaking. Most of the research in home economics lies in this economic paradigm. Yet the data offer evidence that is incongruent with the economic paradigm. In the task analysis approach to home economics curriculum, the organizers are tasks. The findings clearly do not fit this schema. The major themes suggested in this study have a more cosmic signifi cance, organizing around the human condition. The themes developed may be summarized into two dominant metaphors: Logos and Eros. Logos, from Greek meaning "the word," connotes thought, reason, mind. In Jungian psychology it is associated with the masculine principle, rationally shaping, observing, inquiring, and directing energy toward a specific goal. Marcuse (1966) said that Logos represents the idea of ordering, classifying, and mastering reason. In Greek mythology, Eros, the god of love, created life on earth. Associated with the feminine principle in Jungian psychology, Eros is defined as relatedness. It arises in the creative forces of intuition Baynes (1969) says that the intuitive concepts of Eros and Logos are empirically valuable because they comprehend complex psychic 274 operations which cannot be embraced by simple functional terms. Jung viewed these as qualities of the mind. In a more comprehensive sense, these metaphors may represent an orientation to the world, a way of being and doing. The dominant paradigm in home economics curriculum and research is in the Logos orientation. Yet the findings in this study strongly support the need for an Eros orientation. For example, the major construct associated with the meaning and significance of home and family life was love. The major problem was divorce. In the task analysis, those tasks related to managing money are instrumental and goal-oriented. If the organizer for curriculum and research was tasks, then a technical or Logos principle would prevail. Evidence in the findings points to a more critical dimension of money manage ment, that of money as a source of conflict in families. This sug gests the arena of relationships, the Eros principle. The task cluster, "meeting nutritional needs," relates to the planning and preparation of nutritious meals. Yet, in the imagery experience for the word home, the kitchen or dining room was often visualized. The meaning given centered upon the relationships that occurred in that room around food. This adds a dimension of social significance to the view of food purely as a source of nutriment, of Eros as well as Logos. In the task approach to child development, the tasks are phrased "care for infants and small children," and "show love and affection to children." A holistic approach incorporates Logos and Eros. The family is viewed in the total social and emotional context, which goes 'beyond the specific tasks one performs in caring for children. Logos is goal-oriented whereas Eros is associated with rational phenomena. This was reflected in the tension which occurs between career needs and commitment to the family. Respondents in this study registered a strong voice for the necessity of valuing the family above career. The demands of outside activities reduce family togetherness. If family time together is valued, Eros can assert a counterbalance to the fragmentation of the family. One respondent in this study pointed to economics as the major problem of families and to love as a basic need, stating: "We need to mix the two, the economics and the love, and get both of them working well. Then the family will stay together.1* He expressed concern for balancing material needs and spiritual values. Further evidence of this is presented in the quantitative data from the task analysis. The task performed most frequently was "show love and affection to children." In second place was "pay bills." The Logos- Eros orientations were expressed in the distinction between a house, representing physical shelter, and a home as the relationships con tained there. May (1969) in Love and Will cogently states the tension between Logos and Eros: But there comes a point (and this is the challenge facing modem technological Western man) when the cult of technique destroys feeling, undermines passion, and blots out individual identity. . • At this point, technology diminishes consciousness and demolishes Eros (p. 96). 276 Erom ancient Chinese writings as set forth in the "I Ching" to philosophers Aristotle, and contemporarily, Habermas, the dialectic process is viewed as one of advancing knowledge, of transformation. The dialectic process is one in which one seeks meaning and truth through weighing and reconciling juxtaposed or contradictory arguments, especially through discussion and debate. A holistic rather than one dimensional perspective is essential in developing a comprehensive theory of home economics. Themes suggested in this study which might be most effectively addressed in a dialectic include: self-other; intimacy-isolation; meaning-anomie; present-future; dependence-independence; home as emotional haven- impersonal world; instrumental-expressive; and spiritual values- materialistic values. The complex concepts in this study formed an Eros-Logos dialectic. Implications from the findings suggest that the set of concepts associated with the meaning and significance of home and family life is central to strengthening home and family life. The tasks or work of the home become means to that end. Since it is the position of this researcher, based upon evidence presented, that Logos has been paramount in home economics curriculum and research, and the findings in this study strongly support an Eros orientation, a paradigm shift is proposed. A task-oriented approach tends to rationalize home economics and is reductionistic. Logos is associated with the love of truth, gained rationally. Translated into research terms, home economics would be empirical-rational in nature. Yet this study points to the need for a holistic approach to research, 277 one that recognizes the significant dimensions or reality in home and family life. Eros is associated with the truth of love. This cannot he gained through rational analytic research. The hermeneutic methods of inquiry are more appropriate in which one searches for the meanings in life. The quantitative-qualitative dichotomy arises here, Logos tending toward the methodology of the former, and Eros, the latter. Mooney (1980) says that dichotomies, taken as real separations, become killers and destroyers of life. Integrated at the root, however, they serve and promote life. Is not the ultimate aim of the profession of home economics to serve life? It is the contention of this researcher that the field of home economics can he advanced through a comprehensive, theoretical framework in which the Eros orientation, presently in a pre-paradigmatic state, is developed in a dialectic with the Logos orientation. APPENDIX A APPROVAL - HOMAN SUBJECT REVIEW COMMITTEE 278 279 OHIO ST AT; J.MIVE=S|TY Socia' S 5’navicrsi Ec:?nces CSOTOCOL ‘10. BOB 482 Hunan Subjec* Revi“« Cc-rnifTee L^IGitlAL st.TT7 P'* Research involving H-nan jubjeers CdiT INUINS PE /IE.. ■I/E-YEAR REVIEW A Cl ION Or THE REVIEW COMMITTEE With regarc to the employment of human subjects in the proposed research entitled: AN APPLICATION OF THE METASCIENTIFIC THEORY OF JURGEN HABERMAS Robert R. Barbar / Joanna Ulster „ .... C8 rdna fc-t iee-e m eh ______is lis *etf Bs *’’« principal investigator. 222 Ransoyer , . 29 W Woodruff THE SOCIAL AND 5EHAVIORAL SCIENCES REVIEW COMMITTEE HAS TAKEN THE FOLLOWING ACTION: □ Approves □ Disapproves Q'ApproveS with conditions * 0 < a iver of written Consent Granted * Conditions stated oy the Committee have been met by the Investigator and, therefore the protocol is approved. It is the responsibility ot the principal investigator to retain a copy of each signed consent fora for at least four (4) years beyond the termination of the subject's participation in the pro posed activity. Should the principal investigator leave the University, signed consent forms are to be transferred to the Human Subject Review Cormittee for the required retention period. This application has been approved for the period of one year. ^ou are reminded that you must promptly report any problems to the Review Committee, and that no procedural changes may be made without prior review and approval, you are also reminded that the identity of the research participants must be kept con fidential. Date /A 2iC**^0 Signed: IChalrperscn) cc: Original - Investigator Development O fficer F i l e Form PA-0E5 R?>'. 11-10 APPENDIX B PERMISSION FOR USE OP COLORADO TASK ANALYSIS 280 fttCHAAD D. LAMM. Governor STATE BOARD FOR COMMUNITY COLLECES AND OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION CM im iM l w a n M , w o FLOOD • III! OHCNMAN B-ntKKY • m n v d d , c o l o d a d o h i u JAMES W WILSON. Oireelor TERRENCE A TOLLEPSON. Oireelor OCCUPATIONAL EOUCATION • COMMUNITY COLLEGES Rm. 214 (3031 839-3071 Rm. 231 (3031 839-3151 October 30, 1980 Hs. Joanna Kister State Supervisor Vocational Education Home Economics Section Department of Education Columbus, OH 43215 Dea r Jo: In response to your letter we are happy to give you permission to use the Task Analysis of the Colorado Homemaker with your advisory committee. We do ask, however, that you give credit to the project staff and the State of Colorado when using this material. It was good to hear that Phyllis Abt's two presentations in Ohio on the Task Analysis Project were so well received. Dorothy Oriner, State Supervisor Home Economics Education CW4/6S APPENDIX C COMMUNICATION TO TEACHERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 282 285 STATE OF OHIO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION COLUMBUS 43215 rfU M M U N a . W A L T lft • f f t l I t SHOEMAKER, CkC&jTivC 0 *'.C «0ft kjfinNiiM XNt or VOCATIONALm 0 CARCfA (OUCATiON A NO ftMucoantucnOH SCHOOL f OOO St ftviCE October 20. 1980 sot o m o o c p a a tiih n rs o u id n o TO: Selected Teachers FROM: Sonia Price, Assistant Director Barbara Reed, State Supervisor Gall Henderson, State Supervisor Oena Plantz, State Supervisor Jo Kister, State Supervisor The Ohio curriculum task force 1s requesting your assistance In doing Interviews to provide data for the new consumer homemaking curriculum. .Only those teachers who were 1n PRIDE recently were eligible to be a part of this research effort. You were selected by your state' supervisor to be one of only forty teachers across the state to assist with this project. Specifically, this Involves giving a homemaking task check list and a short open-ended Interview to five members of your advisory or PRIDE committee. These Interviews are a vital part of the task force plan for developing consumer homemaking curriculum. Your participation 1n this project will give you the opportunity to be a part of the new curriculum development effort. There will be a meeting December 3 In Columbus to give you the information you will need. If there is a problem with substitute pay, we can provide reimbursement to your school district. This does require completion of a set of forms. Since you will be doing Interviews on your own time, travel expenses to the meeting and youTlunch will be provided. There will be a $50.00 honorarium for the time you will spend. Regarding travel, there will be other teachers from your area of the state coming. After we receive your confirmation for participating, we will send a 11st of those attending so that you can arrange to travel together. At that time too, we will send the specific location for the December 3 meeting.' The Interviews are to be done during January and February and are to be completed and returned by February 28. A separate letter has been sent to your superintendent informing him of this request. cc: Principal "Art CqiMf Opi»Ni«iiwfy rinrATyef ’ 284 Yes. I will participate In curriculum research effort. Ho. I will not be able to participate at this time. Name ______School Address______School Telephone______.______• Home Address______;______Home Telephone______;______ ****If you have any further questions, please contact Jo Klster at 614-466-3046 285 STATS OF OHIO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION COLUMBUS 43215 fM M K U M a. WAITCM • m I t SHOEMAKER, om C .'O * tuHoxniocNiof October 21, 1980 •OCa i k m a i a n d c a m c r c u u c a now am o Mue««rMuciiON *CMOOt»OCOMAv.Cl •o r o h o MMRriMNis outuria Dear The Ohio Department of Education, Vocational Home Economics Section, is requesting the assistance of your vocational hope' economics teacher(s) with the consumer homemaking curriculum project. The extent of Involvement for your teacher 1s limited to: (1) a one day orientation meeting'In Columbus on December 3, and (2) Interviewing five . of their advisory committee members on their own time - not school time. Expenses for the teacher(s) will be covered by our office. We can provide reimbursement for substitute pay 1f 1t Is necessary. This will require completion of a set of forms. A copy of the letter to your home economics teacher(s) was sent to the building principal. • We very much appreciate your cooperation 1n this curriculum effort. Sincerely, j d i t * « * - /}> Sonia. M. Price Assistant Director Vocational Education Home Economics Section SP:rr “ An Coual O rpvtunftv APPENDIX D AGENDA - TRAINING MEETING 28 6 287 CURRICULUM PROJECT MEETING AGENDA HILTON INN NORTH December 3 t 1980 9:30 - 10:00 Registration, Coffee 10:00 WHY: Overview of Consumer/Homemaking Curriculum Plan BARBARA REEP 10:15 WHAT: Rationale and Procedures fo r Task Analysis/ Home and Family Life Project JO KISTER 12:00 LUNCH 1:00 HOW: Interviewing Helps GAIL HENDERSON 2:30 ’ Questions/Summary APPENDIX E TEACHER PACKET j PLOW CHART AND INSTRUMENTS 288 289 aOW CHART Seniors 1n hoot 2 Advisory or PRIDE 2 Advisory or PRIDE 1 Advisory or PRIDE economics (Choose the Comlttee Umbers Comalttee Members Comnlttee Member MHO consuoer/homsmaktng (First 2 names (Last 2 names class with the highest alphabetically) alphabetically) enrollment of senior students) SHORT FORK A - DATA SHEET OATA SHEET OATA SHEET Questlonnelre FORH A - Interview FORM B • Questionnaire FORM C • Task Analysis WHAT FORM C - Task Analysis FORM C • Task Analysis TAPES 1. Clve SHORT FORK A 1. Hake appointment to 1. Give OATA SHEET and 1. Give DATA SHEET and to senior students Interview the 7 FORKS B and C to FORM C to tr.e In constmer Identified A/C the 2 Identified remaining A/C member. hoaemaklng class members. A/C members. Explain Explain purpose of with hlfhest purpcse of study study and enrollment of 2. Give then the DATA and directions. directions. seniors. (Emphasize SHEET. Explain the that thare are no purpose of study. 2. Ask then to complete 2. Check for naaes and that tney Test the tape FORM C before FORM completeness of trill be placed recorder. B and make appoint* response. Match the directly In the rent to pick up the data sneet and clip envelopes. 3. Complete and reccrd forms. with FORM C for Interview on tape. that person. 2. Check forms for 3. Review FORM B with coaipleteness of 4. Explain and leave A/C members to 3. Place in envelops. response. FORH C. Ask then to clarify any return It to you. questions and to SCHEDULE 3. Place In envelope. amplify responses. 5. Zamtdlately after leaving Interview, 4. Check all forms for listen to tape. completeness of Note key phrases response. Match and explanations on data sheet and clip FORM t. with FORMS B and C for that person. 6. Hatch the data sheet and clip with FORMS 6. Place In envelope. A and C. and tape for that person. 7. Place In envelopes. Depends upon number 2 DATA SHEETS 2 OATA SHEETS 1 OATA SHEET NUMRER OF of seniors enrolled 2 FORH A 2 FORM B 1F0RM C FORKS TO RE 2 FORM C 2 FORH C RETURNED 2 TAPES 290 CHECK SHEET RETURN 8Y« FEBRUARY 38 or BEFORE, IF COMPLETED Check Humber Fora Teacher _____ 5 OATA SHEETS School ______3 FORM A _____ 2 TAPES _____ 2 FORM B _____ 5 FORM C ' ? SHORT FORM A 3 HONORARIUM FORMS - Notarized Please note your own comments or observation* regarding thi* project or ideas which you s»y have gained which will be helpful as we work toward a new consumer hoaemaklng curriculum. THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELP! Any questions or problmnsi CALLi Jo Kister, Supervisor vocational Home Economics - Room 912 65 South Front Street Columbus, Ohio 43215 (614) 466-3046 291 OATA SHEET Home Economics Teacher School HARK THE APPROPRIATE BOX Sex Age I I Hale I I Under 18 I I Female I I 19-35 Employment I 1 36-50 I I Employed 15 hrs. per week or more ‘ I I 51 and Over I I Not employed or employed less than Educational Preparation - Highest 15 hrs. per week Level Completed Children I I Grade school, Incomplete I I Children (under 18) living at home □ 8th grade I I No children living at home □ 12th grade Harltal Status f I College, 4 years or more f i Hrrrled location □ Divorced or Separated 1 r 1 Widowed □ Urban (more than 2,500) I I Single I I Rural (less than 2,500) Ethnic Croup Occupation I I White I 1 Black I I Hispanic I" I Other . 292 Hale qussticnnaihe (short fo rm a ) _____ r«ui« (Use back of page, if necessary) 1. Describe word*, associations, or picture* that con* to your mind for th* word home. Can you pictur* a room? Why do you think you aelected that roan? What are you doing? What meaning do** it have? 2. Describe,words, association's, or pictures that cane to your Bind for the word family. Think of a picture of a family. How many people era in the picture? What are they doing? Why did you select that picture? 3. What do you recall frcn your experience* in home and family life that is significant to you? Why was it important? What made it meaningful? 4. Why do you think homes and families are important to people? 293 (Dm back of page, if necessary) page 2 5. Thinking of fwiilles in 1800, now, and tha peer 2,000i Nhat has changed? What has raaained tha .seme and likely will remain tha same? What is likely to change? Do you think these changes ace for better or worse? Why? 6. Thinking of people whoa you know in your conounity, whet are major problems and ooncerns which affect their hone and family life? 7, Bow would you describe a good or' "ideal" home and family life? 8. Nhat are conditions in society which may provent families from becoming whet they would like to be? 9. Nhat could we do in home economics classrooms that would make a difference in the home and family lifo of students — * now and in the future? OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW (FORM A) • QUESTION ■ RESPONSE 1. Describe words, associations, or • pictures that cone to your mind for the word home. • Can you picture a room? Uhy do you think you selected that room? Nhat- • are you doing? Uhat meaning does it have? i ‘ 2. Describe words, associations, or pictures that come to your mind for the word family. - i Think of a picture of a family. How many people are in the picture? Uhat are they doing? Uhy did you select that pictura7 • OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW (FORM A) a-z QUESTION RESPONSE 3. Uhat do you recall from your experiences In home and family life that Is significant to you? Uhy was it Important? Uhat made 1t meaningful? Uhy do you think homes and families are Important to people? voIV) VJl OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW (FORM A) ■ QUESTION RESPONSE ' S. Thinking of families In 1800, now, and t h e y e a r 2,000: Uhat has changed? - Uhat has remained the-same and likely 1 will remain the same? Uhat 1s likely to change? Oo you think these changes are for 1 better, or worse? Uhy? 6. Thinking of people whom you know In your community, what are major » problems and concerns which affect their home and family life? i OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW (FORM A) A-4 t 1 QUESTION RESPONSE 7. How would you describe a good or "ideal" 'home and family life? • 1 I 1i 1 8. Khat are conditions in society which j may prevent families from i becoming what they would like to be? i » . • * ro vo OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW (FORM A) "■ ' ■ ■■ ■ ' 11 - ■ ■ — - i. — n — ■ — ■ ■ . — QUESTION RESPONSE 9. Uhat could we do In home economics classrooms that would make a difference In the home and family life of students—now and 1n the i future? ; • I ro VO 00 299 DIRECTIONS - FORK B Thank you for completing the task analysis. As you may have noted, we only asked for numbers. However, numbers can only give so much information. It would be helpful to us to know how important (or not Important) these tasks are and problems to families in performing these tasks. ~ Each task area refers to those tasks which are listed under it on the task analysis.. For example, managing money refers to the sixteen tasks listed. However, if there are taBks that you think are important that are not on the task analysis', these can be written on this form. The problems and concerns also refer to the tasks listed on the task analysis. If there are problems related to the task area that are not listed in the specific tasks, these can be written on this form. If you need more space, use the back of the page. Thank you for your assistance. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE (FORM B) 8-1 A. 8. Task Cluster Why Is this Important or not important to your home Generalizing to fam ilies you know—what are major and family life? problems or concerns related to . . . i . 1. Managing money i • i 1 l i j i 2. Caring fo r and Improving s e lf i . » i I i I i i i i i OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE (FORM B) A. 8. Task Cluster Uhy is this Important or not Important to your home Generalizing to families you know— uhat are major and family life? problems or concerns related to . . . • 3. Caring for family members • • 4. Meeting nutritional needs • • 5. Providing for family health • and safety OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE (FORM B) A. B. Task Cluster Why Is this Important or not Important to your hone Generalizing to families you know— what are major and family life? problems or concerns related to . . . 6. Providing for housing • « 7. Providing and caring for - clothing and textile products * 8. Managing tine OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE (FORM B) *• 8. Task Cluster Uhy is this important or not important to your home - Generalizing to families you know— what are major and family life? problems or concerns related to . . . 9. Cleaning and maintaining hone • 10. Providing transportation' 1 • 1 11. Planning for social events and entertaining OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE (FORM B) B-S A.. B. Task Cluster Why is this important or not Important to your home Generalizing to families ytu know— uhat are major and family life? problems or concerns related to . . . 12. Providing and maintaining yard and garden i 13. Caring for gets a . 1 1 Vo j l 4s» DIRECTIONS - TASK ANALYSIS (FORH C) The State Department of Education, Vocational Home Economics Service, appreciates your help in collecting information about tasks which are performed in the home. We will use this information as a base for developing curriculum for vocational home economics programs in Ohio. Please respond to each of the task statements in three ways: a) Frequency of Task Performance 0 1 2 3 4 5 Task is not occasionally- 1 time 2-3 times 1 or more 1 or more performed less: than-pnce a month a month times a tines a • a month week - day * b) Time Spent in One Day 0 1 2 3 4 5 Task is not less than 1 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 or more performed hour • hours C1 Importance or Criticality of Task to Family Well-Being 0 1 2 3 4 5 Task is not Unimportant Moderately Moderate Moderately Important performed Unimportant Important Example Task Frequency of Time Spent when Importance Performance Performed Wash dishes and untensils 0 1 2 3 4 X 0^2345 012X45 \J4 o VJl TASK LIST (FORM C) c-i mrrv I- Managing Honey • FREQUENCY OF TIKE SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK 1 1 / a 3 *I* in s./i < / 'JJ * I*4 I f J 7 o J i g k I 1 & J S b - "i /V a i y 1 r / / / T 1 1. Balance checkbook 0 1 r2 3 4 5 0 0 ) 1 z 3 4 5 1) T ? 3 £ 5 Collect information about 0 1 2. new products (2) Z 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ?, 3 * 4 5 3. Develop a budget based upon Income (3) 0 1 • 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 4. Develop a savings plan (4) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 bevelop and maintain an accounting 0 5. and filing system (5) 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . 0 1 2 3 4 5 Establish and maintain a sound . 6. Insurance program (6) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Include family members in 7. financial decisions <71 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 •? 8. Pay bills (8) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Prepare estate planning Information 9. sheet and update regularly (9) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 10. Provide a will and update regularly (10) 0. 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 $ 0 1 2 3 4 5 Read and interpret contracts 11. before sianina (") 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Regulate cash flow to meet 12. payments (12) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 13. Seek legal advice' (13) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM C> C-2 DUTY I. Managing Money FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN PERFORMANCE PERFORMEO TASK <■>/ W * 5 , ! s # f s ' l **-1 Set goals and priorities for use -ri J- r i _ H. of money (14) 15. Shop for goods and services (15) 16. Use credit (16) TASKLIST CFORM C) C-3 DUTY H « Caring- for and Improving Self FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN PERFORMANCE PERFORMED TASK Continue education formally/ 1. Informally______(17) 2. Deal with family crisis (18) 3. Follow a physical fitness program (19) ~ Maintain personal hygiene and. A- grooming (20) Obtain information about 5. community activities (2 1 ) 6. Provide time for rest (22) Pursue personaI'hobbies and 7. Interests (23) TASK LIST CFORM C> C-4 d u t y H I . Caring for Family Members FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMEO IMPORTANCE I TASK 4al X./• f JJ 6/ J cl I s J 1 7 / f - J «**• ^ a m t "i * *•*/ rr / r 4 Care for infants and small 0 1. children (24) 1 2 3 4 r5 0 Z ? 4 5 o 1 ? 3 4 «? 2. Cultivate relationships with in-laws(25) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 a 1 3 4 5 Encourije enjoyment or ramity ' z 3. resDonsibilitles (26), 0 1 2 3 4 5 p 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 4 Encourage family members to develop 4. to maximum potential (27) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 S 0 l 2 3 4 5 Expand educational opportunities 5. through family activities (28) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5. 0 l 2 3 4 5 Give compliments tor tasks 6. well done (29) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 Guide family members in 7. spiritual growth (30) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 flake arrangements for substitute 8. child care (31) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 9. Nurture the marriage relationship (32) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 Provide a pleasant, harmonious 10. home environment (33) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 S Provide consistent and appropriate 11. discipline for children (34) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 12. Provide for family discussion (35) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 $ 0 l 2 3 4 5 Provide moral support for i3. •family members (36) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 $ 0 l 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM CJ C-5 DUTY HI. Caring for Family Hanbers FREQUENCY OF T IKE SPENT WHEN / CRITICALITY/ PERFORMAHCE PERFORMED / IMPORTANCE TASK liI/hj:il / / /*7 / f ^ Recognize developmental stages of In- 0 14. dividual family members and meet 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 needs accordingly (37) Set short and long-term goals 15. for family (38) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 16. Shew love and affection to children (39) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 .2 3 4 5 17. Supervise the activities of ch11dren(40) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Teach about family customs and . beliefs (41) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 T 2 3 4 5 Teach children respect for self 19. and others (42) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Teach children to accept 20. responsibility (43) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 3 4 utilize community programs that 1 5 21. support the family (44) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 fj 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 s 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 a ' 5 0 1 2 3 4 . 5 TASK LIST (FORM C) C-6 DUTY ^eet^n9 Nutritional Needs____ FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK Evaluate nutritional needs of 1. family members (45) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 Identify nutritional components 0 2. of food (46) 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5. 0 1 ? 3 4 5 (47) 0 3. Make a shopping list 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 4. Plan food budget (48) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Plan meals and snacks according to 5. nutritional needs&family preferences(49) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . a 1 2 3 4 5 6. Prepare meals (50) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 7. Purchase groceries (51) 0 1 2 3 4 5 . 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 s Read and utilize cookbooks (52) 8. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 } 2 3 4 5 Store and handle food safely. 9. - and orooerlv (S3) 0 1 2 3 4" 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 10. Teach nutrition to family members (54) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4' 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 ' 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 $ 0 2 3 4 5 1: 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3. 4 ’ 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM C> C-7 DUTY V. Providing for Family Health and Safety FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ * PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK H l / l ■c/ 7 V / §/ I * /* /jh " u »- V * fee/ v J ~ / ^ /V r f v / j 7 7 ’T Apply first-aid and home nursing 0 1. tcchnlaues (55) 1 2 3 4 r5 0 1 2 ? 4 ff o 1 2 3 4 5 0 .1 2. Budget money for health care (56) 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 a Eliminate safety hazards In the 3. home (57) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 s Establish and maintain household 4. security procedures (58) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 identify and secure emergency S. services (59) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 a l 2 3 4 S Identify symptoms of disease and other 6. medical disorders In family members (60) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 l 2 3 4 5 Identify symptoms of mental 7. stress In family members (61) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 Maintain up-to-date family 8. medical records (62) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 $ Obtain regular medical and 9. dental checkuns (63) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 $ 10. Practice preventative medicine (64) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 11. Select health personnel & fac1l1ties(55) 0 1 2 3- 4' 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 $ 0 i 2 3 4 $ -' - ...... ' ‘ ' 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 s 0 l 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST (FORM C> C-8 d u t y VI. Providing for Housing______ FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ • PERFORMED 1HPGRTAHCE j PERFORMANCE \ TASK • / ■c/£»/ 'iiiU| a u <4 8 V $ ■l /O M- /. V if * 1 r 7 c f i jk 1* b Arrange furniture In a functional P / 1. and attractive manner (66) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 Coordinate colors and styles in r 2.' home decorating * (67) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 .0 ? 2 3 4 5 Explore alternatives for acquiring 3. heme furnishinqs (W) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Hake arrangements for moving 4. family and household qoods (691 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Make use of personal talents in 5. home decorating (70) 0 1 2 - 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 a 1 2 3 4 5 6. Select furniture for the home (71) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 7. Select housing (72) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 § • 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5, 0 1 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM C) C-9 DUTY VII. Providing and Caring for Clothing ana textile Products FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMEO IMPORTANCE TASK rJJ7 ii ht Choose proper laundry cleaning agents Determine how much to spend for 2. clothing ______1241 bTBiuavc lauuijr 3 naiuiuuc nccuat 3.. suitability, and safety of clothing (75) Sew clothing for self A. and/or family ' (76) Identify fabrics and their 5. characteristics (77) Launder or dry clean clothing &.linens 6. according to fabric characteristics (78) 7. Hake alterations to clothing • (79) 8. Mend and repair clothing (80) 9. Select clothing and accessories (81) 10. sort clothes for laundering (82) 11. Store clothing properly (83) TASK LIST CFORM C> C-10 d u t y VIII. Hanaging U s e FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK V i Develop schedule of routine 1. household tasks______(84) 2. Keep a calendar of activities (85) Organize tasks to save time 3. and energy (86) 4. Plan time alone with spouse (87) Plan and coordinate family 5. activities______(88) 6. Provide time for self (89) 7. Set priorities for use of time (90) VJ1 TASK LIST CFORM C) c-11 DUTY IX. Cleaning and Maintaining Home FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK 1 JJ •c/ i * O r / . /*j ifi 1 / i j i fMl jO p m y IX. Cleaning and Maintaining Home FREQUENCY OF • TIKE SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMEO IMPORTANCE TASK 1 l / l /# •cl J // # £ . | i J j /. r IPn - r f v 1 i t j 14. Organize storage space (104) 0 1 2 3 4 V5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 Q 1 2 3 4 5 (105) 0 1 15. Perform simple carpentry 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Practice energy -conservation 16. In the home (106) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Recognize uses & limitations of 17. tools and appliances (107) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Regulate lighting, ventilation, 18. humidity, and temperature (108) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1- 2 3 4 5 Select household cleaning and 19. maintenance equipment & supplies (109) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Share cleaning & maintenance 20. responsibilities with family members(HO) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 21. Hash dishes and utensils (111) 0 1 2 3 4 ‘ 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Wash kitchen cabinet and counter 22. surfaces (112) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM C> C-13 DLttV X. Providing Transportation______ FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED IMPORTANCE TASK Budget for variable and fixed 1» tr ansoortatior. costs J i m 0 I 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 , 4 5 0 T 2 3 4 «{ 0 2. Check the oil in Vehicle 0 1 4 ) 1- 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ?, 3 4 g 3. Drive a vehicle (115) 0 - 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 Equip vehicle for possible A. emprcencv _ _ n m 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Fill vehicle with proper grade 5. of fuel (117) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Identify signs of vehicle 6. malfunction (118) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Provide for regular vehicle maintenance (1191 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 s 8. Select a vehicle (120) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 S 9. Use mass transit (121) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 10. Utilize carpools (122) 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 11. Walk whenever possible (123) 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 ’ 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 I 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 - 3 4.' 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 TASK LIST CFORM C> DUTY XI. Planning for Social Events and Entertaining FREQUENCY OF TIME SPENT WHEN , CRITICALITY/ PERFORMANCE PERFORMED / IMPORTANCE TASK Budget i I. J a. money* * far social 2. Celebrate special occasions 3. Determine type of gathering 4. Entertain business associates (127) 5. Entertain guests In the home (120) 6. Make plans for entertaining (129) 7. Plan food for special events (130) H a n recreational and social 8* activities (131) 9. Use socially acceptable etiquette (132) TASK LIST CFORM C> C-15 DUTY XII. Providing and Maintaining Yard and Garden FREQUENCY OF / T IKE SPENT WHEN / CRITICALITT/ PERF0R1IWNCE / PERFORMED / IMPORTANCE TASK / 2 / •/ * / $ W / / / •/ / * ^ */ / V § / ( § / */ V M L < s >/ 5/ *57 + / ♦ / g g J h j & j y M . (sPi Z JV >7 / * / V «y '■>- W ar,v a w j f 4 I 1 I I 1 1 : ■ Control weeds and Insects In yard *• and warden (133) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? ,3 4 5 Maintain safe and attractive 2. landscape and garden (134) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 ]? 3 4 •» 3. Mow and trim lawn (135) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 Practice safe operation of yard eaulpment (136) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 5. Prepare soil for planting (137) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 . 0 1 2 3 4 5 Purchase plants, seeds, and' 6 \ supplies (138) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 7. Hater yard and aarden (139) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ?? 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 ? 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 ' 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 j l U.: 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Vjlro o TASK LIST CFORM C> C-16 DtiTY XIII. Caring for Pets ______ 1 . • FREQUENCY OF / T 1HE SPENT WHEN / CRITICALITY/ PEP.F0SHANCE /• PERF0RME0 / IMPORTANCE TASK . / w ■*/ $ / a ' 1 / / / -/y d $ j j JJ S J a * i i fa 1 ? - | : i * H / f i l i a l ; * Nake arrangements for substitute 0 1. care of pets (140) 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 0 r 2 2. Hake wise pet selection (141) 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ?• 3 4 JL_ 3. Obtain license and tags for pet (142) O' i 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 Provide necessary vaccinations 4. for pets (143) 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Provide water and other nutritional 5. needs for pets (144) 0 i 2 3 4 5 o' 1 2 3 4 5 . 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 ? 3 4 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 4 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 1 S 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4' 5 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 $ 0 1 2 3 4 $ 0 i 2 3 4 S 0 1 2 3 4' 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 APPENDIX P ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS BY OCCUPATION 322 ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS BY OCCUPATION Homemaker Retired School Counselor Keypunch operator' Minister Pilm editor Teacher Educational media specialist Salesperson Factory worker Store manager Domestic Nurses aide Repairman Custodian Banker Pood service worker Waitress Parmer Fireman Student Realtor Secretary County extension agent Director - Volunteer Services Nutrition aide Clerk Printer Teacher aide Truck driver School administrator Fashion designer College instructor Tax consultant Social service worker Interior decorator Labor relations director Newspaper writer APPENDIX G LOCATIONS OP THE 40 SITES 324 40 SITES Beaver Local, Columbiana County, Beaver H.S. Black River Local, Medina County, Black River H.S. Buckeye Local, Jefferson County, Buckeye North H.S. Buckeye Local, Medina County, Buckeye H.S. Buckeye Valley Local, Delaware County, Buckeye Valley H.S. Cincinnati City, Schwab Jr.H. Cincinnati City, Withrow H.S. Cleveland City, John Hay H.S. Dover City, Dover City H.S. East Liverpool City, East Liverpool H.S. Elyria City, Elyria West H.S. Fort Frye Loca-I, Washington County, Fort Frye H.S. Graham Local, Champaign County, Graham H.S. Indian Valley Local, Tuscarawas County, Indian Valley H.S. Jackson Local, Stark County, Jackson H.S. Jonathan Alder Local, Madison County, Jonathan Alder H.S. Joseph Badger Local, Trumbull County, Badger H.S. Lorain City, North Rldgevllle H.S. Marysville Exempted Village, Marysville H.S. Mfamtsburg City, Mtamisburg H.S. Middletown City, Freshman H.S. Middletown City, Middletown H.S. Mt. Vernon City, Mt. Vernon H.S. Newton Falls Exempted Village, Newton Falls H.S. Ohio Valley Local, Adams County, Manchester H.S. Old Ft. Local, Seneca County, Old Ft. H.S. Olentangy Local, Delaware County, Olentangy H.S. Oregon City, Oregon City H.S. Paint Valley Local, Ross County, Paint Valley H.S. Plain Local, Stark County, Glen Oak - East Campus Plain Local, Stark County, Glen Oak - West Campus Portsmouth City, Portsmouth H.S. Scioto Darby City, Hilliard H.S. Solon City, Solon H.S. Springfield Local, Summit County, Schrop Jr.H. Springfield Local, Summit County, Spring Hill Jr.H. Steubenville City, Steubenville H.S. Tiffin City, Columbiana H.S. Warren Local, Washington County, Warren H.S. Westfall Local, Pickaway County, Westfall H.S. APPENDIX H FREQUENCY, DURATION, AND CRITICALITY OF HOMEMAKING TASKS - MEAN RATINGS 326 TABLE 4 4 FREQUENCY, DURATION, AND CRITICALITY OF HOMEMAKQO TASKS - KEAN RATTJBS • % o f Advisory Mean Rating M e a n Rating K e a n rating Cannittee Members for for for T a s k Who Perform the Frequency Duration Crlticallty T a s k N-200 MANAGING MONEY 1. Balance checkbook 81.5 1.8500 1.0454 4.5359 2. Collect Information about new products 78.5 1.7650 1.0659 2.8977 3. Develop a budget based upon Income 75.4 1.4271 1.4818 4.3011 4. Develop a savings plan 87.7 1.5589 1.1518 4.4033 5. Develop and maintain an accounting and filing system 74.2 1.5606 1.1855 3.6670 6. Establish and maintain a sound Insurance program 82.0 1.1597 1.2094 4.3976 7. Include family members In financial decisions 84.4 2.1666 1.3174 4.2500 8. Fay bills . 93.0 2.5929 1.6783 4.8431 9. Prepare estate planning Information sheet and update regularly 31.4 0.4123 0.5860 3.3484 10. Provide a will and update regularly 55.5 0.6910 0.9781 4.3653 11. Read and Interpret contracts before signing 87.5 1.2031 1.3068 4.5645 12. Regulate cash flow to meet payments 91.8 2.5255 1.4597 4.6373 13- Seek legal advice 54.6 0.6443 0.8609 3.8116 14. Set goals and priorities for use of money 96.9 2.1632 1.6580 4.6230 15. Shop for goods and services 99-5 3.4183 2.8697 4.3589 16. Use credit 84.1 1.7282 1.1073 3-4550 rRZQUHNCY CF PERFORr-aNCE: 0 “ Not performed, 1 = Occasionally — less than once a month, 2 - 1 timea month, 3 = 2 or 3 times a month, 4 ■ 1 or more times a week, 5 " 1 or more times a day. DURATION: 0 - Not performed, 1 « Less than 1 hour, 2 - 1 hour, 3 - 2 hours, 4 - 3 hours, 5 - 4 or morehours. CRiiICALITY: 1 - Unimportant, 2 - Moderately unimportant, 3 - Moderate, 4 - Moderately Important, 5 - Important. - 2 - i o f Advisory K e a n R a t i n g K e a n r ati n g Kean rating Conmlttee Msmbers f o r f o r fo r T a s k W h o P er for m t h e fr equency Dur a t i o n Critlcality T a s k N - 2 0 0 CARI NG PCJR AND IMPROVING SELF 1. Continue education formally/informally 81.0 2.4512 2.5105 4 . 1 7 7 1 ^ 2. Deal with family crisis 93.7 2.2736 2.1933 4 . 5 5 9 l ’ 3- F o llo w a physical fitness pr ogram 70.9 2.5306 1.2746 3.8757 4. Maintain personal hygiene and grooming - 4.9595 2.1015 4.8316 5. Obtain information about cccrounlty activities 86.2 2.7346 1.2984 3.4426 6. Provide time for rest 93.8 4.3333 2.7525 4.1518 7. Pursue personal hobbies and Interests ‘ 99.5 3.8994 2.8410 4.1472 CARING PCJR FAI'HLy KEEEERS 1. Care for Infants and small children 49.0 2.0000 2.0476 4.5833 2. Cultivate relationships with In-laws 79.8 2.2727 2.3351 4.1156 3. Encourage enjoyment of family responsibilities 93.2 3.6910 2.1027 4.3387 4. Encourage family members to develop to maxlmsn potential 92.9 3-7397 1.8617 4.6540 5. Expand educational opportunities through family activities 85.7 2.6530 2.2408 4.2625 6. Give canpllments for tasks well done 98.0 4.4242 1.4421 4.7409 7» Guide family members In spiritual growth 85.6 3.2564 1.8571 4.5524 8. Make arrangements for substitute child care 39.5 1.1384 0.9470 4.1423. 9- Nurture the marriage relationship 82.7 3.8163 2.2747 4.8218 10. Provide a pleasant, harmonious home environaent 95.9 4.5408 3.5519 4.8052 - 3 - % o f Advisory M e a n R a t ing K e a n Ra ti n g K e a n R a t ing Committee Msicbers for f o r fo r T & s k W h o Pe r f o r m t he Freq ue nc y D u rat io n Crlticality R i s k N - 2 0 0 U . Provide consistent and appropriate discipline for children 71-9 3.2448 1.9189 4.8427 12. Provide for family discussion 91.8 3.8724 1.9790 4.6810 13. Provide moral support for family members 98.0 4.3535 2.2712 4.8041 14. Recognize developmental stages of individual family members and meet needs accordingly 90.7 3.3678 1 .9f28 4.4636 15. Set short and long-term goals for family 84.0 * 2.2422 1.6129 4.2033 16. Show love and affection to children 85.6 4.0564 2.6344 4.8977 17. Supervise the activities of children 67.2 3-0051 2.1559 4.6315 18. Teach about family custcms and beliefs 75.4 2.2931 1.5193 4.0991 19. Teach children respect for self and others 78.9 3.4639 1.8907 4.6154 20. Teach children to accept responsibility 79.0 3.5128 1.8633 4.8411 21. Utilize community programs that support the family 70.4 1.8061 1.6203 3-6913 HEETEW -NUmmONAL NEEDS 1. Evaluate nutritional needs of family members 89.4 3-1666 1.4095 4.4480 2. Identify nutritional ccnpcnents of food 75-7 2.6424 1.0934 ' 4.1030 3* Make a shopping list 88.9 3.1859 1.2552 3.5546 4. Plan food budget . • 65.2 1.8737 0.9790 4.0368 5* Plan meals and sr>ack3 according to nutritional needs and family preference 84.3 3.4111 1.4218 4.2239 6. Prepare meals 97.5 4.5577 2.6683 4.4540 % of Advisory M e a n R a t ing Mean rating Mean Rating Carmittee M emb er s fo r fo r f c r T a s k W h o Per for m the P T e q u enc y D u r at io n Critlcality T a s k N -20 0 7. Purchase groceries 95.9 3.4873 2.1865 4.4105 8. Read and utilize cookbooks 82.4 2.5979 ' 1.2113 3.4692 9. Store and handle food safely and properly 94.4 4.1464 1.4869 4.5212 10. Teach nutrition to family members 68.8 • 2.3179 .0.8510 4.1312 PROVIDBH FOR FAMILY HEALTH AND SAFETY 1.. Apply first-aid and hone nursing techniques 81.0 • 1.7384 0.9945 4.2290 2. Budget m o n e y for heal th care 59.2 0.9744 0.7112 4.C460 3. Eliminate safety hazards in the hone 92.3 2.7384 1.2810 4.5414 4. Establish and maintain household security procedures 81.2 2.7817 1.0108 4.4450 5. Identify and secure emergency services 76.8 1.1684 0.8453 4.3S27 6. Identify syirptans of disease and other medical disorders in family members 85.3 1.5052 1.0331 4.4529 7. Identify syirptans of mental stress in family members 75. 1 1.3492 0.9670 4.3291 8. Maintain up-to-date family medical records 73-7 1.0606 0.8989 4.2650 9. Obtain regular medical and dental checkups 95.4 1.3979 1.8723 4.6684 10. ^Practice preventative medicine 90.2 3.3626 1.3423 4.6312 11. Select health personnel and facilities 85.7 1.1851 1.1067 4.3470 PROV3DINO FOR KOUSINa 1. Arrange furniture in a functional and attractive manner 91.4 1.5101 2.1606 3.4391 % of Advisory K e a n R a t i n g K e a n R a t i n g K e a n R a t i n g Ccranittee K e n b e r s f o r f o r fo r T a s k Who Perform the fr e q u e n c y D u r a t i o n Critlcallty T a s k N - 2 0 0 2. Coordinate colors and styles In home de co rat in g 86.2 1.3112 . 2.1315 3.5444 3. Explore alternatives for. acquiring heme furnishings 71.5 1.1191 1.6432 3.3439 4. Hake arrangements for moving family and ho usehold g oo ds 36.6 * 0.4188 - 1 . 0 3 9 5 3.2719 5. Kake use of personal talents In heme decorating 8>1.2 1.7040 2.3085 3.7257 6. Select furniture for the home 84.1 1.1269 2.4702 3.7543 7. Select housing 48.6 0.5573 • 2.0581 4.2857 FROVIDIKO AID CARIH3 FOR CLOIHINO AMD 7EXTIIE PRODUCTS 1. Choose proper laundry cleaning agents 86.9 2.2525 1.1855 3.8552 2. Determine how much to spend for clothing 83.9 • 1.5125 1.3385 3.7453 3- Evaluate family's wardrobe needs , suitability, 79 . 8 1.4696 1.3394 3.7033 and safety of clothing 61.6 1.4646 2.1711 3-5657 4. Sew clothing for self and/or family 5. Identify fabrics and their characteristics 67.5 1.3762 0.9945 3.4267 6. Laurder or dry clean clothing and linens according to fabric characteristics 92. 0 3.3165 2.5677 4.2654. 7. Kake alterations to clothing ’ 71 . 8 1.4797 • 1.6263 3.7552 e. .Kand and repair clothing 85.4 1.9396 1.7354 3-5553 9. Select clothing and accessories 96.4 2.3112 2.0337 3.9523 10. Sort clothes for laundering 94.0 3-7236 1.5412 4.1347 11. Store clothing properly 96.0 3.6030 1.5360 4.COCO - 6 - S of Advisory Mean Bating Kean Bating K e a n B ati n g Ccrriittee Keniiers for f o r fcr T a s k Who Perform the f r equency D u r a t i o n Crltlcallty Task N-200 . MANAGING TIKE 1. Develop schedule of routine household tasks 71.6 2.5939 1.2947 3.8773 2. Keep a calendar of activities 91.4 3.6091 1.1030 4.1581 3. Organize tasks to save time and energy 89.9 3.6010 1.2421 4.1413 4. P l a n time alone w i t h spouse 88.0 3.1836 2.3461 4.6900 5. Plan and coordinate family activities 84.1 3.1230 1.9184 4.4619 6. Provide tire for self 93.8 3.8564 2.2054 4.4315 7. Set priorities for use of time 92.3 3.9742 1.5297 4.3333 aJEANDifJ A!© PIAJNrADIING HOME 1. Budget for hone repair and maintenance costs 64.3 1.0954 0.8842 3.9733 2. Car. for floors appropriately 89.8 3.2791 1.8593 4.C6S5 3. Care for furnishings 91.4 3.2929 1.9896 4.1C63 4. Clean and disinfect the bathroom 91.5 3.6331 1.4479 4.4175 5. Clean a i d m a i nta in appliances 90.9 3.2474 1.5631 ' 4.1053 6. Discard unnecessary Items to eliminate clutter 95.5 3.1313 1.6683 3-8353 7. Dispose o f trash a nd garbage 97.5 4.3282 1.1145 • 4.4432 8. 'Examine for evidence of pests 77-2 1.9390 0.9139 4.1235 9. Inclement ongoing preventative maintenance 80.0 1.9210 1.2762 4.0C50 io. Keep things picked up 99.5 4.6954 1.6345 4.2222 11. Maintain safe walkways, driveways, and patios 83-9 2.7564 1.2391 4.CS57 12. Maintain water and sewer systems '* 55.3 1.1157 0.7833 4.0797 - 7 - A f of Advisory . Me a n Rat i n g Mean Rating M e a n Ratin g Committee Members for fo r • f cr T a s k Who Perform the freq ue nc y Du r a t i o n Crltlcality T a s k N-2 00 13- Ma k e beds 93.ft • 4.4292 1.0309 3.7225 1ft. Organize storage space 92.ft 1.7157 1.9644 3.6373 15- Perform sinple carpentry 60.7 1.0969 1.1521 3.2258 16. Practice energy conservation In the hone 93.9 4.2040 1.4427 4.4705 17. Recognize uses and limitations of tools and appliances 87.0 2.9010 1.1483 3.7843 18. Regulate lighting, ventilation, humidity, and temperature 91.8 4.1734 1.2263 4.2663 19. Select household cleaning and maintenance equipment and supplies 89.8 2.3908 1.1578 3.8913 20. Share cleaning and maintenance responsibilities w i t h family members 87.2 3.5051 1.7891 4.0384 21. Wash dishes and utensils 95-5 4.5303 1.4651 4.3664 22. Wash kitchen cabinet and counter surfaces 95-ft 4.2791 1.3005 4.2842 PROVIDED TRANSPORTATION 1. Budget for variable and fixed transportation costs 68.9 1.6887 0.8691 4.0745 2. Check the oil In vehicle 73. 6 1.6954 0.8167 4.2526 3.' Dr iv e a vehicle 9ft.9 4.6212 2.0481 4.4267 ft. Equip vehicle for possible emergency 69-9 1.2244 0.8681 4.3037 5. Fill vehicle with proper grade of fuel 91.9 3.5101 0.9789 6. Identify signs of vehicle malfunction 83.2 2.0789 0.9666 4 .33:5 4.4223 7- Provide f o r re gul ar v ehicle maintenance 72.ft 1.4427 1.3777 U4 V>l 8. Select a vehicle 63-3 0.8085 2.4090 4.1369 VJJ 9. Use mass transit 11.7 0.2944 0.2471 2.7303 - 8 - % of Advisory M e a n R ati n g Mean Eating K e a n Ea ti n g Ccrmittee Members for for fcr T a s k W h o Per for m t h e Frequency Du ra tio n Criticality T a s k N - 2 0 0 10. Utilize carpools 30.5 1.0050 0.5055 3-3771 • 11. W a l k whenever possible 65-5 2.1958 1.0107 3.8187 PLANNING FOR SOCIAL EVENKS AND ENKKEAININO 1. Budget money for social activities 71.9 1.4744 1.0648 3-7621 2. Celebrate special occasions 98.5 1.7216 3.2941 4.2380 3. Determine type of gathering 88.0 1.5027 1.3636 3-5116 4. Entertain business associates 42.0 0.5897 3.3804 3.0162 5. Entertain guests In the heme 97-9 2.3160 3.6984 3-9738 6. Make plans for entertaining 92.2 1.9214 1.8924 3.7729 7. Plan food for special events 92.2 1.7968 1.9518 3-8118 8. Plan recreational and social activities 91.7 2.3212 1.6935 3.7189 9. Use socially acceptable etiquette 94.7 3.9521 2.3932 4.3297 m m D v a a and maintaining yard and garden 1. Control weeds and Insects In yard and garden 75*6 2.0964 1.9734 3-9333 2. Maintain safe and attractive landscape and garden 81.5 2.4256 2.4391 3.cs43 3. t-'ow and trim lawn 81.7 2.9847 2.6263 4.1093 4. Practice safe operation of yard equipment 81.2 2.9086 2.1559 4.4114 5. Prepare soil for planting 72.2 1.3247 2.2756 3-8536 6. Purchase plants, seeds and supplies 81.5 1.2512 1.6250 3.7085 7. H a t e r y a r d a n d g a rd en 69.8 1.8906 1.3206 3.5350 CARING FOR PEIS 1. Make arrangements for substitute care of pets 48.0 0.7040 0.6432 3-8139 - 9 - i or Advisory Mean Fating fcean Rating l.’as» • Cannlttee Keabers for for for Task Who Perfonn the Frequency Duration Crltlcallty Task N-200 2. Make wise pet selection 38.3 0.4627 0.7745 • 3.4265 3- Obtain license and tags for pets 45.3 0.5473 0.5166 3.5573 4. Provide necessary vaccinations ftar pets 55.9 0.7384 0.8360 4.0751 5. Provide water and other nutritional heeds for pets 64.5 3.0812 0.?830 4.4733 V>J v j i BIBLIOGRAPHY Araji, Sharon. "Husbands' and Wives' Attitude-Behavior Congruence on Family Roles." Journal of Marriage and Family. 1977, 22* 309-320. Abt, Phyllis, Lewis, W., Barnes, W., & Geiger, B. Qnr.u-na+.iona-i Analysis of Colorado Homemalcers Utilizing the DACUM Approach* Fort Collins: Colorado State University, 1968. American Home Economics Association. "Length of a Housewife's Bay in 1917*" Journal of Home Economics. 1973* &2.t 16-19. American Home Economics Association. 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