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© Copyright by Benjamin Polk Hoffman May, 2016 A COLLEGE FOR THE COMMUNITY?: A COMPARISON OF THE HISTORIES OF AN URBAN (SAN ANTONIO COLLEGE) AND RURAL (NAVARRO COLLEGE) COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN TEXAS _______________ A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Benjamin Polk Hoffman A COLLEGE FOR THE COMMUNITY?: A COMPARISON OF THE HISTORIES OF AN URBAN (SAN ANTONIO COLLEGE) AND RURAL (NAVARRO COLLEGE) COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN TEXAS _________________________ Benjamin Polk Hoffman APPROVED: _________________________ Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr., Ph.D. Committee Chair _________________________ Gerald Horne, Ph.D. _________________________ Nancy Beck Young, Ph.D. _________________________ Victoria-María MacDonald, Ed.D. University of Maryland, College Park _________________________ Steven G. Craig, Ph.D. Interim Dean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Department of Economics ii A COLLEGE FOR THE COMMUNITY?: A COMPARISON OF THE HISTORIES OF AN URBAN (SAN ANTONIO COLLEGE) AND RURAL (NAVARRO COLLEGE) COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN TEXAS _______________ An Abstract of a Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Benjamin Polk Hoffman May, 2016 ABSTRACT This study is a historical comparison of an urban (San Antonio College) and a rural (Navarro College) community college in Texas from their establishment until 1980. Based on oral histories and archival research at each of the institutions, this comparison seeks to humanize the history of the community college through in-depth investigation of historical actors at these schools, while also searching for possible variation in development rooted in differences in local context. San Antonio College, established in 1925, is located in the center of a large city with a diverse urban economy and a sizable Mexican American population. Navarro College, established in 1946, is located in Corsicana, the county seat of Navarro County in east Texas. Navarro County is largely rural, with an economy historically tied to cattle, cotton, and oil. The findings of this study reveal that, for both schools, the impact of the government (at all levels) and the community was larger than the existing historiography of the community college suggests. For the rural campus specifically, receptiveness to the needs of the local community was key in the college’s success and often drove administrative decision-making. Administrators, often portrayed as the key figure in the development of the community college in previous histories, wielded greater power at Navarro College, where the relative position of faculty was depressed in comparison to San Antonio College, and the smaller size of the institution allowed for more rapid change. This study argues that students, depicted as either the beneficiaries of access or the dupes of diversion in the historiography, faced passive obstacles to success due to the selected colleges’ broadening missions and widening curriculum, but ultimately profited from the affordable and convenient opportunities these schools offered for academic and social growth. This dissertation should serve as a model for future historians seeking to strengthen the community college iv historiography by comparing suggested national trends to the experience of individual institutions. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction: Comparisons and Community Colleges...............................................................1 Section I: Era of Establishment (1925-1955)...........................................................................33 1. Considering Context: Community and Government During the Era of Establishment............................................................................................................44 2. Secondary System or a College Complex?: Administration and Faculty During The Era Of Establishment.......................................................................................................................63 3. Dupes of Diversion, Awardees of Access, or Catalysts for Change?: Students During the Era of Establishment............................................................................................................91 Section II: Era of Expansion (1955-1980).............................................................................124 4. Federal Funds, State Support, and Community-Consciousness: Community and Government During The Era of Expansion.......................................................................136 5. Presidential Power and Faculty Freedom: Administration and Faculty During the Era of Expansion...........................................................................................................................163 6. Quality Versus Access: Students During The Era Of Expansion......................................208 7. Curriculum Comparisons and Conclusions.......................................................................266 Conclusion: The Past, Present, and Future of the Community College................................292 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................305 vi LIST OF TABLES 1. San Antonio Junior College Course Offerings 1928-1946................................................274 2. San Antonio College Course Offerings 1946-1960...........................................................275 3. San Antonio College Course Offerings 1960-1980...........................................................280 4. Navarro Junior College Course Offerings 1946-1960.......................................................284 5. Navarro (Junior) College Course Offerings 1960-1980....................................................287 vii INTRODUCTION COMPARISONS AND COMMUNITY COLLEGES A Story and a Study I came into this dissertation as an outsider to the community college. Growing up in the outskirts of San Antonio, I remember playing tournaments at McFarlin Tennis Center and attending synagogue at Temple Beth-El and looking across the street at the white buildings of San Antonio College. While I had seen the school, I never considered going to San Antonio College myself. I had a general impression of what the community college did (mainly providing the first two years of undergraduate work for eventual transfer at an affordable price), but I did not see the point of going there when I had reasonable opportunities to attend a university right away after high school. My initial scholarly interest in the community college arose three years after I finished high school, as I began my training for teacher certification as a student at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. I did my in-service training at a struggling high school near downtown and ended up connecting strongly with students, particularly through my time volunteering as an assistant tennis coach. One of the best tennis players on the team was also gifted academically. Standing in the top ten percent of her class, she had guaranteed acceptance to all state-funded universities in Texas.1 On a rainy day when practice was cancelled, I talked to her about her future plans. She discussed, in an almost embarrassed tone, her ambition to be a lawyer and to one day attend the University of Texas (UT) law school. Knowing she was a strong student, I found this plan ambitious, but attainable. It was clear to me, however, that she saw this plan as 1 For information on the Texas Ten Percent Law see: Texas House of Representatives Higher Education Committee,” Texas House Bill 588,” The University of Texas Austin: Admissions Research, accessed September 4, 2015, https://www.utexas.edu/student/admissions/research/HB588Law.html. 1 almost impossible, and was loath to even share it in fear of being laughed at. When I asked her about how her applications were going, she revealed to me that she was planning on only applying to Del Mar College, the local community college in Corpus Christi. I suggested that going to UT may be a good option considering her ultimate goal, but she admitted to being intimidated by the school’s size and academic prestige. She also wanted to stay closer to her family while attending a less expensive college since she would have to take loans out to go to school. My initial inclination was to tell her that going to UT was the better option for her (I had been pushed to go to universities like UT my whole life). After hearing her arguments, however, I knew that she had good reasons for her decision. Community colleges are relatively inexpensive, generally closer to home, and might offer a better gateway for a student looking to transition to college life from a poorly performing high school (this latter point was beyond my experience to understand at the time). While I enjoyed my time working as an in-service teacher, I also knew that the quality of coursework at the school was fairly low, and that transitioning to a place like UT would be difficult considering her academic preparation. I ended up supporting her plan to attend Del Mar, but pushed her to work hard in order to transfer to UT so she could realize her dream to become a lawyer. This conversation profoundly affected my future career. First, the college decision of this student was a major catalyst for why