CENTRE FOR LAND WARFARE STUDIES ISSUE BRIEF No. 206 December 2019

Anashwara Ashok is a Research Assistant at the Challenge of Narcotics Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS). She has completed her post-graduation in International Trafficking in Northeast Relations from O.P. Jindal Global University and holds a bachelor’s degree in Political Science from the University of Delhi. Her area of research at CLAWS includes Transnational Organised Crimes along Northeast India and Radicalisation.

Key Points Introduction • Northeast India is geographically lying close to the The World Drug Report 2019 released by the United Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Thailand and Laos) and is Nations (UN) revealed that India accounts for 30 one of world’s largest drug producing region. • Northeastern states have become easy transit routes percent of narcotics drug-using population in Asia for the drugs produced in the Golden Triangle, to join 1 alone. Narcotics drugs are defined by the World Health the international market. This has serious political, Organisation (WHO) as “any substance that when economic, security, health and environmental taken into a living organism, may modify its perception, ramifications on the society. 2 • The rough terrain consisting of high mountains, hills, mood, cognition behaviour, or motor functions.” rivers and forests pose huge challenge to security With over 35 million people suffering from drug use agencies in guarding the border, providing safe havens disorders globally, illicit drug trafficking is increasingly to criminals for trafficking drugs, people, weapons and undermining the human capital of various countries contraband. • This has the potential to undermine national security including India. This has political, economic, military, by creating a nexus between drug traffickers, criminal health, environmental and psychological consequences networks and terrorists and increasing probability of and threatens the sovereignty and political stability of infiltration of arms and explosives in the area. many societies. Due to the geo-strategic location of • There have been numerous socio-economic, cultural and educational consequences of northeastern states India, the global narcotics industry is a major concern with large number of people, especially youngsters, for the national security of the country. indulging in substance abuse. Intravenous Drug Use (IDU) involving usage of infected needles has further India is wedged between two of the world’s most augmented prevalence of HIV/AIDS. notorious drug-producing regions. Northeast India • The issue brief aims to examine the prevalent drug is bordered by the ‘Golden Triangle’ consisting of menace in northeast India and suggests certain plausible actions that can be taken to overcome this challenge. Myanmar, Thailand and Laos while on the northwest lies

The Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS), New Delhi, is an independent think-tank dealing with national security and conceptual aspects of land warfare, including conventional and sub-conventional conflict and terrorism. CLAWS conducts research that is futuristic in outlook and policy-oriented in approach. CLAWS Vision: To establish as a leading Centre of Excellence, Research and Studies on Military Strategy & Doctrine, Land Warfare, Regional & National Security, Military Technology and Human Resource. Website: www.claws.in Contact us: [email protected] 2 CLAWS Challenge of Narcotics Trafficking...

the ‘Golden Crescent’ with three contiguous countries, tropical rainforests in the south. Moreover, many namely, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran. According to sympathisers of these criminal gangs due to their the UN, the majority of the world’s opioids (heroin and tribal and ethnic affinities provide information to the morphine) are produced in Afghanistan with Myanmar criminals about the security arrangements prevailing in as the second-largest producer. India has become an the area. Many ethnic war groups in Myanmar including easy transit for these drugs to join the international the Kachins, Karens, Mons, Shans, Chins, Kayah, narcotics market along with serious ramifications on the Rakhine and Wa have integrated insurgency with drug internal security of the country. production and trade. These insurgent groups maintain near-permanent facilities along the ungoverned Northeast India and the Golden Triangle frontiers bordering India and develop linkages with local insurgent groups of northeast India for trafficking The infamous Golden Triangle represents the region illegal arms and drug trade. Authorities have noticed an coinciding with the rural mountains of Myanmar, alarming nexus between local ethnic insurgent groups Thailand, and Laos. Not only is it the main opium- of northeast India with their counterparts across the producing region in South East Asia but also one of border. They have also asserted that these groups are the oldest narcotics supplying routes to Europe and funded by the illicit trade in drugs and fake currency North America. The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) as the smugglers pay protection money to the insurgent recognises the Myanmar-Northeast nexus as the major groups to carry out their unhindered subversive source of heroin and chemical drugs like Yaba (a activities.4 Such interlinkages between insurgents and combination of many stimulants), Methamphetamines, criminals have become a potent threat in the form of and Ketamines. narco-terrorism with terror groups using trafficking routes with assistance of well-entrenched criminal India and Myanmar share a 1,643 km long border networks to penetrate arms and explosives in the region, along with the states of (520 km), hence challenging the security of the borders. (215 km), Manipur (398 km) and Mizoram (510 km). Myanmar produces around 80 per cent of By taking advantage of the gaps found in the prevailing the heroin in the world which is trafficked into the security apparatus along with the border areas, international markets, mainly the US and European smugglers have developed infallible channels for the countries, through Thailand, China, Laos, Vietnam and drug trade, hence undermining India’s national security. India.3 With the increasing surveillance and crackdown Drugs produced in the ‘Golden Triangle’ region enter on drug cartels in most of the South East Asian countries, India mostly through Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland there has been a surge in using northeast India as the from Bhamo, Lashio and Mandalay in Myanmar. The exit route for such narcotics. Factors such as highly route bifurcates and one channel moves northwards porous borders, proximity to the Golden Triangle, through Moreh in Manipur while the other moves ethnic conflicts, unemployment, poverty and easy southwards to enter Champhai in Mizoram.5 Dimapur access to the international market have led to growing (Nagaland) and Guwahati () are also focal points narco-trafficking in northeast India. for narcotics trafficking.

The inhospitable terrain and dense forest cover, has A surge has been observed in the illegal flow of high increased the porosity of the India-Myanmar border, Pseudoephedrine Hydrochloride (PH)-content drugs providing criminal groups safe havens. The region from New Delhi to Myanmar and China via Guwahati consists of diverse topography with high mountains by conduits based in Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram in the north along with hills, river channels and dense where these are regenerated into heroin and other CLAWS 3

Map 1: Drug Trafficking Route along the Golden Triangle Source: Namrata Goswami, ‘Drugs and the Golden Triangle: Renewed Concerns for North-east India’, IDSA, 10 February 2014, available at https://idsa.in/idsacomments/DrugsandtheGoldenTriangle_ngoswami_100214

psychotropic drugs.6 Moreover, these drug smuggling abuse and many of them suffering from AIDS. The routes, in turn, facilitate the trafficking of people, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare attributes the weapons and contraband. In recent years, it has been rise in the occurrence of AIDS to the increasing cases found that India’s northeast is being used to transport the of Intravenous Drug Use (IDU) involving the usage synthetic drugs from Myanmar to Bangladesh through of infected needles. The India HIV Estimation Report the 1,880 km long border between India’s northeast 2017 by National AIDS Control Organisation indicates and Bangladesh. There are two commonly used routes that the highest estimated adult HIV prevalence was in for this purpose.7 One of the routes passes through Mizoram (2.04 per cent), followed by Manipur (1.43 Champhai in Mizoram which is very well-connected to per cent) and Nagaland (1.15 per cent), all being higher cities in Myanmar like Tiddim and Mandalay and also than the national average (0.22 per cent).8 The Report connects to different locations on the India-Bangladesh also stated that the annual new HIV infections are border. The second route is through Manipur, adjacent rapidly increasing in Assam, Mizoram and . to Myanmar’s Sagaing Division, providing access to It further notes the variation in the prevalence trend areas near the India-Bangladesh border (Map 1). in the northeastern states. In Manipur, the prevalence trend declined after reaching a peak in 1999; in Impact of Narcotics Trafficking Nagaland it is stable; and in Mizoram, it continues to rise after being stable for a while. In rest of the region, Narcotics trafficking has affected the socio-economic, though prevalence levels are low, the trend seems to be cultural and educational aspects of the northeastern rising (Figure 1). states. It has resulted in a large number of people, especially the youngsters, indulging in substance 4 CLAWS

Figure 1: Adult HIV Prevalence in the Northeastern States during 1990 to 20179 Source: India HIV Estimations Report 2017 Narcotics trafficking is also a major source of funding 1. Attempts at the illegal supply of drugs have been for insurgent groups that have been trying to erode prevailing in all states. the authority of the Indian State since the 1950s and 2. Even though the quantity of seizure has changed on the 1960s. The existence of strong trans-border ethnic a yearly basis but no state has manifested a constant linkages, criminal networks and the inauguration of downward trend. formal trade through Moreh in 1994 further facilitated 3. Large amounts of seizure also indicate improvement the unhindered illegal flow of drugs to the northeast.10 in the alertness and surveillance of the security Moreover, due to the illicit nature of such trade, forces. business transactions are conducted in hard cash, hence It has been well-acknowledged that drug trafficking it becomes difficult for the security agencies to bust involving the cultivation, manufacture, import-export, the network in the absence of paperwork as evidence. sale of narcotics drugs and psychotropic substances, is With technological advancement, internet pharmacies, an organised crime and a major challenge for Indian law courier services, dark net and even bitcoins are being enforcement agencies.11 The Annual Report of 2017 by used for drug trafficking. the Narcotics Control Bureau has recorded northeastern Table 1 shows the amount of drug seizures (in kg) from states as the most viable trafficking routes for narcotics the states of northeast (except Sikkim) between 2013 especially Opium, Heroin, Cannabis or Ganja and 2017 as reported by the Ministry of Home Affairs. (Figure 2). Some observations can be drawn from the following The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment states figures: in its report that around 2.1 per cent of Indians use

Table 1: Drug Seizures from Northeastern States between 2013 and 2017 State 2013 (kg) 2014 (kg) 2015 (kg) 2016 (kg) 2017 (kg) Arunachal Pradesh 484.42 379.61 904.25 2945.91 770.45 Assam 5,400.21 8,638.02 1,120.42 8,397.4 10,240.65 Manipur 2,355.55 3,112.04 4,834.72 509.17 3,550.46 Meghalaya 1,346.07 0.14 3.2 378.5 79.41 Mizoram 333.2 788.71 807.31 310.64 2,241.88 Nagaland 1,737.85 3,245.7 6,971.1 8,869.1 6,879.75 Tripura 1,065 2,525 513.75 3,843.65 10,264.41 Drug Seizures from North-eastern States between 2013 to 2017 Source: Prepared by the author based on Annual Reports of Narcotics Control Bureau. CLAWS 5

opioids like opium, heroin and non-medical sedatives and amongst all the states Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram were found to be having the highest prevalence of opioid use.12 This indirect attack on the youth by entrapping them into drug abuse is a way of inducing instability in the country, hence undermining India’s demographic dividend. Not only does the human capital get affected by this illicit trafficking of drugs but it also leads to environmental damage. It poses a threat in the form of river pollution with toxic chemical wastes generated in the process of drug cultivation being dumped into rivers flowing in the region. This can easily lead to pollution of rivers flowing between Myanmar and northeast India like the Kaladan river. This is harmful to the marine ecosystem as well as causes damage to the health of the people living here.13

Recommendations Nonetheless, Indian authorities have attempted to curb this illicit trade by taking certain measures such as enacting the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act 1985, increasing the physical security of borders through patrolling and surveillance and seeking co-operation of voluntary organisations to prevent abuse of narcotics and synthetic drugs. However, these measures have achieved only partial success because controlling drug trafficking is not often a priority for law enforcement agencies.

However, this menace has the potential to impede the government’s attempts to boost the development in northeast India through infrastructural, social, educational and economic schemes. Hence, India must pay more attention to addressing and preventing it from destabilising the region once again.

A robust comprehensive strategy to this end needs to incorporate the following points:

• Border Management: India and Myanmar share Figure 2: Major Drugs Trafficked through Northeast India friendly bilateral relations due to which there has Source: Annual Report 2017, Narcotics Control Bureau not been any strict fencing of the border. Both 6 CLAWS

the governments have allowed free movement of will be easier for them to approach those engaged Indians and Burmese within 16 km of the border in drug abuse and trafficking. Moreover, they can without visa restrictions under the Free Movement better understand the inadequacies in the existing Regime (FMR). While on the one hand, it has infrastructure for treatment, rehabilitation and improved the prospects of people-to-people ties harm reduction for the victims of drug abuse and and socio-economic relations but on the other thereby provide inputs to the government. hand, numerous instances of criminals using it for • Inter and Intra-Regional Forums: Northeast India smuggling drugs have been found. Considering the requires an indigenous policy forum or a think tank complexities in this border, reforms are required in with members belonging to the government and the the border management strategies. Technological civil society. This will provide a common platform solutions such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for the states to discuss the non-traditional security must be employed in areas where the physical threats encountered in the form of narcotics presence or fencing is not feasible. There must be trafficking, arms smuggling, human trafficking and an improvement in the coordination between the illegal migration. This will help in formulating a security agencies deployed in the area (Assam common approach to curb such illegal activities, Rifles, Army, Paramilitary Forces and Local Police) keeping in mind the peculiarities of the region. especially in terms of intelligence sharing. Most Greater co-operation with neighbouring importantly, available infrastructural facilities at the countries, facing the menace of drug trafficking, border entry points need to be upgraded on a timely needs to be established. This can be achieved basis including screening and detection machines, through regional and bilateral mechanisms with ground sensors and communication devices. countries of the Golden Triangle as well as others • Community-Based Groups: Despite the earnest in its proximity such as Vietnam, Cambodia, efforts of the state administration, drug trafficking Bangladesh, and Malaysia. Northeastern states remains a major challenge; hence, necessitating the can also facilitate this through paradiplomacy14 role of civil society. Northeastern states comprise initiatives with neighbouring countries and their unique close-knit societies having the potential to provinces. assist the state authorities to tackle drug trafficking • Comprehensive Development: Lack of basic and abuse. Civil society can approach the population facilities and poor connectivity are among the biggest through community or faith-based organisations. A problems facing people in these states today. The case in point is the Young Mizo Association (YMA) Region has been devoid of adequate development in Mizoram that has achieved a certain degree of in comparison to the rest of the country due to success in its interventions in the opioid crisis. The antecedent factors and this has pushed people into group even received a National Award from the illicit activities. Though the government has from Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment for time-to-time initiated many development-oriented its ‘Outstanding Service in the Field of Prevention Central- and State-specific schemes, but priority of Alcoholism and Substance (Drug) Abuse’ in must be placed on the infrastructural projects like 2013. Community groups on similar lines must roads, rail, inland water transport, telecom, airports be initiated in other states to assist the security and power. Unless infrastructure is fully established, agencies and spreading greater awareness among comprehensive benefits of other policies cannot be the public, especially youngsters by reaching out assessed. to them in schools and universities. Awareness of • Boosting Legitimate Trade: Myanmar is the local socio-cultural and linguistic context, it strategically important to India especially CLAWS 7

concerning India’s Act East Policy. At present, there security amongst the population. It aimed at a are four Land Customs Stations (LCSs) at Moreh balanced development of border areas with special (Manipur), Zokhawthar (Mizoram), Nampong emphasis on grassroot institutions. However, a (Arunachal Pradesh) and Avangkhu (Nagaland) for NITI Aayog Report ‘Evaluation Study on Border cross border trade. However, based on the actual Area Development Programme’ states that the trade carried out, the Moreh LCS is overloaded intended goals of the programme in northeast with more than 98 per cent of the overland trade have not been achieved.15 This has led to a large while trade through the other three LCSs has failed number of people still living an insecure and to gather momentum. Such disproportionality poverty-stricken life, pushing them into illegal between the four LCSs allows easy smuggling of activities. Considering this, there is an urgent need drugs and contrabands with an easy escape for to reinvigorate the implementation of BADP in this criminal gangs from the radar of security agencies. region by overcoming the previous challenges such • Empowering the Women: There are several as corruption, inadequate planning and inadequate barriers encountered by drug users in funds. accessing treatment to renounce drug usage. Conclusion Some of these include criminalisation of drug use, inadequate detoxification and rehabilitation Narcotics trafficking in northeast India is growing in services, ostracisation from society and gender magnitude and hindering the development prospects of bias. Female drug addicts face social stigma for the region. Due to its transnational nature, curbing it is using drugs and also experience the peril of gender becoming a major challenge for the security agencies. inequality. In most cases, they are abandoned Despite many anti-narcotics measures undertaken by or disowned by their family causing immense successive governments such as the Narcotic Drugs difficulties for them to overcome their addiction. and Psychotropic Substances Act, the formation of This discrimination and marginalisation trap them Narcotics Control Bureau, de-addiction centres or a in the vicious cycle of drug use, drug peddling, National Fund for the Control of Drug Abuse, there prostitution and homelessness. Hence, the exist gaps in the attempt to eliminate this problem from government and civil society must focus on means the northeastern states. Hence, considering the strategic to overcome such hindrances by providing more importance of northeast India, it is required that these women-only and women-friendly detoxification gaps are addressed holistically in the national security and rehabilitation centres (preferably with childcare policies. facilities) at low costs. These must provide them with medical treatment, psychological counselling References and vocational training through skill development 1. Indo-Asian News Service, ‘World Drug Day: World centres. Moreover, attempts must be made to Drug Day: Drug use Increased by 30% in India in Last overcome the perception of families by creating Decade, Claims UN Report’, India Today, 26 June 2019, awareness so that timely treatment for female drug available at https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ users does not get neglected. world-drug-day-drug-use-increased-india-last-decade- • Border Area Development Programme (BADP): un-report-1556292-2019-06-26 BADP was extended to northeast India in 1993- 2. Saurish Ghosh, ‘Northeast India: The Region of Blood 1994 to provide an overarching development of the Money’, Jadavpur Journal of International Relations, 2010, 14, 1, available at https://journals.sagepub.com/ community by creating infrastructure, providing doi/10.1177/0973598410110014 economic opportunities and instilling a sense of 8 CLAWS

...in Northeast India

3. Pushpita Das, ‘Drug Trafficking in India: A Case for 9. Arunachal Pradesh (AR), Assam (AS), Manipur (MN), Border Security’, IDSA, 2012, available at https://idsa.in/ Meghalaya (MG), Mizoram (MZ), Nagaland (NG), occasionalpapers/DrugTraffickinginIndia Sikkim (SK), and Tripura (TR). 4. PTI, ‘Insurgents, Militants Funded by Drug and Fake 10. Pushpita Das, ‘Drug Trafficking in India: A Case for Currency Trade: Assam ADGP’, Firstpost, 28 July 2015, Border Security’, IDSA, 2012, available at https://idsa.in/ available at https://www.firstpost.com/india/insurgents- occasionalpapers/DrugTraffickinginIndia militants-funded-by-drug-and-fake-currency-trade- 11. Narcotics Control Bureau, April-June 2018, Volume assam-adgp-2368128.html 2, available at http://narcoticsindia.nic.in/upload/ 5. Pushpita Das, ‘Security Challenges and the Management download/document_id6651526b6fb8f29a00507 of the India–Myanmar Border’, Strategic Analysis, 2018, de6a49ce30f.pdf 42, 6, available at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ 12. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Magnitude 10.1080/09700161.2018.1557932 of Substance Use in India 2019, New Delhi: Name of 6. Namrata Goswami, ‘Drugs and the Golden Triangle: publisher, 2019, available at http://socialjustice.nic.in/ Renewed Concerns for Northeast India’, IDSA, 10 writereaddata/UploadFile/Magnitude_Substance_Use_ February 2014, available at https://idsa.in/idsacomments/ India_REPORT.pdf DrugsandtheGoldenTriangle_ngoswami_100214 13. Anashwara Ashok, ‘Golden Triangle: Challenges to 7. Rajeev Bhattacharyya, ‘India’s Northeast Emerges as India’s National Security’, CLAWS, 25 June 2019. a Drug-Trafficking Corridor Between Myanmar and 14. Falguni Tiwari, ‘Paradiplomacy in India: Evolution and Bangladesh’, The Diplomat, 2 May 2019, available at operationalisation’, ORF, 21 August 2017. https://www. https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/indias-northeast- orfonline.org/research/paradiplomacy-india-evolution- emerges-as-a-drug-trafficking-corridor-between- operationalisation/#_edn2 myanmar-and-bangladesh/ 15. NITI Aayog, ‘Evaluation Study on Border Area 8. National AIDS Control Organization & ICMR, National Development Programme (BADP)’, June 2015, New Delhi, Institute of Medical Statistics, 2018, ‘HIV Estimations available at https://www.niti.gov.in/niti/writereaddata/ 2017: Technical Report. New Delhi: NACO, Ministry files/document_publication/report-BADP.pdf of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Available at http://naco.gov.in/sites/default/files/HIV% 20Estimations%202017%20Report_1.pdf

The contents of this Issue Brief are based on the analysis of material accessed from open sources and are the personal views of the author. It may not be quoted as representing the views or policy of the Government of India or Integrated headquarters of MoD (Army).

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