Piñon and Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions

Circular 1335

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Photograph taken by Robin Tausch Piñon and Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions

By R.J. Tausch, U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, R.F. Miller, Oregon State University, B.A. Roundy, Brigham Young University, and J.C. Chambers, U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station

This is contribution number 02 of the Sagebrush Steppe Treatment Evaluation Project (SageSTEP), supported by funds from the U.S. Joint Fire Science Program. Partial support for this guide was provided by the U.S. Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center.

Circular 1335

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009

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Suggested citation: Tausch, R.J., Miller, R.F., Roundy, B.A., and Chambers, J.C., 2009, Piñon and juniper field guide: Asking the right questions to select appropriate management actions: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1335, 96 p.

Edited and Designed by: Summer C. Olsen and Elizabeth A. Didier, Outreach Program Coordinators, Utah State University, Logan, Utah State University All photographs in this guide were taken by Richard Miller and Robin Tausch unless otherwise noted. Contents

Introduction...... 1

Questions to be Addressed...... 8

Setting Goals and Objectives...... 12

Part I: The Ecological Site...... 14

Part II: The Current State of the Site ...... 45

Part III: Landscape Considerations...... 67

Part IV: Selecting Appropriate Management Actions and Treatments ...... 71

Appendix 1: Field Assessment Form...... 89

Appendix 2: Species Codes...... 91

Glossary of Terms...... 92 Figures

Figure 1. Piñon and juniper encroachment at upper Underdown Canyon, Shoshone Mountains, central Nevada...... 1 Figure 2. Current distribution of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) in the western United States...... 3 Figure 3. Current distribution of Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) in the western United States...... 4 Figure 4. Current distribution of singleleaf piñon (Pinus monophylla) in the western United States...... 5 Figure 5. Current distribution of Colorado piñon (Pinus edulis) in the western United States...... 6 Figure 6. Phase II woodland...... 13 Figure 7. Ecological Provinces of the southwestern United States...... 15 Figure 8. Soil texture triangle...... 17 Figure 9. Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue plant association with moderately deep (>30 in.), well-drained, clay loam soils...... 18 Figure 10a. A shallow restrictive soil layer limits tree rooting depth resulting in a loss of shrubs, grasses, and forbs...... 19 Figure 10b. Former Wyoming big sagebrush community on a site with a restrictive soil layer similar to fig. 10a. now fully dominated by Utah juniper ...... 19 Figure 11. Dead bitterbrush and big sagebrush remnants can be distinguished by differences in the wood; bitterbrush (top) is clear while sagebrush (bottom) has dark brown bands perpendicular to the annual growth rings...... 21 Figures—Continued

Figure 12. Diagnostic sagebrush community species oriented along a general warm-dry to cool-wet gradient...... 21 Figure 13. Common sagebrush species and subspecies associated with pinon-juniper woodlands...... 23 Figure 14. Examples of the range of variation in old-growth woodland sites...... 35 Figure 15. An open old-growth Utah juniper dominated shrub savanna in east-central Nevada...... 37 Figure 16. Old-growth Utah juniper and singleleaf piñon with dead branches and missing bark...... 38 Figure 17. Bark characteristics of species of woodland trees of different ages...... 40 Figure 18. Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass plant association with a stand of pre-settlement Utah juniper trees growing on shallow soils...... 41 Figure 19. Wyoming big sagebrush community with charred stumps on shallow to moderately deep soils that indicate a low density of trees has occupied the site since prior to the mid-1800s...... 42 Figure 20. Relation of time since fire and the percent composition (dominance) of grasses, shrubs, and trees...... 43 Figure 21. Phase II piñon-juniper expansion woodlands in a mountain big sagebrush community with a high level of structural diversity...... 45 Figures—Continued

Figure 22. Leader growth, particularly for trees <3m tall, is a good indicator of competition among trees...... 47 Figure 23. Three phases of woodland succession in piñon-juniper woodlands...... 50 Figure 24. Conceptual model with estimated time periods form initial woodland establishment (early Phase I) to minimum stocking adequate to reach Phase III with tree growth, and estimated maximum potential for relative abundance and cover for stands developing on sites from high to low productivity ...... 52 Figure 25. Relation between age and tree height across a range of tree dominance on relatively productive piñon-juniper sites: tree height of dominant and co-dominant individuals more than two meters tall can be used as a coarse proxy to estimate stand age ...... 53 Figure 26. Third growing season after a high-severity fire in a high-productivity Phase III expansion piñon-juniper site...... 57 Figure 27. Rapid expansion and growth of piñon-juniper has led to bare ground and dead shrub skeletons...... 59 Figure 28. This site lacks both woody and herbaceous understory to carry a fire and adequate desirable herbaceous species for restoration...... 60 Figure 29. A Phase III Utah juniper site with large areas of bare ground potentially susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion...... 62 Figures—Continued

Figure 30. A piñon-juniper site with large, connected zones of bare ground and water flow patterns in the inter-canopy...... 63 Figure 31. Tree cavity in the trunk of an old-growth singleleaf piñon...... 65 Figure 32. Example of juniper resprouting after chainsaw cutting left a lower limb...... 73 Figure 33. An example of tree mastication (bullhogging) on a juniper-dominated site in western Utah...... 74 Figure 34. Piñon-juniper chainsaw cutting in woodlands...... 76 Figure 35. Understory responses 2 years after prescribed fire in Phases I, II, and III piñon- juniper dominated Wyoming big sagebrush communities in eastern Nevada...... 80 Figure 36. Thirty-five-year-old north-slope wildfire that burned through Phase III expansion piñon-juniper woodlands...... 82 Figure 37. Moderate-severity fire where 80% of the native species in the understory survived; no seeding is required...... 85 Figure 38. Examples of high-severity fire where mortality of native herbaceous species was >80% ...... 86 Tables

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of post- settlement (<150 years) and pre-settlement (>150 years) woodland trees ...... 30 Table 2. Stand characteristics differentiating three transitional phases of woodland succession for most sagebrush associations...... 54

Keys

Key 1. Common sagebrush species and subspecies associated with piñon-juniper woodlands...... 22 Key 2. Identifying ecological site and estimated fire return interval (FRI)...... 32 Introduction 1 Piñon and juniper encroachment at upper

Piñon-juniper woodlands are an important an important are woodlands Piñon-juniper

1973 and (b) 2007. Underdown Canyon, Shoshone Mountains, central Nevada, (a) Underdown Canyon, Shoshone Mountains, Figure 1. (b) (a)

structure and composition, water and nutrient cycles, and nutrient cycles, water structure and composition, expansion affects soil resources, plant community soil resources, affects expansion and herbaceous vegetation (fig. 1). Both infilling and 1). Both infilling (fig. and herbaceous vegetation surrounding landscapes once dominated by shrubs surrounding landscapes distribution since the late 1800s by encroaching into encroaching into the late 1800s by since distribution significant tree infilling and major expansion in their and major expansion infilling tree significant evidence indicates these woodlands have experienced experienced have these woodlands indicates evidence over much of the last several hundred years. Strong hundred of the last several much over open shrub savanna woodlands have been present have woodlands savanna open shrub vegetation type in the Great Basin. Old-growth and Basin. Old-growth type in the Great vegetation Introduction 2 Introduction site. and perennialgrass andforbdominantspresent onthe treatment usually varies withthemixoftree, sagebrush, drought andwildfire, orpreventive orrestoration Responses todisturbances,such asinsectoutbreaks, and subspecies,plusothershrub grass,andforbspecies. encompass nearlythefullrange ofsagebrushspecies species. Thedistributions ofthesetreespecies combined They occuraloneorinmixes oftwo orrarelythree singleleaf piñon(fig. 4),andColoradopiñon(fig. 5). include westernjuniper(fig. 2),Utahjuniper(fig. 3), distributions offourtreespeciesoverlap. Thesespecies and forbinvaders. Indifferent partsoftheregion, the annual forbs,perennialgrasses,andnon-native grass mix oftrees,sagebrush,othershrubs,perennialand wildlife willrespondtotreatment. about how thevegetation, soils,hydrologic function,and can beadifficult task.Thisisbecauseofuncertainty either preventive treatmentsorpostwildfire restoration Developing amanagement approachforimplementing also bedirectedtowards treatmentfollowing wildfire. methods orprescribedfire, significant managementwill or restorationefforts toreducetreesbymechanical other disturbances.Even withprevention, maintenance, by cheatgrassandotherexotic weedspeciesafterfire or functioning ecosystemisbetterabletoresistdominance of perennialgrassesandforbs,inparticular, aproperly grasses, forbs,andshrubs.With arobust assemblage woodland expansion includearobust assemblageof a morebalancedplantcommunity, whichinareasof restore afunctioningandresilientecosystemthrough to reverse thesechanging patternsbyattemptingto this landscape. wildfires thatareincreasinglydeterminingthefutureof from historicfire regimes tolarger andmoreintense patterns acrossthelandscape.Anotherimpactisshift forage production,wildlifehabitat,biodiversity, andfire Woodlands intheGreatBasinrepresentacomplex The majorgoalofwoodland managementis Introduction 3 Juniperus Current distribution of western juniper (

Figure 2. others, 2007). ) in the western United States (from Miller and occidentalis) in the western United States (from Miller and 4 Introduction osteosperma) inthewesternUnitedStates(fromLittle,1971). Figure 3. important todetermine how themanagement unitfits in objectives. Inadditiontothesiteconditions, itisequally what components needtoberestoredmeet realistic states ofthesite. Thisallows ustobestdetermine soils, andthecurrentsuccessional andhydrologic can bebeneficial toassesspotentialnatural vegetation, best matchlong-termgoalsand objectives tothesite, it treatments tobeappliedareofutmostimportance. To and ecologicalprovince, andthenselectingtheright composition, soils,slope,aspect,elevation, geology, of theareatobetreated,includingvegetation asking therightquestions.Identifyingattributes and possiblymostimportantsteptowards successis When developing amanagementstrategy, thefirst

Current distributionofUtahjuniper( Juniperus Introduction 5 Pinus Current distribution of singleleaf piñon (

Figure 4. monophylla) in the western United States (from Little, 1971). 6 Introduction in thewesternUnitedStates(fromLittle,1971). of questionsto beaddressedandaseriesof photographs, to thesurrounding landscape.Thesetoolsinclude alist that addressasite’s potential,current state,andrelation landowners conductrapid,qualitative field assessments and fire managers;representatives ofNGO’s; andprivate biologists; landmanagers,including fuelsspecialists present. account, particularlywhenpiñon andjunipertreesare effective ifmulti-decadetimeframesaretaken into is dynamic,andmanagementstrategies willbemost wildfire. Keep inmindthatsagebrush-steppevegetation the overall landscapemosaic,includingthepotentialfor Figure 5. This guideprovides asetoftoolstohelpfield

Current distributionofColoradopiñon( Pinus edulis) Introduction 7

Age Structure and Expansion of Piñon-Juniper: and Expansion of Piñon-Juniper: Structure Age in the Intermountain West Perspective A Regional of by Richard Miller and others (U.S. Department Report Service, Research Paper Agriculture, Forest RMRS-RP-069, 2008); issues in woodlands restoration related Fire ecosystems by Jeanne Chambers, and rangeland Ecology and Management Fire Regimes: (Mixed J. Zelnik, S. Symposium Proceedings, in L. Taylor, and B. Huges (compilers), November Ladwaller, AFE MIXC03); 11-19, 2004, Spokane, WA. Biology, Ecology, and Management of Western of Western and Management Ecology, Biology, by Richard Miller and others (Oregon Juniper Experiment Station Agricultural State University Bulletin 152, 2005); Technical

This piñon-juniper guide closely corresponds to This piñon-juniper guide Success of a piñon and juniper management a piñon and juniper Success of

• • •

linked to the synthesis publications linked Survey Circular 1321, 2007) (fig. 2). It also is closely 2). It Circular 1321, 2007) (fig. Survey by Richard Miller and others (U.S. Geological Actions by Richard Miller and others (U.S. Geological the Right Questions to Select Appropriate management management to Select Appropriate the Right Questions Western Juniper Field Guide: Asking Field Juniper the publication Western

Supporting Literature treatments. to successful management and implementation of to successful management and sociological aspects of the local area, are essential and sociological aspects to the surrounding landscape, as well as economic to the surrounding landscape, soils, hydrology, grazing, wildlife, and their relationships grazing, wildlife, and their soils, hydrology, Knowledge of vegetation, fuels, potential fire patterns, patterns, fuels, potential fire of vegetation, Knowledge specialists use this guide as an aid in decision-making. aid in decision-making. use this guide as an specialists team of experienced local managers and resource local managers and team of experienced program may be greatly enhanced if an interdisciplinary if an interdisciplinary be greatly enhanced program may outcomes. outcomes. treated, select the best treatment, and help predict help predict and best treatment, select the treated, assessment is designed to help prioritize sites to be sites help prioritize to is designed assessment keys, tables, and figures to aid in site evaluation. This in site evaluation. to aid figures tables, and keys, 8 Introduction the project. address agency proceduresandmeettheoverall goalsof Management Action.Theright questionsalsoneedto Considerations, and(IV) Site, (II)TheCurrentStateof theSite,(III)Landscape and objectives throughidentifying(I)TheEcological These componentshelptoclearly define or setgoals an areaandselectingtheappropriatemanagementaction. into fourpartsimportantforidentifyingtheattributes of modified to help evaluate thesite.Theguideisseparated unique, additionalquestionsmayneedtobeaddressedor and itsrelationshiptothesurroundinglandscapeare management response.Becauseeachunit or restorationmanagementactionpost-wildfire for selectinganappropriatepreventive, maintenance, questions aremeanttoprovide abaseorstartingpoint to askmeetspecified goalsandobjectives. These to lookatthelandscapeanddeterminewhatquestions and private landowners withathoughtprocessofhow management agencies,NGO’s, environmental groups, Questions to be Addressed and forliteraturecited. Please refertothesepublicationsformoreinformation • • This field guideismeanttohelppersonnelfrom 3-5). Miscellaneous PublicationNo.1146,1971)(figs. Agriculture, Forest Service,Washington, D.C., Atlas ofUnitedStatesTrees (U.S.Departmentof Technical Report,RMRS-GTR-202,2007);and Service, Rocky MountainResearchStation,General Utah, (U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Management ofMajorEcosystemsSouthern Sharon Hood,Chapter4in:Fire Ecology and Piñon-Juniper Woodlands byRobinTausch and

Selecting theAppropriate Introduction 9

What is the ecological site? Are there old-growth trees on the site, and where are Are there old-growth growing? they or shrub- Is the PNV estimated to be woodland interval? return fire estimated the is what and steppe, What are the dominant plant species currently What are the dominant plant species currently potential present, and what is the current and future (PNV) or plant association? natural vegetation What is the elevation and topography? What is the elevation What kinds of soils are present on the site? features affect the soils and physical will How establishment? erosion and vegetation In which Ecological Province is the site located? In which Ecological Province What vegetation changes need to occur on the site, changes need to occur on the What vegetation to the surrounding landscape, and possibly over or habitat needs? meet functional goals What are the desired ecological conditions or how ecological conditions or how What are the desired in 5, 10, 20, or 50 years? should the site look Answers to the questions in Parts I, II, and III are in Parts Answers to the questions The following questions are written from the from the are written questions The following

10. 8. 9. 7. 4. 5. 6. 3. 2. 1. questions are answered. Site Ecological The I: Part goals and objectives should be re-evaluated as these should be re-evaluated goals and objectives goals and objectives for a particular site. As a result, goals and objectives intended to help managers and others determine feasible intended to help managers Forest Plan of their agency. Plan of their agency. Forest into the Resource Management Plan, Land Use Plan, or into the Resource Management managers evaluate the site and incorporate decisions incorporate decisions the site and evaluate managers measurable objectives. This field guide also can help guide also This field objectives. measurable What is to be done to a site should be based on clear and be based on clear be done to a site should What is to application to post-wildfire management responses. management to post-wildfire application or restoration treatment, but are easily adaptable for are easily treatment, but or restoration perspective of implementing a preventive, maintenance, maintenance, a preventive, implementing of perspective Setting Goals and Objectives and Goals Setting 10 Introduction Part II: The Current State of the Site 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 23. 22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16.

II, orIII),andhow does thisvary acrossthesite? What isthestageofwoodland succession(PhaseI, factors affecting properecologicalfunction? Clearly define theperceived problems: Whatarethe current comparedtopotentiallyrestoredconditions? What isthepotentialwildlifehabitatvalue under conditions ofthesurroundinglandscape? disturbance affected the vegetation andecological How have post-settlementchanges invegetation or historic rangeofvegetation variability onthesite? different scenariosofthis regime influencethe and kindsofdisturbance)have been,andhow would potential disturbanceregime (frequency, intensity, Prior toEuropeansettlement,whatwould the related tothesite? Are theresocialand/oreconomic concernsorissues affect wildlifespecies? what speciesareinvolved? How willtreatment What isthecurrentwildlifehabitatsuitability, and high-intensity summerthunderstorms? and safelyreleasewater? Whatistheincidence of is thecurrentcapacityofsitetocapture,store, Are theresignsoferosionandoverland flow? What fire willthesitesupport? What arethefuelcharacteristics,andwhattypeof and whatarethespecies? What isthepercentageofdeadshrubsonsite, to betreated? Are thereinvasive plantspeciesadjacenttothesite species? Is therecurrentrecruitmentofnative understory composition? What isthecurrentunderstoryherbaceous Introduction 11

How will post-treatment management, including will How site the need for maintenance on the site, affect conditions and function on the surrounding landscape? What are treatment options, including mechanical, What are treatment options, including mechanical, combinations, chemical cut and burn prescribed fire, applications, and seeding? What are the factors that will influence selection of What are the factors maintenance, or restoration treatments, preventive, grazing schedules, including personnel availability, and wildlife risk? What are current uses, management activities, and What are current uses, management activities, social and economic concerns for the surrounding the site? landscape that might affect Will conditions of the surrounding area influence conditions of the surrounding area influence Will the of the site or affect the wildlife habitat suitability species involved? Are there signs of erosion and overland flow from flow and overland Are there signs of erosion that suggest impacts to the surrounding landscape the site? How do fuel characteristics of tree, shrub, and do fuel characteristics How the surrounding over herbaceous layers vary to likely are they of fire landscape, what type influence the types of might this support, and how on the site? possible fire What is the current variation in understory in understory current variation What is the recruitment of native composition and in the the surrounding landscape? understory species over What is the composition of adjacent patches, what is patches, what composition of adjacent What is the what are of patches, and distribution the landscape succession? of woodland their stages What are the spatial landscape characteristics of the characteristics landscape are the spatial What patch to topography, with respect be treated area to and connectedness? size, edge,

33. 32. 31. 30. 29. 28. 27. 26. 25. 24. Actions and Treatments and Actions Part IV: Selecting the Appropriate Management Management Appropriate the Selecting IV: Part Part III: Landscape Considerations Landscape III: Part 12 Setting Goals and Objectives directives or judgments. these words shouldbeviewed asrelative termsonly, notexplicit eventually cometo bear inadecision-makingprocess.In thiscontext, factors besides theevaluations described orcitedinthismanualmay and wildlife.Thesetermsareusedwith recognitionthatmany of ecologicalresponsesvegetation, soils,hydrologic function, relative tomanagementgoalsandobjectives andinconsiderations used todescribeadvantageous orsuitablemanagement approaches management plans. also mayaffect thesiteandnecessitateadjustmentsin conditions, suchasthoseassociatedwithclimatechange, Natural disturbancesandchangesinenvironmental as theappropriateecologicalconditionofthoselands. emphasized inwoodland-dominated ecosystemssuch or even conflictingideas aboutthevalues thatshouldbe participation bystakeholders, whomayhave differing those results. treatment orseriesoftreatmentscouldhelptoachieve term. Knowing theseconditionscanhelpdetermineifa that willsatisfymanagementobjectives over thelong- and economicallypossibleonagiven landscapeand identify conditionsthatareecologically, physically, profiles andecologicalsitetype.Managersneedto and ecologicalcharacteristicsofthesite,suchassoil management objectives, potentialusesforthesite, managers andothersthatwillhelpthemintheongoing the questionsthatfollow willprovide informationfor as new informationbecomesavailable. Answersto many factors, they shouldbereevaluated andadjusted Setting Goals and Objectives 1. 1

Words sucha“desired”,or“desirable”, and“best”aresometimes Setting goalsandobjectives willoftenrequire Desired

What arethedesired years? or how shouldthesite lookin5,10,20,or50 Because goalsandobjecti 1 ecologicalconditionsdependon 1 ecologicalconditions ves areinfluencedby Setting Goals & objectives 13

Phase II woodland. A management objective for this Phase II woodland. A management objective

the site, and possibly over the surrounding the surrounding possibly over the site, and goals or habitat to meet functional landscape, needs? What v

After a “desired condition” has been defined (for been defined condition” has After a “desired

2. on tooccur changesneed egetation

particular site. particular process of setting appropriate goals and objectives for a for and objectives goals appropriate of setting process dominance. site might be to maintain a diverse understory by reducing tree site might be to maintain a diverse understory Figure 6. forb cover may reduce erosion and sedimentation and forb cover a desired fire regime. Increases in perennial grass and regime. a desired fire change structural diversity to affect fuels and maintain to affect change structural diversity achieve these habitat goals. An increase in shrubs could these habitat goals. achieve open tree canopy with a diverse understory may help with a diverse open tree canopy soil moisture and water availability. Maintaining an Maintaining availability. soil moisture and water trees can reduce evapotranspiration, thereby increasing trees can reduce evapotranspiration, structural diversity for wildlife. Also, a reduction in for wildlife. structural diversity herbaceous vegetation may be needed to increase vertical to increase vertical may be needed herbaceous vegetation wildlife habitat. For example, an increase in shrubs and an increase example, wildlife habitat. For functional goals, such as improved watershed health or watershed as improved functional goals, such vegetation changes necessary for the site to meet changes necessary for the vegetation example, fig. 6), the next step is to identify the specific step is to identify the specific 6), the next fig. example, 14 The Ecological Site habitat. meeting thedesiredgoalofwatershed healthorwildlife species. Allofthesevegetation changescouldhelpin cover oftencandecreasetheinvasion ofpotentialexotic water. Inaddition,increases inperennialgrassandforb also enhancetheabilityofsitetocaptureandstore shrub, andperennialgrassspecies have wideecological across EcologicalProvinces. Mostofthedominanttree, floristic composition,andsoil-plant relationsthanthose similar inclimate,topography, elevation, geology, soils Woodlands within EcologicalProvinces aremore and configuration ofthesurroundingranges andvalleys. is locatedon,but alsoonthetopographiccharacteristics topographic characteristicsofthemountainrangesite particular mountainrangearedependentnotonlyonthe affect vegetation. Environmental conditionsona configuration, andclimate,allofwhichsignificantly intervening valleys vary greatlyinsize,elevation, geology, andclimate.Themountainranges ensure thatthedescriptionsmatchsite. vegetation. Mapsshouldbeverified duringasitevisitto proper ecologicalsitedescription,soils,andpotential area shouldbeobtainedandusedtohelpdeterminethe of vegetation. Ecologicalsiteandsoilmapsforthe characteristics arecapableofproducingcertaintypes on thepremisethatspecific physical andclimatic Part I: The Ecological Site 3.

Determination oftheEcologicalSiteisbased The GreatBasinisaregion ofcomplex topography, In whichEcologicalPro located? vinces isthesite The Ecological Site 15

Ecological Provinces of the southwestern United Ecological Provinces of the southwestern United

Provinces are illustrated in figure 7. in figure are illustrated Provinces disturbances or treatments. The different Ecological Ecological different or treatments. The disturbances and vegetation can affect the outcomes of natural the outcomes of natural can affect and vegetation Provinces in altitude, topography, environment, geology, geology, environment, topography, in altitude, Provinces species location. Differences between the Ecological between the Ecological Differences species location. disturbance or treatment may vary depending on the depending on vary or treatment may disturbance to anywhere else they occur. A species response to response A species occur. else they to anywhere responses within an Ecological Province compared compared Province an Ecological within responses tolerances, and thus are expected to have more uniform uniform more to have thus are expected and tolerances, Technical Report RMRS-GTR-12. Technical woodlands of the Great Basin: U.S. Forest Service General woodlands of the Great Basin: U.S. Forest Service 1998, A management-oriented classification of piñon-juniper 1998, A management-oriented classification States. Adapted from West, N.E., R.J. Tausch, and P.T. Tueller. Tueller. and P.T. N.E., R.J. Tausch, States. Adapted from West, Figure 7. 16 The Ecological Site your palm. until youcanrollitupinaball withoutitleaving soilon each horizon,addwater toahealthy tablespoonofsoil tightly heldwater. capacity orclaysoilswithlow infiltration ratesandvery excessively drainedsandysoilswithlow water-holding better soil-water characteristicsfor plant growth than balanced mixtureofsand,silt,andclay(fig. 8)have and erosionpotential.Loamysoils,whichhave amore water holdingcapacity, soilwater availability forplants, characteristics thatinfluencewater infiltration rates, structure, andorganic mattercontentareimportantsoil what typeofsoilsarepresent.Soildepth,texture, differences ofsurroundingmountainranges. topography, thespatialrelatiohship,andtopographic differences alsovary withEcologicalProvince, site moisture availability, andmoreproductive soils.These to northoftenresultincoolertemperatures,greater Increasing elevation andshiftsinaspectfromsouth increases withelevation andmorenortherlyaspects. disturbance andpotentialforsuccessfulrestorationoften treatments. For example, resilienceandresistanceto a sitewillrespondtonaturaldisturbanceandapplied and theplantcommunity. Thesefactors influencehow elevation canhave asubstantialeffect onthesoiltype topography (primarilyslopeandaspect)combinedwith 5. 4.

Within thecomplex geologyoftheGreatBasin, Soil Texture (fig. 8):To determinesoil texture of A soilsmapofthesiteorareawillindicate What istheele What kindsofsoilsarepresentonthesite? vation andtopography? The Ecological Site 17 Soil texture triangle (from Miller and others, 2007). Soil texture triangle (from Miller and others,

V V Shallo to 36 in. Moderately deep: 20 Good Ribbon: does not break and has few cracks = few and has not break Ribbon: does Good high clay content deeply and ribbon cracks Medium Ribbon: content breaks = moderate clay eventually be formed or a ribbon cannot Poor Ribbon: clay content breaks = low immediately

Press the soil between your thumb and forefinger and forefinger thumb your the soil between Press Soil depth is measured from the surface from the surface Soil Depth: Soil depth is measured Add additional water and test for smoothness and Add additional water

ery deep:>60in. <10in. ery shallow: w: 10to20in. • • •

Figure 8. and attempt to form a ribbon. to and attempt

to the layer that retards root development: to the layer that retards grit. Gritty texture indicates sand. indicates grit. Gritty texture 18 The Ecological Site most susceptibletoexotic annualssuchascheatgrass. decrease inunderstory(fig. 10)areoftensitesthat Where increasingtreedominanceiscausingthegreatest (fig. 9),andthisshouldbeconsideredbeforetreatment. movement alsowillinfluencewater runoff onthesite horizon, duripan,lithiccontact,etc.)thatrestrictwater layers (forexample, heavy clayargillic layer, petrocalic restrictive soillayer16 to 18in.beneaththesurface. Soil vegetation islikely todecrease onsiteswherethereisa competition. With increasing treedominance,herbaceous persists intheunderstory. the soilprofileresultinginaloss of shrubs,butIdahofescue clay loamsoils.Juniperrootsarewelldistributedthroughout association withmoderatelydeep(>30in.),well-drained, Figure 9. Restrictive soillayersincrease below-ground

Mountain bigsagebrush/Idahofescueplant The Ecological Site 19 Former W A shallow restrictive soil layer limits tree rooting A shallow restrictive soil on yoming bigsagebrushcommunity

dominated by Utah juniper. dominated by Utah juniper. a site with a restrictive soil layer similar to fig. 10a now fully a site with a restrictive soil layer similar to fig. Figure 10b. depth resulting in a loss of shrubs, grasses, and forbs. depth resulting in a loss Figure 10a. 20 The Ecological Site germination ortherootingzoneofseededspecies? been losttosignificantly reducetheseedbedforseed the successofseeding.For example, hasenoughtopsoil has changedsoilcharacteristicsinways thatwillaffect to consideriswhetherpasterosionduetreedominance leaving theslashorchipsonground.Anotherfactor methods suchascuttingormasticatingthetreesand to erosionintheshortterm.Soilcanbeprotectedby remove vegetation cover, andthesitemaybevulnerable erosion potential.Treatments like prescribedfire may factors incombinationwithslopeinteracttodetermine sheet erosionshouldbeexamined acrossthesite.These stability, patternsofbare ground,andevidence ofrilland surface stability, soiltexture, soildepth,aggregate risk oferosionfollowing treeremoval treatments.Soil intense summerthunderstorms,andwindinfluence 7. w willthesoils andphysical featuresaffect 6.

• • • Soil surface characteristics,slope,incidenceof Ho What arethedominantplantspeciescurrently erosion andvegetation establishment? association? potential naturalvegetation (PNV)orplant present, andwhatisthecurrentfuture forb species(fig. 12)? What aresomeofthediagnostic perennialgrassand this siteinthepast(table1,key 2)? Is thereevidence thatpre-settlementtreesoccupied for shrubskeletons onthesite)? on thesite(key 1andfigs. 11–13;ifPhaseIII,look other shrubs,andperennialgrassspeciesarepresent Which treespecies,sagebrushspeciesorsubspecies, The Ecological Site 21 vation) Cool-Wet

TRWY TRWY (generally high ele

Diagnostic sagebrush community species oriented Diagnostic sagebrush community species oriented Dead bitterbrush and big sagebrush remnants Dead bitterbrush and < ACTH7 < FIED < BRCA < ACTH7 < ARTRTR < ARTRVA < ARTRVA < ARTRTR ------

A ARARLO < ARAR < ARNO < AR TECA < GRSP < PUTR < AMAL < SYMSPP Perennial Grasses Other Shrubs Sagebrush

locations that limit available soil moisture. occurs at high elevations on shallow soils and topographic occurs at high elevations on shallow soils and Figure 12. (ARAR) also of plant codes see appendix 2). Low sagebrush along a general warm-dry to cool-wet gradient (for definitions along a general warm-dry to cool-wet gradient others, 2005). perpendicular to the annual growth rings (from Miller and perpendicular to the annual (top) is clear while sagebrush (bottom) has dark brown bands (top) is clear while sagebrush can be distinguished by differences in the wood; bitterbrush can be distinguished by Figure 11.

(generally low elevation) (generally low Warm-Dry 22 The Ecological Site based onadditionaltaxonomicinformation. preliminary identificationonly. Finalidentificationshouldbe based onpersistentleavesandflowerstalks.Thiskeyisfor associated withpiñon-juniperwoodlands(figs.13a-k).Keyis Key 1. 1a. 1b. 2b. wers earlysummer, leaves broadlycuneate, 2a. 4b. ven toppedorflat-crowned, flower 4a.

Matureshrubs<20in.tall.

Mature shrubs>20in.tall. wering stalksgraypubescent, weakly 3a. 5b. 5a. wering stalksbrown tostraw colored, 3b.

Plante Flo Centerlobeusuallynotb Plantcro mid-summer tofall leaves) (fig. 13a) buck-toothed (widerthanspacebetweentwo outer with deep,welldeveloped lobes,centerlobeoften fluoresce bluishunderultraviolet light. the crown, usually<1/2above crown, doesnot (figs. 13f-g) bluish whiteunderultraviolet light with straightmargins, leaves fluoresce leaves wedgeshapedandtaperedtobase stalks mostly>1/2above vegetative shoots, Common sagebrushspeciesandsubspecies

lo Plantsusually>3fttall,mature Plantsusually<3fttall,mature persistent Flo (figs. 13j-k) curves outward giving bellshapedleaves leaves lessthan4timeslong as wide,margin (figs. usually darker greenandsticky glandular persisting intothefollowing year, leaves glandular (figs. 13b-c) persistent, leaves grayishgreen,notsticky or (figs. 13h-i) wide orlongerwithstraightmargins persistent leaves 4timesaslong wns uneven, flower stalksthroughout

13d-e) … …………… … … ………… …………… … … ……………… ……………… uck-toothed, flowers … mountain bigsagebrush Wyoming big sagebrush ……… basin bigsagebrush black sagebrush early sagebrush low sagebrush

The Ecological Site 23 Common sagebrush species and subspecies and subspecies species sagebrush Common

Figure 13. Figure on-juniper woodlands. piñon-juniper with associated (a) Leaves of early sagebrush 24 The Ecological Site (c) Leavesoflowsagebrush (b) Figure 13. Crown oflowsagebrush

Continued. The Ecological Site 25 Continued.

Leaves of black sagebrush (e) (d) Crown of black sagebrush Figure 13. Figure 26 The Ecological Site (g) Leavesofmountain bigsagebrush Figure 13. (f) Crownofmountainbigsagebrush

Continued. The Ecological Site 27 Continued.

(i) Leaves of basin big sagebrush (h) Crown of basin big sagebrush Figure 13. Figure 28 The Ecological Site (j) CrownofWyoming bigsagebrush Figure 13.

Continued. The Ecological Site 29 Continued.

Leaves of Wyoming big sagebrush (k) Leaves of Wyoming Figure 13. Figure 30 The Ecological Site

Woodland Tree Growth Form Characteristic Relatively Young Trees Relatively Old Trees Juniper crown shape Conical with pointed tip Flattened, rounded, or uneven top (figs. 14a, 16a) Piñon crown shape Conical with pointed to slightly rounded tip Flattened, rounded, or uneven top (figs. 14b, 16b) Juniper branch structure Branches become progressively smaller from In open stands, large branches near the base bottom to top of tree Piñon branch structure Branches become smaller from bottom to top of In open stands branches large near base and remain tree, general orientation is vertical relatively large well into the crown, more randomly oriented. Dead wood Little dead wood in bole, few dead branches, little Dead branches, bark missing, juniper covered by a or no foliose lichen on juniper light green lichen Juniper bark (figs. 17a-b) Flaky, relatively thin with limited or shallow Thick, fibrous with well-developed vertical furrows vertical furrows Piñon bark (figs. 17c-d) Relatively thin, flaky, with weak vertical furrows Thicker, more plate-like structure than furrowed

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of post-settlement (<150 years) and pre-settlement (>150 years) woodland trees (figs. 14–17).

The Ecological Site 31

Continued. 1. Table

determine length determine

(figs. 22d-e) (figs. directly visible. Must look for bud scale scars to to scars scale bud for look Must visible. directly

Piñon leader growth leader Piñon Leader growth in piñon similar to juniper but not not but juniper to similar piñon in growth Leader Leader growth in upper ¼ of the tree usually <2 in. <2 usually tree the of ¼ upper in growth Leader

>2 in. from bottom to top to bottom from in. >2

(figs. 22a-c) (figs. usually >2 in. In open stands, leader growth growth leader stands, open In in. >2 usually <1 in. <1

Juniper leader growth leader Juniper Terminal leader growth in the upper ¼ of the tree, tree, the of ¼ upper the in growth leader Terminal Leader growth in the upper ¼ of the tree usually usually tree the of ¼ upper the in growth Leader

Characteristic Relatively Young Trees Young Relatively Relatively Old Trees Old Relatively Woodland Tree Growth Form Growth Tree Woodland 32 The Ecological Site

Key 2. Identifying ecological site and estimated fire return interval (FRI).

1a. Potentially can grow big sagebrush 2a. Old live trees on the site (>150 years old) 3a. Old-growth tree canopy >20%……………………………………………woodland… ……………… FRI > 150 years 3b. Old-growth tree canopy <20%……………………………………………tree shrub savanna 4a. Old trees on protected microsites* ………………………………………………………………… FRI < 50 years 4b. Old trees scattered but on deeper soils…………………………………………………………… FRI 50-100 years 2b. No live old-growth trees on the site 5a. No large dead wood or stumps on site (>12 in. diameter fluted)...... shrub steppe… …………… FRI < 50 years 5b. Large dead wood present on the site 6a. Density >22/acre… ……………………………………………………woodland… ……………… FRI > 150 years 6b. Density <22/acre………………………………………………………tree shrub savanna 7a. Relic wood on protected microsites……………………………………………………………… FRI <50 years 7b. Relic wood scattered but on deeper soils………………………………………………………… FRI 50-100 years 1b. Potentially can grow low sagebrush 8a. Black sagebrush (ARNO) 9a. Old live trees on the site (>150 years old) 10a. Old-growth tree canopy >20%… ……………………………………woodland… ……………… FRI > 200 years 10b. Old-growth tree canopy <20%… ……………………………………tree shrub savanna

The Ecological Site 33

convex, rocky, unusual soil and parent material, etc.)? material, parent and soil unusual rocky, convex,

Are old trees growing uniformly or randomly across the site, or do they grow on microsites (microtopography steep, steep, (microtopography microsites on grow they do or site, the across randomly or uniformly growing trees old Are 11a. and 4a

*

tree-low shrub savanna shrub tree-low … … FRI > 150 years 150 > FRI … … Old live trees or large relic wood (canopy rarely exceeds 20%) exceeds rarely (canopy wood relic large or trees live Old 16d.

…………………………… … ………… … shrubland low FRI > 150 years 150 > FRI No live old-growth or large relic wood relic large or old-growth live No 16a.

ARAR <12 in. height in. <12 ARAR 15b.

ARAR >12 in. height (go to 2a and 2b) and 2a to (go height in. >12 ARAR 15a.

Low sagebrush (ARAR) sagebrush Low 8b.

… ………………………………………………… FRI 100-200 years 100-200 FRI Relic wood scattered but on deeper soils deeper on but scattered wood Relic 14b.

……………………………………………………… … FRI <100 years <100 FRI Relic wood on protected microsites microsites protected on wood Relic 14a.

………………………………………………… … tree shrub savanna savanna shrub tree Density <22/acre Density 13b.

……………………………………………… … ……………… … woodland FRI > 300 years 300 > FRI Density >22/acre >22/acre Density 13a.

Large dead wood present on the site. the on present wood dead Large 12b.

shrub steppe shrub … … FRI < 100 years 100 < FRI …………… … No large dead wood or stumps on site (>12 in. diameter fluted) diameter in. (>12 site on stumps or wood dead large No 12a.

No live old-growth trees on the site the on trees old-growth live No 9b.

……………………………………………………… … FRI 50-300 years 50-300 FRI Old trees scattered but on deeper soils deeper on but scattered trees Old 11b.

Old trees on protected microsites* protected on trees Old 11a. …………………………………………………………… … FRI < 100 years 100 < FRI

2. Key Continued. 34 The Ecological Site understory productivity (fig. 15). and wheretreeremoval resultsinlimitedincreases stand-replacement ormixed-severity fires areinfrequent, accumulation ofherbaceousfuelsislimited,where Old-growth standscommonlygrow inareaswhere grasses (fig. 14c),asituationnotobserved forpiñon. occasionally have anunderstoryof deep-rootedperennial shallow andcourseintexture. Old-growth junipercan on steepslopes(fig. associations, but typicallygrow inrockoutcropsor are associatedwithvarious soils,landforms,andplant fire intotheold-growth (fig. 14a).Old-growth trees is apotentialforthemcarryingstand-replacement younger trees,particularlyinadjacentareas,wherethere of thesesites.Anappropriateactionisthethinning projects thatmightjeopardizeorenhancetheintegrity appropriateness andconsequencesofany treeremoval where old-growth occursandtocarefullyconsiderthe For thesereasons,itisimportant toidentifyareas and canbepartofthePNVonmany oftheselandscapes. wildlife habitat,addedstructuralandbiologicaldiversity, locations intheregion and have provided valuable 8.

Old-growth treeshave alonghistoryonmany Are thereold-gro where arethey growing (figs. 14–17)?

14b) andhave soilsthatareoften wth treesonthesite,and The Ecological Site 35 Examples of the range of variation in old-growth in old-growth range of variation of the Examples

Utah juniper in a former shrub savanna site that (a) Utah juniper in a former shrub savanna site tree has experienced a recent large increase in density and fuel loads Figure 14. Figure sites. woodland 36 The Ecological Site south-facing slope (b) Anold-growthsitedominatedbypiñononasteep,rocky (c) Figure 14. An old-growthUtahjunipersitein westcentralUtah

Continued. The Ecological Site 37

An open old-growth Utah juniper dominated shrub An open old-growth Utah

Are there trees on the site showing old-growth old-growth Are there trees on the site showing the trees <150 years 16), or are characteristics (fig. old (table 1)? woodlands, Do the soils typically support persistent characteristics such as greater depth have or do they under a grass or and mollic horizons that developed grass-shrub dominated vegetation? Does tree structure suggest the site is relatively trees stable (limited recruitment), or are younger in-filling? often > but stumps or snags (>18 in. Are there large with char? 24 in. in diameter), often covered the site? logs or branches lying on Are there large • • • • • growth site: savanna in east-central Nevada. savanna in east-central is or was an old- Questions to ask to determine if the site Figure 15. 38 The Ecological Site with deadbranchesandmissing bark. Figure 16. (a)

( a) Old-growthUtahjuniperand(b ) singleleafpiñon The Ecological Site 39 Continued.

Figure 16. (b) 40 The Ecological Site than furrowed. 300 years,piñon bark isthicker, withamoreplate-likestructure piñon barkisthin, flaky, withweakvertical furrows.( with well-developedverticalfurrows. (c)Atabout100years, and flaky. (b)Atover300years,juniperbarkis thickandfibrous, of differentages.(a)Atabout100–150years,juniper barkisthin Figure 17. (c) (a)

Bark characteristicsofspecies woodlandtrees (d) (b) d) Atover The Ecological Site 41 oodland or shrub- oodland

Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

steppe, and what is the estimated fire return return fire estimated is the and what steppe, interval? Is the PNV estimated to be w to PNV estimated Is the Key 2 can help identify the potential of the site the potential 2 can help identify Key

trees growing on shallow soils. plant association with a stand of pre-settlement Utah juniper plant association with a stand of pre-settlement Figure 18.

9. documentation is not available. available. documentation is not years between fires prior to Eurasian settlement if other prior to Eurasian settlement years between fires key are meant only as a coarse proxy of the number of are meant only key return interval (FRI) for the site. Return intervals in the for the site. Return intervals (FRI) return interval or shrub steppe. The key also gives an estimated fire estimated fire an gives also The key or shrub steppe. (existing, fig. 18, or following disturbance, fig. 19), fig. disturbance, 18, or following fig. (existing, as tree-shrub savanna (fig. 15), old-growth woodland woodland 15), old-growth (fig. savanna as tree-shrub 42 The Ecological Site accessed athttp://esis.sc.egov.usde.gov/ESIS/. ecological sitedescriptionsthatareavailable canbe various vegetation states.Informationonthespecific features; andontheplantcommunitiescomprisingits associated physiographic, climatic,soil,andwater characteristics ofanecologicalsitearebasedonits with otherecologicalsitesover thelandscape.The vegetation andtheinterrelationshipsofthatvegetation site’s abilitytoproduceadistinctive kindandamountof 1800s. density oftreeshasoccupiedthesitesincepriortomid- stumps onshallowtomoderatelydeepsoilsthatindicatealow Figure 19. 11. 10.

Identification oftheecologicalsiteidentifies a Prior toEuropeansettlement, whatw What istheecologicalsite? vegetation variability onthe site? this regime influencethehistoricrange of been, andhow would different scenariosof intensity, andkindsofdisturbance)have the potentialdisturbanceregime (frequency, yoming big sagebrushcommunitywithcharred W ould

The Ecological Site 43

(dominance) of grasses, shrubs, and trees (from Miller and others, 2007). others, and Miller (from trees and shrubs, grasses, of (dominance)

Figure 20. Figure Relation of time since fire and the percent composition composition percent the and fire since time of Relation

Years since last fire last since Years

120 80 60 40 200 160 140 100

0

20 Percent composition

Trees – Low productive site productive Low – Trees

40

Grasses

Trees – High productive site productive High – Trees

60

80 Shrubs

100

The kind and number of years between disturbance disturbance years between of and number The kind

Grasses Shrubs Juniper woodland Juniper

Grassland Shrub steppe Shrub Woodland

not independent of the pre-settlement conditions. conditions. of the pre-settlement not independent management goal, the future possibilities for a site are possibilities for a site goal, the future management to settlement may not be replaceable, or be a viable or be a viable may not be replaceable, to settlement how much change has occurred. While conditions prior While conditions change has occurred. much how (fig. 20). This can provide a baseline to use in gaging in gaging a baseline to use can provide 20). This (fig. what kind of plant community is most persistent on a site on a persistent is most community kind of plant what events, such as fire (refer to key 2), will help determine determine will help 2), key (refer to as fire such events, 44 The Ecological Site dependent, suchasmuledeer)(fig. 21)? obligates, suchassagegrouse,orspeciesseasonally support sensitive wildlife species(thatissagebrush old-growth patches(fig. 14) woodland expansion intosagebrushareasadjacentto as aresultofpost-settlementinfill ofyoungertreesor have survived historicfire regimes arecurrentlyatrisk 13. w have post-settlementchangesin 12. • • •

Would vegetation onthesiteandsurroundingarea For example, insomeareasscatteredoldtreesthat Ho What isthepotentialwildlifehabitatv conditions? under currentcomparedtopotentiallyrestored surrounding landscape? vegetation andecologicalconditionsofthe vegetation ordisturbanceaffected the present andinwhatrelative proportion? What vegetation layers (herb,shrub,tree)shouldbe between otherhabitats? Would treatmentresultinimproved connectivity tree expansion)? nesting, broodrearinghabitatthatisbeinglostto Is itimportantseasonalhabitat(thatis,key winter, alue The Current State of the Site 45 ine the perceived problems: What problems: What ine the perceived Phase II piñon-juniper expansion woodlands Phase II piñon-juniper

are the factors affecting proper ecological affecting are the factors function? Clearly def An important attribute that affects proper ecological affects that An important attribute

14. that reduce tree dominance while ensuring recovery recovery that reduce tree dominance while ensuring and soil or biotic integrity is to implement treatments and soil or biotic integrity the best way to maintain or restore hydrologic function to maintain or restore hydrologic the best way With the encroachment or increasing density of trees, the With high proportion of bare ground are contributing factors. factors. high proportion of bare ground are contributing structural diversity in the vegetation community, or a community, in the vegetation structural diversity imbalance in plant community composition, a lack of imbalance in plant community composition, Site condition should be evaluated to determine if an to determine Site condition should be evaluated that are connected to the problem need to be identified. to be identified. that are connected to the problem need cycles or soil or biotic integrity, physical conditions physical soil or biotic integrity, or cycles is not functional with respect to water and nutrient is not functional with respect to water type, and distribution of plant ground cover. If the site If the site plant ground cover. of type, and distribution function is vegetation structure, specifically the amount, structure, specifically function is vegetation structural diversity. structural diversity. Site the of State Current The II: Part in a mountain big sagebrush community with a high level of in a mountain big sagebrush Figure 21. 46 The Current State of the Site benefits, andsocialvalues. wildlife habitatandfuelsmanagement),economiccosts/ include multiplemanagementobjectives (forexample, factors thatmightbeweighedintreatmentdecisions perennial herbaceousspecies,onthesite.Additional or maintenanceofunderstoryvegetation, particularly piñon whenthe growth fortheyearisstillin the‘candle’ western andUtah juniper, but onlydirectlyvisible for (<10 fttall).Leader growth patternsaresimilar for mortality andreductionofleader growth ontreesaplings indicators ofsitedominanceinclude shrubcanopy woodland development according tothesephases.Early development (figs. 22–25andtable2): There arethreetransitionalphasesofwoodland are muchthesameregardless ofwhichspeciesdominate. Patterns ofwoodland development andunderstoryloss and vegetation responsefollowing managementaction. and management,understorycompetition,seedpools, the typeoftreatmentselected,follow-up treatments 15. • • •

The stageofwoodland development caninfluence Stand characteristicscanbeused toclassify What isthestageofw across thesite? (Phase I,II,orIII),andhow doesthisvary understory. processes onthesite.Shrubsnolongerdominate the primaryplantlayerinfluencingecological Phase III–treesarethedominantvegetation and ecological processesonthesite; herbs, andallthreevegetation layersinfluence Phase II–treesareco-dominantwithshrubsand on thesite; processes (hydrologic, nutrient,andenergy cycles) the dominantvegetation thatinfluenceecological Phase I–treesarepresentbut shrubs andgrassesare oodland succession The Current State of the Site 47

Leader growth, particularly for trees <3m tall, is a Leader growth, particularly

Utah juniper leader growth in Phase I woodlands

years after the first trees establish. years after the first juniper sites, stands shift from Phase II to III within 100 Phase II to III within stands shift from juniper sites, establishment and climate conditions. On most piñon- and climate conditions. establishment and stand closure is largely determined by the rate of determined closure is largely and stand The number of years between initial tree encroachment initial tree encroachment of years between The number previous fall’s terminal bud to determine leader growth. leader growth. to determine bud terminal fall’s previous it is necessary to locate the bud-scale scars from the to locate the bud-scale it is necessary Once needle elongation in piñon has been completed, completed, has been in piñon needle elongation Once has been completed, but needle elongation has not. has elongation needle but completed, has been stage (fig. 22). That is, the stem growth for the year for the year growth is, the stem 22). That (fig. stage (a) directly visible in the latter when in the ‘candle’ state. directly visible in the latter patterns exist for juniper and piñon, leader growth is only patterns exist for juniper good indicator of competition among trees. Although similar good indicator of competition Figure 22. 48 The Current State of the Site (b) UtahjuniperleadergrowthinPhaseIIwoodlands Figure 22. (c) Utahjuniperleader growthinPhaseIIIwoodlands

Continued. The Current State of the Site 49 Continued.

Single leaf piñon leader growth in Phase III woodlands Single leaf piñon leader growth in Phase III Single leaf Piñon leader growth in Phase I woodlands Single leaf Piñon leader (e) (d) Figure 22. Figure 50 The Current State of the Site with moderately deep soils. A co-dominatepiñon-juniper, Wyoming bigsagebrushsite (b) Co-Dominant–PhaseII expansion intomountainbigsagebrush. A subordinatepiñon-junipersitewithup-slopewoodland (a) Subordinate–PhaseI juniper woodlands. Figure 23.

Three phasesofwoodlandsuccessioninpiñon- The Current State of the Site 51 on a south slope with a restrictive soil layer. on-juniper site with Wyoming big sagebrush A dominant piñon-juniper site with Wyoming (d) Dominant – Phase III and moderately deep soils. and moderately deep on-juniper site with Wyoming big sagebrush big A dominant piñon-juniper site with Wyoming (c) Dominant - Phase III 52 The Current State of the Site

Figure 24. Conceptual model with estimated time periods form initial woodland establishment (early Phase I) to minimum stocking adequate to reach Phase III with tree growth, and estimated maximum potential for relative abundance and cover for stands developing on sites from high to low productivity (modified for piñon-juniper woodlands from Johnson, D.D. and R.F. Miller, 2006, structure and development of expanding western juniper woodlands as influenced by two topographic variables. Forest Ecology and Management 229:7-15).

The Current State of the Site 53

convert to feet). Drier sites may be older. older. be may sites Drier feet). to convert

stand age (multiply meters by 3.28 to to 3.28 by meters (multiply age stand

be used as a coarse proxy to estimate estimate to proxy coarse a as used be

individuals more than two meters tall can can tall meters two than more individuals

tree height of dominant and co-dominant co-dominant and dominant of height tree

on relatively productive piñon-juniper sites: sites: piñon-juniper productive relatively on

height across a range of tree dominance dominance tree of range a across height

Relation between age and tree tree and age between Relation 25. Figure 54 The Current State of the Site

Phases of Woodland Succession Characteristics Phase I Phase II Phase III (post-settlement stands) (early) (mid) (late) Tree canopy (% of maximum Open, actively Actively expanding 20 Expansion nearly stabilized > 50% potential) expanding <20% to 50% Juniper leader growth Terminal >10 Terminal >10 Terminal >10 (dominant trees) (cm/yr) Lateral >10 Lateral 5 to >10 Lateral <5 Piñon leader growth Terminal >10 Terminal >8 Terminal >5 (dominant trees) (cm/yr) Lateral >5 Lateral 2 <8 Lateral <2 Crown lift* Absent Absent Lower limbs dying or dead, usually where tree (dominant trees) canopy >40% Potential juniper berry Low Moderate to high Low to near absent production Potential piñon seed Low Moderate to high Low to near absent in expansion woodlands, low production to moderate in some old-growth Tree recruitment Active Active Limited

Table 2. Stand characteristics differentiating three transitional phases of woodland succession for most sagebrush associations.

The Current State of the Site 55

*Crown lift is the mortality of lower limbs, usually due to shading by neighboring trees, but also occurs on large, old trees (Figs. 16a-b). 16a-b). (Figs. trees old large, on occurs also but trees, neighboring by shading to due usually limbs, lower of mortality the is lift *Crown

significant thinning significant

Shrub layer Shrub Intact Nearly intact to to intact Nearly >75% dead >75%

(cm/yr) (Figs. 22d-e) (Figs. (cm/yr)

(understory piñon trees) trees) piñon (understory Lateral >8 Lateral Lateral <2 Lateral 6 to 2 Lateral

growth Leader >10 Terminal <4 Terminal 8 to 3 Terminal

(cm/yr) (figs. 22a-c) (figs. (cm/yr)

(understory juniper trees) trees) juniper (understory Lateral >8 Lateral Lateral 2 to 8 to 2 Lateral Lateral <2 Lateral

growth Leader >10 Terminal 10 to 5 Terminal <5 Terminal

(post-settlement stands) (post-settlement (early) (mid) (late)

Characteristics I Phase II Phase III Phase

Phases of Woodland Succession Woodland of Phases

2. Table Continued. 56 The Current State of the Site quickly seedthe site(fig. 26). source, like cheatgrass, alsomayincreasetheneed to be necessary. Thepresenceofaninvasive speciesseed are unlikely tosurvive thetreatment, seedinglikely will or ifexisting plantsareinsuchpoorconditionthatthey treatment. Ifperennialgrasses andforbsarenotpresent, vary withsoiltype,precipitation regime, andmethod of after treatmentispossible,although thisislikely to persist onthesite,recovery ofunderstoryvegetation bluebunch wheatgrass, Idahofescue)per1m deep-rooted perennialgrasses(thatis,needlegrasses, proactive treatment? will recover following asevere naturaldisturbanceor indicate thatthespecieswillsurvive andthatthesite composition, particularlyfortheherbaceousspecies, understory composition?Doespre-treatment understory compositioncomparetothedesired removing orthinningthetrees.How doesthecurrent or failure ofefforts torestoreplant communities by and forbs,istheprimarydeterminantofsuccess the relative abundance ofnative perennialgrasses 16. • • • • • •

Limited researchsuggeststhatifatleasttwo Pre-treatment understorycomposition,especially What isthecurrentherbaceousunderstory composition? sources nearthesite? Are invasive plantspeciespresent,orareseed site? Are therethreatenedorendangeredspeciesonthe Are thereyoung,deep-rootedperennialgrasses? desirable species? Is thereevidence ofreproductive effort forthe are they? What arethedesirablespecies,andhow abundant for restoration,orshouldthesitebeseeded? Is thedensityoftallperennialbunchgrasses adequate 2 (10ft 2 ) The Current State of the Site 57 ve perennial ve Third growing season after a high-severity fire Third growing season

Are there perennial grass and forb seedlings or small, or seedlings forb and grass perennial there Are young-looking bunches? Are there different size sagebrush or bitterbrush Are there different indicating recruitment?

understory species? Is there recruitment of nati The presence of established seedlings and young The presence of established seedlings and

• •

17. may require restoration. are found, species are likely on the decline and the site are found, species are likely common and no signs of active reproduction/recruitment common and no signs of active persists on the site. If old, decadent, or dying plants are persists on the site. If old, decadent, or indicates that the potential for seed production still indicates that the potential for seed production presence of healthy, mature, seed-producing plants mature, presence of healthy, plants indicates ongoing recruitment of species, while plants indicates ongoing recruitment of site resulted in cheatgrass and tumble mustard dominance. site resulted in cheatgrass Loss of deep-rooted perennials on an otherwise productive Loss of deep-rooted perennials site. Crown cover in the pre-burn woodland exceeded 80%. site. Crown cover in the Figure 26. Phase III expansion piñon-juniper in a high-productivity 58 The Current State of the Site by trees(fig. 27). indicates asitethatwas recentlyand rapidlydominated dead shrubsincreases.Alarge numberofdeadshrubs sagebrush community, thenumberofsuppressedand increase thelikelihood ofsuccessful restoration. understory recovery doesnotoccurasexpected, will along withclearalternative plansintheevent thatnative grasses andforbsexisting onthesitepriortotreatment, expected desirableplant responsebasedontheperennial on thesitepriortodisturbance.Acarefulevaluation of years ifanadequatedensityofnative perennialsexists project orwildfire, but can decreaseover aperiodof dramatically increaseimmediatelyafteratree-removal Several studieshave shown thatannualweedscan will increasethepotentialofweedinvasion (fig. aspects. Hotfires wherewoody vegetation isdensealso drier sites,resultingfromlower elevations andsoutherly invasion ismorelikely ontherelatively warmer and be animportantpartofthemanagementplan.Weed controlling theirestablishmentandspreadislikely to are presentonthesiteoradjacentsites, 19. 18.

If undesirableplants,suchasnon-native weeds, As expansion woodlands increasinglydominatea Are therein What isthepercentageofdeadshrubson to thesitebetreated? site, andwhatarethespecies? vasive plant species onoradjacent

26). The Current State of the Site 59 Rapid expansion and growth of piñon-juniper Rapid expansion and growth

What type of prescribed fire will the site support, will What type of prescribed fire conditions, or will it under moderate and will it burn 28.)? conditions (fig. require more extreme types of fire will the site support? types of fire What are the fuel characteristics, and what What are the fuel characteristics, and

• 20. site following fire. conditions, and introduced annual weeds will dominate the conditions, and introduced annual weeds will crown fuels, this Phase III woodland will burn under severe crown fuels, this Phase III woodland will burn has led to bare ground and dead shrub skeletons. With heavy has led to bare ground Figure 27. 60 The Current State of the Site for acrown fire. Thebark of piñoncanprovide its own The morepiñon treesinthemix,morepotential low humidity, hightemperatures,andsufficient winds. cover tocarrycrown fires throughout theentiresitewith addition toPhaseIIIsites,often have sufficient crown severity fire withamosaicfire pattern?LatePhaseII,in there openingsinthecanopy thatmayresultinamixed- the two? Doesthesitehave aclosedtree canopy? Are Are thetreesdominatedbyjuniper, piñon,oramixof sufficient ladder fuelstocarryfire intotreecanopies? shrubs andsmalltreesintheplantcommunityprovide understory providing fine fuels?Does theamountof management treatments.Isherbaceousvegetation inthe or nomanagementactionarenecessaryforselecting water, nutrient,fire cycles) maybe affected bytreatment understanding ofhow naturalprocesses(forexample, contribution tofire potentialandbehavior andan annual weedsdominatingthesitefollowingfire(seefig.26). under extremeconditions,withtheoutcomeofintroduced species forrestoration.ThisPhaseIIIwoodlandoftenburns understory tocarryafireandadequatedesirableherbaceous Figure 28. An assessmentoffuelcharacteristicsandtheir

This sitelacksbothwoodyandherbaceous The Current State of the Site 61 verland flow? flow? verland )? What is the incidence of high- )? What is the incidence 2

What is the current capacity of the site to What is the current (derived safely release water capture, store, and indicators of rangeland from interpreting health Are there signs of erosion and o Are there signs of intensity summer thunderstorms? intensity summer

Vegetation composition and fuels of the surrounding and fuels of composition Vegetation Sites with large areas of bare ground, relatively ground, relatively areas of bare Sites with large

Sw

Pellant, M., Shaver, P., Pyke, D., and Herrick. J., 2005, Interpreting Pyke, P., Pellant, M., Shaver,

2 21.

in larger fires than planned. fires in larger adjacent to a site can greatly increase fire risk, and result risk, and result increase fire a site can greatly adjacent to ability to contain prescribed fire. Very high fuel loads high fuel loads Very prescribed fire. ability to contain landscape landscape can directly affect fire risk and the risk and fire affect landscape can directly landscape crown. Branching at the base also facilitates fire reaching the reaching fire facilitates base also at the Branching in the needle mat catch fire and fuel moistures are low. low. are fuel moistures and catch fire needle mat in the ladder fuels and carry the fire into the canopy if the fuels if the canopy into the fire carry the fuels and ladder pdf. online at http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/2006/eb0603. Handbook, Second Edition: Educational Bulletin 06-03. Available 06-03. Available Handbook, Second Edition: Educational Bulletin P., Weaver, D., and Wilson, D., 2006, Nevada Rangeland Monitoring D., 2006, Nevada D., and Wilson, Weaver, P., limiting the amount of precipitation that reaches the limiting the amount of precipitation that Perryman, B., Tueller, V., G., Linebaugh, J., McCuin, G., Metscher, G.,Fults, R.,Dragt,B.,Brackley, anson, S.,Bruce,B.,Cleary, also can reduce soil-water-capture and infiltration by and infiltration also can reduce soil-water-capture of protection from vegetation. A thick overstory of trees A thick overstory of protection from vegetation. decreased infiltration, and increased erosion due to lack and decreased infiltration, is more susceptible to raindrop impact, soil crusting, is more susceptible to raindrop impact, erosion (fig. 29). Soil in bare inter-canopy zones also bare inter-canopy 29). Soil in erosion (fig. inter-canopy zones of bare ground, causing accelerated zones of bare ground, causing accelerated inter-canopy Runoff can move continuously through connected can move Runoff high-intensity thundershowers are susceptible to erosion. are susceptible high-intensity thundershowers fine-textured soils, steeper slopes, and potential for soils, steeper slopes, and potential for fine-textured products/papers/1385_Pellant.pdf. Center Denver, CO, 122 p. Available online at http://fresc.usgs.gov/ CO, 122 p. Available Center Denver, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, National Science and Technology and Technology U.S. Bureau of Land Management, National Science indicators of rangeland health – version 4: Technical Reference 1734-6. Reference 4: Technical indicators of rangeland health – version 62 The Current State of the Site coalescing rillsindicatehigherosionpotential(fig. 30). amounts ofplantlitter. Water flow patterns thatshow pedestals orterracettes,andwater movement oflarge cycling. Signsoferosionmayincluderills,gullies,plant and evaporative lossofsoilwater, andpromotenutrient increase soilmoisturebyreducingevapotranspiration treatments caninterceptrunoff andincreaseinfiltration, soils. Leaving treedebrisonthegroundaftermechanical soil erosion decrease on sites with relatively fine-textured reduced andherbaceouscover isincreased,runoff and ground. Researchindicatesthatwhentreedominanceis erosion. bare groundpotentiallysusceptibletoacceleratedrunoffand Figure 29.

A PhaseIIIUtahjunipersitewithlargeareasof The Current State of the Site 63 ,

A piñon-juniper site with large, connected zones of A piñon-juniper site with

and what species are involved? How will How and what species are involved? wildlife species? treatment affect What is the current wildlife habitat suitability What is the current

Habitat suitability will largely be determined Habitat suitability will largely

22. bare ground and water flow patterns in the inter-canopy. bare ground and water Figure 30. important attributes in determining habitat suitability. in determining important attributes and connectedness of plant community patches are and connectedness of plant community community and landscape level. The spatial arrangement community and landscape level. by the composition and structure of vegetation at the by the composition and structure of vegetation 64 The Current State of the Site when planningtreatmentsare: nesters. Somehabitatsuitabilityconditionstoconsider can provide importanthabitat especiallyforcavity woodlands. However, old-growth andopenwoodlands wildlife speciesthatareobligates toclosed(PhaseIII) abundance anddiversity. Researchhasnotidentified any plant communitydiversity, whichreduceswildlife landscape levels results inadeclinelandscapeand • • • • • • • Increasing treedominanceatthecommunityand seeds eatenby small mammalsandbirds. Decreases ingrasses reduceseedproduction and available fordeer, elk,and other species. and treedominanceresultsin decreased browse Decreased shrub cover due to woodland development landscape. if densestandsarepresentacross large areasofthe optimal thermalcover but minimalfoodresources Dense standswithtreesmorethan5fttallprovide Mule deerandelkusetreestandsaswintercover. usually foundinold-growth woodlands (fig. 31). Greater numbersoftreecavity-nesting birdsare important structuraldiversity. vegetation isstill intactbecausethesephasesprovide in PhaseIandearlyII,whenunderstory Bird speciesdiversity andrichnessaregreatest production declines. toward PhaseIII,juniperberryandpinenut can bebeneficial. However, aswoodlands transition component onsiteswherethesespeciesarepresent and Clark’s Nutcracker. Maintainingawoodland mammal andbirdspecies,particularlythePiñonJay also areanimportantfoodsourceformany small winter foodsourceforavariety ofbirds.Piñonnuts Juniper berries(femalecones)canbeanimportant habitat suitability? structure andcomposition,resultinginachange Is thesiteinatransitionalphasethatwillalter The Current State of the Site 65 T ree cavityinthetrunkofanold-

issues tied to the site? Are there social or economic concerns and Are there social or economic concerns

Treatment of a site may not be feasible or practical Treatment Figure 31. growth singleleaf piñon. Old stands of trees have a relatively high density of cavity nesting birds.

23. cheatgrass and other exotic species (fig. 26). species (fig. cheatgrass and other exotic will require expensive treatment to prevent dominance by treatment to prevent will require expensive and severity is greater. Following wildfires, these sites these sites wildfires, Following is greater. and severity in area, the potential for wildfires of increased intensity in area, the potential for wildfires be difficult. Because Phase III woodlands are increasing are increasing III woodlands Because Phase be difficult. to a desired condition, and achieving desired results can desired to a desired condition, and achieving woodlands, because of inputs needed to return the site woodlands, Treatment can be expensive, especially for Phase III can be expensive, Treatment due to ecological, economic, or sociological reasons. due to ecological, economic, or sociological 66 The Current State of the Site sites, etc. plant species,recreation,development, archeological different treatments,concernsforsensitive wildlifeand interface values, perceived ecologicalimpactsof dominance alsomayneedtobeconsidered. fire intensity andsizewithacontinualincreaseintree than nomanagementaction.Thepotentialincreasein increased weedinvasion, andlossofwildlifehabitat) increased bareground,erosionandnutrientloss, may causegreaterecologicaldamage(forexample, on siteswhereany treatmentisnotlikely tosucceed are likely toquicklyoccupy thesite.Tree removal establishment, orwherenon-native invasive species occurred, wheresafesitesarenotplentifulforseedling risky ondrysites,where ahighamountoferosionhas may belower. Regardless ofphase,seedingcanbemore beyond even thoughtheapparentimmediatebenefits economic sensethanwaiting untilmidPhaseIIor treatment fundsandlabor. determined toassistinallocatingresources,suchas determined, othereconomicprinciplesmayneedtobe benefits andcosts.Wheredollarvalues cannotbe to identifyboththequantifiable andnon-quantifiable such cases,asocialcosts/benefit analysiscanbeused the long-termcosts/benefits ofnottreatingasite.In dollar values attachedtothem.Thisalsoapplies involved withthesetreatmentsarequantifiable orhave environmental consequences. Notallbenefits andcosts may assistamanagerinconsideringthelong-term Social issuestoconsiderincludewildland-urban Treating astandinPhaseImaymake more Conducting aneconomicevaluation oftheoptions Landscape Considerations 67 size, edge, and size, edge, 3

connectedness? connectedness? of the area to be treated with respect to be treated with of the area patch to topography, What are the spatial landscape characteristics characteristics spatial landscape are the What

Treatment patch size is especially patch size Size: Treatment Patch

A patch is defined here as an assemblage of plant species growing here as an assemblage of plant species growing A patch is defined

3 24.

Fencing a smaller treated area may be a viable option. Fencing a smaller treated area may be a moved to those locations on either public or private land. land. to those locations on either public or private moved ecological harm at other sites as grazing pressure is ecological harm at other sites as grazing or socially acceptable. Doing so may result in more or socially acceptable. Doing so may result pasture from grazing may not be economically feasible pasture from grazing may not be economically area within a much larger pasture, resting the entire pasture, resting the entire area within a much larger after the burn? If the treatment site is a relatively small site is a relatively If the treatment after the burn? changes, such as no grazing for 1 or 2 years before or changes, such as no large enough to justify post-treatment management enough to justify post-treatment large attract wild and domestic herbivores. Is the patch size Is the herbivores. attract wild and domestic be higher than before, and burned patches will tend to patches will and burned be higher than before, palatability of plants for several seasons after a fire will seasons after a fire for several palatability of plants or aspen? Even with adequate forage in the area, the with adequate or aspen? Even the survival of newly established understory plants of newly the survival overgrazing by domestic or wild herbivores will threaten by domestic or wild herbivores overgrazing the treatment area so small that post-treatment overuse/ the treatment area so suitable conditions for wildlife species of concern? Is suitable conditions livestock. Is the treatment size large enough to provide enough to provide large Is the treatment size livestock. important to consider in relation to use by wildlife and important to consider Part III: Landscape Considerations Landscape III: Part an ecological site. boundary and possibly representing different successional stages within boundary and possibly representing different on a contiguous area forming a plant community with a defined with a defined on a contiguous area forming a plant community 68 Landscape Considerations predation, etc.,they need tobeconsidered. Because they affect wildlife movement, recruitment, that influenceconnectivity fordifferent wildlifespecies. between arepartofacomplex interactionofvariables or patchesofconcernandthevegetation conditionsin recruitment, predation,etc.Distancetosimilarpatches and connectivity caninfluencewildlifemovement, species ofconcern?Patch topographicrelationships patches acrossthelandscapeimportantforwildlife more edgehabitat. natural-looking appearance,aswellproviding for the treatedsite?Featheringedgecanresultinamore influence seedrainfromadjacentunburned sitesonto wildlife? How willthespatialdistribution ofedge to resultinsufficient edgehabitatthatisvaluable to to wildlife?Whattreatmentprocedureswillbeused layout createsufficient edgehabitatthatisvaluable level? How willtreatmentaffect biodiversity atthelandscape diverse habitatforavariety ofwildlifeinallseasons? the compositionofpatchesacross thelandscapeprovide suitable habitatpatchesforwildlifemovement? Does and watershed health?Docorridors exist between patches, willthetreatmentenhancewildlifehabitat isolated fromotherpatchesandthedistancetosimilar 25.

Connectivity: Istheconnectivity ofvarious Edge: Whenneeded,willtreatmentshapeand After consideringhow thesiteisconnectedto,or What isthecompositionofadjacentpatches, woodland succession? vegetation patches,andwhataretheirstagesof what istheirlandscapedistribution of Landscape Considerations 69 verland flow flow verland ariation in understory in understory ariation

from the surrounding landscape that suggest from the surrounding landscape that impacts to the site? herbaceous layers vary over the surrounding the surrounding over vary herbaceous layers to likely are they of fires landscape, what type influence the types might this support, and how possible on the site? of fire composition and in the recruitment of native of native recruitment in the and composition the surrounding over species understory landscape?

Are there signs of erosion and o Ho What is the current v is the current What Watershed characteristics of the surrounding Watershed The fuel load characteristics on the landscape The fuel load characteristics on the landscape The usefulness of treatment for a particular site of treatment for The usefulness

28. 27. oftree,shrub,and w dofuelcharacteristics

26. conditions on the site. more to do with erosion occurring on the site than the more to do with erosion occurring on the landscape, particularly up slope of the site, may have may have landscape, particularly up slope of the site, otherwise occur on the site, particularly wildfire. wildfire. otherwise occur on the site, particularly of the site. This can result in types of fires that might not of the site. This can result in types of fires circumstances will, override the fuel load characteristics the fuel load characteristics circumstances will, override around the site of concern can, and in many around the site of concern can, and in many

crown fire. fire. crown access and increase the risk of damage from adjacent access and increase Phase II or Phase III woodlands that may limit wildlife that may limit wildlife woodlands Phase II or Phase III enhance wildlife habitat than if it is surrounded by late enhance wildlife habitat Phase II woodlands, for example, can do more to for example, Phase II woodlands, Treatment of a site surrounded by Phase I and early a site surrounded by Phase I and early of Treatment recruitment present on the landscape around the site. around the present on the landscape recruitment can be influenced by the understory composition and composition by the understory can be influenced 70 Landscape Considerations by thismanagement? reduction, how willthetreatmentaffect, and beaffected that isbeingmanaged forotherpurposessuch asfuels term? Ifthetreatmentlocation iswithinalarger area other areasavailable fortheseusesduring theshort will ittake torealizebenefits oftreatment?Arethere affects wildlifehabitatorlivestock grazing,how long and longterm.Iftheimmediate treatmentnegatively affect currentuseandmanagementactivities intheshort reducing fuelcontinuity, increasingsnow capture,etc. also maybedesirableformaximizinghabitatdiversity, a mosaicofpatchesdifferent successionalstages date whenthetreatedareashave recovered. Maintaining saving theremainingproportionfortreatmentatalater would betotreatapercentageofthesekey habitats, integrity oftheseimportant habitats.Analternative removed maybenecessarytomaintainthelong-term fawning). Theinitialremoval ofsagebrushastreesare (that is,sagebrushcover forsagebrushobligates ordeer landscapes mayprovide key habitatforcertainspecies how muchtotreatareimportant.Portionsofthese connectivity. Consideration ofwhichpatchesand topographic andspatialarrangement,size, stands includesconsiderationofpatchcomposition, Management oflandscapesratherthanjustindividual topographic sites,plantcommunities,andhabitats. 30. ill theconditionsofsurroundingarea 29.

Landscapes arecomposedofpatchesdifferent It isimportanttoconsiderhow atreatmentwill W What arecurrentuses,managementacti site, oraffect thespecies involved? influence thewildlifehabitatsuitabilityof site? surrounding landscapethatmightaffect the and socialeconomicconcernsforthe vities, Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 71 y actors that will influence actors that will influence

Abundance of desirable species of desirable Abundance species (for example, Desirable fire-sensitive sagebrush, bitterbrush) species Invasive phase Woodland Tree sizes Tree Number of trees per acre Dead plant material Herbaceous plant composition, size, and density Shrub composition, size, and density • • • • • • • • •

Ecological site, soils, and topograph Plant composition Pre-treatment fuel composition, loading, and Pre-treatment fuel composition, structure selection of preventive, maintenance, or selection of preventive, including personnel restoration treatments, risk? and wildfire grazing schedules, available, What are the f

Woodland structure within and across successional and across successional structure within Woodland

3. 2. 1.

31. feasibility, and social acceptability. and social acceptability. feasibility, vegetation layers of the communities involved, economic involved, layers of the communities vegetation be determined by considering the composition of all the composition of by considering be determined wildfire. The most ideal management actions will most ideal management The wildfire. type, frequency, and intensity of disturbance, especially of disturbance, and intensity type, frequency, phases, in addition to age, is largely determined by the determined addition to age, is largely phases, in

Management Actions and Treatments Treatments and Actions Management Part IV: Selecting Appropriate Appropriate Selecting IV: Part 72 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment the basemustbe removed tokill thetree(fig. 32). non-sprouting, thelower most limbsandgreenbuds at or toenhancewildlifehabitat. AlthoughUtahjuniperis erosion andprovide safesitesforseedlingestablishment trees, slash,orchipsalsocan be leftonsitetocontrol impact tounderstoryvegetation isoftenminimal.Cut left aswildlifehabitat.With mechanicaltreatments, the targeted trees.For example, old-growth treescanbe ability topreciselycontroltreatmentboundariesor flexibility intimingoftreatmentapplicationandthe advantages ofmechanicalremoval oftreesinclude when thesiterequiresrevegetation. Ingeneral,the they make seedbedpreparationandsowing difficult dominance inPhasesIIandIIIwoodlands. However, Mechanical Treatments in thedeterminationofpost-fire managementresponse. 32. 9. 8. gal liabilitiesandrisksfromproximitytoother ves 7. 6. 5. 4.

All ninefactors alsocanbeeasilymodified foruse Mechanical treatmentsareoftenusedtoreducetree What aretreatmentoptions,including seeding? combinations, chemicalapplications,and mechanical, prescribedfire, cutandburn plant communities(forexample, forest) Le Size ofareatobetreated Objecti Species ofconcern(fore Social acceptability Cost andresources xample, sagegrouse) Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 73 Example of juniper resprouting after chainsaw Example of juniper resprouting

Patience may be required in regards to treatment may be required in regards Patience Disadvantages are that mechanical methods often are that Disadvantages

cutting left a lower limb. cutting left a lower limb. Figure 32.

understory plants to fully occupy the treated area. understory plants to fully occupy is unpredictable, and it may take several years for several is unpredictable, and it may take Understory response in the first year after treatment Understory response in the first restoration. A delayed understory response is common. restoration. A delayed understory response response when using mechanical treatments for response when using mechanical treatments

relations. of introduced species. It also may alter site nutrient of introduced species. It also may alter by shading, will provide open sites for establishment by shading, will provide and wild). Heavy slash, which may kill desirable plants slash, and wild). Heavy and can limit the mobility of large herbivores (domestic herbivores and can limit the mobility of large Phase III create a fire hazard for a minimum of 2 years hazard Phase III create a fire terrain. Large amounts of slash in late Phase II and amounts of slash in late Phase II and terrain. Large implement and costly when working in areas with rough implement and costly when working trees/slash on the site, and treatment can be difficult to be difficult trees/slash on the site, and treatment can removed, fuel loads can be increased by leaving cut fuel loads can be increased by leaving removed, require follow-up treatment for small trees not initially treatment require follow-up 74 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment trees canreducefuelloads. and iseconomicallypossible,removal ofthedowned between thetwo directions.Whenitfits projectgoals (opposite) directions,usuallywithseedingoccurring Bull Hog™(fig. 33).Chainingcanoccurinoneortwo of mechanicalcuttingandgrindingdevices suchasthe anchor chainsorsteelcablestouproottrees,theuse to pushtreesover, chainingwithbulldozers thatpull excessively wet.Methodsincludeusingbulldozers to beexpensive andshouldnotbeusedwhensoilsare to reducetreedominance,but thesetreatmentstend juniper-dominated sitein western Utah. Figure 33. Heavy machinery: Heavy machinerycanbeused

An exampleoftreemastication(bullhogging) ona Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 75

Chainsaw cutting selectively cutting selectively Chainsaw cutting: Chainsaw Feller bunchers cut and lay groups of 3–8 trees cut and lay groups of 3–8 trees Feller bunchers Soil conditions, such as texture and moisture moisture and texture such as Soil conditions,

Cutting may be the only treatment option in areas of Cutting may be the only treatment option or areas where use of heavy machinery is not feasible. or areas where use of heavy Costs increase when treating areas with steep terrain Costs increase when treating areas with kills trees with minimal soil disturbance (fig. 34). (fig. kills trees with minimal soil disturbance

prohibitive. transportation costs can make hauling the wood chips hauling the wood transportation costs can make areas in which piñon-juniper woodlands are often found, areas in which piñon-juniper woodlands if not pay for, the cost of tree removal. For more remote For the cost of tree removal. if not pay for, be hauled, biomass utilization can significantly offset, offset, be hauled, biomass utilization can significantly the price being paid for chips and the distance they must they the price being paid for chips and the distance bunchers is usually minimal on dry soils. Depending on is usually minimal bunchers chips on site. Soil surface disturbance from feller chips on site. Soil surface about the ecological effects of burning piles or leaving piles or leaving of burning about the ecological effects in place, burned, or chipped. However, little is known little is known However, or chipped. in place, burned, (depending on size) on the ground. Bundles can be left (depending on size)

under study. and long-term ecological effects of these treatments are effects and long-term ecological increasingly being used in Nevada and Utah. The short- in Nevada increasingly being used Mastication treatments such as bullhogging are such as bullhogging Mastication treatments eliminate saplings and sustain the life of the treatment. eliminate saplings and often requires a follow-up treatment, such as fire, to treatment, such as fire, often requires a follow-up in Utah after a fire. When not following a fire, chaining a fire, When not following in Utah after a fire. being used in piñon-juniper woodlands in Nevada, and in Nevada, woodlands being used in piñon-juniper juniper woodlands since the 1980s, it is still occasionally since the 1980s, it is still occasionally juniper woodlands chaining. While, chaining has not been used in western not been used in western While, chaining has chaining. machinery, but effects are often light to moderate with are often light to moderate effects but machinery, vegetation also may be a concern with use of heavy heavy concern with use of also may be a vegetation content is high. Impacts on desirable understory high. Impacts on desirable content is disturbance, such as avoiding times when soil-water soil-water times when such as avoiding disturbance, plans in order to minimize soil compaction and surface compaction and surface to minimize soil plans in order of tight turns) should be evaluated, and factored into and factored evaluated, be turns) should of tight content, and machinery operation (for example, use use (for example, operation and machinery content, 76 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment (a) Onajuniper-dominated siteinwesternUtah. Figure 34. may increasetheriskoffire. sagebrush. However, cuttingthatleaves debrisinplace stand vigorofnon-sproutingunderstoryshrubslike cutting. Thistreatmentwillmaintainandusuallyincrease treated byopeningthemtothepublicforfirewood is arisk.Smallerareascanoftenbemoreeconomically so thisshouldonlybedonewherepost-treatmenterosion increases whenlimbsorslasharespreadacrossthesite, cultural resourceconcern.Expenseofcuttingtreatments

Piñon-juniper chainsawcuttinginwoodlands. Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 77 Continued.

juniper, Wyoming sagebrush site with Phase II woodlands. sagebrush site with Phase II Wyoming juniper, Second growing season after chainsaw cutting on a piñon- (c) Second growing season after chainsaw cutting Wyoming sagebrush site in eastern Nevada. sagebrush site in eastern Wyoming One year after chainsaw cutting on a piñon-juniper, cutting on a piñon-juniper, (b) One year after chainsaw Figure 34. Figure 78 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment Figure 34. woodlands. piñon-juniper, Wyoming sagebrushsitewith earlyPhaseIII (d) Secondgrowingseasonafterchainsawcuttingona

Continued. Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 79 ) (figs. ) (figs. 2

The presence or absence of perennial grasses, forbs, grasses, forbs, or absence of perennial The presence prior to treatment and seed pools potential) Ecological site (site of fire Extent and patchiness before, during, and after the Climatic conditions can increase stand vigor of non-sprouting which fire, cutting that leaves However, sagebrush. shrubs like increase the risk of fire. debris in place may Plant community composition Plant community Prescribed fire is often the most the most is often fire Prescribed Fire: Prescribed Prescribed fire treatments can produce desirable treatments can produce desirable Prescribed fire

• • • • •

burn response to fire are: to fire response burn Phase II. The primary factors that will influence post- that will influence primary factors Phase II. The particularly when woodlands are in Phase I or early Phase I or are in woodlands when particularly economical way of treating larger landscape areas, areas, landscape larger of treating way economical

herbaceous perennials can be beneficial. herbaceous perennials can be beneficial. treatments to reduce undesirable species and seed treatments to reduce undesirable species soils are shallow or fine-textured. Additional follow-up Additional follow-up or fine-textured. soils are shallow increased, especially if the site is warm and dry, or where and dry, increased, especially if the site is warm as cheatgrass, are present on the site, risk of failure is of failure as cheatgrass, are present on the site, risk can easily carry fire into the crown. When weeds, such the crown. into can easily carry fire cover large areas. When piñon dominates, their bark large cover and woodlands are contiguous, crown fires can rapidly can rapidly fires are contiguous, crown and woodlands of woodland succession). Where tree dominance is high of woodland the response compared to treating sites in earlier states the response compared to treating sites lower (for example, more annuals versus perennials in perennials in more annuals versus (for example, lower site response less predictable with potential for success site response less predictable with potential need for higher inputs (see cutting and burning), and (3) burning), need for higher inputs (see cutting and ladder fuels, (2) treatment may be more costly due to the ladder fuels, (2) treatment may be more carry through the stand as a result of limited ground and carry through the stand as a result of limited have a depleted understory, (1) fire may be difficult to may be difficult (1) fire a depleted understory, have 35a-b). On sites that are in late Phase II or Phase III and 35a-b). On sites that are in late Phase II natives in the understory (>2 desirable grasses/m in the understory (>2 natives particularly when there is an abundance of perennial of is an abundance particularly when there results on sites with woodlands in Phases I and II woodlands results on sites with 80 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment Wyoming bigsagebrush communitiesineastern Nevada. fire inPhases(a)I, b) II,and(cIIIpiñon-juniper dominated Figure 35. (b) (a)

Understory responses2yearsafter prescribed Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 81 Continued.

An initial response to either prescribed fire or fire An initial response to either prescribed

seedling establishment and increased soil erosion. seedling establishment and increased soil directly beneath the tree canopy resulting in limited directly beneath the tree canopy soil erosion potential. Hydrophobicity can be a problem soil erosion potential. Hydrophobicity can finer textured soils, and steeper slopes have the highest soils, and steeper slopes have textured finer that have a greater incidence of summer thunderstorms, that have can be applied under more mild weather conditions. Sites can be applied under more mild weather may be achieved by fuel preparation so the fire treatment by fuel preparation so the fire may be achieved for protection of the soil and understory vegetation. This This vegetation. for protection of the soil and understory where 100 and 1,000 hour fuels are heavy, is important where 100 and 1,000 hour fuels are heavy, temperature and duration of prescribed fire, primarily fire, temperature and duration of prescribed slower, but not always (fig. 36). Controlling the 36). Controlling (fig. not always but slower, Recovery in Wyoming big sagebrush areas is usually in Wyoming Recovery 25 to 35 years (varies with climate and seed source). with climate and 25 to 35 years (varies sagebrush usually will recover to pre-burn levels within levels to pre-burn sagebrush usually will recover runoff, and erosion in the short term? Mountain big and erosion in the short term? Mountain runoff, affect wildlife (that is, loss of the shrub layer), water layer), water wildlife (that is, loss of the shrub affect and increased bare ground. How will these responses will these and increased bare ground. How wildfire includes decreased litter and woody vegetation vegetation litter and woody includes decreased wildfire Figure 35. (c) 82 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment used inlatePhase IIandPhaseIII.Latesummer or cutting. Thistreatment combinationismost often fuels tocarryfire or(2)remove treeslashcreated by cutting andthenburning isusedto(1)increase ground conditions andclimate. buds togrow above thebrowse line,but depends onsite this couldtake about3to5yearsallow theterminal aspen establishmentaftertreatment.Researchindicates from livestock andwildlifeusemaybenecessaryfor for fire, burning canproducedesirableresults.Protection fuel preparation–see‘PrescribedFire’onp.78)exist implement. However, ifsuitableconditions(forexample, in aspenforests,prescribedfire canbedifficult to Burning inAspenforJuniperandPiñonRemoval sub-dominant. big sagebrushwithgreenrabbitbrushandephedra present inthebackground).ItisnowdominatedbyWyoming through PhaseIIIexpansionpiñon-juniperwoodlands(still Figure 36. Cut andBurnCombinations: Acombinationof Due tohighfuel-moistureconditionsoftenfound

Thirty-five-year -old north-slopewildfirethatburned Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 83 . 4

Research on social acceptability of vegetation acceptability of vegetation Research on social Because past chemical application on piñon and Because past chemical application on piñon

Brunson, M.W., and Shindler, B.A., 2004, Geographic variation in B.A., 2004, Geographic variation and Shindler, Brunson, M.W.,

4 grinding machines (that is, bullhogging) examined the relatively acceptability of cutting and the relatively examined over the use of bulldozers. No published research has No published the use of bulldozers. over being equal, citizens are likely to prefer chainsaw cutting to prefer chainsaw being equal, citizens are likely may be more acceptable to the public. All other things may be more acceptable to the public. All locations near human habitation, mechanical treatment locations near human levels and risks of adjacent property damage are low; in property damage are low; and risks of adjacent levels However, preference is maintained only insofar as smoke as smoke only insofar preference is maintained However, it is perceived as more “natural” than other treatments. as more “natural” it is perceived generally prefer prescribed fire as a treatment because as a treatment fire generally prefer prescribed management in rangelands has found that citizens management in rangelands III woodlands need to be considered. III woodlands economic feasibility, and social acceptability on Phase and social economic feasibility, regarding understory vegetation, erosion, wildlife habitat, understory vegetation, regarding in a fire that is too hot. Other precautions noted earlier that is too hot. Other precautions noted in a fire possible and to avoid building a fuel load that will result a fuel load building to avoid possible and recommended to keep the treatment as cost-effective as the treatment as cost-effective to keep recommended Phases I and II. Cutting no more trees than necessary is trees than necessary II. Cutting no more Phases I and III stands is higher risk and more expensive than in than expensive is higher risk and more III stands perennial grasses. Cut and burn treatment of Phase treatment grasses. Cut and burn perennial effects resulting in 20–50% mortality of the remaining of the remaining in 20–50% mortality resulting effects fall or winter burning (late Sept.–Mar.) has less-severe has less-severe (late Sept.–Mar.) burning or winter fall understory vegetation resulting in >75% mortality. Late mortality. in >75% resulting vegetation understory fall burning in Phase III can have severe effects on on effects severe III can have in Phase burning fall

intended (for example where the soil type, especially intended (for example only be used on sites where the herbicide will work as will work only be used on sites where the herbicide woodlands is site selection. Chemical treatment should woodlands important consideration for chemical treatment of important consideration for chemical treatment to guide managers in using this method. The most to guide managers in using this method. or mixed results, only limited information is available results, only limited information is available or mixed juniper, particularly western juniper, has met with poor has met with poor particularly western juniper, juniper, Chemical Treatments Society and Natural Resources, v. 17, p. 661-678. Society and Natural Resources, v. social acceptability of wildland fuels management in the western U.S.: social acceptability of wildland fuels management 84 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment faster frompicloramthantebuthiuron applications. juniper andpiñon.Understoryspeciestendtorecover most effective way ofchemicallycontrollingUtah of pelletedtebuthiuron andpicloramhasbeenthe method. for chemicaltreatmentsthanany otherrestoration of perennials.Socialacceptabilitytendstobelower may interferewithsubsequentweedcontrolandseeding respond. Following herbicide treatment,standingtrees performance) andtheunderstoryhaspotentialto high claycontent,willnotinterferewiththechemical’s seeding followed bydraggingachainacross thesurface. in PhaseIandlow densityPhase IIstagesorbroadcast sites withhighprecipitation. Drill seedingispreferable for seedcoverage hasonlybeensuccessfulforyearsor be usedifpossible.Seedingwithout someprovision Methods thatprovide forgoodseed/soilcontactshould mechanical treatments,broadcastseedingisoftenused. following fire anddowned treesorslasharepresentafter and soiltexture. Becausetreestumpstypicallyremain dominance is greatly influenced by effective precipitation Seeding remaining below thecut. effective fortreatingcutjuniperstumpswithgreenlimbs tall as6ft.ChopperandArsenalalsohave shown tobe be effective innorthernCaliforniaforjunipertreesas Chopper andArsenaltreatmentshave beenshown to on shallow soilsnearridgetops. clayey ordeepsoils,while lower ratesmaybeeffective recommendations. Highratesaremoreeffective onmore effective. Applicatorsshould carefullyfollow label Rates ofupto1.1 Tebuthiuron andPicloram: Aerialapplication Success ofseedingontreatedsitestoreducetree Other Chemicals:Velpar L.PrononePower Pellets,

kb active ingredient/ha have been Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 85

Moderate-severity fire (notice needles on trees) Moderate-severity fire (notice needles on trees)

rmrs_gtr136.html) (figs. 37 and 38). 37 and 38). (figs. rmrs_gtr136.html) seeding recommendations (http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/ seeding recommendations “restoring western ranges and wildlands” for detailed wildlands” for detailed western ranges and “restoring specialized drill or by aerial seeding on snow. Please see Please see on snow. drill or by aerial seeding specialized them into the soil surface with a packer wheel on a with a packer the soil surface them into but may be enhanced by dropping seeds and pressing seeds and pressing by dropping may be enhanced but shrubs. Establishment of big sagebrush is inconsistent is inconsistent big sagebrush of Establishment shrubs. more consistently successful than that of native forbs or forbs that of native than successful consistently more Establishment of introduced and native grasses has been has grasses and native of introduced Establishment seeding is required. where 80% of the native species in the understory survived; no where 80% of the native species in the understory Figure 37. 86 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment of dominance byexoticannuals ishigh. visible, mostofthem exoticannuals.Withoutseeding, therisk site. Fireseverity wassuchthatonlyafewgreen plantsare year afterafirein adensePhaseIIIexpansionpiñon-juniper seeding requiredtoreducethespread ofinvasives.(b)One site isdominatedbyintroducedannual andbiannualweeds; species was>80%.(a)OneyearafterwesternUtahfire, the or barkremainontrees)wheremortality ofnativeherbaceous Figure 38. (b) (a)

Examples ofhigh-severityfire(notice noneedles Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 87

including the need for maintenance on the site, on the maintenance need for the including site affect landscape the surrounding and on and function? conditions Ho

How will treatment influence the distribution will treatment influence the distribution How Maintenance of desirable site conditions is most of desirable site Maintenance

33. management, w willpost-treatment

of desirable grasses. It also has been shown to increase of desirable grasses. It also has been shown increase mortality and decrease leaf and seed production increase mortality and decrease leaf and and second years following treatment has been shown to been shown treatment has and second years following necessary. Grazing during the growing season in the first season in the first Grazing during the growing necessary. complete deferment and longer rest periods may be complete deferment and longer rest periods in areas in poor ecological condition prior to treatment, in areas in poor ecological condition prior the actual amount of rest needed. In more arid areas or the actual amount of rest needed. In more practice, but plant response is often a better indicator of plant response practice, but After fire, 2 years of rest from grazing is a common 2 years of rest After fire, or postponement of grazing in the surrounding area. or postponement of grazing in the surrounding summer and fall. This may also require the limitation summer and fall. or grazing when herbaceous species are dormant in late or grazing when herbaceous species are controlling placement of water and mineral supplements controlling placement of water the treated area, grazing impacts can be reduced by the treated area, grazing impacts can be is depleted. If it is not possible to keep animals out of is depleted. If it is not possible to keep the likelihood of success, especially if the understory the likelihood grazing following treatment will significantly improve improve treatment will significantly grazing following of livestock and wildlife use of the site? Rest from of livestock adjacent to the treated site should also be noted. adjacent to the treated problem. Changes in the condition of the landscape area problem. Changes in hydrologic responses or invasive species are potentially a species are potentially responses or invasive hydrologic monitoring may be necessary in areas where negative necessary in areas where negative monitoring may be be assessed across the project area. More detailed be assessed across the regular basis and cover of the dominant species should of the dominant species basis and cover regular photographs should be taken at established points on a at established points on be taken photographs should monitoring plan should be implemented. At a minimum, monitoring plan should with follow-up treatments. A good post-treatment treatments. with follow-up and evaluates the benefits of maintenance of the site of maintenance of the benefits and evaluates considers short- and long-term successional responses considers short- and reassessed. An optimal management approach reassessed. An optimal adaptive and flexible, and when plans are continually when plans are continually and and flexible, adaptive likely when post-treatment management remains management when post-treatment likely 88 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment severity fire mayhave greaterimpact. understory vegetation, but heavy equipmentorhigh- cutting andchemicalapplicationsminimallyaffect be significant untilthesecondyearpost-fire. Usually, and productionofgrassforbseedisnotlikely to and seedlingestablishmentaftertreatmentisimportant, on planthealth.However, maximizingseedproduction following treatmenthasbeenshown tohave lessereffects like cheatgrass.Grazingafterseedsetinthefirst 2years the establishmentandreproductionofinvasive species Appendix 89

______recruitment. Y / N Y recruitment. / N Y recruitment. _ Y / N Y Y / N; Phase I II III Y ______? Y / N Y ? 2 Y / N Y ______1-25% 26-50% >50% Y / N Y ______grasses/m ______

_ ield Assessment Form Assessment ield ______F _

desirable

______% dead <10% 1 Soil _

a. ≥2 a. a. Type Current plant community Invasive species present? dams, Evidence of surface erosion (rills, sediment Post-settlement trees present? Desirable shrub Dominant grass(es) Dominant shrub Soil erosion potential High Moderate Low Soil erosion potential High Moderate Species of concern Historic fire return interval (key 2) Historic fire return interval Lar PNV Plant association or Ecological Site Bitterbrush present? Bitterbrush present? grass(es) Diagnostic perennial (table 1)? Old growth on the site Diagnostic sagebrush species Diagnostic pedestals, etc.)? Y / N Y pedestals, etc.)? ______

_

G. E. F. D. B. C. A. I. J. H. E. F. /N Y wood foundonthesite? ge G. B. C. D. A.

II. Current State II. Current Date Association Site / Plant I. Ecological Location Site Name Appendix 1: Appendix 90 Appendix Considerations Phases II and/or III (circle treatment recommendation) Phase Iand/or II(circle treatment recommendation) IV. Management Action III. Landscapeconsiderations reatment willfragment/linkadjacentpatches. C. B. A. L. K. J. I. H. D. C. eed potential,shrublayer, liability, structures, B. A. F. E. D. C. B. A. D. C. B. A.

Cut dropandburn Cut dropandleave Partial cutandbroadcastburn Other options Seeding required Burn Cut T How willtreatmentaf Size ofareatobetreated Current uses Social concerns The sitewillburn Habitat suitabilityfortar Perceived problem Monitoring Post treatment W Small treesmayrequirefollow-up Other options Seeding required Cut pileandburn containment a. Low ModerateHigh

If lowormoderate,whatismissing? ______Y /N Y /N _ With / Without pre-treatment. ______fect adjacentpatches? get species ______

______

Appendix 91

Bluebunch wheatgrass Bluebunch spicata Psuedorogneria PSSP5

Hesperostipa comato Hesperostipa HECO26 Needle and thread and Needle

Festuca idahoensis Festuca FEID Idaho fescue Idaho

Achnatherum speciosa Achnatherum ACSP12 Desert needlegrass Desert

Achnatherum hymenoides Achnatherum ACHY Indian ricegrass Indian

Achnatherum thurberiana Achnatherum ACTH7 Thurber’s needlegrass Thurber’s

Achnatherum nelsonii Achnatherum ACNE Colombia needlegrass Colombia

TECA Tetradymia canescens Tetradymia Spineless or gray horse-brush gray or Spineless

species Symphoricarpos Symphoricarpos SYM Snowberry

Purshia tridentata Purshia PUTR Bitterbrush

Grayia spinosa Grayia GRSP Spiny hopsage Spiny

Bromus carinatus Bromus BRCA Mountain brome Mountain

ARTRVA Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana ssp. tridentata Artemisia Mountain big sagebrush big Mountain

AFTRTR Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata ssp. tridentata Artemisia Basin big sagebrush big Basin

pecies Codes pecies

ARTRWY Artemisia tridentata ssp. whyomingensis ssp. tridentata Artemisia S sagebrush big Wyoming

ARNO Artemisia nova Artemisia Black sagebrush Black

ARARLO Artemisia arbuscula longiloba arbuscula Artemisia Early sagebrush Early

ARAR Artemisia arbuscula Artemisia Low sagebrush Low

AMAL Amelanchier alnifolia Amelanchier Serviceberry

Code Scientific Name Scientific Common Name Common Species Codes Species Appendix 2: Appendix 92 Glossary moving water. Gullies: channelsthathave been cutintothesoilby by vegetation composition andstructure. a desiredsetofconditionson thesiteoftendetermined habitat foradefined setofspecies,etc.,which aremetby Functional goals:examples arewatershed health, Fuel: allburnable materiallive anddead. itself formingdeepgrooves orbarkpockets. Fluted: pockets wherethecambiumlayer folds inon regime onthesite,notmean(MFRI). in intervals isthemeaningfulrealityofdisturbance the sizeofareamustbeclearlyspecified. Variability is, theinterval betweentwo successive fire occurrences); successive fires documentedinadesignated area(that return fire interval): thenumberofyearsbetweentwo Fire Return Interval (FRI)(orfire free interval or nutrient cycling, andenergy capture. or behavior ofimportantprocessessuchashydrology, Ecological function:referredtohereastheactions aspx?type=ESD). esis.sc.egov.usda.gov/Welcome/pgReportLocation. Forest Service,andRangeland EcologicalSite(http:// synonymous withecological typeusedbyUSDA vegetation anditsresponsetomanagement.Apparently its abilitytoproducedistinctive kindsandamountsof characteristics thatdiffers fromothertypesoflandin Ecological site:atypeoflandwithspecific physical Cover type:seepotentialnaturalvegetation. contributors tositestabilityrelative tositepotential. connectedness ofbaregroundarethemostimportant to raindropsplasherosion.Thesize,distribution, and Bare ground: exposed mineralsoilthat issusceptible Glossary of Terms

Glossary 93

widely scattered trees (<10% canopy cover). widely scattered trees (<10% canopy grassland or shrub-steppe with or savannah: Savanna flow patterns do. flow and do not necessarily follow the microtopography that that the microtopography and do not necessarily follow small, erosional rivulets that are generally linear that are generally Rills: small, erosional rivulets or after 1860). period of establishment (pre- and post-settlement, before period of establishment (pre- and post-settlement, morphological characteristics, actual age, or general morphological characteristics, actual age, a relative term that has been based on a relative Old-growth: growth). growth). trees establishing before 1860 (see old- Pre-settlement: climax. anywhere along its successional pathway—from seral to along its successional pathway—from anywhere location and time may reflect a vegetation community location and time may reflect a vegetation vegetation. The existing cover type at any particular type at any cover The existing vegetation. an area where cover type is a classification of existing of existing type is a classification an area where cover factors such as topography, soils and climate across such as topography, factors and climate. PNV is an expression of environmental of environmental an expression and climate. PNV is will persist under the pre-settlement disturbance regimes pre-settlement disturbance regimes will persist under the the vegetation that the vegetation (PNV): natural vegetation Potential trees establishing after 1860. trees establishing after trees: Post-settlement disturbance regime on the site, not the mean (MFRI). on the site, disturbance regime variability in intervals is the meaningful reality of the in intervals variability specified. MFRI only provides the central tendency; the central tendency; MFRI only provides specified. period; the size of the area and the time period must be period; the size of the determined in a designated area during a designated time determined in a designated arithmetic average of all fire intervals intervals of all fire arithmetic average interval): free Mean Fire Return Interval (MFRI) (or mean fire (or mean fire (MFRI) Interval Return Mean Fire and the entire area may or may not be treated. area may or may and the entire area may be composed of one or more ecological sites, or more ecological be composed of one area may where a management strategy is to be applied. The land is to be strategy where a management an area of land defined by boundaries by boundaries land defined unit: an area of Management sagebrush, bitterbrush, dead down wood and branches). wood down dead bitterbrush, sagebrush, carry fire from the ground to the crown of trees (that is, of trees the crown ground to from the fire carry material on or near the ground that will that near the ground on or fuel: material Ladder 94 Glossary dense >40%. canopy cover >10%; open 10-20%, intermediate 20-40%, Woodland: anareaofsmallerstaturedtreesusuallywith stones. of litter, soilorgravel, orpedestallingofvegetation or Evidence ofwater flow patternsinclude redistribution moves acrossthesoilsurface duringoverland flow. Water flow pattern: thepaththatwater takes asit across ecologicalsitesandwithtreesize. or additionofnew leafcanopy). Stocking densityvaries maturity, interspecific competition limitstheexpansion that doesorwilleventually fullyoccupy asite(thatis,at Stocking: fullystocked siteisonewithenoughtrees State Candidatespecies. State Endangered,Threatened,Sensitive, or need ofconcentratedconservation actions,including weeds) orspeciesthataredecliningappeartobein that mayincreasefollowing treatment(thatis,noxious consideration inrestoration.Theseincludespecies Species ofconcern: speciesthatrequirespecial 122 p.). National ScienceandTechnology Center, Denver CO. Department oftheInterior, BureauofLandManagement 4). BLMTechnical Reference1734-6.UnitedStates Interpreting theindicatorsofrangelandhealth(version (Pellant, M.,Shaver, P., Pyke, D.A., Herrick,J.E.2005. nutrients andorganic matterbywindandwater redistribution andlossofsoilresourcesincluding Soil/site stability:capacityofanareatolimit Glossary 95

Definition inches feet/foot meter(s) centimeter(s) millimeter(s) hectare percent year(s)

Abbreviation Abbreviations in. ft m cm mm ha % yr(s) 96 Glossary This pageintentionallyleftblank. Publishing support provided by the U.S. Geological Survey Publishing Network, Tacoma Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact the Communications and Information Management Program, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 777 NW 9th Street Corvallis, Oregon 97330 [email protected] http://fresc.usgs.gov Tausch and others—Piñon and Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions— Circular 1335