Western Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions

Circular 1321

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Cover: Photograph taken by Richard F. Miller. Western Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions

By R.F. Miller, Oregon State University, J.D. Bates, T.J. Svejcar, F.B. Pierson, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and L.E. Eddleman, Oregon State University

This is contribution number 01 of the Sagebrush Steppe Treatment Evaluation Project (SageSTEP), supported by funds from the U.S. Joint Fire Science Program. Partial support for this guide was provided by U.S. Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center.

Circular 1321

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

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Suggested citation: Miller, R.F., Bates, J.D., Svejcar, T.J., Pierson, F.B., and Eddleman, L.E., 2007, Western Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1321, 61 p.

Edited and Designed by: Summer C. Olsen and Elizabeth A. Didier, Outreach Program Coordinators, Utah State University, Logan, Utah State University All photographs in this guide were taken by Richard Miller unless otherwise noted. Contents

Introduction...... 1

Questions to be Addressed...... 4

Setting Goals and Objectives...... 6

Part I: Identifying the Ecological Site...... 8

Part II: Current State of the Site...... 24

Part III: Landscape Considerations...... 41

Part IV: Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment...... 43

Post-Treatment Management...... 55

Appendix 1: Field Assessment Form...... 56

Appendix 2: Species Codes...... 58

Glossary of Terms...... 59 Figures

Figure 1. Juniper encroachment at Keystone Ranch, eastern Oregon, about 1890 and 1989...... 1 Figure 2. Current aerial distribution of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) in the western United States...... 3 Figure 3. Post-settlement Phase II western juniper stand...... 7 Figure 4. Soil texture triangle...... 9 Figure 5. A cemented ash layer at 12 in., compressing the juniper roots above the restrictive soil layer...... 9 Figure 6. Basin big sagebrush/Thurber’s needlegrass plant association with a restrictive layer at 16-20 in., which limits tree rooting depth resulting in a loss of shrubs, grasses, and forbs...... 10 Figure 7. Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue plant association (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16 PZ) with moderately deep (>30 in.), well-drained, clay loam soils...... 10 Figure 8. A conceptual generalization of the potential for erosion and infiltration related to soil texture, slope, and the amount of gravel and pebbles on the surface...... 11 Figure 9. Dead bitterbrush (PUTR) and big sagebrush (ARTR) remnants can be separated by differences in the wood; bitterbrush (top) is clear while sagebrush (bottom) has dark brown bands perpendicular to the annual growth rings...... 12 Figure 10. Diagnostic species that indicate warm-dry to cool-wet gradient...... 12 Figures—Continued

Figure 11. Crown of mountain big sagebrush (ARTRV) is generally flat-topped with inflorescence >1/2 above vegetative crown, and Wyoming big sagebrush (ARTRW) with an uneven top and inflorescence <1/2 above vegetative crown....13 Figure 12. An 800-year-old western juniper tree with spreading rounded top and large lower limbs on sandy soils, Connely Hills, south-central Oregon...... 17 Figure 13. Old-growth western juniper with considerable dead branches, missing bark and lichen, occupying a shallow heavy clay soil on the Modoc Plateau in northern California...... 17 Figure 14. Bark characteristics of three western juniper trees of different ages...... 18 Figure 15. Vigorous terminal and lateral leader growth (4-6 in.) on a sapling growing in the absence of competition from other trees...... 19 Figure 16. Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass plant association with a stand of pre-settlement trees growing on shallow soils just below the ridgetop...... 19 Figure 17. Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue plant association (Ecological site = Pumice 10-12PZ) in central Oregon north of Christmas Valley...... 20 Figure 18. Relationship of time since fire and the percent composition (dominance) of grasses, shrubs, and trees...... 22 Figure 19. Phase II mountain big sagebrush-bitterbrush/ Idaho fescue (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16 PZ) with a high level of structural diversity...... 23 Figures—Continued

Figure 20. Juniper leader growth, particularly of trees <3 m tall, is a good indicator of competition among trees...... 27 Figure 21. Three phases of woodland succession in mountain big sagebrush communities...... 28 Figure 22. Conceptual model with estimated time periods from initial tree establishment (early Phase I) to minimum stocking adequate for Phase III, and estimated maximum potential for relative abundance and cover for stands developing on sites from high to low productivity...... 30 Figure 23. Relationship between age and tree height across mountain big sagebrush sites: tree height can be used as a coarse proxy to estimate stand age (multiply meters by 3.28 to convert to feet)...... 31 Figure 24. A mixed-age stand of post-settlement trees...31 Figure 25. Phase III site with an adequate density of deep-rooted grasses (Idaho Fescue, blue bunch wheatgrass, and Thurber’s needlegrass) to recover without seeding...... 33 Figure 26. First growing season after a high-severity wildfire...... 34 Figure 27. Increasing juniper dominance on this site has led to increasing bare ground and mortality of understory species...... 34 Figure 28. This site lacks both woody and herbaceous understory to carry a fire and adequate desirable herbaceous species for restoration...... 35 Figure 29. A juniper-dominated site (Phase III) that has eroded to a restrictive layer (A horizon is gone) in the inter-canopy zone, resulting in accelerated runoff and erosion...... 37 Figures—Continued

Figure 30. Site with large, connected zones of bare ground in the inter-canopy...... 37 Figure 31. Mountain bluebirds consuming juniper berries early in the spring...... 39 Figure 32. Tree cavity in the center of the trunk of an old-growth western juniper...... 39 Figure 33. Juniper thinning to 5 trees/acre (12/ha) (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16PZ)...... 45 Figure 34. Basin big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass- Thurber’s plant association on a southwest aspect, 5,000 ft elevation, pre-treatment Phase III, tree canopy 25%, shrub cover 0.5%, herbaceous cover 2.5%, deep-rooted tall perennial bunchgrasses = 2/10 ft2...... 47 Figure 35. Phases I and II mountain big sagebrush/ Idaho fescue (Ecological site = Deep North 12-18 PZ), 4,500 ft elevation, and north aspect (background); basin big sagebrush/basin wildrye (foreground) (Phase I, but little rye prior to the fire)...... 49 Figure 36. A high-intensity wildfire was carried by the juniper canopy (35 to 40% cover) under extreme weather conditions, killing most of the understory, which included Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, and Thurber’s needlegrass...... 49 Figure 37. Prescribed fall burns in mountain big sagebrush and Idaho fescue in Phase II, 8-12 native grasses/m2, and Phase III, 4-7 plants/m2...... 50 Figure 38. Aspen stand with dense sapling size (most of which are 40–60 years old) and western juniper in the understory...... 51 Figure 39. Aspen regeneration following a prescribed fire to remove juniper...... 51 Figures—Continued

Figure 40. Moderate-severity fire (notice needles on trees) where 80% of the native species in the understory survived; no seeding is required (Ecological site = Deep North 12-18PZ)...... 54 Figure 41. High-severity fire (notice no needles or bark remain on trees) where mortality of native herbaceous species was >80% ; 5 years after fire this site is dominated by introduced annual and biannual weeds; seeding required (Ecological site = Deep North 12-18PZ)...... 54

Tables

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of post- settlement (<150 years) and pre-settlement (>150 years) trees...... 16 Table 2. Stand characteristics differentiating three transitional phases of woodland succession for several mountain big sagebrush associations, including Thurber’s needlegrass (maximum juniper cover 25-41%), Idaho fescue (maximum juniper cover 34-58%), and Columbia needlegrass (maximum juniper cover 60-75%)...... 26

Keys

Key 1. Common sagebrush species associated with western juniper...... 14 Key 2. Identifying ecological site and estimated fire return interval (FRI)...... 21 Introduction 1 Juniper encroachment at Keystone Ranch, eastern Juniper encroachment at Keystone Ranch, . Strong evidence indicates that western juniper has juniper that western indicates evidence Strong

(a) Stu Garret. Figure 1 Oregon, (a) about 1890 and (b) 1989. Photographs provided by (b)

function, and wildlife will respond to treatments. function, and wildlife uncertainty about how vegetation, soils, hydrologic hydrologic soils, vegetation, uncertainty about how management strategy can be a difficult task due to task due to a difficult can be management strategy ecosystem resilience to disturbances. Developing a to disturbances. Developing ecosystem resilience that includes shrubs, grasses, and forbs, and to increase that includes shrubs, ecosystem function and a more balanced plant community and a more balanced plant community ecosystem function of juniper management include an attempt to restore of juniper management production, wildlife habitat, and biodiversity. Goals biodiversity. wildlife habitat, and production, composition, water, nutrient and fire cycles, forage cycles, fire nutrient and water, composition, affects soil resources, plant community structure and structure resources, plant community soil affects and herbaceous vegetation (fig. 1). Woodland expansion expansion 1). Woodland (fig. vegetation and herbaceous encroaching into landscapes once dominated by shrubs dominated by into landscapes once encroaching significantly expanded its range since the late 1800s by its range since the expanded significantly Introduction 2 Introduction more informationandforliterature cited. Bulletin 152,2005).Pleaserefer tothispublicationfor University AgriculturalExperimentStationTechnical Juniper byRichardMillerandothers (Oregon State publication Supporting Literature use thisguidetoaidtheirdecision-making. economic andsociologicalaspectsofthelocalresource, with vegetation, fuels,soils,hydrology, wildlife,and managers andresourcespecialists,whoareexperienced greatly enhancedifaninterdisciplinaryteamoflocal treated, selectthebesttreatment,andpredictoutcomes. Conducting thisassessmentwillhelpprioritizesitestobe keys, tables,andfigures tohelpevaluate asite. questions tobeaddressedandaseriesofphotographs, of siteanditscurrentstate.Thesetoolsincludealist rapid qualitative field assessmentsthataddressthekind biologists, landmanagers,andprivate landowners conduct must take intoaccountmulti-decadetimeframes. steppe vegetation isdynamicandmanagementstrategies objectives fortheareaor region. Keep inmindsagebrush- the overall landscapemosaic,andthelong-termgoals need toberestored,how themanagementunitfits inwith (that is,successional,hydrologic, etc.),whatcomponents natural vegetation, soils,etc.),thecurrentstateofsite questions addressingthekindofsite(thatis,potential to beappliedareofutmostimportance.Onemustask the areatobetreatedandselectingrighttreatments asking therightquestions.Identifyingattributes of and possiblymostimportantsteptowards successis When developing amanagement strategy, thefirst This guideiscloselylinked tothesynthesis Success ofajunipermanagementprogrammaybe This guideprovides aset oftoolsthatwillhelpfield Biology, Ecology, and Management of Western Introduction 3 Current aerial distribution of western juniper Current aerial distribution of western juniper

Figure 2. (Juniperus occidentalis) in the western United States. 4 Introduction Part I:IdentifyingtheEcologicalSite be re-evaluated asthesequestionsareanswered. a particularsite.Asresult,goalsandobjectives should help managersdeterminefeasiblegoalsandobjectives for Setting GoalsandObjectives of potentialtreatmentsinPart IV. with informationabouttheadvantages anddisadvantages on addressingtheprimaryquestionsinParts I,II,andIII questions mayneedtobemodified. Theguidewillfocus additional questionsmayneedtobeaddressedor action. Becauseeachmanagementunitisunique, starting pointforselectingappropriatemanagement Questions tobeAddressed 2. 1. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. These questionsaremeanttoprovide abaseor Answers tothequestionsinParts I,II,andIIIwill functional goalsorhabitatneeds? What vegetation changesneedtooccurmeet should thesitelookin5,10,20,or50years? What arethedesiredecologicalconditionsorhow PNV conditions? What isthepotentialwildlife habitat value under on thesite? it influencethehistoricrange of vegetation dynamics What was thepast disturbanceregime, andhow did the fire returninterval? Is thePNVwoodland orshrub-steppe,andwhatis it growing? Is thereold-growth juniperonthesite,andwhereis plant association? What isthepotentialnaturalvegetation (PNV)or vegetation establishment anderosion? How willthesoilsandphysical featuresaffect What kindofsoilsareonthesite? Introduction 5 How will post-treatment management affect site post-treatment management affect will How conditions? Prescribed Fire Cut and Burn Combinations Chemical Treatments Seeding Factors that will influence treatment selection Factors Mechanical Treatments What are the current uses and management activities? What are the current uses and management composition? the site connect to the landscape? does How What are the landscape spatial characteristics of the What are the landscape spatial characteristics and edge, size, patch to respect with treated be to area connectedness? landscape Are there adjacent patches and what is the tied to the site? will treatment affect wildlife? will treatment affect economic concerns or issues Are there social and/or fire will the site support (ground fire or canopy fire)? or canopy site support (ground fire will the fire What flow? and overland Are there signs of erosion of the site to capture, store, is the current capacity and safely release water? habitat suitability? How What is the current wildlife What is the percentage of dead shrubs on the site, and shrubs on the site, percentage of dead What is the what are the species? and what type of What are the fuel characteristics, factors affecting proper ecological function? ecological proper affecting factors species? understory of native Is there recruitment I, succession (Phase stage of woodland What is the trees? age structure of II, or III) and composition? understory herbaceous What is the Clearly define the perceived problems: What are the What are problems: perceived the define Clearly

29. 25. 26. 27. 28. 23. 24. 22. 20. 21. 19. 18. 17. 15. 16. 13. 14. 11. 12. 10.

and Treatment Part IV: Selecting Appropriate Management Action Action Management Appropriate Selecting IV: Part

Part III: Landscape Considerations Part III: Landscape Part II: Current State of the Site State of II: Current Part 6 Setting Goals and Objectives viewed asrelative termsonly, notasexplicit directives orjudgments. bear inadecision-making process.Inthiscontext, thesewords should be the evaluations describedorcitedinthismanualmayeventually cometo wildlife. Thesetermsareusedwithrecognition thatmany factors besides of ecologicalresponsesvegetation, soils,hydrologic function,and relative tomanagementgoalsandobjectives andinconsiderations used todescribeadvantageous orsuitablemanagement approaches objectives foraparticularsite. in theongoingprocessofsettingappropriategoalsand provide informationtomanagersthatwillhelpthem Answers tothequestionsthatfollow inthisguidewill information becomesavailable andadjustedaccordingly. by many factors, they shouldbereevaluated asnew to beadjustedasaresult. also mayaffect thesite,andmanagementplansmayneed disturbances andchangesinenvironmental conditions appropriate ecologicalconditionofthoselands.Natural be emphasizedinjuniper-dominated rangelandsorthe or even conflictingideas aboutthevalues thatshould participation bystakeholders, whomayhave differing or seriesoftreatmentscouldhelptoachieve thoseresults. over thelongterm.Thenthey candetermineifatreatment landscape andthatwillsatisfymanagementobjectives conditions thatareecologicallyfeasibleonagiven and ecologicalsitetype.Managersneedtoidentify ecological characteristicsofthesite,suchassoilprofiles management objectives, potentialusesforthesite,and 1. Setting GoalsandObjectives Desired ecologicalconditionsdependon What arethedesired 1 Because goalsandobjectives areinfluenced Setting goalsandobjectives willoftenrequire years? or how shouldthesite lookin5,10,20,or50 Words suchas“desired”,“desirable”,and “best”aresometimes 1 ecologicalconditions Goals & objectives 7 Post-settlement Phase II western juniper stand. A Post-settlement Phase II western juniper stand.

After a “desired condition” has been defined (for been defined condition” has After a “desired What vegetation changes need to occur to meet to meet to occur need changes vegetation What needs? or habitat goals functional

understory by reducing juniper dominance. management objective for this site might be to maintain a diverse management objective for this site might be Figure 3. the site to capture and store water could be improved. store water the site to capture and with increasing perennial grass cover, and the ability of and grass cover, with increasing perennial fire regime. Erosion and sedimentation may be reduced Erosion and sedimentation may be reduced regime. fire structural diversity to affect fuels and maintain a desired to affect structural diversity habitat goals. An increase in shrubs also could change habitat goals. An increase canopy with a diverse understory may achieve these understory may achieve a diverse with canopy diversity for wildlife. Maintaining an open woodland an open woodland for wildlife. Maintaining diversity herbaceous vegetation may be needed to increase vertical vertical be needed to increase may vegetation herbaceous wildlife habitat. For example, an increase in shrubs and an increase in example, For wildlife habitat. functional goals, such as improved watershed health or watershed goals, such as improved functional vegetation changes necessary for the site to meet for the site to meet changes necessary vegetation example, fig. 3), the next step is to identify the specific is to identify the specific step 3), the next fig. example, 2. 8 Identifying the Ecological Site there isarestrictive soillayer16-18in. beneaththe herbaceous vegetation islikely todecrease onsiteswhere competition. With increasingjuniperdominance, to thelayerthatretardsrootdevelopment: grit. Grittytexture indicatessand. and attempttoformaribbon. palm. Pressthesoilbetweenyourthumbandforefinger you canrollitupinaballwithoutleaving soilonyour horizon, addwater toahealthy tablespoonofsoiluntil of soilsarepresent. 3. site. a sitevisittoensurethatthegiven descriptionsmatchthe site descriptionandsoils.Mapsshouldbeverified during obtained andusedtohelpdeterminetheproperecological Part I:IdentifyingtheEcologicalSite • • •

What kindofsoilsareonthesite? A soilsmapofthesiteorareawillindicatewhattype Ecological siteandsoilmapsfortheareashouldbe Restrictive soillayersincreasebelow-ground Soil Depth:depthismeasuredfromthesurface Add additionalwater andtestforsmoothness and Soil Texture (fig. 4):To determinesoiltexture ofeach immediately breaks=low claycontent Poor Ribbon:aribboncannotbeformedor breaks =moderateclaycontent Medium Ribbon:ribboncracksdeeplyandeventually high claycontent Good Ribbon:doesnotbreakandhasfew cracks= Very deep:>60in. Deep: 36to60in. Moderately deep:20to36in. Shallow: 10to20in. Very shallow: <10in. Identifying the Ecological Site 9 A cemented ash layer at 12 in., compressing the A cemented ash layer at 12 in., compressing Soil texture triangle. ash layer cemented

juniper roots above the restrictive soil layer. Figure 5. Figure 4. considered before treatment (figs. 5-7). before treatment (figs. considered will influence water runoff on the site, and this should be should be and this on the site, runoff water will influence surface. Soil layers (for example, cemented ash, heavy ash, heavy cemented (for example, Soil layers surface. also movement water that restrict etc.) layer, clay argillic 10 Identifying the Ecological Site shrubs, but theIdahofescue persistsinthe understory. well distributedthroughout thesoilprofileresulting inalossof (>30 in.),well-drained, clayloamsoils.Western juniperrootsare (Ecological site= DeepLoamy12-16PZ)withmoderately deep Figure 6. Figure 7. rooting depthresultinginalossofshrubs,grasses,andforbs. association witharestrictivelayerat16-20in.,whichlimitstree

Basin bigsagebrush/Thurber’s needlegrassplant Mountain bigsagebrush/Idahofescue plantassociation

Identifying the Ecological Site 11 % Slope Soil Texture Soil Infiltration Rates Erosion Potential Erosion ------Fine A conceptual generalization of the potential for erosion A conceptual generalization of the potential

Amount of Rock and Pebbles on the Surface

8. Soil characteristics will influence the level of the level will influence Soil characteristics vegetation establishment and erosion? establishment vegetation How will the soils and physical features affect affect features physical soils and will the How

Low ------High Low High ------Low Coarse 100------0 0 ------>30 gravel and pebbles on the surface. Figure and the amount of and infiltration related to soil texture, slope, topsoil been lost?). ways that will affect the success of seeding (that is, has the success of seeding (that is, affect that will ways due to tree dominance has changed soil characteristics in due to tree dominance ground. Another factor to consider is whether past erosion to consider is whether past ground. Another factor methods such as cutting juniper and leaving slash on the juniper and leaving methods such as cutting to erosion in the short term. Soil can be protected by to erosion in the short amount of vegetation, and the site may be vulnerable and the site may amount of vegetation, site. Treatments like prescribed fire may remove a large a large remove may prescribed fire like site. Treatments of rill and sheet erosion should be examined across the be examined sheet erosion should of rill and aggregate stability, patterns of bare ground, and evidence and evidence of bare ground, patterns stability, aggregate removal. Soil surface stability, soil texture, soil depth, soil soil texture, stability, Soil surface removal. risk for erosion following treatment that involves tree that involves treatment following risk for erosion 4. 12 Identifying the Ecological Site wet gradient(for definitionsofplantcodesseeappendix 2). Figure 10 brown bandsperpendiculartotheannualgrowthrings. bitterbrush (top)isclearwhilesagebrush(bottom)hasdark remnants canbeseparatedbydifferencesinthewood; Figure 9. 5. ARAR

. Dead bitterbrush(PUTR)andbigsagebrush(ARTR) Diagnostic species thatindicatewarm-drytocool- AC TH

Figure 11. top and inflorescence <1/2 above vegetative crown. top and inflorescence <1/2 above vegetative ) Wyoming big sagebrush (ARTRW) with an uneven crown, and (b) Wyoming (b) above vegetative generally flat-topped with inflorescence >1/2 (a) 14 Identifying the Ecological Site 1a. leaves. western juniper(figs.10–11).Keyisbasedonpersistent Key 1. 1b. 2a. 3a. 3b. 2b. Mature shrubs<18in.tall. Mature shrubs>18

Common sagebrushspeciesassociatedwith

4a. 4b. heads >3mmwide space betweentwo outerleaves), flower center lobeoftenbuck-toothed (widerthan cuneate, withdeep,welldeveloped lobes, ultraviolet light water fluorescebrightbluishwhite under shaped andtaperedtobase,leaves in >1/2 above vegetative shoots,leaves wedge ultraviolet light. crown, doesnotfluorescebluishunder throughout thecrown, usually<1/2above <3 mmwide Flowers earlysummer, leaves broadly Plant flat-crowned, flower stalksmostly Plant crowns uneven, flower stalks Center lobenotbuck-toothed, flower heads

shaped leaves leaves Plants usually>3ft.tall,wedged- Plants usually<3ft.tall,bell-shaped ...... in.tall...... mountain bigsagebrush Wy oming bigsagebrush basin bigsagebrush early sagebrush low sagebrush Identifying the Ecological Site 15

(table 1)? juniper Do the soils typically support persistent characteristics such as have or do they woodlands, under a grass or mollic horizons that developed grass-shrub dominated vegetation? relatively Does tree age structure suggest the site is trees stable (limited recruitment), or are younger in-filling? often >24 but stumps or snags (>18 in. Are there large with char? in. in diameter), often covered the site? logs or branches lying on Are there large Are there trees on the site showing old-growth old-growth Are there trees on the site showing old characteristics, or are the trees <150 years

Old-growth western juniper trees provide valuable valuable provide western juniper trees Old-growth where is it growing? where Is there old-growth juniper on the site, and site, and on the juniper old-growth Is there

• • • • •

Questions to ask to determine if the site is or was an Questions to ask to determine if the site severity fires are infrequent. fires severity accumulation is limited and stand-replacement or mixed- accumulation is limited site: old-growth Old-growth stands commonly grow in areas where fuels grow stands commonly Old-growth sand content, and in fine textured sedimentary soils. sedimentary soils. textured fine sand content, and in soils that are shallow, rocky, and often high in clay or and often high rocky, soils that are shallow, associations, but typically grows in rock outcrops and in rock outcrops typically grows associations, but associated with a variety of soils, landforms, and plant associated with a variety a stand-replacement fire). Old-growth western juniper is western Old-growth fire). a stand-replacement thinning of younger trees where there is a potential for thinning of younger might jeopardize the integrity of these sites (that is, integrity might jeopardize the and consequences of any tree removal projects that projects tree removal of any and consequences growth occurs and carefully consider the appropriateness the appropriateness and carefully consider occurs growth reasons, it is important to identify areas where old- is important to identify reasons, it to the landscape, and are part of the PNV. For these For of the PNV. and are part to the landscape, wildlife habitat, add structural and biological diversity and biological diversity add structural wildlife habitat, 6. 16 Identifying the Ecological Site

Western Juniper Growth Form* Characteristic Relatively Young Trees Relatively Old Trees

Crown shape Conical with pointed tip Flattened, rounded, or uneven top Branch structure Branches become progressively smaller from In open stands, large branches near the base bottom to top of tree

Dead wood Little dead wood in the bole, few dead Dead branches, bark missing, covered by a branches, little to no foliose lichen light green lichen

Bark (fig. 14) Flaky, relatively thin with limited or shallow Thick, fibrous with well-developed vertical vertical furrows furrows

Leader growth Terminal leader growth in the upper 1/4 of Leader growth in the upper 1/4 of the tree the tree, usually >2 in. In open stands, usually <1 in. leader growth >2 in. from bottom to top

*Growth form and morphological characteristics vary across trees and stands so usually several characteristics are required to separate young and old.

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of post-settlement (<150 years) and pre-settlement (>150 years) trees (figs. 12–15). Identifying the Ecological Site 17 Old-growth western juniper with considerable dead Old-growth western juniper with considerable An 800-year-old western juniper tree with spreading western An 800-year-old

(Ecological site = Juniper Tableland 10-14 PZ). (Ecological site = Juniper Tableland association: western juniper/low sagebrush/Sandberg bluegrass association: western juniper/low sagebrush/Sandberg clay soil on the Modoc Plateau in northern California. Plant clay soil on the Modoc Plateau in northern California. branches, missing bark and lichen, occupying a shallow heavy branches, missing bark and lichen, occupying Figure 13. bluebunch wheatgrass. Hills, south-central Oregon. Plant association: western juniper/ Hills, south-central Oregon. rounded top and large lower limbs on sandy soils, Connely rounded top and large Figure 12. 18 Identifying the Ecological Site different ages. Figure 14. developed vertical furrows. thick andfibrous,withwell- (c) At270years,barkis and flaky. (a) At75years,barkisthin

Bark characteristics ofthreewesternjunipertrees of develop verticalfurrows. thickening andbeginningto ( b) At152years,barklayeris Identifying the Ecological Site 19 Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass plant Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass Vigorous terminal and lateral leader growth (4-6 in.) terminal and lateral leader Vigorous

shallow soils just below the ridgetop. association with a stand of pre-settlement trees growing on association with a stand of pre-settlement trees Figure 16. trees. on a sapling growing in the absence of competition from other on a sapling growing in the absence of competition Figure 15. 20 Identifying the Ecological Site tree densityis30-50timesgreater. scattered treesoccupiedthesite priortothelate1800s.Current to moderatelydeepsoilsindicate thatalowdensityofwidely north ofChristmasValley. Largecharredstumpsonshallow association (Ecologicalsite=Pumice 10-12PZ)incentralOregon Figure 17. settlement ifotherdocumentationisnotavailable. of thenumberyearsbetweenfires priortoEurasian intervals inthekey aremeantonlyasacoarseproxy an estimatedfire returninterval (FRI)forthesite.Return savanna, orshrubsteppe(figs. 16–17).Thekey alsogives woodland (existing orfollowing disturbance),tree-shrub 7. Is thePNV woodlandorshrub-steppe, andwhat Key 2canhelpidentify thesiteasold-growth is thefirereturninterval?

Mountain bigsagebrush/Idahofescueplant

Identifying the Ecological Site 21

This is more common on south slopes. slopes. south on common more is This

4a. Are old trees growing uniformly or randomly across the site, or do they grow on microsites (microtopography convex, rocky, etc.)? etc.)? rocky, convex, (microtopography microsites on grow they do or site, the across randomly or uniformly growing trees old Are 4a.

*

tree-low shrub savanna shrub tree-low ...... FRI >150 years >150 FRI .... . 9b. Old live trees or large relic wood (canopy rarely exceeds 20%) exceeds rarely (canopy wood relic large or trees live Old 9b.

...... shrubland low FRI >150 years >150 FRI 9a. No live old-growth or large relic wood relic large or old-growth live No 9a.

8b. ARAR <12 in. height, POSA diagnostic grass diagnostic POSA height, in. <12 ARAR 8b.

8a. ARAR >12 in. height, FEID or PSSPS diagnostic grass (go to 2a. and 2b.) and 2a. to (go grass diagnostic PSSPS or FEID height, in. >12 ARAR 8a.

1b. Potentially can grow low sagebrush (ARAR) sagebrush low grow can Potentially 1b.

...... FRI 50-100 years 50-100 FRI 7b. Relic wood scattered but on deeper soils deeper on but scattered wood Relic 7b.

...... FRI <50 years <50 FRI 7a. Relic wood on protected microsites protected on wood Relic 7a.

...... tree shrub savanna shrub tree 6b. Density <22/acre Density 6b.

...... woodland FRI > 150 years 150 > FRI 6a. Density >22/acre Density 6a.

5b. Large dead wood present on the site. the on present wood dead Large 5b.

shrub steppe shrub ...... FRI <50 years <50 FRI ...... 5a. No large dead wood or stumps on site (>12 in. diameter fluted) diameter in. (>12 site on stumps or wood dead large No 5a.

2b. No live old-growth trees on the site the on trees old-growth live No 2b.

...... FRI 50-100 years 50-100 FRI 4b. Old trees scattered but on deeper soils deeper on but scattered trees Old 4b.

...... FRI <50 years <50 FRI 4a. Old trees on protected microsites protected on trees Old 4a.

*

...... tree shrub savanna shrub tree 3b. Old-growth tree canopy <20% canopy tree Old-growth 3b.

...... woodland FRI >150 years >150 FRI ...... 3a. Old-growth tree canopy >20% canopy tree Old-growth 3a.

2a. Old live trees on the site (>150 years old). years (>150 site the on trees live Old 2a.

1a. Potentially can grow big sagebrush big grow can Potentially 1a.

Identifying ecological site and estimated fire return interval (FRI). interval return fire estimated and site ecological Identifying 2. Key 22 Identifying the Ecological Site community willbemostpersistentonasite(fig. 18). events (refertokey 2)will determinewhatkindofplant 8. What wasthepastfiredisturbanceregime, Grassland Shrub steppe Woodland The numberofyearsbetweenfire disturbance vegetation dynamicsonthesite? and howdiditinfluencethehistoricrangeof Grasses Shrubs Juniper woodland 100

80 Shrubs

60 Trees – High productive site Grasses 40 Trees – Low productive site

Percent composition 20

0

200 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Years since last fire

Figure 18. Relationship of time since fire and the percent composition (dominance) of grasses, shrubs, and trees. Identifying the Ecological Site 23 Phase II mountain big sagebrush-bitterbrush/Idaho Phase II mountain big sagebrush-bitterbrush/Idaho

Is it important seasonal habitat (that is, key winter, winter, (that is, key seasonal habitat Is it important habitat)? nesting, brood-rearing other habitats? link between Is it an important be layers (herb, shrub, tree) should What vegetation proportion? relative present and in what Would vegetation on the site and surrounding area the site and surrounding on vegetation Would under PNV conditions? PNV under What is the potential wildlife habitat value value habitat wildlife is the potential What

• • •

and sage grouse are not likely to frequent such sites. and sage grouse are not likely to frequent such sparrow, still use this site, but the sage thrasher, sage sparrow, sage sparrow, still use this site, but the sage thrasher, sparrow, obligates, such as the green-tailed-towhee and Brewer’s and Brewer’s obligates, such as the green-tailed-towhee closure, loss of shrubs, and structural diversity. Sagebrush closure, loss of shrubs, and structural diversity. juniper trees in the background, which will result in rapid canopy juniper trees in the background, which will level of structural diversity. Notice the leader growth on the level of structural diversity. fescue (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16 PZ) with a high fescue (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16 Figure 19.

support sensitive wildlife species (that is, sagebrush wildlife species (that support sensitive 19)? (fig. obligates) 9. 24 Current State of the Site restoration. species arelikely on thedeclineandsitemay require and nosignsof active reproduction/recruitment arefound, on thesite.Ifold, decadent,ordyingplants are common indicates thatthepotentialfor seedproductionstillpersists presence ofhealthy mature,seed-producingplants plants indicatesongoingrecruitment ofspecies,while 11. values. fuels management),economiccosts/benefits, andsocial management objectives (forexample, wildlifehabitatand might beweighedintreatmentdecisionsincludemultiple understory vegetation onthesite.Additionalfactors that juniper dominanceandensurerecovery ormaintenanceof or bioticintegrity istoimplement treatmentsthatreduce way tomaintainorrestorehydrologic functionandsoil to encroachmentorincreasingdensityofjunipers,thebest proper ecologicalfunctionorbiodiversity areatriskdue high proportionofbaregroundarecontributing factors. If structural diversity inthe vegetation community, ora imbalance inplantcommunitycomposition,alackof Site conditionshouldbeevaluated todetermineifan that areconnectedtotheproblemneedbeidentified. cycles orsoilbioticintegrity, physical conditions is notfunctionalwithrespecttowater andnutrient type, anddistribution ofplantgroundcover. Ifthesite function isvegetation structure,specifically theamount, 10. Part II:CurrentStateoftheSite • • Is thererecruitmentofnative understoryspecies? Clearly define theperceived problems:Whatare An importantattribute thataffects properecological the factors affecting properecologicalfunction? The presenceofestablishedseedlings andyoung young-looking bunches? Are thereperennialgrassseedlingsorsmall, indicating recruitment? Are theredifferent sizesagebrushorbitterbrush Current State of the Site 25

Phase I – trees are present but shrubs and herbs are shrubs and herbs are but Phase I – trees are present that influence ecological the dominant vegetation on cycles) nutrient, and energy processes (hydrologic, the site; with shrubs and Phase II – trees are co-dominant layers influence herbs, and all three vegetation on the site; ecological processes the and the dominant vegetation Phase III – trees are ecological processes primary plant layer influencing on the site. Stand characteristics can be used to classify Stand characteristics can be used to classify The stage of woodland development can influence can influence development of woodland The stage (Phase I, II, or III) and age structure of trees? age structure III) and I, II, or (Phase What is the stage of woodland succession succession of woodland is the stage What

• • •

climate conditions (figs. 20–24 and table 2). climate conditions (figs. is largely determined by the rate of establishment and determined by the rate of establishment is largely between initial juniper encroachment and stand closure between initial juniper encroachment and on juniper saplings (<10 ft tall). The number of years on juniper saplings (<10 ft tall). The number shrub canopy mortality and reduction of leader growth mortality and reduction of leader growth shrub canopy indicators to identify juniper domination of a site include indicators to identify juniper domination woodland development according to these phases. Early according to these development woodland development: development: are three transitional phases of juniper woodland juniper woodland phases of are three transitional and vegetation response following management. There management. response following and vegetation and management, understory competition, seed pools, competition, seed pools, understory and management, the type of treatment selected, follow-up treatments treatments follow-up treatment selected, the type of 12. 26 Current State of the Site

Phases of Juniper Woodland Succession

Characteristics Phase I Phase II Phase III (post-settlement stands) (early) (mid) (late) Tree canopy Open, actively expanding Actively expanding Expansion nearly stabilized (% of maximum potential) <10% 10 to 30% >30% Leader growth terminal >10 terminal >10 terminal >10 (dominant trees) (cm/yr) lateral >10 lateral 5 to >10 lateral <5 Crown lift* Lower limbs dying or dead where Absent Absent (dominant trees) tree canopy >40% Potential berry production Low Moderate to high Low to near absent Tree recruitment Active Active Limited Leader growth terminal >10 terminal 5 to >10 terminal <5 (understory trees) (cm/yr) lateral >8 lateral 2 to >8 lateral <2 Nearly intact to significant Shrub layer Intact >75% dead thinning *Crown lift is the mortality of lower tree limbs, usually due to shading by neighboring trees.

Table 2. Stand characteristics differentiating three transitional phases of woodland succession for several mountain big sagebrush associations, including Thurber’s needlegrass (maximum juniper cover 25-41%), Idaho fescue (maximum juniper cover 34-58%), and Columbia needlegrass (maximum juniper cover 60-75%) . Current State of the Site 27 Juniper leader growth, particularly of trees <3 m tall, Juniper leader growth, particularly of trees

is between 10-15 cm (4-6 in.), Phases I and early II. a) Leader growth is between 10-15 cm (4-6 Figure 20. Leader growth is <5 cm (2 in.), late Phase II and Phase III. (c) Leader growth is <5 cm (2 in.), late Phase II and Phase (b) Leader growth is 5-10 cm (2-4 in.), Phase II. ( is a good indicator of competition among trees. 28 Current State of the Site Current treecover: 5-10%,shrubcover:15-20% Maximum potential treecover:25-35% needlegrass Plant association:mountainbigsagebrush/Thurber’s (b) Co-dominant-PhaseII Current treecover:<5%,shrub40% Maximum potentialtreecover:40-60% Ecological site:DeepLoamy12-16PZ Plant association:mountainbigsagebrush/Idahofescue (a) Subordinate-PhaseI big sagebrushcommunities. Figure 21.

Three phasesofwoodlandsuccessioninmountain Current State of the Site 29 d) Dominant - Phase III on a south aspect with a soil restrictive Current tree cover: 25%, shrub cover: 0% Maximum potential tree cover: 25-35% Ecological site: Juniper South 12-16 PZ needlegrass mountain big sagebrush/Thurber’s Plant association: mountain big sagebrush/Thurber’s ( layer at 41-46 cm (16-18 in.). Maximum potential tree cover: 40-60% Maximum potential tree Ecological site: Deep North 12-18 PZ mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue Plant association: mountain big sagebrush/Idaho example, >61 cm or 24 in.) well-drained soil. example, >61 cm or 24 on a north aspect and deep (for on a north aspect and (c) Dominant - Phase III 30 Current State of the Site

Figure 22. Conceptual model with estimated time periods from initial tree establishment (early Phase I) to minimum stocking adequate for Phase III, and estimated maximum potential for relative abundance and cover for stands developing on sites from high to low productivity (from Johnson, D.D. and R.F. Miller, 2006, Structure and development of expanding western juniper woodlands as influenced by two topographic variables. Forest Ecology and Management 229:7-15.). Current State of the Site 31 35yrs 42yrs 27yrs Tree Age (yrs) Age Tree 2.3m 24yrs 84yrs 20 40 60 80 100 120 75yrs A mixed-age stand of post-settlement trees. For scale, A mixed-age stand of post-settlement trees. Relationship between age and tree height across Relationship between

0

8 6 4 2 0

16 14 12 10 Height (m) Height the 42-year-old tree is 2.3 m (7.5 ft ) tall. the 42-year-old Figure 24. convert to feet). coarse proxy to estimate stand age (multiply meters by 3.28 to coarse proxy to estimate mountain big sagebrush sites: tree height can be used as a mountain big sagebrush Figure 23. 32 Current State of the Site type, precipitationregime, andmethodoftreatment is possible,althoughthislikely to vary withsoil site, recovery ofunderstoryvegetation aftertreatment quickly seedthesite(fig. 26). source, like cheatgrass,alsomayincreasetheneedto be necessary. Thepresenceofaninvasive speciesseed they areunlikely tosurvive thetreatment,seedingmay or iftheexisting plantsareinsuchpoorconditionthat (fig. 25). Ifperennialgrassesandforbsarenotpresent, wheatgrass, needlegrass) per1m rooted perennialgrasses(thatis,Idahofescue,bluebunch the sitewillrecover following treatment? Does pre-treatmentunderstorycompositionindicatethat implementation ontheunderstoryshouldbeconsidered. Potential impactsofnaturaldisturbanceortreatment compare tothedesiredunderstorycomposition? juniper. How doescurrentunderstorycomposition plant communitiesbyremoving orthinningwestern influence onthesuccessorfailure ofefforts torestore 13. • • • • • • What istheherbaceouscomposition? Limited researchsuggeststhatifatleasttwo deep- Pre-treatment understorycompositionhasalarge near thesite? Are invasive plantspeciespresent,orareseedsources the site? Are therethreatenedorendangeredplantspecieson Are thereyoung,deep-rootedperennialgrasses? desirable species? Is thereevidence ofreproductive effort forthe they? What arethedesirablespeciesandhow abundant are for restorationorshouldthesitebeseeded? Is thedensityoftallperennialbunchgrasses adequate 2 (10ft 2 ) persistonthe Current State of the Site 33 Phase III site with an adequate density of deep-

If undesirable plants, such as non-native weeds, weeds, as non-native such plants, If undesirable

perennial grasses (Ecological site = Deep Loamy 12-16PZ). perennial grasses (Ecological site = Deep Loamy usually high severity resulting in greater mortality of deep-rooted usually high severity resulting in greater mortality fires in Phase III are infrequent, when wildfires do occur they are fires in Phase III are infrequent, when wildfires Thurber’s needlegrass) to recover without seeding. Although needlegrass) to recover without Thurber’s rooted grasses (Idaho Fescue, blue bunch wheatgrass, and rooted grasses (Idaho Fescue, blue bunch wheatgrass, Figure 25. restoration (fig. 26). restoration (fig. as expected, will increase the likelihood of successful likelihood will increase the as expected, in the event that native understory recovery does not occur does not understory recovery that native in the event site prior to treatment, along with clear alternative plans along with clear alternative site prior to treatment, based on the perennial grasses and forbs existing on the grasses and forbs existing based on the perennial careful evaluation of expected desirable plant response expected of careful evaluation years as native perennials are established on the site. A perennials are years as native tree-removal project, but often decrease over a period of often decrease over project, but tree-removal weeds can increase dramatically immediately after a weeds can increase weed invasion. Several studies have shown that annual shown have studies Several weed invasion. vegetation is dense also will increase the potential of increase the potential is dense also will vegetation on low-elevation and dry sites. Hot fires where woody where woody Hot fires and dry sites. on low-elevation of the management plan. Weed invasion is more likely is more likely invasion plan. Weed of the management controlling their establishment and spread should be part and spread should their establishment controlling Invasive Plant Species Plant Invasive sites, adjacent present on the site or on are present 34 Current State of the Site Phase III. Note thedeadshrub skeletons.Siteisintheearly stagesof to increasingbare groundandmortalityofunderstory species. Figure 27. 14. rooted perennialgrassesandestablishmentofcheatgrass. resulting inhighmortalityofanalreadydepletedstanddeep- This southaspectsiteburnedduringahotwindyAugustday, Figure 26. What isthepercentageofdeadshrubson site, andwhatarethespecies(fig.27)?

First growingseasonafterahigh-severitywildfire. Increasing juniper dominanceonthissitehasled Current State of the Site 35 This site lacks both woody and herbaceous This site lacks both woody and herbaceous

What type of fire will the site support, and will it burn will it burn the site support, and will of fire What type 28)? conditions (fig. or extreme under moderate An assessment of fuel characteristics is necessary for is necessary of fuel characteristics An assessment type of fire will the site support (ground fire or or fire (ground support the site will of fire type fire)? canopy What are the fuel characteristics, and what and what fuel characteristics, are the What

•

the site following fire. severe conditions and introduced annual weeds will dominate severe conditions and introduced annual weeds species for restoration. This Phase III woodland will burn under species for restoration. This Phase III woodland understory to carry a fire and adequate desirable herbaceous understory to carry a fire and adequate desirable Figure 28.

fire pattern? fire site or is there an open canopy that may result in a mosaic that may result in a canopy site or is there an open canopy that is likely to carry the fire throughout the entire to carry the fire is likely that canopy a fire into tree canopies? Does the site have a closed tree into tree canopies? Does the site have a fire plant community provide sufficient ladder fuels to carry ladder fuels to sufficient plant community provide fuels? Does the amount of shrubs and small trees in the fuels? Does the amount Is herbaceous vegetation in the understory providing fine fine providing in the understory Is herbaceous vegetation may be affected by treatment or no management action. by may be affected natural processes (for example, water, nutrient, fire cycles) cycles) fire nutrient, water, example, (for processes natural selecting management treatments and understanding how how and understanding treatments selecting management 15. 36 Current State of the Site online athttp://fresc.usgs.gov/products/papers/1385_Pellant.pdf Indicators ofRangeland Health.Technical Reference1734-6.Available they indicateerosion(figs. 29‑30). Water flow patterns shouldbeexamined todetermineif and large amountsofplantlittermovement by water. may includerills,gullies,plant pedestalsorterracettes, reduce evaporative lossofsoilwater. Signsoferosion can interceptrunoff andincreaseinfiltration, aswell juniper debrisonthegroundaftermechanicaltreatments textured soils,runoff andsoilerosiondecrease.Leaving increase inherbaceouscover onsiteswithrelatively fine- that whenjuniperdominanceisreduced,resultinginan precipitation thatreachestheground.Researchindicates water-capture andinfiltration bylimitingtheamountof vegetation. and increasederosionduetolackofprotectionfrom to raindropimpact,soilcrusting,decreasedinfiltration, Soil inbareinter-canopy zonesalsoismoresusceptible is likely tobeaproblemonsiteswiththeseconditions. canopy zonesofbareground,andacceleratederosion Runoff canmove continuouslythroughconnectedinter- high-intensity thundershowers aresusceptibletoerosion. fine-textured soils,steeperslopesandpotentialfor 16. 2 Pellant, M.P. Shaver, D.Pyke andJ.Herrick. 2005.Interpreting • • Are theresignsoferosionandoverland flow? Sites withlarge amountsofbareground,relatively Health from InterpretingIndicatorsofRangeland capture, store,andsafelyreleasewater (derived What isthecurrentcapacityofsiteto A thickoverstory ofjuniperalsocanreducesoil- relate togroundvegetation cover? What arethewater flow patterns,andhow dothey loss ofsoilandwater? Are thererillsonthesitethatsuggestanaccelerated 2 )? Current State of the Site 37

Site with large, connected zones of bare ground in the Site with large, connected zones of bare ground A juniper-dominated site (Phase III) that has eroded A juniper-dominated

inter-canopy. Figure 30. resulting in accelerated runoff and erosion. resulting in accelerated to a restrictive layer (A horizon is gone) in the inter-canopy zone, zone, horizon is gone) in the inter-canopy to a restrictive layer (A Figure 29. 38 Current State of the Site treatments. habitat suitabilityconditionstoconsiderwhenplanning woodlands provide importanthabitat.Following aresome juniper woodlands. However, old-growth andopenjuniper wildlife speciesthatareobligates toclosed(PhaseIII) abundance anddiversity. Researchhasnotidentified any and plantcommunitydiversity, whichreduceswildlife and landscapelevels results inadeclinelandscape important attribute indetermininghabitatsuitability. and connectednessofplantcommunitypatchesarean community andlandscapelevel. Thespatialarrangement by thecompositionandstructureofvegetation atthe 17. • • • • • • • What isthecurrentwildlifehabitatsuitability? The habitatsuitabilitywilllargely bedetermined How willtreatmentaffect wildlife? Increasing juniperdominanceatthecommunity seeds eatenby small mammalsandbirds. Decreases ingrasses reduceseedproduction and other species. results indecreasedbrowse available fordeerand Decreases inshrubsduetowoodland development optimal thermalcover but minimalfoodresources. stands withshrubs/treesmore than 5fttallprovide Mule deerusejuniperstandsas wintercover. Dense usually foundinold-growth juniperwoodlands. Greater numbersoftreecavity nesting birdsare important). Phases IandII(structuraldiversity ofvegetation is Bird speciesdiversity andrichnessaregreatestin woodlands transitiontoward PhaseIII. (fig. 31).However, berryproductiondeclinesas woodland componentonthesitecanbebeneficial food sourceforavariety ofbirds,somaintaininga Juniper berries(femalecones)areanimportantwinter habitat stability? structure andcomposition,resultinginachange Is thesiteinatransitionalphasethatwillalter Current State of the Site 39 Tree cavity in the center of the trunk of an old-growth Tree Mountain bluebirds consuming juniper berries early in Mountain bluebirds consuming

Treatments such as prescribed fire may have have may fire as prescribed such Treatments

of cavity nesting birds. Photograph by Rick Vetter. of cavity nesting birds. Photograph by Rick western juniper. Old stands of trees have a relatively high density Old stands of trees western juniper. Figure 32.

Figure 31. by Rick Vetter. the spring. Photograph for wildlife across the landscape in the long term. across the landscape for wildlife juniper encroachment and maintaining optimal conditions optimal conditions and maintaining juniper encroachment shrub-nesting birds, but may be important in limiting in limiting be important may but birds, shrub-nesting immediate negative impacts on certain species, such as species, on certain impacts negative immediate 40 Current State of the Site species, recreation,development, archeologicalsites, etc. treatments, concernsforsensitive wildlifeandplant interface, values, perceived ecological impactsofdifferent action. invasion, and loss of wildlife habitat) than no management bare ground,erosionandnutrientloss,increasedweed cause greaterecologicaldamage(forexample, increased sites wheretreatmentsarenotlikely tosucceedmay likely toquicklyoccupy thesite.Removal oftreeson establishment, orwherenon-native invasive speciesare occurred, wheresafesitesarenotplentifulforseedling risky ondrysites,whereahighamountoferosionhas immediate benefits maybelower. Seedingcanbe sense thanwaiting untilPhaseIIeven thoughtheapparent funds andlabor. applied toassistinallocatingresources,suchastreatment values cannotbedetermined,economicprinciplesmay and non-quantifiable benefits andcosts.Wheredollar analysis canbeusedtoidentifyboththequantifiable attached tothem.Inthosecases,asocialbenefit-cost these treatmentsarequantifiable orhave dollarvalues consequences. Notallbenefits andcostsinvolved with manager inconsideringthelong-termenvironmental be difficult. to adesiredcondition,andachieving desiredresultscan woodlands, becauseoftheinputsneededtoreturnsite Treatment canbeexpensive, especiallyforPhaseIII due toecological,economic,orsociologicalreasons. 18. Are theresocialand/oreconomicconcernsor Treatment ofasitemaynotbefeasibleorpractical issues tiedtothesite? Social issuestoconsiderinclude wildlandurban Treating a stand in Phase I may make more economic Conducting aneconomicevaluation mayassista Landscape Considerations 41 size, 3

edge, and connectedness? edge, and Is the connectivity of various of various Is the connectivity Connectivity: Will treatment create sufficient edge habitat create sufficient treatment Edge: Will Treatment patch size is especially patch size size: Treatment Patch the area to be treated with respect to patch be treated with the area to What are the landscape spatial characteristics of characteristics spatial landscape are the What

A patch is defined here as an assemblage of plant species growing on here as an assemblage of plant species growing A patch is defined

3

movement, recruitment, predation, etc.? movement, similar patches or patches of concern influence wildlife similar patches or patches of concern influence recruitment, predation, etc. How does distance to does distance recruitment, predation, etc. How Patch connectivity can influence wildlife movement, can influence wildlife movement, connectivity Patch patches important for wildlife species of concern? patches important for wildlife species of unburned sites onto the treated site? sites onto the unburned distribution of edge influence seed rain from adjacent of edge influence distribution that is valuable to wildlife? How will the spatial will the to wildlife? How that is valuable moved to those locations (on either public or private land). private or public either (on locations those to moved ecological harm at other sites as grazing pressure is ecological harm at other sites as grazing or socially acceptable. Doing so may result in more or socially acceptable. Doing so may result pasture from grazing may not be economically feasible pasture from grazing may not be economically area within a much larger pasture, resting the entire pasture, resting the entire area within a much larger after the burn? If the treatment site is a relatively small small If the treatment site is a relatively after the burn? changes, such as no grazing for 1 or 2 years before or changes, such as no size large enough to justify post-treatment management enough to justify post-treatment size large to attract wild and domestic herbivores. Is the patch Is herbivores. to attract wild and domestic will be higher than before, and burned patches will tend patches before, and burned will be higher than the palatability of plants for several seasons after a fire seasons after a fire for several the palatability of plants plants or aspen? Even with adequate forage in the area, with plants or aspen? Even threaten the survival of newly established understory of newly threaten the survival overgrazing by domestic and/or wild herbivores will by domestic and/or wild herbivores overgrazing the treatment area so small that post-treatment overuse/ the treatment area so suitable conditions for wildlife species of concern? Is suitable conditions livestock. Is the treatment size large enough to provide provide enough to size large Is the treatment livestock. important to consider in relation to use by wildlife and to use by wildlife to consider in relation important

19. Part III: Landscape Considerations III: Landscape Part and may represent different successional states within an ecological site. successional and may represent different a contiguous area forming a plant community with a defined boundary a defined a contiguous area forming a plant community with 42 Landscape Considerations for fuels reduction,how willthetreatment affect this? treatment location iswithinalarger areabeing managed available fortheseusesduring theshortterm?If to realizebenefits oftreatment? Arethereotherareas wildlife habitatorlivestock grazing,how longwillit take long term.Iftheimmediatetreatment negatively affects current useandmanagement activities intheshortand 22. continuity, increasingsnow capture,etc. desirable formaximizinghabitatdiversity, reducingfuel of patchesdifferent successionalstagesalsomaybe the treatedareashave recovered. Maintainingamosaic remaining proportionfortreatmentatalaterdatewhen be totreatapercentageofthesekey habitats,saving the integrity oftheseimportanthabitats.Analternative would removed maybenecessarytomaintainthelong-term fawning). Theinitialremoval ofsagebrushastreesare (that is,sagebrushcover forsagebrushobligates ordeer landscapes mayprovide key habitatforcertainspecies and how muchtotreatareimportant.Portionsofthese size, andconnectivity. Consideration ofwhichpatches consideration ofpatchcomposition,spatialarrangement, landscapes ratherthanindividual standsincludes plant communitiesandhabitats.Managementof 21. affect biodiversity atthe landscapescale? for avariety ofwildlifeinallseasons?How willtreatment Does landscapepatchcompositionprovide diverse habitat corridors exist between patchesforwildlifemovement? enhance wildlifehabitatandwatershed health?Do patches andthedistancetosimilarpatches,willtreatment 20. What arethecurrentusesandmanagement How doesthesiteconnect tothelandscape? Are thereadjacentpatchesandwhatisthe Landscapes arecomposedofpatchesdifferent Considering how thesiteisconnectedtoother landscape composition? It isimportanttoconsiderhow atreatmentwillaffect activities? Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 43 Woodland phase Woodland Abundance of desirable species Desirable fire-sensitive species (for example, sagebrush, bitterbrush) Invasive species Shrub size and density Tree sizes Tree acre Number of trees per Dead plant material and density Herbaceous plant size » » » » » » » » »

» » » » » » » » » Ecological site – risk and restoration potential grouse) sage example, species (for Sensitive Objectives Size of area to be treated Liability and proximity to other plant communities forest) (for example, Cost and resources Social acceptability Plant composition Fuel composition and structure Fuel composition and

Woodland structure within and across woodland and across woodland structure within Woodland Factors that will influence treatment selection: Factors

• • • • • • • • •

economic feasibility, and social acceptability. and social economic feasibility, composition of all vegetation layers of the woodland, layers of the woodland, of all vegetation composition 23. management actions will be determined by the actions will be determined management frequency, and intensity of disturbance. The best disturbance. The and intensity of frequency, successional phases will be determined by the type, by the type, phases will be determined successional

Management Action and Treatment and Action Management Part IV: Selecting Appropriate Appropriate Selecting IV: Part 44 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment plants tofullyoccupy thetreatedarea. unpredictable, and it may take several years for understory Understory responseinthefirst yearaftertreatmentis restoration. Adelayedunderstoryresponseiscommon. response whenusingmechanicaltreatmentsfor introduced species. by shading,willprovide opensitesforestablishmentof In addition,heavy slash,whichmaykilldesirableplants limit themobilityoflarge herbivores (domestic andwild). III createafire hazardforaminimumof2yearsandcan terrain. Large amountsofslashinlatePhaseIIand implement andcostlywhenworking inareaswithrough cut trees/slashonthesite,andtreatmentcanbedifficult to initially removed, fuelloadscanbeincreasedbyleaving require follow-up treatmentforsmalltreesthatwerenot enhance wildlifehabitat. and provide safesitesfor seedlingestablishment,orto trees orslashalsocanbeleftonthesitetocontrolerosion impact tounderstoryvegetation isoftenminimal.Cut as wildlifehabitat).With mechanicaltreatments,the trees targeted (forexample, old-growth treescanbe left the abilitytopreciselycontroltreatmentboundariesor include flexibility intiming oftreatmentapplicationand general, thebenefits ofmechanicalremoval ofjuniper juniper dominanceinPhasesIIandIIIwoodlands. In 24. Mechanical Treatments Mechanical treatmentsareoftenusedtoreduce Patience mayberequiredinregards totreatment Disadvantages arethatmechanicalmethodsoften Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 45 Juniper thinning to 5 trees/acre (12/ha) (Ecological Juniper thinning to 5 trees/acre (12/ha) (Ecological

Feller bunchers, which are currently being used, cut which are currently being Feller bunchers, Soil conditions, such as texture and moisture content, and moisture such as texture Soil conditions, Heavy machinery can be used to reduce juniper juniper to reduce be used can machinery Heavy

Figure 33. site = Deep Loamy 12-16PZ). the cost of juniper removal. biomass utilization can significantly offset, if not pay for, if not pay for, offset, biomass utilization can significantly dry soils. Depending on the price being paid for chips, dry soils. Depending on the price being disturbance from feller bunchers is usually minimal on disturbance from feller bunchers of burning piles or leaving chips on site. Soil surface chips on site. Soil surface piles or leaving of burning However, little is known about the ecological effects ecological effects about the little is known However, ground. Bundles can be left in place, burned, or chipped. be left in place, burned, ground. Bundles can and lay groups of 3-8 trees (depending on size) on the and lay groups of 3-8 western juniper woodlands since the 1980s. western juniper woodlands to moderate with chaining. Chaining has not been used in to moderate with chaining. heavy machinery, but impacts have been shown to be light been shown impacts have but machinery, heavy understory vegetation also may be a concern with use of also may be understory vegetation minimize soil surface disturbance. Impacts on desirable disturbance. Impacts on desirable minimize soil surface should be evaluated, and plans should be developed to and plans should be developed should be evaluated, and machinery operation (for example, use of tight turns) (for example, and machinery operation devices. devices. uproot trees, or use of mechanical cutting and grinding cutting and grinding or use of mechanical uproot trees, pulling anchor chains or steel cables with bulldozers to cables with bulldozers chains or steel pulling anchor Methods include using bulldozers to push trees over, to push trees over, using bulldozers Methods include dominance, but these treatments tend to be expensive. to be expensive. tend treatments these but dominance, Heavy machinery Heavy 46 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment to cutting but<1in.(2.5cm) indiameter. (b) Oneyearafterchainsaw cutting.Alllargegrasseswere presentprior ( sagebrush). stand vigorofnon-sproutingunderstoryshrubs(thatis, risk. Thistreatmentwillmaintainandusuallyincrease should onlybedonewherepost-treatmenterosionisa when limbsorslasharespreadacrossthesite,sothis resource concern.Expenseofcuttingtreatmentsincreases This maybetheonlytreatmentoptioninareasofcultural these areaswhereuseofheavy machineryisnotfeasible. terrain orareasisolatedfromroads,cuttingisanoptionin Although costsincreasewhentreatingareaswithsteep selectively remove treeswithminimalsoildisturbance. Chainsaw cutting a) Beforechainsawcutting. Chainsaw cuttingofjuniper canbeusedto Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 47 . 2 Basin big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass-

One year after chainsaw cutting. c) One year after chainsaw bunchgrasses = 2/10 ft cover 0.5%, herbaceous cover 2.5%, deep-rooted tall perennial cover 0.5%, herbaceous cover 2.5%, deep-rooted elevation, pre-treatment Phase III, tree canopy 25%, shrub elevation, pre-treatment Phase III, tree canopy Thurber’s plant association on a southwest aspect, 5,000 ft plant association on a southwest Thurber’s Figure 34. Three years after chainsaw cutting; herbaceous cover 25-35%. (d) Three years after chainsaw cutting; herbaceous ( 48 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment desirable grasses/m there isanabundance ofnatives intheunderstory(>2 results onsiteswithwoodlands inPhasesIandIIwhen response are: 25. vegetation. is importantforprotectionof thesoilandunderstory seed source).Controllingfire temperature andduration burn levels within25–35years(varies withclimateand Mountain bigsagebrushusuallywillrecover topre- shrub layer),water runoff, anderosion intheshortterm? will theseresponsesaffect wildlife(thatis,lossofthe and woody vegetation andincreasedbareground.How targeted atundesirablespeciescanbebeneficial. or onfine-textured soils.Additional follow-up treatments failure isincreased,especiallyifthe siteiswarm anddry, to predict.Whenweedsarepresentonthesite,riskof cutting andburning), and(3)responsecanbedifficult and ladderfuels,(2)morecostlyinputsarelikely (see to carrythroughthestandasaresultoflimitedground and IIIwithadepletedunderstory, (1)fire willbedifficult • • • • • • • Prescribed Fire Prescribed fire treatmentscanproducedesirable The primaryfactors thatwillinfluencepost-burn An initialresponsetofire includesdecreasedlitter Post-treatment management. Pre- andpost-fire climateconditions Extent andpatchinessoffire Fire severity Ecological site(sitepotential) pools priortotreatment The abundance ofperennialgrasses,forbs,andseed Plant communitycomposition 2 ). OnsitesthatareinlatePhasesII Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 49 A high-intensity wildfire was carried by the juniper A high-intensity wildfire was carried by the Phases I and II mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue Phases I and II mountain

(Ecological site = Juniper South 12-16 PZ). would likely have survived and dominated post-fire succession would likely have survived and dominated post-fire mustard. If burned under cooler conditions, the native understory mustard. If burned under cooler conditions, understory vegetation 2 years after fire is cheatgrass and tumble understory vegetation 2 years after fire is cheatgrass bluebunch wheatgrass, and Thurber’s needlegrass. Abundant bluebunch wheatgrass, and Thurber’s killing most of the understory, which included Idaho fescue, killing most of the understory, Figure 36. conditions, canopy (35 to 40% cover) under extreme weather squirreltail. about 120% of pre-burn. Foreground about a 600% increase in about 120% of pre-burn. the first year. In year 3, perennial forbs equal to pre-burn, fescue year 3, perennial forbs equal to pre-burn, In the first year. perennial forbs doubled and Idaho fescue decreased about 1/3 in and Idaho fescue decreased about 1/3 in perennial forbs doubled (foreground) (Phase I, but little rye prior to the fire). Native (foreground) (Phase I, north aspect (background); basin big sagebrush/basin wildrye north aspect (background); Figure 35. North 12-18 PZ), 4,500 ft elevation, and (Ecological site = Deep 50 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment Phase III,4-7plants/m to lessthan2plants/m cover of introducedannuals. Photographs byJohnBates. coming backtonative grasses,whilePhaseIIIhas adominant (b) Idaho fescuein(a)PhaseII,8-12nativegrasses/m Figure 37. ( a)

Prescribed fallburnsinmountain bigsagebrushand 2 2 . Mortalitydecreasedperennialgrasses followingfirein Phase III.IIis 2 , and(b) Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 51 Aspen regeneration following a prescribed fire to Aspen regeneration following a prescribed Aspen stand with dense sapling size (most of which Aspen stand with dense sapling size (most of

Due to high fuel-moisture conditions often found often found conditions high fuel-moisture Due to

Figure 39. remove juniper. Aspen Grove). will begin to dominate the stand in 20–30 years (Ecological site = will begin to dominate the stand in 20–30 years Figure 38. Trees the understory. are 40–60 years old) and western juniper in

and climate. could take about 3–5 years, but depends on site conditions depends on site years, but about 3–5 could take establishment after treatment. Research indicates this Research indicates after treatment. establishment livestock and wildlife use may be necessary for aspen use may be necessary and wildlife livestock burning can produce desirable results. Protection from Protection from desirable results. can produce burning implement. However, if suitable conditions exist for fire, fire, for conditions exist if suitable However, implement. in aspen forests, prescribed fire can be difficult to difficult can be fire prescribed forests, in aspen Burning in aspen for juniper removal for juniper in aspen Burning 52 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment Society andNaturalResources17:661-678. social acceptabilityofwildlandfuels managementinthewesternU.S. relative acceptabilityofcuttingandgrindingmachines. the useofbulldozers. Noresearchhasexamined the equal, citizensarelikely topreferchainsaw cuttingover more acceptabletothepublic.Allotherthingsbeing near humanhabitation,mechanicaltreatmentmaybe risks ofadjacentpropertydamagearelow; inlocations However, thisistrueonlyinsofar assmoke levels and it isperceived asmore“natural”thanothertreatments. generally preferprescribedfire asatreatmentbecause management inrangelandshasfoundthatcitizens considered. and socialacceptabilityonPhaseIIIwoodlands needtobe vegetation, erosion,wildlifehabitat,economicfeasibility, hot. Otherprecautionsnotedearlierregarding understory building afuelloadthatwillresultinfire thatistoo the treatmentascost-effective aspossibleandtoavoid more juniperthanisnecessaryrecommendedtokeep and moreexpensive thaninPhasesIandII.Cuttingno and burn treatmentofPhaseIIIstandsishigherrisk resulting in20-50%mortalityofperennialgrasses.Cut Winter burning (Nov.–Mar.) haslesssevere effects on understoryvegetation resultingin>75%mortality. III. Fall burning inPhaseIIIcanhave severe effects combination ismostoftenusedinlatePhaseIIand remove juniperslashcreatedbycutting.Thistreatment to (1)increasegroundfuelscarryfire, and/or(2) 26. 4 Brunson, M.W., andB.A.Shindler, 2004,Geographicvariation in Cut andBurnCombinations The combinationofcuttingandburning areused Research onsocialacceptabilityofvegetation 4 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 53

Velpar L, Pronone Power Pellets, Chopper and L, Pronone Power Velpar Applying picloram to individual trees around the trees around Applying picloram to individual Aerial application of tebuthiuron is not tebuthiuron Aerial application of Because past chemical application on western on western application past chemical Because Chemical Treatments Chemical

remaining below the cut. remaining below effective for treating cut juniper stumps with green limbs effective California. Chopper and Arsenal also have shown to be shown California. Chopper and Arsenal also have western juniper trees up to 6 ft in height in northern western juniper trees up to 6 ft in height Arsenal treatments have been shown to be effective for to be effective been shown Arsenal treatments have

Other Chemicals canopy driplines can be highly effective. driplines can be highly effective. canopy Picloram to individual trees may be an option. to individual reduce desirable understory plants. Applying tebuthiuron tebuthiuron reduce desirable understory plants. Applying successful in killing western juniper, but can significantly can significantly but successful in killing western juniper, dominance. Research has shown this method is not this method dominance. Research has shown recommended as a method for reducing western juniper recommended as a method

Tebuthiuron treatments than for any other restoration method. other any treatments than for Social acceptability tends to be lower for chemical tends to be lower Social acceptability with subsequent weed control and seeding of perennials. with subsequent weed herbicide treatment, standing dead trees may interfere herbicide treatment, and the understory has potential to respond. Following potential to respond. Following and the understory has will not interfere with the chemical’s performance) the chemical’s will not interfere with will work as intended (for example, where the soil type where the soil (for example, as intended will work treatment should only be used on sites where the herbicide herbicide the where sites on used be only should treatment treatment of juniper woodlands is site selection. Chemical is site selection. of juniper woodlands treatment method. The most important consideration for chemical consideration for chemical most important method. The information is available to guide managers in using this managers in using this to guide is available information juniper has met with poor or mixed results, only limited results, mixed met with poor or juniper has 27. 54 Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment Deep North 12-18PZ). annual andbiannual weeds;seedingrequired(Ecological site= >80% ;5yearsafter firethissiteisdominatedby introduced on trees)where mortality ofnativeherbaceousspecies was Figure 41. seeding isrequired(Ecologicalsite=DeepNorth12-18PZ). where 80%ofthenativespeciesinunderstorysurvived;no Figure 40. soils andslopes. strategy thatmayonlybe justifiable onhighlyerodible slash, hasbeensuccessful.Scatteringslashisanexpensive soils, followed bybroadcastseedingandscatteringof should becreatedifpossible.Rollerpunchingtoscarify broadcast seeding,safesitesforseedlingestablishment influenced byprecipitationandsoiltexture. When has beenusedtoreducejuniperdominanceisgreatly 28. Seeding Success ofseedingonsiteswhereatreatment

Moderate-severity fire(noticeneedlesontrees) High-severity fire(noticenoneedles orbarkremain Selecting Appropriate Management Action and Treatment 55

It is important to provide opportunities to maximize It is important to provide How will treatment influence the distribution of influence the distribution will treatment How conditions? conditions is most of desirable site Maintenance How will post-treatment management affect site site affect management will post-treatment How

equipment may have greater impact. equipment may have minimally affect understory vegetation, but use of heavy use of heavy but understory vegetation, minimally affect year post-fire. Usually, cutting and chemical applications Usually, year post-fire. grass seed is not likely to be significant until the second until the second to be significant grass seed is not likely seed production and seedling establishment. Production of seed production and seedling establishment. effect on plant health. effect years following treatment has been shown to have little to have treatment has been shown years following of desirable grasses. Grazing after seed set in the first 2 set in the first of desirable grasses. Grazing after seed increase mortality and decrease leaf and seed production increase mortality and decrease leaf and and second years following treatment has been shown to been shown treatment has and second years following rest needed. Grazing during the growing season in the first season in the first rest needed. Grazing during the growing response is often a better indicator of the actual amount of response is often a better indicator of the 2 years of grazing rest is common practice, but plant but 2 years of grazing rest is common practice, herbaceous dormancy in the summer and fall. After fire, After fire, in the summer and fall. herbaceous dormancy of water and mineral supplements or grazing during of water grazing impacts can be reduced by controlling placement grazing impacts can be reduced by controlling is not possible to keep animals out of the treated area, is not possible to keep of success, especially if the understory is depleted. If it of success, especially following treatment will significantly improve the chances the chances improve will significantly treatment following livestock and wildlife use of the site? Rest from grazing and wildlife use of livestock negative hydrologic responses or invasive species. or invasive responses hydrologic negative monitoring can be particularly informative in areas with informative monitoring can be particularly of dominant species throughout the project area. Active throughout the project area. Active of dominant species taking photographs at established points and keeping a list at established points and keeping taking photographs minimum, a good monitoring plan might include regularly plan might include regularly minimum, a good monitoring evaluation of the benefits of follow-up treatments. At treatments. of follow-up of the benefits evaluation short- and long-term successional responses and includes short- and long-term An optimal management approach usually considers usually considers management approach An optimal and flexible, and when plans are continually reassessed. plans are continually and when and flexible, likely when post-treatment management remains adaptive remains adaptive management when post-treatment likely

29. Post-Treatment Management Post-Treatment 56 Appendix II. Current State I. EcologicalSite/PlantAssociation Date Location Site Name Appendix 1: D. C. B. A. F. E. D. C. B. A. J. I. H. G. F. E.

______Old growth onthesite(table 1)?Y/N Diagnostic perennialgrass(es) Bitterbrush present?Y/N Diagnostic sagebrushspecies Evidence ofsurface erosion(rills, sedimentdams, Invasive species present?Y/N Post-settlement treespresent? Y/N;PhaseIIIIII Dominant grass(es) Desirable shrub Dominant shrub Species ofconcern Soil erosionpotentialHighModerateLow Historic FireReturnInterval (key 2) Ecological Site Plant associationorPNV Large wood foundonthesite?Y/N pedestals, etc.)? Y/N _ _ a. a. a. ______≥2 desirablegrasses/m % dead<10%11-25%26-50% >50% Soil Type ______Field AssessmentForm ______2 ? Y/N ______recruitment. Y/N recruitment. Y/N ______

Appendix 57

______

______If low or moderate, what is missing? or moderate, If low

a. containment. Low Moderate High Moderate Low Post treatment. Monitoring. Small trees may require follow-up. structures, liability, potential, shrub layer, Weed Seeding required Y / N Other options Cut drop and burn Cut pile and burn Partial cut and broadcast burn Partial Cut drop and leave Burn Seeding required Y / N Other options Cut How will treatment affect adjacent patches? will treatment affect How / link adjacent patches. will fragment Treatment Current uses Size of area to be treated The site will burn With / Without pre-treatment. / Without With burn The site will Social concerns Habitat suitability for target species species for target Habitat suitability Current plant community Current problem Perceived

C. D. A. B. E. F. C. D. A. B. B. C. D. A. B. C. L. A. J. K. I. G. H.

Considerations: Phase II and/or III (circle treatment recommendation) treatment Phase II and/or III (circle Phase I and/or II (circle treatment recommendation) treatment Phase I and/or II (circle IV. Management Action Management IV. III. Landscape considerations 58 Appendix Appendix 2: Species Codes Code Scientific Name Common Name AMAL Amelanchier alnifolia Serviceberry ARAR Artemisia arbuscula Low sagebrush ARTRW Artemisia tridentata ssp. womingensis Wyoming big sagebrush Species Codes ARTRT Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata Basin big sagebrush ARTRV Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana Mountain big sagebrush PUTR Purshia tridentata Bitterbrush SYOR Symphoricarpos oreophilis Snowberry ACNE Acnatherum nelsonii Colombia needlegrass ACTH Acnatherum thurberiana Thurber’s needlegrass FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue POSA Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass PSSP Psuedorogneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass

Glossary 59

moving water. moving channels that have been cut into the soil by Gullies: channels that have vegetation composition and structure. vegetation desired set of conditions on the site often determined by desired set of conditions on the site often for a defined set of species, etc., which are met by a set of species, for a defined examples are watershed health, habitat health, habitat are watershed Functional goals: examples all burnable material live and dead. material live Fuel: all burnable itself forming deep grooves or bark pockets. itself forming deep grooves pockets where the cambium layer folds in on Fluted: pockets regime on the site, not the mean (MFRI). on regime in intervals is the meaningful reality of the disturbance is the meaningful reality of in intervals the size of the area must be clearly specified. Variability Variability the size of the area must be clearly specified. is, the interval between two successive fire occurrences); fire successive between two is, the interval successive fires documented in a designated area (that fires successive the number of years between two the number of years between two interval): fire return Fire Return Interval (FRI) (or fire free interval or interval free (FRI) (or fire Interval Return Fire nutrient cycling, and energy capture. and energy nutrient cycling, or behavior of important processes such as hydrology, hydrology, of important processes such as or behavior referred to here as the actions referred to here as the Ecological function: aspx?type=ESD). esis.sc.egov.usda.gov/Welcome/pgReportLocation. Forest Service, and Rangeland Ecological Site (http:// Service, and Rangeland Forest synonymous with ecological type used by USDA type used by USDA with ecological synonymous vegetation and its response to management. Apparently and its response to management. vegetation its ability to produce distinctive kinds and amounts of distinctive its ability to produce characteristics that differs from other types of land in characteristics that differs a type of land with specific physical physical land with specific site: a type of Ecological see potential natural vegetation. type: see potential Cover contributor to site stability relative to site potential. to site site stability relative to contributor connectedness of bare ground are the most important are the most important of bare ground connectedness to raindrop splash erosion. The size, distribution, and and size, distribution, splash erosion. The to raindrop exposed mineral soil that is susceptible is susceptible soil that mineral exposed ground: Bare Glossary of Terms of Glossary 60 Glossary widely scattered trees (<10% canopy cover). Savanna orsavannah: grasslandorshrub-steppe with patterns do. do notnecessarilyfollow the microtopography thatflow Rills: smallerosionalrivulets thatare generallylinearand or after1860). period ofestablishment(pre- and post-settlement,before morphological characteristics, actualage,orgeneral Old-growth: arelative termthathasbeenbasedon growth). Pre-settlement: treesestablishingbefore1860(seeold- climax. anywhere alongitssuccessionalpathway—from seralto location andtimemayreflectavegetation community vegetation. Theexisting cover typeatany particular an areawherecover typeisaclassification ofexisting factors suchastopography, soilsandclimateacross and climate.PNVisanexpression ofenvironmental will persistunderthepre-settlementdisturbanceregimes Potential naturalvegetation (PNV):thevegetation that Post-settlement trees: treesestablishingafter1860. disturbance regime onthe site,notthemean(MFRI). variability inintervals isthemeaningfulrealityof specified. MFRIonlyprovides thecentraltendency; period; thesizeofareaandtimeperiodmustbe determined inadesignatedareaduringtime free interval): arithmeticaverage ofallfire intervals Mean Fire Return Interval (MFRI)(ormeanfire and theentireareamayornotbetreated. area maybecomposedofoneormoreecologicalsites, where amanagementstrategy istobeapplied.Theland Management unit:anareaoflanddefined byboundaries sagebrush, bitterbrush,deaddown wood andbranches). carry fire fromthegroundtocrown oftrees(thatis, Ladder fuel: materialonornearthegroundthatwill Glossary 61

The capacity of an area to limit an area capacity of The Definition inches feet/foot meter(s) centimeter(s) millimeter(s) hectare percent year(s)

Abbreviation Abbreviations Soil/site stability: Soil/site

in. ft m cm mm ha % yr(s). dense >40%. canopy cover >10%; open 10-20%, intermediate 20-40%, cover canopy an area of smaller statured trees usually with an area of smaller statured trees usually Woodland: gravel, or pedestalling of vegetation or stones. or pedestalling of vegetation gravel, water flow patterns include redistribution of litter, soil or of litter, patterns include redistribution flow water across the soil surface during overland flow. Evidence of flow. during overland across the soil surface the path that water takes as it moves as it moves takes the path that water pattern: flow Water across ecological sites and with tree size. across ecological sites or addition of new leaf canopy). Stocking density varies Stocking density varies canopy). leaf or addition of new maturity, interspecific competition limits the expansion competition limits the expansion interspecific maturity, that does or will eventually fully occupy a site (that is, at fully occupy that does or will eventually A fully stocked site is one with enough trees Stocking: A fully stocked Candidate speices. Endangered, State Threatened, State Sensitive, or State State Sensitive, Endangered, State Threatened, of concentrated conservation actions, including State of concentrated conservation or species that are declining or appear to be in need appear to be in need that are declining or or species may increase following treatment (that is, noxious weeds) (that is, noxious treatment following may increase consideration in restoration. These include species that include species in restoration. These consideration Species that require special Species that concern: Species of Ref. 1734-6, 2005). Ref. 1734-6, nutrients and organic matter by wind and water (Tech. (Tech. water wind and matter by and organic nutrients redistribution and loss of soil resources including including resources of soil and loss redistribution This page intentionally left blank. Manuscript approved for publication, November 27, 2007 Prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey Publishing Network Linda Rogers Bobbie Jo Richey For more information concerning the research in this report, contact the Director, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 777 NW 9th Street Corvallis, Oregon 97330 http://fresc.usgs.gov Miller and others—Western Juniper Field Guide: Asking the Right Questions to Select Appropriate Management Actions— Circular 1321