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A Rough Guide to Language Awareness

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A Rough Guide to Language Awareness James M. Bourke B RUNEI A Rough Guide to Language Awareness or teachers of a second lan- of grammatical rules for themselves. guage (L2), the role of grammar This new way of looking at grammar Finstruction in the classroom instruction has come to be known as has been a perennial subject of debate language awareness, among other des- and has undergone many changes ignations. This article will discuss the over the years. For example, the once background and rationale of language well-respected traditional methods awareness, and will introduce a few of that relied on extensive drilling and the techniques that teachers can use memorization of grammar evoked a to help students discover grammatical backlash in the 1970s, which resulted relationships and improve their learn- in new methods that excluded gram- ing of English. mar instruction in favor of “natu- The demise of traditional ral” communication in the classroom. grammar instruction Nevertheless, the topic of grammar remained a live issue, and throughout Traditional grammar instruction, as it the 1980s and 1990s, research in the was commonly called, was criticized classroom reported positive results for its long-winded teacher explana- for grammar instruction. Even so, tions, its drills and drudgery, and the communicative methods had an its boring and banal exercises. In enduring effect, and the traditional the 1970s, new teaching methods methods of teaching grammar did appeared that replaced grammar exer- not return; instead, techniques were cises with meaningful communicative developed whereby students would environments. In general, the goal was be able to “notice” grammar, often to mirror the way a person learned his spontaneously in the course of a com- or her first language, an approach that municative lesson, and especially if was derived from the linguistic theories the grammatical problem impeded of Chomsky (1965), who pointed out comprehension. In this way, learners that humans are endowed with a lan- would notice and learn the pattern guage acquisition device that enables 12 2 0 0 8 N UMBER 1 | E NGLISH T E ACHING F ORUM 08-20001 ETF_12_21.indd 12 12/19/07 10:02:06 AM that enables them to acquire whatever lan- The result was a number of do-it-yourself guage they are exposed to. According to strategies devised by second language teachers Chomsky (1965, 36), our “organ of language” to enable learners to analyze and internalize extracts the rules of the target language from language rules and systems. These various the data of performance, and this innate sche- tools and techniques differ considerably in ma comprises “linguistic universals,” which their specific aims and in the manner in which are part of our genetic inheritance. they are implemented, but they all have a Chomsky’s theories revolutionized the common purpose, which is to raise learners’ field of linguistics, and had a dramatic impact awareness of important linguistic features, on language teaching as well. The basic to see what attributes these features share, to assumption underpinning the communicative notice how they differ from other related fea- approach is that language is made in the mind tures, and, in time, to help learners construct and is internal, a process that generates what their own grammar from personal exploration Chomsky (1986) refers to as I-language. This and trial-and-error tasks. suggests that language cannot be acquired by putting learners through a series of linguistic Language awareness defined hoops, which is the approach found in the Language awareness fits into this new traditional grammar book, and what Chom- paradigm, and is defined as “the development sky calls E-language, language external to the in learners of an enhanced consciousness of learner. and sensitivity to the forms and functions of Based on Chomsky’s theories, “nativists,” language” (Carter 2003, 64). Since the early including Krashen (1981), Prabhu (1987), 1990s, an impressive body of research shows and others, argued against explicit grammatical that conscious learning (especially the kind instruction in favor of the naturalistic “discov- one would characterize as language aware- ery” of the target language’s rule system. In the ness) also builds interlanguage, one’s interim early 1980s, Krashen (1981) proclaimed that grammar in the mind. Interlanguage has to exposure to comprehensible input in a stress- grow and develop; otherwise, fossilization sets free environment was the primary condition in and learners may exhibit the all-too-famil- for successful L2 acquisition. However, at the iar symptoms of a “grammar gap” (Bourke same time this was being propagated, a num- 1989, 21). Many learners seem to experience ber of researchers were investigating the effect this gap and need remedial work in order to of formal instruction on L2 acquisition. Long eradicate fossilized errors. For this reason, the (1983), for instance, in an extensive review of present author refers to language awareness as the empirical research, found that certain types linguistic problem-solving (Bourke 1992). of instruction did make a significant difference Other definitions that are similar to lan- and hence one could no longer accept the guage awareness include consciousness-raising nativist argument that the effects of grammar (Rutherford 1987; Schmidt 1990; Fotos teaching appear to be peripheral and fragile. 1993; Sharwood Smith 1993); focus on form (Long 1991; Doughty and Williams 1998); The reincarnation of grammar instruction grammar interpretation tasks (Ellis 1995); and In spite of the reaction against direct gram- form-focused instruction (Ellis 2001; Hinkel mar instruction, many researchers and practi- and Fotos 2002). tioners continued to strongly advocate for the It should be noted that James (1998) role of conscious learning and have produced makes a fine distinction between language a number of studies concluding that syntax awareness and consciousness-raising (CR). He can and should be taught, and that formal suggests that language awareness is a learned instruction makes a difference. However, even ability to analyze one’s internalized language, though these researchers supported grammar be it the first language or that part of the L2 teaching, they also recognized that interven- that one has acquired so far. In other words, it tion by means of traditional exercises such as is about making implicit knowledge explicit. drills and slot-filling exercises, are much less On the other hand, CR refers to getting effective than the communicative techniques explicit insight into what one does not yet that supplanted it. know implicitly of the L2. James (1998, 260) E NGLISH T E ACHING F ORUM | N UMBER 1 2 0 0 8 13 08-20001 ETF_12_21.indd 13 12/19/07 10:02:06 AM concludes: Language awareness “is for know- the sum of the enabling strategies one ers and CR is for learners.” Rightly or wrong- uses to get a handle on the language ly, however, most applied linguists nowadays system. It employs cognitive strategies, regard the two terms as synonymous. such as noticing, hypothesis testing, Language awareness does differ from some problem-solving, and restructuring. of the above definitions in that it is wider in • LA comes out of an initial focus on scope, including not only grammatical aware- meaning. The objective is to investigate ness but also lexical awareness, phonological which forms are available in English to awareness, and discourse awareness. In order realize certain meanings, notions, and to simplify matters, I shall refer to all of these language functions. Whereas traditional approaches as language awareness (LA), as grammar was a grammar of classes, LA they have much in common and differ from is a grammar of meanings, functions, traditional grammar teaching in a number of and form-function mapping. significant ways. • The aim of LA is to develop in the Differences between language awareness learner an awareness of and sensitivity and traditional grammar to form, and not just to learn a long list Language awareness does not use the same of grammatical items. Learners have to traditional techniques used to teach grammar explore structured input and develop an that one finds in structural grammar books awareness of particular linguistic fea- like Stannard Allen’s (1974) famous Living tures by performing certain operations. English Structure, Thompson and Martinet’s According to Schmidt (1995), there can (1980) A Practical English Grammar, or Grav- be learning without intention, but there er’s (1986) Advanced English Practice. In addi- can be no learning without attention. tion, the practice that LA supports is different • LA occurs by means of certain types of in kind from the exercises in traditional gram- formal instruction or task-based learn- mar books like Azar (1989), Murphy (1997), ing, where learners do grammar tasks and Willis and Wright (1995). in groups. It can come in many differ- Language awareness also contrasts sharply ent forms and vary greatly in degree of with the Presentation-Practice-Production explicitness and elaboration. It is not (PPP) instructional cycle, another traditional the same thing as practice. It is about way of teaching grammar in the L2 classroom input processing, noticing certain pat- where the main focus is on controlled practice terns or relationships, discovering rules, in the form of drills and various contextualized and noticing the difference between grammar exercises. The PPP cycle is based on one’s current interlanguage and the a simplistic theory of language acquisition, target language system and as a result namely “implanting through practice.” In subconsciously restructuring one’s still contrast, the LA model is more concerned evolving grammar system. As Schmidt with input processing and comprehension (1993, 4) says, noticing is “the necessary than with practice with drills and repetition. and sufficient condition for the conver- LA is different in that it involves learners, indi- sion of input into intake.” vidually or in groups, in exploratory tasks, very often on bits of language that need repair.
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