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Thermal and Hydraulic Characteristics of Landscapes And There are landscapes and riverscapes, both are part of the waterscape. Mullins Stream, a tributary of the Northwest Miramichi or Elmunokun in Mi’kmaq, which means ‘a beaver hole’. A very lovely river (photo: June, 2017). THERMAL AND HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LANDSCAPES AND THEIR RIVERS By Antóin Mícheál O’Sullivan Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in Civil Engineering, 2014 Masters of Science in Engineering Geomorphology, Consultancy, and Practice, 2015 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Academic Unit of Forestry and Environmental Management (FOREM) Supervisor: R. Allen Curry Ph.D., Biology/ FOREM Examining Board: Tommi Linnansaari, Ph.D. FOREM/Biology Michelle Gray, Ph.D. FOREM David Lentz, Ph.D. Earth Sciences External Examiner: Christian Torgersen Ph.D., U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, College of the Environment, University of Washington, Seattle, USA This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK March 2021 © Antóin Mícheál O’Sullivan, 2021 ABSTRACT Landscapes and riverscapes are hydrologically interconnected through the four dimensions of space and time. While we have some understanding of local scale processes and global scale cycles, at the landscape and riverscape scales we have yet to truly solidify an understanding of interconnectedness. This dissertation examines the hydrological interconnectedness between landscapes and rivers using temperature as a tracer, and the spatial arrangement of aquatic habitats of rivers and wetlands. It was found that geology and specifically bedrock transmissivity exerts an apparent primary control on hydrological processes and river thermal regimes across the New Brunswick region. In areas with high conductance geology, topographic incisions (valleys) generated groundwater discharge which modified river flow and temperature. Inversely, topographic incisions in low conductance geology lacked groundwater discharge, and river flow and temperatures were more tightly coupled to climate. Upland wetlands on a high conductance geologic formation were associated with a lack of groundwater discharge and warm river temperatures, indicating potential recharge points. Winter satellite imagery can accurately delineate groundwater discharges in frozen rivers. Groundwater plume extent was observed to differentiate between summer and winter. High-resolution aerial imagery (30 cm) coupled with field calibration data was effective at modelling river bathymetry and hydraulics across a large catchment (> 1,000 km2). Applying these data to a machine learning algorithm revealed that low flow, aquatic habitats in the Little Southwest Miramichi broadly follow pool-riffle-slack water sequences. Earth’s abiotic and biotic systems are tightly interwoven. Changes within each reverberate through space-time moving towards a dynamic equilibrium. While some ii changes occur at scales that override our ability to observe them, commonalities exist across Earth’s ecosystems, and these fuel adaptation and evolution. My thesis illustrates the interconnectedness of landscapes, wetlands that lie upon them and rivers that flow through them. I conclude by presenting a concept to guide future research direction, ‘the waterscape continuum concept’ (WCC). The continuum unifies surface water, soil and rock moisture, and groundwater. Applying the WCC, scientists, researchers, and practitioners are required to learn about climatic, geologic, and geomorphic processes - inherently leading to better experimental designs, and will reveal new findings of Earth system processes. iii DEDICATION This work is inspired by the minds of William F. Ganong and Thomas C. Winter. Although my mind is light-years behind theirs, viewing through their minds’ lens provides a magnificent window to examine and question, the utter interconnectedness of Earth system processes. To Emily, my rock. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The last five years of my life have unquestionably been the most rewarding. I found enormous enjoyment conducting the science that fills these pages. That I ‘work’ towards developing an understanding of the mechanisms that underlie nature is something I still giggle at, and an opportunity I am incredibly grateful for. I thank my supervisor, Prof. R. Allen Curry. Allen gave me absolute freedom to develop my questions, which is a truly amazing gift. Allen is more than a supervisor/ mentor to me, he has become a 3rd parent. I am indebted to him more than he may ever understand. It is funny to think a video call from my sister and brother-in-laws’ flat in London (and a promise of a bottle of Jameson for Allen) led me to New Brunswick. My supervisory committee, Dr. Wendy Monk, Prof. Kerry MacQuarrie and Dr. Daniel Caissie have always given me an ear and advice when needed, for which I am extremely grateful. In particular, I thank Prof. Rick Cunjak, also a member of my supervisory committee, and Dr. Bob Newbury. Both have given me time and friendship, and for that, I am entirely thankful. I extend my thanks to Prof. Kevin Devito at the University of Alberta, also a member of my supervisory committee. Kevin introduced me to non-linear hydrological systems, challenged and taught me to frame scientific questions, and has become a true friend. I also would like to make special mention of Prof. Tommi Linnansaari and Prof. Kurt Samways. My understanding of ecology, limited as it is, has mostly been syphoned from email exchanges with Tommi, Kurt, Allen and Rick. I could not have completed this work without the help of our team. While the team members change each year, there are constants that have helped my work. In particular, I v thank Chris MacIntyre and Jani Helminen for both their friendship and support. I extend this to Liam MacNeil, Brian Connelly, Troy Robichaud, Ben Andrews, Colin DeCoste, Craig Wall, Carson White, Allison Pugh, Matt Warner, Abby Culberson, Tyler Lynn, Michael Duffy, Michael Arsenault, Connor O’Donovan, Jaime Leavitt, Mouhamed Ndong, Dennis Connor, Thomas Coulson, and Nebai Mesanza, and anyone I’ve left out. Also to financial supporters: NSERC (184846-2011-RGPI), the Collaboration for Atlantic Salmon Tomorrow (CAST), the Miramichi Salmon Association (MSA) Jack T. H Fenety Conservation Scholarship, Forestry and Environmental Management – UNB, Bud and Peggy Bird, Mr. and Mrs. Art Van Slyke, and the CRI Noel Hynes award. Perhaps the greatest component of the last five years has been the friendships. There are too many to mention individually, but special thanks to Mark Gautreau, and his family (including Coop), and Meghann Bruce (even including ‘that cat’) who have been my bedrock since 2015. Thank you to Marni Turnbull, Michelle Gray and Faith Sharpe for great chats. And the Linnansaari’s, the Samway’s (including Blitz), Tom Coulson, Nebai Mesanza, René Malenfant, Tyler Lynn, Bernhard Wegscheider, Jan Niederwestberg, Michelle Charest (and Mara), Toon Pronk, and Jeff Gaunce, among others for many great memories. I thank my Mam (Betty), Dad (Tony) and brother (Fionn) as well as the rest of my family back in Ireland. Thanks for always supporting my pursuit on the path less taken, you already know how much you mean to me; and yes, I am now finished with my thesis! To my sister (Fionnghuala), brother-in-law (Jonny), niece (Saoirse), and nephews vi (Donnacha and Fiachra) in Cambridge, U.K., thank you for also being there for me. I especially would like to thank the Corey’s. Jane and Lee et al., thank you for inviting me into your home, feeding me, allowing me to finish the writing of this thesis in the incredible Belleisle Bay, and offering me so much kindness - it seems like you have an endless reserve of it. You have become my 2nd family. Lastly, and most importantly, I thank my partner in crime, Emily Corey, and our dogs Lux and Nova. To Lux and Nova, thank you for the check ins while I wrote this dissertation (which were entirely self-serving as you were both looking for pats or someone to throw a ball/ stick/ frisbee), for the entertainment you provide through moon walking on certain floors, chasing shadows, for runs in the woods, and being my best mates. To Em, I cannot really quantify how grateful I am that you were by my side throughout this process. So, I won’t . Thank you for highlighting to me ‘how water moves through landscapes’, for supporting me, and being present in my life. You’ll likely never truly understand how happy you make me. Without you, I could not have done this. I still question why you are with me; but when life gives you a gift, shut your mouth. To anyone that reads this dissertation, I am sorry The keys to the past, present and future are in the ground. So, get diggin’! vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION.................................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. v List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xiii List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................
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