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Home , Australian Government, Australian nationalism, Responsible government

UNIT 6 EMERGENCE OF

Structure

Objectives Introduction Bases of the Emerging Nationalism 6.2.1 Land 6.2.2 People 6.2.3 Economy 6.2.4 Culture External Factors 6.3.1 Resentment against Britain 6.3.2 Anti-War Sentiment Political Dimensions 6.4.1 Politics and Parties 6.4.2 Emergence of Independent States 6.4.3 Foundation of the Changing Pattern of Nationalism 6.5.1 White Policy 6.5.2 Foreign Policy and Policy .bf Multiculturalism 6.5 3 Movement for a Republic of Australia Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exerclses

6.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit discusses the emergence of nationalism in Australia. After going through the unit you will be able to: trace the history of the emergence of ; identify the factors responsible for the emergence of Australian nationalism; a prove that a segment of a historically developed can develop a separate sense of nationalism in a different geographical condition; and understand the changing patterns of Aust~aliannationalism.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Nationalism is an ideology which is expressed in the advocacy of national independence, economic self-reliance and a strong desire for an identity. Australia is a nation with a definite nationalism of its own. Australia was 'discovered' for the Europeans by an English sailor Captain Cook in the third quarter ofthe 18th century (1769-71). lrn~nediatelyafter this event, migration from began.

The mainstream population of Australia consists of the descendants of the people who had migrated from the United Kingdom. They had the British.culture, and spoke the.same English language. They claimed to be the inherltors of the old British heritage for a considerable period of time. Despite that Australian born English people have developed a nat~onal~s~not their own. It could have happened because of their noteworthy achievements both in the economic and political domains. These achievements help develop cultural identity which is Australian in spirit, form and theme. ,-

6.2 BASES OF THE EMERGENCE OF NATIONALISM

The bases of Australian nationalism are the territorial location, growth of Australian born population, rapid economic development and p culture based on developing Australian values. Together they helped develop a sense of Australian identity which gave birth to nationalism. *b 6.H Land Emergence of ~atiosnii~m

Australia is a country situated in the Southern Hemisphere between the lndian Ocean and the South Pacific, Australia has no frontier and is an island continent, surrounded by sea. It is open from all sides to the high seas. Its nearest neighbours are Papua New Guinea and lndonesia to the north, the Polynesians and the Melanesian of the Pacific Islands to the east, and in the Southeast. The country is nearer to Asia islands of the Pacific ocean and is much farther to Europe.

The Commonwealth of Australia, the official name of the country, covers an area of 7,682,300 Sq. Km., much larger than the United Kingdom. Nearly 39 p.c. of its landmass lies within the Tropics. ~usGaliaspans a distance of 3,134 km. from north to south and 3,782 km. from east to west. The country is compact in shape. Three-quarters of its area consists of plains. It is a country of one nation, known as Australia and the are the sole owners of the land.

Australia is lobated far off from England from where the mainstream of the population had come. In fact it is on the other side of the European world. Though the vast majority of the people originated from British stock, the physical distance of the land from England contributed to the development of a feeling of isolation from the motherland. The people first started calling Great Britain the "Old Country" and the "land of the other people" and Australia was their country and the land of the people who lived there. There has been a persistent feeling that Australia is for Australians.

6.2.2 People

'The growth of Australian born English men and the developing multi-ethnic character of the country were the factors responsible for the emergence of Australian nationalism. To recall what we have studied in unit 4, the Britishers began to colonize Australia on 26 January 1788 when some British people raised a settlement in , then known as Port Jackson. The early settlers were mostly from among the British transported prisoners. Subsequently free settlers arrived. However till 1830 more than 90 p.c. of the total white population were either convicts, former convicts or relatives of the convicts. In 1840 the transportation of convicts was abolished. By that time new and thriving white communities emerged in different pockets of permanent and free settlements. he 1891 census established that more than two-thirds of the population of Australians by birth and 20 p.c. of the total white population were of lrish origin. This became the population basis for the growth of nationalism.

Australia is now technically a multi-ethnic country. But the number of peopIe belonging to the British origin is so large that the country appears to be a homogenous one. It is primariljl a white country. Only a sinall percentage of the total population is non-white. The Aboriginal or the indigenous people and a few descendants of the Chinese who had migrated before the pro~nl~lgationof 'white alone' policy, were the only non-white population until the end of World War 11. At present among the various ethnic groups living in Australia more than 50 p.c are of British (English) origin, one-fifth Irish, one tentl? of Welsh origin. There are a few Celtics as well. After World War 11, other European nationals migrated and settled in Australia. But they did not allow any other community to settle there. In 1966 the policy was pal-tially relaxed, and in 1973 all restrictions were lifted. Non-white peoples have since been then getting the necessary opportunities to migrate and settle in Australia. The Aboriginal populatio~ihave at last got the right of citizenship and the vote. According to a recent estimate (1999) the total population of Australia is 17,892,423, (1.78 crores) out of whom 352,970 are Aboriginal groups.

6.2.3 Economy

The material basis to a growing nationalist feeling was the economic prosperity of a country. The migrants achieved it within a very short period a prosperous standard of living which they could have hardly hoped for in Britain. White Australia experienced a spectacular growth Society and C111tul-e of economic activity 111 the second half of the 19th century. The growth had resulted from the expansion of pastoral and mining industries and of the urban centres. The "Gold Rush" of the 1850s also stimulated the economy. Sustainable econornic development could be achieved because of migration of people from Europe, helped by British capital investment and active official participation in the development of infrastructure, pastoral farming, mining, small scale manufacturing industries and urban land transactions. Australia was thus rapidly urbanized and a new urban society emerged. A vast majority of the total population was the urban dwellers. As the number of entrepreneurs (capitalists) increased, the size of the working class also increased; standard of living improved; and a determination to maintain the high standard of living arose. This determination helped to create a sense of identity in the people and a love and hate relationship of the British system. The Australians were no longer willing to allow British investors to transfer the surplus value to England.

The tempo of economic development has continued. Now Australia is no longer predominantly an agricultural nation. It has emerged as one of the industralized and mining of the i world. Since the end of (1 9 14-1 8), the fundamental development policy has been the encouragement of immigration (from Europe), widening the facilities fo; capital investment, expansion of foreign trade, emphasis on industrialization and improvement of 1 living conditions in the rural areas. A high tariff charge was imposed to protect the nascent i manufacturing sector. The manufacturing sector which was flourishing because of protection I

from foreign manufacturing goods opened up new avenues for absorbing the growing labour a force made available due to the Great Depression of the 1930's. Many migrated to Australia from Europe. Industrialization was another step forward towards a self-reliant Aiistralia. which further strengthened an already emerglng nationai~sm. I

! 6.2.4 Culture

The origin of Australian culture can be traced back to the fifth decade of the 19th century. The period is also important because the demand for self-rule arose then. Common people started pronouncing the English language with an Australian accent. A body of folk literature expressing the Australian spirit. forming the theme of ballads, folksongs, lyrics, stories etc. began to emerge in the 1850s. This was discovered in later decades of the 19Ih century and early decades of the 20th century by the urbanized highly educated authors, journalists and other intellectuals. The educated class who had so long looked to England for inspiration learned about Australia through these discoveries. They also discovered Australian idioms, phrases and other indi~enoustraits. The hitherto White Australia now found its "inner self'. They were thoroughly inspired by this growing indigenous culture and began to identify themselves with the country and to call themselves Australians.

The movements, first for self-rule and subsequently Commonwealth (Federation), coupled with developing knowledge on growing indigenous oral culture, gave birth to modern authors, artists and journalists in the 1890's. The famous Sydney Bulletin was founded. Soon it became the rallying point of all nascent nationalist authors and artistes. Verses and fictions with nationalistic overtones were created. Australia, centric art, literature and other objects of culture added further momentum to the growing feeling of an identity. The Australian landscape, its people, their hopes and sentiments found expression In tliis grow~ngbody of creative culture. The scenic beauty of the country, its deserts, mountains, rivers, etc., the high moral and hardworking character of its people and the gro\vin? fellmv feelinss nlnong the Australians, became the themes of creative literature and the arts. Henry Lawso~i,Joseph Furphy and many others emerged as the supreme writers of the nationalist school in the 1890s. In their works, anti-British feelings and urge for free politics in Australia, found expression.

Australians have not inherited any symbols. Their history is so short that they do not have heros or monumerlts abo~lrwhich they lrlay be proud of. or which they can cite as the sy~nbols of their heritage other than the British heritage. So during the early years, people used to rejoice about anything and ro~iianticizeddead bush-rangers as synibols of their national sentiment. They did not inherit any fest~valsof'the soil, They have therefore developed festivals - ,of their own centering on the cult~~rewhich they have created in Australia. Australians have immense sporting prowess. The country has produced many world class sports persons. Emergence of Nhtionniism Australia played its first cricket match against England in 1876 called 'The Ashes'. England was defeated. Great cricketers, like Joe Darling and Chem Hill led the national team to victory several times. In the 1900 Olympic Games, Australian swimmer lane lane became the world champion: All these achievements stirred the imagination of average Australians and helped consolidate. the emerging nationalism.

' Check Your Progress 1 I I Note: i) Use space provided below each question to write your answer. ii) Check your answer with the short model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Discuss the material basis of Australian nationalism.

5 2) How did the indigenous White Australian culture develop?

/ 6.3 EXTERNAL FACTORS

The gradual development of resentment against British and anti-war feelings contributed to the birth ofnationalistic feelings that Australians are not Britons. They are in fact Australian Britons. England refused to accept these realities for a long time. On the contrary it went on .to consider itself as the guardian of the Australians. Australians repudiated this policy of Great Britain. [ 6.3.1 Resentment against Britain

The elite section of the Australians continued to think of themselves as English men and 1 consider England as their home at least up to the early decades of the 20thcentury. They expressed their full loyalty to the "mother country". They sppported all British Wars by sending men and money. Thousands of Australian youths fought under British commanders in South Africa during the Boer War (1 899-1902). They also joined the British army in China during the Boxer ~ebellioh(1 900). Even the writers and artists belonging to the middle class till 1880 expressed the English spirit. They looked at England for inspiration. Quite a few even harboured the feeling that Australia was their temporary home and that they would one day return to their "home". I But the ~najorttyof the people thought differently and started considering themselves as Australians. Britain benefited by the occupation ofAustralia, a colony of . Through different tnechanis~nsAustralian wealth was transferred to Britain. At the beginning, colonial exploitation did not create any problems. When people began to consider Australia for Australians, the draining of wealth gave birth to anti-British sentiments. Many now started regarding Britain as the fountainhead of exploitation and grivilege. Strong dissent was expressed by a good section against Australia's participation in England's "dirty colonial war". I'lie Syd17ey Bulletil7, which emerged as the rallying point of the intellectuals strongly condemned war and vehemently opposed Australia's sending men and money for Britain's war. Dissent was also expressed by the trade unionists. The Trade Union movementwas then rapidly gaining ground. c 6.3.2 Anti-War Sentiment

In August 1914 the First Great War broke out. The United Kingdom (LIK) immediately joined the war. The Australian followed suit and raised a big army under the banner of the Australian Imperial Force. The army was sent to fight in support of Britain. The government policy did not find universal endorsement in Australia. Anti-war feeling gradually gathered momentum. They found no romance in fighting for the "King and Country". On the other hand the news of the death of Australian soldiers in the battlefield angered the people. The rising prices due to war further added fuel to the fire. The growing anti-war feeling and the people's anger found organized shape in the conscription issue. The government lost twice consecutively in the national plebiscite on the conscription issue. Growing nationalism was demonstrated during the war period.

Checlc Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use space provided below each question to write your answer. ii) Check your answer with the short model answers given at the end ot'the unit.

1) Critically examine the causes for the growth of resentment against ~n~land......

2) Write a note on the anti-war sentiment in Australia......

POLITICAL DIMENSIONS

Political developments since the begi~ininghad strong overtones of nationalism, which was then in the incipient stage. Australia first demanded self rule for the colonies and then struggled for the formation of a Federation.

6.4.1 Politics and Parties

Among the early settlers there were a good number of Irish political convicts. They were a restive lot from the very beginning. They protested against converting the convict immigrants into "slaves". They were rebellious and in 1804 there was an uprising among the Irish near Sydney.

Discontent arose during the 19Ihcentury (1 829-1 S6n) over the issues of self-rule in the colonies, imperial right to dictate land policy and the policy of il~rpositionof tax on the diggers of gold mines. Discontent at times turned into vigorous movements, at times violent clashes leading to the loss of lives. The rebellious mood of the people continued tor decades. The. modern Party system in Australia emerged in the first decade of the 20th century. At the beginning there were only Conservatives and the Liberals. The Conservatives were the protectionists. The tariff issue was the 1 nne ofcontention between them. In Australia from the very beginning there had been a strong labour movement and unity among workers. Soon the Labour Party was formed. The emergence of the parties also helped consolidate the emcrging nationalism in Australia. , 6.4.2 Emergence of Independent States Emergence of Nationalism

The emigrants or the colonizers first developed the State of (NSW) where Captain Cook, the discoverer of Australia, had landed in 1770. Using it as the stepping stone they extended their occupation to other areas. The new colonies emerged one after another as independent settlements. By the end of 1850 white population had spread all over the country and divided the land into six states. The colonialists colonized the Swan river areas and established in 1829. In 1837 the colonialists established . , Queenland and were formally founded between 185 1 and 1859. Colonization was not a public venture. Private explorers and investors contributed to the development of the colonies.

The colonies soon achieved a sustainable developing economy. Along with the rapid economic growth, political consciousness developed and people became vocal for a sort of representative form of government. They wanted to govern their affairs by themselves. Dissent soon arose against colonial administration, supervised by the British government. They disliked imperial domination. They also desired to curb the power and influence of the British backed pastoral and mercantile interests. Responding to the growing demand for self-rule the imperial government passed an Act in 1842 and another one called Australian Colonies Government Act in 1850. The developing regions were formally separated froin New South Wales and were placed on the path f~rautonomy. In accordance with the provisions of these Acts limited self rule was granted immediately. Subsequently fully responsible were founded in different colonies. Each of them adopted a separate constitution. The salient features of these constitutions were a , parliamentary democracy, direct elections through secret ballot and adult franchise. i 6.4.3 Foundation .of the Commonwealth i first settled in New South Wales (Sydney) and gradually settlement spread over the continent. Colonization had extended for more than 300 km,from Sydney by the end of the fourth decade of the 19Ihcentury. Several small settlements had sprung up and subsequently become independent states. Wi.th the achievement of independent governments in the states, the movement for the formation federation arose. Centripetal forces now became very active. Factors responsible for the rise of the demand for federation are varied. Since the Crimean War (1853-56) Australians had been suffering from the German menace, and they were also apprqhending incursions from the north by other European powers. Australians feared being swamped by immigration from Asia. The emergence of Japan as a power to be reckoned with and the involvement of the British forces in other parts of the world made the Australians further apprehensive of their security. Independent states were not competent enough to provide full security. They realized that a federation alone would be capable of raising a viable defence system and thereby would be able defend the country.

[ Early Australians were always worried about their standard of living. The great Depression 1 of the 1890s posed a threat to conducive living. Due to the depression, unemployment rate rose to 30 per cent and above. The continent was engulfed in a serious industrial unrest and rural distress. Banks and financial institutions collapsed or suspended business. Depression 1 made the people realize the advantages of pooling the resources of the entire continent to overcome economic difficulties. Resources could be pooled only when the states came i together. Unity could also solve the problems of the diverging tariff policies of the states. Concern for security coupled with the growing nationalist sentiments, and the desire to improve the economic conditions and for cooperation between the states, created a congenial atmosphere for tlie states to come together and to willingly establish a Federation. Average'Australians found that these grave issues could only be tackled if they formed an association. An Association named the Australian Native Association was formed to articulate the issues related to tlie foundation of a Federation. In 1885 a federal council without any power was foriiied. All the states did not join in the association or the council. There was to the demand for the unity of states. The rich colonies were not in favour of a federation, but their opposition was set aside. The pro-federal forces went ahead and a k society and Culture convention was called in 189 1. It failed. Again in 1897 another conve~~tionwas held. Thib time it prepared the draft constitution for a Federation. The Constitution was endorsed by the \, people in a referendum, in 1898. The Constitution was then placed for Royal assent to the \ British Crown. The Crown gave ih assent to the Constitution in 1900 and the Co~nmonwealth of Australia was formally inaugurated on 1st January 1901. i

Australia is now a Federation with a Federal or (the Commonwealth) and six states, each of which has its own government, enjoying limited sovereignty. I Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use space provided below each question to write your answer. ii) Check your answer with the short model answers given at the end of the unit.

I) Write a note on early political unrest. i

...... i

2) Narrate the circumstances leading to the foundation of the Co~nmonwealthof Australia I

6.5 CHANGING PATTERNS OF NATIONALISM

The contents of Australian nationalism did not remain uniform. Till recently the 'white only policy' was in vogue. But ground realities forced the government in the 1970s to change its policy. Now multi-culturalism is the principal guideline of Australian society.

6.5.1 White'Australia Policy

White Australians within a span of 50 years or so had established a growing economy with a strong export sector. They also established an advanced social democracy. wbmen were accorded voting rights. A viable Federation was founded. All these accorded the Australians an identity of their own. But the identity or nationalism was to a large extent sectarian. Only White Australians were entitled to enjoy t'he rights of citizenship and other social privileges. The original people of the land whom they called Aboriginals, had no recognition. Their number were not recoraed in the officiai censuses. The Asians were not admitted 111 the "Society". One of the early acts of the Federal Legislature was to adopt the "" which restricted the right of settlement to Europeans alone. The policy was supported by all factions of White Australian society. Thus none other than the Whites, had any rights or privileges in the developing Australian society. It ass argued that had there been no White Australia policy, the country would have been swamped by the Asians. 6.5.2 ~brei~nPolicy nnd Policy of Multi-Culturalism I Australia joined World War 11 in September.1939 when Britain declared war on , to fight, against the Axis powers. Australia emerged anew from the war. It no longer remained dependent for security upon its traditional ally, the UK. That hallowed place now occupied, instead, by the United States of America (USA). .*.ustralia had to seek US assistance during the war to check Japan's onward ~narcliin the Pacific. US-Australia 1. 1 L1 relations were then formalized in 1951 when they signed a . The second important Emergence of Nationalism impact of the war on Australia was the diversion of its attention from the West to the East. Australia gradually had got closely involved in its immediate neighbouring regions or East Asia, Southeast Asia, besides South Asia, Africa etc. Involvement in the campaign against Japan during the war brought home the realization that Australia's future would be decided by its relati.ons with Asia rather than with Europe. Australians became fa~nilia'r with Asia during the war. Such familiarity was further deepened by the modernization of the communication system, and expansion of trade, tourism, educational exchanges and sports activities. The third development in the post-war period was the promulgation of a new migration policy. Post war reconstruction needed skilled and unskilled labour for maintaining the standard of living and to populate the vacant areas. Australia could no longer depend upon Britain for migration. The demand and need for labourers being so strong, immigration from countries other than Europe was encouraged. So in late 1960s the White Australia policy was partially amended and a limited number of people were allowed to migrate to Australia. In 1973 the ban was totally lifted. Migrants from West Asia, Africa, South Asia, South East Asia () and East Asia (Chinese) swelled the number of migrants in Australia. According to an estimate now more than 30 pef cent of the total population belongs to the non-British stock. There are now more than 100 nationalities living in Australia.

Due to the new migration policy a "New Australia" has emerged in the fourth quarter of the 20t'! century. But White Australia, dominated by the people of British heritage, continue to ignore these new developments. It was thought that the new migrants would automatically assimilate with the mainstream. But it did not happen. On the contrary they faced exploitation and had to live in extreme poverty. Gradually the earlier settlers began to realize that the migrants should get necessary support to render them capable of contributing to the development of Australia. Recent Governments have therefore changed the White Australia policy and have promulgated the policy of "multi-culturism", and have adopted the syncretic approach. The earlier utilitariarian policies are replaced by policies of acceptance. The new policies, however did not go unchallenged. In the labour domain it exacerbated tensions.' Non-British Europeans however are in support of the policy of syncretism. They wield considerable political influence and with their support Australians are marching towards a new world of composite culture. \ 6.5.3 Movement for a Republic of Australia

The people of Australia had launched a movement to declare'Australia a Republic. Australian nationalism manifested itself for the first time when they demanded self-rule for individ~ial colonies in the 19[" century. After achieving that goal, the nationalists began to articulate the demand for a Commonwealth of Australia - a Federal system consisting of autonomous states with limited sovereignty. Now they agitate for the creation of a Republic of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia has been nominally under the British Crown who appoints the -General, the constitbtional Head of the State.

Now Australia has achieved a new type of social, political and economic ordkr which demands complete independence. Australia has achieved a fully self-reliant economy, established a vibrant democracy and a new social order based on the value of composite culture. Australia's . political and constit~~tionalsystems have been in a state of gradual evolution since the beginning. These changes are extremely dynamic. So what was thought viable hundred years ago, now is considered to be in fetters. Though the office or institution of Governoc Generalship underwent complete transformation and is now only a ceremonial institution, the present system is considered to be laden with colonial legacy. Allegiance to the Crown is generally looked down upon by the people as the vestiges of colonial legacy. It appeared that the demand of a vast majority of Australians is for a completely independent Republic. In recent years several opinion polls were conducted. Eve~yrilnt Inore than 50 per cent of the people voted in favour of declaring Australia a Republic. But the recent poll held in 1999 did not support the idea of the Republic and favoured the existing situation. 'Society and Culture Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use space provided below each question to whte your answer. ii) Check your answer with the short model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Writenotes on: -'- a) White Policy

......

C) Movement for Republic 1

6.6 LET US SUM UP

Australia has emerged a; a nation through its struggle for developing a sustainable developed economy and for establishing a democratic society. The vast majority of Australians, being from the English stock, have established their separate identity. They are now proud to call themselves English speaking Australians. Their English is also different from the original English spoken in the 'home country'.

Nationalism which has emerged in the course of the people's struggle for better life, had earlier a clear note of resentment against British colonial rule. But the pragmatic British responge to Australia's justified demands did not allow the resentment to transform into a vigorous anti-imperialist movement like that in North America. Another feature of Australian' ' nationalism is that it is dynamic. Earlier it was strongly racist. It did not admit, for several decades, people other than the whites. But towards the end of the 20thcentury the country has been open to all people irrespective of colour and creed. Yet another feature is that the people struggled for complete freedom in phases. In beginning they fought for self-rule with limited sovereignty. Then they established the Commonwealth under the British Crown. The control of the Crown has gradually loosened.

6.7 KEY WORDS

Conscription issue: Co~npulsoryenlistment for state (military) services. The issue was raised in Australia when the people were summoned to serve in the British army. ** fi

Emergence or Nationalism 6.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Aitkin D., 1977. Stability and Change in Australian Politics, danberra.

Crowley, F.K (ed.). 1974. A New History ofAustralia, Mdtourne.

Ward, Russel. 1978. .The : The Twentieth Centttry 1901- 1975, London.

Barnard. Mariorie. 1969. History of Australia, Sydney.

Younger. R.M. 1970. A~istroliaand the A~lstralians:A New Concise Hislory, Adelaide.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) Rapid economic development. Australia in a short period of 50 years or so has achieved a sustainable economic development and a better standard of living. Economic developinent formed the material basis of emerging Australian nationalism. (For details see Sub-section 6.2.3).

2) Co~ii~iionAustralians developed an oral culture in which the Australian spirk and theme found full expression. This was unknown for decades to tlie elite Australian. Middle class Australians came to know about this treasure when the educated class discovered tlie Australian spirit in 1890s. indigenous Australian c~~ltureemerged out of this folk culture. (For details see Sub-section 6.2.4).

Check Your Progress 2

1) Colonial paternalism, exploitation etc. are the causes for the growth of resentment against ti~yland.(See for details Sub-section 6.3.1).

2) Aub~raliawas not directly involved in the war. It had to enter the war because England the mother Country was a party to the war. Australian men and money were used for the pl.otection of Britain's colonial interest. (see-for details Sub-section 6.3 2).

Cllerk Your Progress 3

I) Among tlie migrants there were many Irish political prisoners. They became very restive. In 1804 there was an uprising. Subsequently also on the issue of self rule and others there were occasions of revolts. (See for details Sub-section 6.4.1).

2) Post-Crimean war political situation in ~uro&,1890's economic depression, emergence of Japan as a power in the Pacific and the growing nationalism forced the independent states to come together. (See for details Sub-section 0.4.2).

Check Your Progress 4

1) a) Apprehension of exodus from Asia and to maintain the standard of living were the causes for the promulgation of the racist white Australian policy. Non-whites had not been admitted for a long time. (For detail see Sub-section 6.5.1).

b) White alone policy was done away with. Australia was opened for all races. Equal oppo'l-tunities are guaranteed to all communities. (For details see Sub-section 6.5.2).

c) Australia is nominally under the British crown. People co~lsiderit as the last vestiges of colonialism. So they desire to make Australia a republic. (For details see Sub'- \ccllon 0.5.3).