, HRECIOSNTSTORUCR TEYD Moving beyond a caricature of Ulysses S. Grant by Joan Waugh
ost Americans likely are familiar with the popular stereotype of President Ulysses S. Grant as a polit - ical dimwit who watched helplessly as Mhis administration became awash in cor - ruption and chicanery. Historian and public intellectual Henry Adams once declared, “A great soldier might be a baby politician.” Adams spoke for a gen - eration of bitterly disillusioned Gilded Age reformers when he described Grant as “preintellectual, archaic, and would have seemed so even to the cave- dwellers.” His mocking barb, “the progress of evolution from President Washington to President Grant, was alone evidence enough to upset Darwin,” has been widely quoted, as has Adams’ statement that the initials “U. S.” stood for “uniquely stupid.” Adams was hardly alone in his dis - dain for the 18th president. Examples abound to show that many of Grant’s contemporaries—and not just his polit - ical opponents—thought he was in way over his head. GideonWelles, secretary of the Navy under presidents Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, called Grant “a political ignoramus” who was “less sound on great and fundamental prin - ciples, vastly less informed, than I had
8 Fall /Winter 2009 supposed possible for a man of his Puck , depicted him as venal and stupid of money and material enjoyment and opportunities,” later describing him as in countless columns and editorials. of low company, was put in the “a dangerous man…devoid of patriot - The patrician editors of The Nation Presidential chair.” After Grant died, ism.” The Democratic press, including pronounced the epitaph of the Grant the NewYork Tribune opined that “the the New York World and the Chicago administration in 1876: “The crisis came greatest mistake of his life was the Sun , and weekly magazines, such as when an ignorant soldier, coarse in his acceptance of the presidency.” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper and taste and blunt in his perceptions, fond How could a military leader who was strong, fearless, and decisive in war fail to show those same qualities as a peacetime leader?The negative assess - ment carried forward from one cen - tury to another. Woodrow Wilson in 1912 damned with faint praise: “The honest, simple-hearted soldier had not added prestige to the presidential office…He ought never to have been made President.” Wilson’s criticism would be much amplified in the coming generations of historians. In an influential book published in 1928, author W. E. Woodard wrote, “I am convinced that he was simply bewildered. He never understood intricate political moves; he was a lost child in the wilderness of politics.” Decades later, scholar
The Democratic press depicted him as venal and stupid in countless columns and editorials.
Vernon L. Parrington provided another harsh assessment, claiming Grant possessed only a “dull plebeian character” and was “unintellectual and unimaginative, devoid of ideas and with no tongue to express the incoherent emotions that surged daily in his heart.” Widely used textbooks published in the late 1930s and early 1940s demon - strate an entrenched low opinion of President Grant. It did not help that, as president, Grant ushered in the inglorious Gilded Age, more than three decades (1865–1900) of unparalleled economic boom (and bust) that have become The infant candidate Grant tutored by Republican elders dressed as nursemaids. From Harper’s Weekly , Feb. 15, 1868, Huntington Library. synonymous with the rise of big business
HUNTINGTON FRONTIERS 9 Contrasting photos of Grant as general and president. From General U. S. Grant: The Soldier, Patriot, and Statesman (Boston: U.S. Instantaneous Photo Co., 1885), Huntington Library. Opposite: Grant’s inauguration as president on March 4, 1869. From Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper , March 20, 1869, Huntington Library.
How could a military leader who was strong, fearless, and decisive in war fail to show those same qualities as a peace - time leader?
led by corpulent robber barons whose lavish lifestyles offered visible proof of a growing gap between rich and poor. Politics and politicians of the era appear in many history books as mere hand - maidens or enablers of corporate power in an“Age of Excess.” Unbridled mate - rialism, corruption, and money in pol - itics, according to many scholars, degraded the ideals of the Republic, resulting in the “incorporation of America” at the expense of immigrants, the working class, and the poor. One historian proclaimed, “The most sig - nificant thing about the politics of the post-war years was their insignificance. Other administrations—those of Pierce and Buchanan, for example—had been dull and incompetent; it was reserved for the Grant administration to be incompetent and corrupt.”
10 Fall /Winter 2009 A consensus emerged, pronouncing The chief goal of the Grant adminis - Reconstruction directed by Grant’s Grant’s transition from military icon to tration, one historian argued, seemed to Republicans was an utter, dismal failure. political leader a failure. A few commen - be a Reconstruction policy that would Later, after the turmoil of the second tators grudgingly admitted that Grant “keep the South subordinate to the civil rights protest movement, scholars became an expert in navigating the North and Democrats subordinate to trained in social history rejected the byzantine politics of the wartime years, Republicans. In this it was largely suc - “Dunning School” interpretation and but they quickly pointed out that his cessful. It had behind it the immense recast the story of Reconstruction. One efforts to command and contain the prestige of victory and of Grant himself, part of the story remained the same. Still internecine battles of party-driven and its tenure of power was prolonged deemed a failure, Reconstruction, as politics proved far less successful. by the persistent distrust of any party shaped by Grant’s shortcomings, was Reconstruction, many argued, might that was connected with slavery and now seen as reflecting the deep racism have proceeded more smoothly if, as secession, and strengthened by the of Northern society. William Gillette president, Grant had applied the same cheerful support of the business inter - claimed that Northern prejudice was kind of shrewd calculation in the polit - ests which it had served.” largely responsible for Reconstruction’s ical arena that he had applied on the Much of the antipathy toward Grant “retreat.” Gillette drew attention to battlefield. Instead, he openly detested arose from scholars, led by William A. Grant’s own racism as well, and that and distrusted the chaotic world of Dunning of Columbia University, attention was amplified in William American politics and acted as a propelled by the “Lost Cause” ideology McFeely’s Grant: A Biography (1981), political innocent at a time when the that figuratively whitewashed history which damned the president for his nation needed a tough and experi - to portray Reconstruction as the “tragic inability to secure black civil rights. enced public servant. era.” According to pro-Confederate Grant’s historical reputation remained At best, he became an unwilling tool scholar Claude G. Bowers and others, tarnished, McFeely declaring confi - in the hands of unscrupulous profes - Reconstruction was nothing more than dently that “no amount of revision is sional politicians and businessmen. At a harsh and corrupt rule imposed on going to change the way men died at worst, he knowingly allowed corrup - helpless white Southerners by a combi - Cold Harbor, the fact that men in the tion to run rampant in both the North nation of vindictive radical Republicans, Whiskey ring stole money, and the and South, and in doing so he frit - ignorant African Americans, evil car - broken hopes of black Americans… tered away the fruits of Union victory. petbaggers, and turncoat scalawags. in 1875.”
HUNTINGTON FRONTIERS 11 Much of the historical record on nomination in 1868 and his subsequent resistance was fierce, leading to retrench - Grant has more to say about historians victory brought to the office the right ment and withdrawal after 1876. The than it does about the 18th president. man at the right time. No one else in new scholarship does not pretend that Eminent historian Richard N. Current the country possessed his unquestioned the blunders of the Grant administra - pointed out an anomaly in the litera - status as a symbol of unity and recon - tion did not occur or were not serious. ture: “Grant’s low repute among his - ciliation. An excellent opportunity for But it does contend that some of the torians has been largely a product of enlightened leadership seemed to await failures speak not so much to Grant’s the Dunning school. His fame continues Grant, who enjoyed immense popularity incompetence, or to the scandals and to suffer even though the Dunning with a majority of voters. As is clear, corruption that erupted partly due to interpretation as a whole has long many have contended that he went on his lack of judgment, as they do to the been discredited. It is time that revi - to squander his gifts and richly deserves incredibly difficult challenges of govern - sionist scholars, having already revised his reputation as one of the worst ing the country at this particular time. practically every other phase of presidents in history. Still others now Historians Brooks Simpson and Reconstruction, should reconsider the depict a thoughtful, intelligent, engaged Current argued that the issues of war role of President Grant.” president, fully aware of the responsi - were not resolved at Appomattox. Parts Grant’s presidential reputation is bilities, duties, and difficulties inherent of the South remained in turmoil, and changing in a more positive direction. in the role of chief executive. “Of no a sizeable number of whites rejected A complex depiction of Grant the both reunion and emancipation, and politician has been rendered by a grow - they employed violent means to do so. ing number of scholars. And the fresh It is time to replace the Because of this, one could easily por - direction of Grant scholarship has been caricature of Grant tray Grant, like Lincoln, as a war pres - influenced by the wealth of informa - with a more balanced ident: “He was commander in chief tion found in the 31 published vol - interpretation. during the Reconstruction phase of umes of the superbly edited and the continuing Civil War.” Few other anno tated Papers of Ulysses S. Grant . president are biases in judgment less well presidents, Current contended, “carried Huntington Library patrons would not disguised than in those that inform on such a determined struggle, against be surprised to find that the Library’s opinions about Ulysses Grant,” argued such hopeless odds, to give reality to materials from its Civil War era col - historian Josiah Bunting III in his book the 14th and 15th Amendments and to lections are acknowledged in every one Ulysses S. Grant (2004).Whether strug - protect all citizens of this country in the of those volumes. The massive project’s gling to implement Reconstruction pol - exercise of their constitutional rights.” origins lie in the CivilWar Centennial icy, advancing the United States’ goals Simpson’s assessment noted that “his - (1961–65), and the Papers offer a fas - in foreign policy, advocating fiscal sound - torians would assail his approach to cinating documentary history of the ness, or implementing protections for southern policy, first for being too harsh United States in war and in peace. Native Americans, Grant’s program s on southern whites, then for neglecting Covering Grant’s entire career, the enjoyed some notable successes. More- black interests, and finally for being Papers provide a huge evidentiary basis over, Grant possessed a political phi - inconsistent and vacillating. But none for the emerging reconsideration of his losophy, if not Lincoln’s expressive were able to suggest how he could have presidency. The revisionists’ Grant is not eloquence to enunciate it, for subse - forged a policy that would have achieved a politically naïve fumbler who allowed quent generations. It mirrored that of both sectional reconciliation and justice his cronies to lead him around by the the triumphant Republican Party that for black Americans. Perhaps it was not nose, but rather someone sensitive to won the war, freed 4 million slaves, his failure after all.” political concerns and passionately com - and ensured the continuation of the Throughout his presidency, Grant mitted to pursuing the goals of the war: Republic. The freedoms promised by remained steadfast in the belief that the reunion and emancipation.Throughout that new Republic—embodied in the goals of the war should be preserved his administration, Grant labored dili - 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments— even as the country’s enthusiasm for gently for both sectional harmony and would be protected by an unparalleled Reconstruction of the South in the the guarantee of the freedpeople’s newly expansion of federal power. This was North’s image faded away. Grant’s fina l gained political and economic freedoms. bound to be controversial and difficult task as president harkened back to Revisionist scholars stress that Grant’s to implement. President Grant pledged his first, and perhaps most important acceptance of the Republican presidential to use that power; and when he did, achievement: to ensure a stable transi -
12 Fall /Winter 2009 tion, this time in the disputed election commented Jean Edward Smith, scholars. By the end of the upcoming of 1876. Voting was close and results “Grant’s evenhanded mediation of CivilWar sesquicentennial (2011–15), quickly contested in an election that the crisis preserved the peace and the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant may pitted Republican Rutherford B. Hayes paved the way for a successful presi - well be unrecognizable to Henry Adams. against Democrat Samuel B. Tilden. dential transition.” The electoral votes from Florida, It is time to replace the caricature Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon of Grant with a more balanced inter - were claimed by both parties. From pretation. Through trial and error, he November 1876 to March 1877 the grew in the office, like his predecessor JoanWaugh is professor of American history outcome remained in doubt, with no and political hero, Abraham Lincoln. at the University of California, Los Angeles. end in sight. Some even suggested that Henry Adams’ “a great soldier might Since 2000, she has been the co-convener of another civil war might break out over be a baby politician” no longer squares four Huntington conferences related to the the controversy. Grant performed his with the emerging scholarship. Indeed, CivilWar.This article has been adapted from role as a mediator with dignity. historians now are departing rather her book U. S. Grant: American Hero, Eventually he succeeded, and the dramatically from much of the historical American Myth , © 2009 by the University country reconciled for good. “When assessment of Grant’s generation, as well of North Carolina Press. Used by permis - the nation almost came unglued,” as the following three generations of sion of the publisher, www.uncpress.unc.edu.
Thousands of mourners turned out for Grant’s funeral procession in Albany, N.Y. From General U. S. Grant: The Soldier, Patriot, and Statesman (Boston: U.S. Instantaneous Photo Co., 1885), Huntington Library.