Open Journal of Women's Studies Volume 1, Issue 2, 2019, PP 6-24

Their story: , Women, Sexuality and Sex in the

Shivaughn Hem-Lee-Forsyth PhD, St. George‟s University, St. George‟s, Grenada, Caribbean. *Corresponding Author: Shivaughn Hem-Lee-Forsyth, PhD, St. George‟s University, St. George‟s, Grenada, Caribbean. [email protected]

ABSTRACT HIV and AIDS is a worldwide public health issue. The Caribbean region is at the forefront of this pandemic; especially during the festive Carnival period. HIV and AIDS is the leading cause of death among males and females between the ages of 20-59 (World Health Organization, 2014a). Women are currently contracting HIV at a disproportionate rate to men (UN Women, 2015). These trends have led health agencies and gender organizations, at both local and regional levels, to unite in support of reversing the HIV epidemic. The incidence of sexually transmitted diseases increases right after Carnival. On an annual basis, there is a peak in the birth rate nine months post Carnival. This paper addresses the following issues: the perception of Carnival culture on the human psyche; the value of Carnival celebrations and their impact on the lives of women; whether Carnival dress and alcohol use are considered conducive to [influencers of/catalysts for?] increased sexual activity; whether the provocative dance movements and musical lyrics influence sexual behaviours; and lastly, whether certain classes of women are considered to be more at risk of STIs owing to their sexual practices at Carnival time. Keywords: HIV/AIDS, Stis, Caribbean, Carnival, Culture, Women

. INTRODUCTION 2010). As time progressed centuries ago, modifications were made to this costume History of Caribbean Carnival festival, referred to as „carnivale‟ by the Italian Carnival is an annual festivity held in most of Catholics at that time, which meant “put away the Caribbean islands. Carnival has been the meat‟” (All Ah We: Building Bridges described as the festival of “colour, revelry, gay through Culture, n.d., ¶ 2).It was a celebration abandon [ment]…when sexual inhibitions are that lasted two days prior to Ash Wednesday. lowered. The „mas‟ has also become very much Those two days of pomp signified a “farewell to a world festival” (Gilkes, 2003, ¶ 1). Caribbean the devil and lust of the flesh, before the period ‟ hypnotism attracts countless tourists of fasting and repentance during lent” worldwide. Apart from the economic gains (Rampersad as cited in Caribbean Choice, 2010, derived from tourism, the powerful message that ¶ 2). After growth in Italy, the festival then has spread universally is that „Carnival is the spread to France, Spain, Portugal and Catholic greatest show on earth.‟ The complex historical Europe (All ah we: Building bridges through web from which Carnival has been constructed culture, n.d.). The festival was eventually has led to its rich diversity in terms of its brought to the Caribbean by the colonial rulers significance and events. Trinidad has long been in the 15th century. hailed as the mecca of Carnival.The National The Caribbean‟s political past of colonialism, Library and Information System Authority slavery, revolt and liberation lies at the core of [NALIS] (2009) claims that Carnival is the Carnival‟s birth. The arrival of the European country‟s most important celebration. Smaller colonisers, particularly the French, and the islands, such as Grenada, have been picking up African slaves led to the creolisation of both momentum with regard tothe magnitude of their cultures (Creque-Harris, 1994) and the eventual respective Carnivals. fusion of cultural influences from the East Carnival was traced back to a pagan festival in Indian, Chinese and indigenous Amerindians. the time of Saturnalia, pre-dating Christianity Carnival‟s inception as an exclusive event in (Rampersad as cited in Caribbean Choice, history has significantly evolved into a more all-

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 6 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean inclusive one (NALIS, 2009). Between 1783 These occasions are the epitome of bacchanal in and 1838, this exclusivity was reserved for the the Caribbean context. References will made white upper-class who engaged in balls and songs in the rest of the chapter; these Soca star fetes. People of African and mixed descent were Destra encapsulates this intoxicating Carnival not allowed to take part in these proceedings. mood in her song1 entitled “Bacchanal:” However, they did engage in their own brand of Is all about unity, togetherness celebration. In that era, there were other forms of revelry that made it possible for African Carnival time we love de jamming slaves to entertain themselves; they had the All ah we collectively autonomy to hold parties with music and In de bacchanal time to start de fete‟n dancing (NALIS, 2009). One thing about my country In post-colonial times, citizens have been Everywhere we go we love to party. (Garcia, warned about assimilating the colonial values 2008) that rob them of their own sense of value, which is needed for self-recognition. According to Many present-day events where bacchanal is Thorpe (as cited in Bloom, 1997, p. 92): “Living experienced have been born out of traditional in a society colonised by Europeans have happenings during colonial and post-colonial encouraged the Afro West Indian to deny the times. Events are theme based, inspired by worth of the locally-evolved culture and to seek folklore, culture and religion. Integral to the instead to identify himself with a foreign Carnival art form and to the events are the cultural tradition.”That said, the common culturally significant old time characters: colonialism heritage suggests that the past, burrokeet (Figure1), tambu bamboo (Figure2), together with the multicultural existence of the fancy Indian(Figure3), jab jab (Figure 4), jab African, Asian and other peoples in the present, molassie (Figure 5), midnight robber (Figure 6), continues to unite them. Gikandi (as cited in moko jumbie (Figure 7, blue devil (Figure 8), Torres-Saillant, 1997, p. 58) articulates, bookman (Figure 9), sailor (Figure 10), minstrel “Caribbean writers cannot adopt the history and (Figure 11) and pierrot grenade (Figure 12). culture of European modernism, especially as These characters enliven and provide meaning defined by the colonising structures, but neither to tradition as well as creating the inescapable can they escape from it because it has over bacchanal spirit at Carnival gatherings. determined Caribbean cultures in many ways.” Gilkes (2003) acknowledges that Carnival What Gikandi proposes is a synthesis of the serves a dual purpose: it showcases creativity historical realities and the diverse cultural and talent; and also provides an avenue for self- legacies as a means of arriving at a new identity expression and freedom. Avariety of Carnival unique to the Caribbean experience. events provide a high level of revelry and The African traditions of masks and costuming, gaiety, which cater to the diverse tastes of music and dance have had a strong influence on patrons. There are pre-Carnival events such as present day Carnival activities is well- calypso tent shows, band fetes, boat cruises, all- established (All ah we: Building bridges through inclusive fetes, queen shows, band launches and culture, n.d.). According to Nurse (1999, p. the pre-judging of Carnival competitions. These 661), “Carnival is theorised as a hybrid site for events culminate in the Carnival weekend the ritual negotiation of cultural identity and activities consisting of various competition practice by the Caribbean diaspora.” Wherever finals including soca monarch (Figure 13 and Caribbean people have settled, in large cities 14), panorama/„steelpan‟ (Figure 15), Dimanche such as , New York and London, they Gras with calypso, queen and king costume have taken these Carnival traditions with judging (Figures 16 and 17), J‟ouvert/„ole mas‟ them.In continuation of their cultural heritage, (Figures18and19), Monday night mas, and Carnival is now celebrated in these places under parade of the bands on Carnival Monday and the new names of Caribana, Labour Day and Tuesday (Figures 20 and 21).Not surprisingly, Notting Hill Carnivals respectively. the festivities are accompanied by increased Carnival Events alcohol consumption and sexual activities. Selected lines taken from La Borde‟s poem A number of diverse events that occur over the Carnival season are celebrated by a multitude of people from various nationalities, ethnicities, 1Lyrics of most of the songs in this chapter and the races, religions, genders, ages, and classes. chapters that follow were sourced from audio-visual materials, and then transcribed. 7 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean summarise the two-faced nature of the Carnival Alas! On the other side celebration: Dangers lurk far and wide Some say it‟s just a facade Removing the moral code Better known as masquerade All forms of vulgarity On one side is pageantry Blatant promiscuity In splendour and artistry Spirit of „bacchanalia.‟ (La Borde, 2009, ¶ 1, 2, 3).

Figure1. Burrokeet

Source: Chapman and Martiniuk, 2014 Figure2. Tambu Bamboo

Source: Espinet, 2014 Figure3. Fancy Indian

Source: Traboulay, 2013 Figure4. Jab Jab, Grenada

Source: Kwekudee, 2013

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 8 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure5. Jab Molassie, Trinidad

Source: Triniscene, 2016 Figure6. Midnight Robber

Source: Talley, 2014 Figure7. Moko jumbie

Source: Chapman and Martiniuk, 2014 Figure8. Blue devil

Source: Nunes, 2013

9 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure9. Bookman

Source: National Carnival Commission, 2014 Figure10. Sailors

Source: Henry, 2013 Figure11. Minstrels

Source: Ferris, 2012 Figure12. Pierrot grenade

Source: Questel, 2015

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 10 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure13. Soca monarch performance, Grenada

Source: Spicemas, 2015 Figure14. Soca artist with dancers, Grenada

Source: Spicemas, 2015 Figure15. Panorama/steelpan, Trinidad

Source: TriniSoca.com, 2010 Figure16. Dimanche Gras: Queen costume competition

Source: Islechile, 2016

11 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure17. Dimanche gras: King costume

Source: Islechile, 2016 Figure18. Man at J‟ouvert

Source: Getter, 2013 Figure19. Woman at J‟ouvert

Source: Anderson, 2014 Figure20. Parade of the bands

Source: Triniscene, 2016

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 12 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure21. Mas band

Source: The Lost Tribe, 2016 Carnival, STIs and HIV culture‟…the cancer of complacency [that] has As demonstrated in La Borde‟s poem, there is a penetrated deep into the moral life of our dark side to Carnival. The customary elements society” (Stephens, 2009, ¶ 3). of merrymaking, fraternising and socialising, Many islands Carnival celebrations have which encourages one to „free up,‟ can integrated safe sex awareness and education culminate in high risk behaviours. Tourists programs around abstinence, faithfulness, come for a fun-filled vacation that allows for condom and contraceptive use. Resource lists engagement in sexual activity and substance for the purpose of counselling and treatment abuse, according to Benotsch et al. (2007). facilities are also provided. Similarly, as in other Adult locals escape from their everyday realities Carnival locations such as Brazil, amid by entering an uninhibited world of alcohol licentious behaviour, revellers are urged to consumption (Figure 22), suggestive dressing userestraintby government agencies, health and erotic dancing (Figure 23),promiscuity and authorities, NGOs, religious organisations and adulterous affairs. For the Carnival duration, other interest groups. In Trinidad and Grenada younger adults are likened to the young people massive campaigns have been carried out by the participating in the American spring break National AIDS Coordinating Committee vacation, who, according to Apostolopoulos, [NACC] of Trinidad and , and the Sönmez & Yu (2002, p. i) might fall prey to former National AIDS Directorate of Grenada. “the potentially lethal interaction between Their functions, to sensitise the public on the alcohol, drugs, and sexual risk-taking” in a risks of unprotected sex, particularly around contra normative setting. Carnival time have been absorbed by the Traditionally, Carnival has always been Ministry of Health, Grenada. inseparable from sexual misconduct that results Local and regional organisations have rallied from the dangerous combination of alcohol, around the safe sex cause by increasing free music and dancing. The Trinidad Guardian condom availability to pan yards, mas camps Newspaper (2009, ¶ 1) states, “The celebrated and nightclubs. According to the British sensuality and freedom of Carnival inspire more Broadcasting Corporation (2004), research sexual activity.” This annual sex explosion, in conducted by the University of California on Trinidad for example, creates the Carnival baby free condom distribution in Rio‟s Carnival in phenomenon. Brazil found that condoms had not been used. The Central Statistical Office reports that there The researcher‟s lack of understanding of this is an approximately 15% increase in live births, culture could have led to what he considered as quizzical behaviours among Carnival nine months post Carnival, that is, November enthusiasts. Despite the high HIV and AIDS and December. Thus, also packaged with the prevalence rate in the Caribbean, some churches Carnival season, is an exponential growth in still argue that around Carnival time, the abortion rates and STIs (Trinidad Guardian circulation of condoms and morning after pills Newspaper, 2009). may promote promiscuity (Mackay, 2006). In This has become socially accepted as a “fait summation, the Caribbean experience, similar to accompli, part of the so-called „Carnival the Rio experience, demonstrates a disturbing

13 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean mental resistance to condom use. Against this and glamour of the Carnival season has scenario, safe sex promotion must highlight subsided, more people will be infected with HIV condom use as the sensible option, the only and AIDS.” It is imperative, therefore, that option to protect oneself. According to Brown people exercise extreme caution as a means of (as cited in Allaham, 2009, ¶ 1), “After the glitz protecting their future health and well-being.

Figure22. Carnival alcohol consumption

Source : Trini Jungle Juice, 2016 Figure23. Wining

Source: Triniscene, 2016 Female Evolution: From the Field to the to the effects of colonialism on the psyche of the Road Caribbean woman (Coulthard, 1966). An evocation of the past relating to a cultural legacy Caribbean women have undergone and continue of oppression in the time of slavery and to experience a catharsis from a historical past indentureship, seems almost inevitable. As a that suppressed their sexuality, yet gave them starting point for this discussion on Caribbean the title of „sexual objects.‟Caribbean authors women‟s history, Walker‟s (1983) landmark often explore history, myth and memory. essay is useful in situating women within this Coulthard (1966) informs that historians have socio-historical context. She explains that often written about Caribbean women against a slavery produced a negative psychological effect background history rooted in colonialism, on the black woman as her creative talents had exploitation, poverty and economic frustration. been suppressed. Today, however, Walker In spite of the diverse ethnic and cultural contends that the onus is on the woman of the backgrounds of women within the region, African diaspora to debunk the myth that the multiple identities and cultural indeterminacy black female was “the mule of the world” have been important to the process of creating a because she has been handed the burdens that collective identity. This collective identity has “everyone else refused to carry” (Walker, 1983, had to withstand similar challenges with respect p. 237).

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 14 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Mair as cited in Cudjoe (1990, p. 51), traces a times, women used the body as a site for piece of literary work from the first female obtaining material gains. Henriques (as cited in Caribbean writer during the time of slavery. Her Kempadoo, 1999, p. 7) writes, “There name was Mary Prince, who wrote “The History was…everything to be gained by becoming the of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave.” This mistress of a white man… Prestige, preferential appearedto be quite significant since during that treatment…freedom for herself and her time there was a lack of consciousness of children.” Beckles (as cited in Kempadoo, women as thinking beings by the colonial order. 1999, p. 8) confirms, “Sexual alliances were one The collective and historical violation of black of the few devices that slave women could women is used as a means of defining the employ to achieve their freedom.” In the final female subject. In addition, given the multiple analysis, the woman‟s body held transformative identities present in this historical setting, the power to manipulate an oppressive situation into female subject still manages to find meaning from this standpoint. According to Lopez (1997, one that was economically and socially p.xi): “The Caribbean is, thus, a site of empowering (Kempadoo & Dunn, 2001). permeable boundaries and multiple identities, Despite the image created of the black offering continuous redefinition of self and of Caribbean female during slavery, she bore and one‟s relationship to society.” Holistically continues to bear testimony to the qualities of speaking, thepreoccupation with history is survival and self-sufficiency. The struggles of because the Caribbean region suffers from a Caribbean women resisting the flattening of state of amnesia regarding its past. Re-visioning their multidimensionality and agency by the of history is two-dimensional: thereis an attempt colonial structures have been unmistakable. to recover a lost identity and to address the According to Wilson (1992, p. 180), “The neglect of women‟s stories in the Caribbean woman is a figure of strength and resistance and experience. Brereton (1998) underscores the importance of reconstructing history by giving the island a positive space, not a restrictive testimony to women‟s lives. In so doing, enclosure.” In this context, these women historians fill what Glissant (as cited in Munro represented resilience and wereplaced at the and Britton, 2012, p. 13) describes as the epicentre of limitless possibilities which were „opaque void of past history‟ by recreating (her) either life giving or life threatening. story. Caribbean women fought the colonial As alluded to earlier, there has been influences, which sought to perpetuate the objectification of women‟s bodies [portrayed enslavement of their minds, and render them through an exotic and sexual lens. According to voiceless (Gikandi, 1989). The struggle for Kempadoo (2000, ¶ 7), “few women in the liberation continues up to today. colonies escaped [the] exoticising, sexualising gaze.” There was a two-fold consensus among Reddock (1986) argues that feminism, Europeans about black femaleness: the first nationalism and the early women‟s movement dealt with her being naturally born a slave,and have been interconnected in the struggle to the second as her being sexually promiscuous address the subordination and exploitation of (Kempadoo, 2000). Morrissey &et al. (as cited women. As well, the liberation of women will in Kempadoo, 2000) further described the translate into the liberation of all Caribbean perception of black Caribbean females as people (Reddock, 1986). It‟s probable that lacking in morals and decency. This individual expressions of consciousness act as characterisation was an attempt to maintain powerful tools that lead to a collective, social order and denigrate women during nationalist consciousness. slavery. Commodification of women was evidenced by Morrissey (1989, p. 147) when she The strong opposition of women against forces affirmed that the Caribbean was deemed “as a that have traditionally sought to stifle their land of sexual opportunity for European males” personhood has enabled them to regain their where all black women were considered “sexual voice and visibility by definingtheir own„subject property” and used to satisfy men‟ssexual hood‟ on their own terms. They take up the appetites. hooks‟(1981, p. 96) challenge: “We are clearing a part for ourselves and our sisters. We hope The black/brown woman‟s body possessed an that as they see us reach our goals- no longer ethereal beauty that cast a magnetic spell, victimised, no longer unrecognised, no longer thereby wielding power over men. In slavery afraid, they will take courage and follow.” 15 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Caribbean Women and Carnival the mainstream calypso and soca art form. Female forerunners in this arena included Since the onset of Carnival, Caribbean women Drupatee Ramgoonai [Trinidad] in the 1980s. It have played pivotal roles in the celebrations as is worth noting that Calypso Rose was the first organisers, entertainers, bandleaders, female to be victorious in the National Calypso competition judges, pannists, fete goers (Figures Crown, which, according to Ferguson (1999), 24, 25, and 26), masqueraders and spectators. enabled the ground-breaking change from There has been female participation in Carnival calypso king to monarch. since ancient times. According to John (1999), during 19th century slavery, there were female Women have certainly been making their mark like Boadicea and Piti Belle Lily in competitions as they sing on an array of who addressed women‟s issues through the art subjects: nationalism; pro-women advocacy; form. After the abolition of slavery, women empowerment of women; and relationships. were often sung about by male calypsonians Celebration of women in soca climaxed in (John, 1999). Trinidad in 2009 with Faye-Ann Lyons-Alvarez winning the soca, groovy and people‟s choice For example, in ‟s monarchs, and the road march title. song “Jean and Dinah,” women and prostitution in post-colonial times was the focus. Ahye (as Female bandleaders like Trinidadian Rosalind cited in John, 1999, ¶ 4) said of Jean and Dinah: Gabriel have been making great strides in “[It] was left for them to put body and soul costume production and masquerade portrayals together. They were abused from slavery, so it since 1989 (Rosalind Gabriel Carnival was part of their lives; they had no escape, but Productions Ltd., 2015). Women occupy the they had guts and they were the salt of the earth lion‟s share of masquerade spots in the majority people.” of Carnival bands (Figures 27, 28, and 29). In modern times, there have been female From Superblue‟s 1980 Road March title called calypsonian and soca stalwarts in the persons of “Soca Baptist” which sounded the alarm for “the [Trinidad] and Lady Cynthie power of women playing mas” more and more [Grenada] from the 1970s; and more women were seen parading the streets during recently, [] and Denyse Carnival (Mason, 1998, p. 134). From all Plummer [Trinidad] in the 1980s; and Destra indications, the adage that „woman is boss‟ has Garcia and Faye-Ann Lyons [Trinidad] in the proven true as women have been a force to be 1990s. The fusion of ethnicities, cultures and reckoned with in the production and portrayal of races gave rise to a new genre of mas and overall, participation in, and called chutney soca which incorporated East management of the Carnival celebrations. Indian elements of song, music and dance into Figure24. Men at fete

Source: Triniscene Gallery, 2016

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 16 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure25. Women at fete 1

Source: Triniscene, 2016 Figure26. Women at fete 2

Source: Trini Jungle Juice, 2016 Figure27. Female masquerader

Source: Triniscene, 2016 Figure28. Costumed woman dancing on stage

Source: Questel, 2015

17 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure29. Conservative female mas costumes

Source: Norton, 2002 ‘Wining’ and Singing to her own Music at some perceive as a degrading to women when Carnival. he commands them to “wine it high, wine it low, hands on the ground, in a wheelbarrow” (Blazer The act of wining is deeply entrenched in the Dan, 2007). psyche of the average Carnival lover. Wining and song are significant to this review because Wining on the part of the woman is twofold: she this body of work delivers commentaries on may use it as a means of self-liberation and self- sexuality and sex, central to the research. gratification, and/or as means of enticing the Wining holds multiple meanings for self and opposite sex. As much as the latter has been social and sexual relationships, some of which recognised to be true, the former has often been will be explored in this section. The obsessive misunderstood. Alison Hinds‟s popular song compulsion to wine can cause people to lose all “Raggamuffin” intelligently demonstrates the inhibitions and give way to sexual temptation. It power of a woman‟s wine, while giving is purported by Carnivalistas that „wine and historical significance to the female body as a jam‟ songs propel the life of a party and cast canvas for self-expression. hypnotic power on their participating subjects. The soca diva signals the woman to, “push it The song “Down de road” shows the potency of [buttocks] back, right back, right back.” the wine, “Ah jamming down de road…and ah According to Hinds as cited in Springer (2008, wining like ah crazy” (Montano, 2007). As p. 111-112), to “push it back” is a subversive act expressed earlier, wining movements can easily to give women visibility, “not just an individual provoke sexual feelings that individuals may or protest...[but] a defiance of a historical tradition may not choose to act upon. As it relates to that degrades black women‟s bodies.” Hinds women, wining is quite significant. It is striking hopes to correct this historical injustice by that women in slavery, according to Ahye (as refashioning a positive image of the women‟s cited in John, 1999¶ 9), “would be carding the body as a subject with ethereal beauty. Wining wool and winding, so this became a hypnotic as a means of seducing the opposite sex is thing which again has to do with the movement shown in the song “I Dare You.” The woman‟s of the body. When they came out of there this desire to entice a man by way of the wine, will was like part of their expression.” Ahye is also enable her to showcase her wining skills: contending that this historical experience of female bodily movements act as a means of Yu say ah have de wine dat yuh longin for raising sexual consciousness (John 1999). I kno dat yuh anxious, and yuh cyah wait no In modern times, however, this abovementioned more sexual consciousness is often misconstrued, and Man give me everyting dat yuh have in store women end up being objectified. Soca king Dis is de chance dat yuh have been waitin for Machel (Figure 30) in “Down de road,” makes Tonight I‟m in de mood, some daring statements: “Any girl ah want ah wining, any girl ah wine ah taking, any girl ah Ah want to wine and behave rude take ah working, any girl ah work ah jamming” So anyting yuh want to do, I dare you. (Garcia, (Montano, 2007). The „girls‟ in this song are 2008) seen as automatons for the male gaze; as objects Destra clearly underscores female self-confidence; for male gratification owing to their privileged celebration of talents; and symbolically, the positions. Blazer‟s song also exemplifies what

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 18 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean many possibilities available to her. Female soca The sexual tension is also apparent in her artists generally have a pro-feminist stance; they longing to keep her man. She continues: address issues of women‟s empowerment. Once You feel so good and I would never wanna let again, Allison Hinds‟s champions the cause of you go women in her highly acclaimed song “:” You feel so good baby rock back on me and give me more Independent and ya strong gal You feel so good I wonder which part you come Fit and healthy living long gal from Liberate yaself and live gal Blow my mind Go to school gal, and get ya degree Baby your Caribbean girl. (Batson, 2007) Gal ya work hard to mek ya money There is a clear motif in the/this song that Neva let dem abuse ya body renders the woman almost inseparable from her Show it off gal and let di world see man. Unmistakeably, there is admiration, love Roll it gal, roll it gal [wining]. (Hinds, 2005) and respect for the man. Patrice Roberts addresses infidelity issues in her rendition of Springer (2008 p. 120) reiterates that this “Sugar Boy:” Caribbean women‟s anthem is highly “uplifting [and] supports the independence, longevity, and Sugar boy, don‟t play with my head strength women possess.” The song also speaks Sugar boy, please understand to the importance of women developing sisterly Don‟t ever give my dinner to another woman bonds: Do me what you want, you sweet magician “Free yaself gal, you got class and you got pride, come together cuz we strong and unified” My body catching a fire while I'm wrapped in (Hinds, 2005). Undoubtedly, these types of your arms songs encourage Caribbean females to glorify I'm going crazy every time we caress their achievements, while working together to uplift one another. Just don't leave me honey, you are the best. (Roberts, 2007) Male-female relationships are revered in many songs by Caribbean women artists. At the same Clearly, she idolises the man‟s sexual time, men are discouraged from pursuingwomen magnetism, and demonstrates a great with little interest in them. In the case of the dependence on him for her happiness and well- latter, female calypso monarch Sandra issues a being. This emphasises the reality that stern warning to male employers who wish relationships have the potential to be totake advantage of female employees. She simultaneously life giving and debilitating sings, “You [male bosses] can keep your money, depending on its long-term outcome. I [female employee] will keep my honey and die with my dignity” (Singing Sandra, 2008). Caribbean Professional Women and Sandra cautions that a woman‟s self-respect Carnival. should be beyond reproach, no matter how Carnival has often been described as a melting difficult her economic situation may be. pot of all sorts. The distinctions in the ways In consensual male-female relationships, women of various racial, ethnic, class and Trinidadian Nadia Batson claims that the educational backgrounds engage in the Carnival Caribbean woman adores her man because he events is minimal. In this research study, succeeds in bringing out her „Caribbeaness.‟ In professional women like all women, are exposed “Caribbean Girl,” Batson sings: to the same Carnival experiences. You bring out the Trini in mih [me] Although professional women as a group at Carnival has been under researched, it is evident You bring out the Bajan in mi that theall-inclusive fetes (Rankin Production, You bring out St. Lucian in mih 2016) and mas bands, which carry hefty price You bring out the Jamaican in mih tags, tend to attract folks like professional women, with the wherewithal to fund them. Your Caribbean girl. (Batson, 2007)

19 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure30. soca performance with female dancers

Source: MacLeod, 2015 Caribbean women, Carnival, STIs and HIV. aficionados to „drink ah rum‟ throughout the season. Even in olden times, alcohol and As mentioned earlier, Caribbean Carnivals have festivity were inseparable. According to John had a shared history of increases in STI cases (1999, ¶ 11), “The [Greek God of wine and following the celebrations. In a fit of self- intoxication]freed the women to assert abandonment, factors such as alcohol themselves [by drinking wine to] experience abuse,sexy clothing and revealing mas costumes multiple joy and forget their woes and their (Figure 31, 32 and 33), lewd songs, and problems during that period of time and suggestive dancing can act as stimuli for poor celebrate their femaleness.”It is no coincidence moral judgment. This in turn can lead to unsafe therefore, that during the Carnival period, sexual engagement. Carnival has been blamed alcohol sales increase, with supplies even for providing ample opportunity for running shortat some fetes.High demandfor unfaithfulness. According to Moe (2009, ¶ 5), alcohol is also enhanced through effective “The normal mores of the society become marketing and promotion; tunes that glorify its distorted and many people use the festival as an consumption; and the growing popularity of excuse to „take ah horn‟ and engage in drinks-inclusive fetes and bands. Once again, infidelity. All common sense seems to these copious amounts of alcohol tend to cloud miraculously disappear from the human brain.” good judgment making it easier for unsafe Some soca artists sing songs that endorse this sexual dealings. behaviour, while objectifying and disrespecting Calypso and soca music continue to be at the women in the process. For example, two soca centre of the controversy regarding its role in hits for Grenada Carnival,2009 included Fatman increased risky sex at Carnival. There are two George‟s “Outside Woman” and Randy Isaac‟s sides to the lyrics of calypso and soca music. On “More gyal.” The first expresses that the one hand, there is positivityand upliftment „outside woman‟ is better than the wife, while exemplified in “Light it up:” the other sends out subliminal messages on the pleasuresderived from having many Lights of love women.Trinidadian Shal and Kerwin‟s 2008 Show me the lights of peace rendition of “Gyal Farm” also invites male listeners to heed a call to seek out several Leh we shine through any weather women at the same time. Whether consciously Tell dem to leh go de rope or unconsciously, people may give in to the atmosphere of licentiousness, and/or follow the We say, leh we jump and break away instructions given in these songs. Increased Now leh we light it up like it was Independence multiple partnering among the population Day. (Roberts & Montano, 2007) intensifies the STI and HIV risks, particularly to women, as explained in the previous chapter. These lines are not faintly doused with sexual Substance abuse, especially in the form of vice,when compared to many other songs. liquor, is rampant as the festival calls on all its Instead, they highlight the fun-filled nature of

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 20 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean the Carnival experience. On the other hand, the morning after pill. In Trinidad, there has been a popularity of several artists is hinged on the campaign around use of the female condom. sexual innuendos of their lyrics, which vividly Boodan (2009) informed the public that these explore the female anatomy, and the sexual act. female condoms are readily available from the Boodan (2009, ¶ 2) sums up what could One Overcomers Club [VOCC]. Boodan (2009, potentially be the result of partaking in such ¶ 6) reported that VOCC‟s head insinuated that, salacious songs: “Some people may even “asking an intoxicated man to use a male become aroused from the music and may be condom was like having a drunk person drive.” tempted to have sexual encounters.” Such Additionally, Maharaj, (2009) urgeswomen to encounters, oftentimes partaken of in a fit of pay attention to how they allow themselves to passion, have the potential to occur without be treated during the Carnival season. Bad appropriate safe sex protection. treatment, in the form of disrespectful comments by men,is often ignored, and this can have Women, in particular, are continuously urged to repercussions for women in their everyday lives protect themselves. As previously stated, the use (Maharaj, 2009). The general message promoted of condoms as has been minimal despite broad during Carnival is that the celebration can be an media publication and mass distribution of occasion for safe, clean, fun and all persons condoms by relevant agencies. The result has should lead sexually responsible lives. been high STIs among women, increased pregnancies, and overwhelming usage of the Figure31. Female „Rio-styled‟ pageantry, Trinidad

Source: Anderson, 2016 Figure32. Man in mas parade

Source: Triniscene, 2016

21 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

Figure33. Man playing mas

Source: Nath, 2015 CONCLUSION [2] All ah we: building bridges through culture. (n.d.). History of Carnival. Retrieved January It is common knowledge that regardless of a 20, 2013, from http://www.allahwe.org/ woman‟s socio-economic or educational History.html standing, there are commonalities among all [3] Anderson, C. (2014). Chris. Anderson. Caribbean women with regard to self-identity as Retrieved October 21, 2016, from https://au. a Caribbean female,exposure to mainstream pinterest.com/pin/47 0696598528436765/ culture,interactions with Caribbean men and [4] Apostolopoulos, Y., Sonmez, S., & Yu, C. H. finally, potential susceptibility to HIV. At the (2002). HIV-risk behaviours of American same time though, the disparities among these spring break vacationers: a case of situational same women are large. In the Carnival setting, disinhibition? International Journal of STD & generalisations cannot be made about male- AIDS, 13(11), 733-743. female relationships. The effect of Carnival [5] Benotsch, E. G., Nettles, C. D., Wong, F., culture on women of a particularCaribbean Redmann, J., Boschini, J., Pinkerton, S. D., nationality, educational background, and socio- Mikytuck, J. J. (2007). Sexual risk behaviour in economic class cannot conclusively be made. men attending celebrations in New Each Caribbean woman is unique, and her Orleans, Louisiana. Journal of Community Health, 32(5), 343-356. behaviours are guided by the sum of her experiences and the personal choices she makes [6] Bloom, F. (1998). Book Review. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great at any given time. Britain and Ireland, 4(1), 163-164. How professional Caribbean women have been, [7] Boodan, A. (2009, February 9). What‟s your and continue to be affected by STIs and HIV position? Guardian. during Carnival time has been a virgin territory Retrieved September 19, 2016, from http:// of research. What is known, is that like other www.guardian.co.tt/archives/features/life/2009/ women, theyhave been exposed to the Carnival 02/09/what-s-your-position culture at various points of their development. [8] Brereton, B. (1998). Gendered testimonies: Decisions to indulge in unsafe sex are dependent Autobiographies, diaries and letters by women on numerous factors this research has sought to as sources for Caribbean history. Feminist Review. 59 (59), 143-163. explore. Awareness and education might be perceived as an asset for these professional [9] British Broadcasting Corporation. (2004). Condoms at carnival. Retrieved October 15, women, but it does not necessarily guarantee 2016 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/ safe sexual practices and/or immunity from programmes/panorama/3844985.stm HIV. [10] Caribbean Choice. (2010). History of Carnival. REFERENCES Retrieved February 29, 2016, from http:// www.caribbeanchoice.com/carnival/history.asp [1] Allaham, A. (2009). Browne sounds carnival [11] Chapman, T., & Martiniuk, N. (2014). The run AIDS warning. Trinidad Express. Retrieved up to Carnival. Retrieved September 19, 2016, September 12, 2016, from http://www.trinidad from http://www.sailblogs.com/member/yach express.com/news/Browne_sounds_Carnival_A tlarus/?xjMsgID=306722 IDS_warning-115457329. html

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 22 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

[12] Coulthard, G. R. (1966). Caribbean literature: Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. An anthology. London: University of London [26] Kempadoo, K., & Dunn, . L.L. (2001). Factors Press. that shape the initiation of early sexual activity [13] Creque-Harris, L. (1994). Carnival expanding among adolescent boys and girls: A study of the classroom boundaries. JOPERD: The three communities in Jamaica. A report to Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & UNICEF and UNFPA. Retrieved September 19, Dance, 65(5), 31. 2016, from https://www.researchgate.net/ [14] Cudjoe, S. R. (1990). Caribbean women publication/265540813_ writers: Essays from the first international [27] Kwekudee. (2013, November 24). Trip down conference: University of Massachusetts Press. memory lane. Retrieved September 26, 2016, [15] Espinet, R. (2014, March 2). Carnival 2014. from http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane. Downtown...where Carnival belongs. Retrieved blogspot.com.au/2013/11/grenada-africans-in- September 19, 2016, from http://www.news caribbean-island-of.html day.co.tt/day/1,69314.html#foto [28] Lopez-Springfield, C. (1997). Daughters of [16] Ferguson, I. (1999). Trinidad‟s women set tone Caliban: Caribbean women in the twentieth of ‟99 Carnival. Billboard – The International century. London: Indiana UP. Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home [29] Mackay, M. (2006, February 25). Brazil church Entertainment 111(12), 8-87 warns against promiscuity as Carnival [17] Ferris, C. A. (2012). Traditional mas, red and approaches. Retrieved September 26, 2016, white minstrels: Café Moka Gallery. Retrieved from http://www.christiantoday.com/article/ September 19, 2016, from http://cafemoka brazil.church.warns.against.promiscuity.as. gallery.photoshelter.com/image/I0000XSfbJeB carnival.approaches/5472.htm 1DgI [30] MacLeod, E. (2015). The playlist: , [18] Getter, K. (2013). Keeping up the culture of dancehall and soca – Machel Montano, Face T, Trinidad at the West Indian American Day Protoje and more. The Guardian. Retrieved J‟ouvert Carnival: Getty Images. Retrieved September 26, 2016, from http://www.the September 19, 2016, from Keeping up the guardian.com/music/musicblog/2015/mar/06/ culture of Trinidad at the West Indian the-playlist-reggae-dancehall-soca-machel- American Day J‟ouvert Carnival: Getty Images. montano-face-t-protoje http://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news- [31] Maharaj, V. (2009, January 18). Loving, hating photo/ keeping-up-the-culture-of-trinidad-at- Carnival. Trinidad and Tobago Newsday. the-west-indian-news-photo/531683373?# Retrieved September 26, 2016, from http:// keeping-up-the-culture-of-trinidad-at-the-west- www.newsday.co.tt/commentary/0,93596.html indian-american-day-picture-id531683373 [32] Mason, P. (1998). Bacchanal: the carnival [19] Gikandi, S.(1989). Narration in the post- culture of Trinidad. London; Philadelphia: colonial moment: Merle Hodge‟s “Crick Crack, Latin America Bureau. Monkey.”ARIEL: A Review of International [33] Moe, C. (2009, February 12). Keep your head English Literature, 20(4), 18-30. on for Carnival. Trinidad and Tobago [20] Gilkes, C. (2003, February 23). Trinidad Guardian. Retrieved September 26, 2016, from Carnival: Afro-Caribbean resistance. Retrieved http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/features/life/ September 19, 2016, from http://www.trini 2009/0212/ keep-your-head-carnival center.com/Gilkes/2003/2302.htm [34] Morrisey, M. (1989). Slave women in the New [21] Henry, O. (2013). Traditional fancy sailors on World: gender stratification in the Caribbean: the Scarborough Esplanade: Discover Trinidad University Press of Kansas. and Tobago. [35] Munro, M., & Britton, C. (2012). American [22] Islechile. (2016). Almost a year to fifty: My créoles: The francophone Caribbean and the memories of Trinidad Carnival – Carnival American south. Liverpool: Liverpool baby/savannah Chile. Retrieved September 19, University Press. 2016, from https://islechile.com/category/ [36] Nath, D. (2015). Xerxes: Trinidad Carnival dimanche-gras-jouvert/ Diary. Retrieved on October 21, 2016, from [23] John, D. (1999, June 27). Ancient Influences in http://www. trinidadcarnivaldiary.com/# T & T Carnival. Sunday Express. Retrieved [37] National Carnival Commission. (2014). September 26, 2016, from http://www.trini Traditional Carnival characters: from past to view.com/TnT/270699.htm present. Retrieved October 21, 2016, from [24] Kempadoo, K. (2000). Gender, race and sex: http://www.ncctt.org/new/index.php/carnival/tr Exoticism in the Caribbean. Retrieved ad-carnival-characters.html September 26, 2016 from http://www.desafio [38] National Library and Information System .ufba.br/gt5-003.html Authority. (2009). “Mama dis is mas. Retrieved [25] Kempadoo, K. (1999). Sun, sex, and gold: September 19, 2016, from http://www.nalis. Tourism and sex work in the Caribbean. gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Carnival/tabid/10

23 Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean

5/Default.aspx 2016, from http://www.guardian.co.tt [39] Norton, N. P. (Photographer). (2002). Section [49] .tt/archives/commentary/letters/2009/02/21/carn from Peter Minshall‟s Picoplat: Noel P. Norton ival-has-become-annual-sex-explosion [digital image]. Retrieved September 26, 2016, [50] Talley, J. T. (2014, November 12). Just Limin‟ from URL (referencing pictures) in the Caribbean: Retrieved September 26, [40] Nunes, M. (photographer). (2013). Blue Devil 2016, from https://purduebcc1969.wordpress. [digital image]. Maria Nunes Photography. com/2014/11/12/just-limin-in-the-carribbean/ Retrieved September 26, 2016, from URL [51] The Lost Tribe. (2016, March 3). Trinidad [41] Nurse, K. (1999). Globalization and Trinidad Carnival 2016 reviews – Lost Tribe: Trinidad Carnival: diaspora, hybridity and identity in Carnival diary. Retrieved September 26, 2016, global culture. Cultural Studies, 13(4), 661- fromhttp://www.trinidadcarnivaldiary.com/121 690. 94.html [42] Questel, Q. (2015, February 17). Carnival [52] Torres-Saillant, S. (1997). The cross-cultural Beauty: Carnival 2015. Retrieved September unity of Caribbean literature: Toward a 26, 2016, from https://www.flickr.com/ photos/ centripetal vision. In A. J. Arnold (Ed.), a quintenquestel/16552321036 history of literature in the Caribbean (Vol. 3, [43] Rankin Production. (2016, January 21). pp. 57-77). Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Bishops Old Hilarians All Inclusive Fete 2016 Benjamins Publishing Company. Shot by Rankin Production [Video file]. [53] Traboulay, R. (2013). A Trio of fancy Indian Retrieved September 26, 2016, from https:// youths: Ray Traboulay Photography. Retrieved www.youtube.com/watch?v =eMTSZfC7eEQ from: [44] Reddock, R. (1988). Feminism and feminist http://www.traboulayphotography.com/farewell thought: an historical overview. In P. -to-the-flesh-trinidad-and-tobago- Mohammed and C. Shepherd (eds), Gender in carnival/4_5_18.h Caribbean Development. Women and [54] Trini Jungle Juice (2016). Photos. Retrieved Development Studies Project. St Augustine, October 21, 2016, from http://www.trinijungle Trinidad: University of the West Indies. juice.com/home/ [45] Rosalind Gabriel Carnival Productions Ltd. [55] Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. (2009). Safe sex (2015). About the band. Retrieved September or none at all. Retrieved November 28, 2015, 26, 2016, from http://www.rosalindgabriel. from http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/featur com/#about es/life/2009/02/09/safe-sex-or-none-all [46] Spicemas. (2015, August 8). SMC Soca [56] Triniscene.com. (2016). Galleries. Retrieved Monarch 2015 National Stadium [digital October 21, 2016, from http://triniscene.com/ image]. Retrieved September 26, 2016, from galleries https://www.flickr.com/photos/spicemas/25096 [57] TriniSoca.com. (2010). Photo gallery. 573432 Retrieved October 21, 2016, fromhttp://www. [47] Springer, T. J. (2008). “Roll it gal” Alison trinisoca.com /gallery2/main.php Hinds, female empowerment, and calypso. [58] Walker, A. (1983). In search of our mothers‟ Meridians: feminism, race, transnationalism, gardens: Womanist prose. London: Harcourt 8(1), 93-129. Brace Jovanovich Publishers. [48] Stephens, C. (2009, February 21). Carnival has [59] Wilson, E. B. (1992). History and memory of become an annual sex explosion. Trinidad and pluie et vent sur Télumée Miracle in Callaloo. Tobago Guardian. Retrieved September 26, Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.

Citation: Shivaughn Hem-Lee-Forsyth. “Their story: Carnival, Women, Sexuality and Sex in the Caribbean”, Open Journal of Women's Studies, 1(2), 2019, pp.6-24 Copyright: © 2019 Shivaughn Hem-Lee-Forsyth. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Open Journal of Women's Studies V1 ● I2 ● 2019 24