Advanced Placement English Language and Composition Information and Guide

Advanced Placement English Language and Composition

Instructor: E-mail: Room:

Course Overview An AP course in English Language and Composition engages students in becoming skilled readers of prose written in a variety of rhetorical contexts, and in becoming skilled writers who compose for a variety of purposes. Both their writing and their reading should make students aware of the interactions among a writer’s purposes, audience expectations, and subjects, as well as the way genre conventions and the resources of language contribute to effectiveness in writing.

Goals The goals of an AP English Language and Composition course are diverse because the college composition course is one of the most varied in the curriculum. Although the college course provides students with opportunities to write about a variety of subjects from a variety of disciplines and to demonstrate an awareness of audience and purpose, the overarching objective in most first- year writing courses is to enable students to write effectively and confidently in their college courses across the curriculum and in their professional and personal lives. Most composition courses emphasize the expository, analytical, and argumentative writing that forms the basis of academic and professional communication, as well as the personal and reflective writing that fosters the development of writing facility in any context. In addition, most composition courses teach students that the expository, analytical, and argumentative writing they must do in college is based on reading as well as on personal experience and observation. Composition courses, therefore, teach students to read primary and secondary sources carefully, to synthesize material from these texts in their own compositions, and to cite sources using conventions recommended by professional organizations such as the Modern Language Association (MLA), the University of Chicago Press (The Chicago Manual of Style), the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Council of Biology Editors (CBE). As in the college course, the purpose of the AP English Language and Composition course is to enable students to read complex texts with understanding and to write prose of sufficient richness and complexity to communicate effectively with mature readers. An AP English Language and Composition course should help students move beyond such programmatic responses as the five-paragraph essay that provides an introduction with a thesis and three reasons, body paragraphs on each reason, and a conclusion that restates the thesis . Although such formulaic approaches may provide minimal organization, they often encourage unnecessary repetition and fail to engage the reader. Students should be encouraged to place their emphasis on content, purpose, and audience and to allow this focus to guide the organization of their writing

Summer Read Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave

The following text is required of each student: Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter (will need by the second grading period)

Select ONE of the following (will need the second semester): Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Dillard, Annie. An American Childhood Gladwell, Malcolm. Outliers McCourt, Frank. Angela’s Ashes Nafisis, Azar. Reading Lolita in Tehran Skloot, Rebecca. Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks Wolff, Tobias. This Boy’s Life Wright, Richard. Black Boy

**Please review each text before making your final selections as some may contain content that is not acceptable to all families. **Each of these titles come from College Board recommended reading lists.

Required Materials Composition/Spiral Notebook Folder/Binder that is strictly for English Perforated lined writing pad—legal size (this is the extra long one)

Grading Grading Scale Test/major writing assignment 70% A…..90-100 D…..70-74 Quizzes 20% B…..80-89 F…..<69 Daily Grades 10%

Heading for all TYPED papers

Name

Teacher’s Name

AP English Language and Composition- class period day month year

Example: Taylor Mustang All of this information is double spaced and flush left. Mrs. Instructor

AP English Language and Composition-2

17 August 2015

Cheating/Plagiarism When writers use materials from other sources, they MUST ACKNOWLEDGE THESE SOURCES. Not doing so is called plagiarism, which means: using material without crediting the ideas or expression of another. This includes taking information from books, articles, or the internet without citing your source. It also includes presenting another student’s work as your own or using the ideas, passage or general outline of another person’s work whether professional (published) or amateur (unpublished). I am aware of the many, many material on the internet that have been uploaded by students and teachers that could be used by you to improve your score in this course; however, a high grade does not, and will not, indicate learning. Please act as an individual thinker and writer; I want to read your work, not someone else’s.

Websites It would be wise to bookmark these websites on your computer. www.dictionary.com www.collegeboard.com http://rhetoric.byu.edu/

STYLE ANALYSIS One of the most time-honored methods of elaborating one’s style is to employ figures of rhetoric in a piece of writing. A critical reader will learn to recognize when a writer is using one or more of the figures, just as a mature writer will learn to incorporate them effectively in a composition. H.L. Mencken, great American satirist and social critic, once noted that “style cannot go beyond the ideas which lie at the heart of it. If they [the ideas] are clear, it [style] too will be clear. If they are held passionately, it will be eloquent.” An analysis of prose style begins with understanding the roles of grammatical competence and diction, as well as the function of tone; it then moves into an examination of specific figures of speech. Rhetoricians divide the figures into two broad categories: schemes and tropes.

There are at least four areas that may be considered when analyzing style: diction, sentence structure, treatment of subject matter, and figurative language.

I. Diction (choice of words) – Describe diction by considering the following:

A. Words may be monosyllabic (one syllable in length) or polysyllabic (more than one syllable in length). The higher ratio of polysyllabic words, the more difficult the content. B. Words may be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal (literary) or old-fashioned. C. Words may be mainly denotative (containing an exact meaning), e.g. dress, or connotative (containing a suggested meaning), e.g. gown. D. Words may be concrete (specific) or abstract (general). E. Words may be euphonious (pleasant sounding), e.g. butterfly, or cacophonous (harsh sounding), e.g. pus. Some questions to consider when analyzing for diction:  Which of the important words in the passage (verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs) are general and abstract? Which are specific and concrete?  Are the important words formal, informal, colloquial, or slang?  Are some words nonliteral or figurative, creating figures of speech such as metaphors?

Words That Describe Language

Jargon Pedantic Poetic Vulgar Euphemistic Moralistic Scholarly Pretentious Slang Insipid Sensuous Idiomatic Precise Exact Concrete Esoteric Learned Cultured Connotative Symbolic Picturesque Plain Simple Homespun Literal Figurative Provincial Colloquial Bombastic Trite Artificial Abstract Obscure Detached Grotesque Precise Emotional Concrete Exact

II. Sentence Structure/ Syntax - the combination and arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Coordination, subordination, and placement are syntactical techniques for achieving sentence variety. However, sentence variety should not be used for its own sake but rather to express ideas clearly, clarify the relationships among ideas, and emphasize the most important ideas within each sentence. Describe the sentence structure by considering the following:

A. Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (shorter than 5 words in length), medium (approximately eighteen words in length), or long and involved (thirty words or more in length)? Does the sentence length fit the subject matter, what variety of lengths is present? Why is the sentence length effective? B. Examine sentence patterns. Some elements to consider are listed below: 1. A declarative sentence (assertive) makes a statement, e.g., The king is sick. An imperative sentence gives a command, e.g., Stand up. An interrogative sentence asks a question, e.g., Is the king sick? An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation, e.g., The king is dead! 2. A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb, e.g., The singer bowed to her adoring audience. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon, e.g., The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses, e.g., You said that you would tell the truth. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clause, e.g., The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores. 3. A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending, e.g. We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent fight and some exciting experiences. A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached, e.g., That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

4. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness or structure, meaning, and/or length, e.g., He makes me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. 5. Natural order of a sentence involves constructing sentences so the subject comes before the predicate, e.g., Oranges grow in California. Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion) involves constructing sentences so the predicate comes before the subject, e.g., In California grow oranges. This is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect. Split order of sentences divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle, e.g., In California oranges grow. 6. Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit, e.g., “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.” (from “In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound). 7. Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased, e.g., He was walking, running, and jumping for joy. 8. Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ides are used more than once for the purpose of enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis, e.g. “…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” 9. A rhetorical question is a question which expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement, e.g., If Mr. Ferhoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s argument? C. Examine sentence beginnings. Is there good variety or does a pattern emerge? D. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose? E. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a paragraph to see if there is any evidence of any patterns or structure. Some questions to consider when analyzing for syntax:  What is the order of the parts of the sentence? Is it the usual (subject-verb-object), or is it inverted?  Which part of speech is more prominent—noun or verb?  What are the sentences like? Are they periodic or cumulative?  How does the sentence connect its words, phrase, and clauses?

III. Treatment of Subject Matter – Describe the author’s treatment of subject matter by considering the following: Has the author been:

A. Subjective? Are his conclusions based upon opinions; are they rather personal in nature? B. Objective? Are his conclusions based upon facts; are they impersonal or scientific?

C. Supportive of his main idea? If so, how did he support his claims? Did he: a. state his opinions, b. report his experiences, c. report observations, d. refer to readings, e. refer to statements made by experts, f. use statistical data?

IV. Figurative Language

A. Simile is a comparison of two different things or ideas through the use of the words like or as. It is definitely a stated comparison, where the poet says one thing is like another, e.g., The warrior fought like a lion. B. Metaphor is a comparison without the use of like or as. The poet states that one thing is another. It is usually a comparison between something that is real or concrete and something that is abstract, e.g., Life is but a dream. C. Personification is a kind of metaphor which gives inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics, e.g. The wind cried in the dark. D. Hyperbole is a deliberate, extravagant and often outrageous exaggeration. It may be used either for serious or comic effect, e.g. The shot that was heard ‘round the world. E. Understatement (Meiosis) is the opposite of hyperbole. It is a kind of irony which deliberately represents something as much less than it really is, e.g., I could probably manage to survive on a salary of two million dollars a year. F. Paradox is a statement which contradicts itself. It may see almost absurd. Although it may seem to be at odds with ordinary experience, it usually turns out to have a coherent meaning, and reveals a truth which is normally hidden, e.g., The more you know, the more you don’t know. (Socrates) G. Oxymoron is a form of paradox which combines a pair of contrary terms into a single expression. This combination usually serves the purpose of shocking the reader into awareness, e.g., sweet sorrow, wooden nickel. H. Pun is a play on words which are identical or similar in sound but which have sharply diverse meanings. Puns may have serious as well as humorous uses, e.g., When Mercutio is bleeding to death in Romeo and Juliet, he says to friends, “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man.” I. Irony is the result of a statement saying one thing while meaning the opposite. Its purpose is usually to criticize, e.g., It is simple to stop smoking. I’ve done it many times. J. Sarcasm is a type of irony in which a person appears to be praising something while he is actually insulting the thing. Its purpose is to injure or hurt, e.g., As I fell down the stair head-first, I heard her say, “look at that coordination.” K. Antithesis involves a direct contrast of structurally parallel word groupings generally for the purpose of contrast, e.g., sink or swim. L. Apostrophe is a form of personification in which the absent or dead are spoken to as if present, and the inanimate as if animate. Those are all addressed directly, e.g., The answer, my friend, is blowing in the wind. M. Allusion is a reference to a mythological, literary, historical, or Biblical person, place or thing, e.g., He met his Waterloo. N. Synecdoche (Metonymy) is a form of metaphor. In synecdoche, a part of something is used to signify the whole, e.g., All hands on deck. Also the reverse, whereby the whole can represent a part is synecdoche, e.g., Canada played the United States in the Olympic hockey finals. Another form of synecdoche involves the container representing the thing being contained, e.g., The pot is boiling. One last form of

synecdoche involves the material from which an object is made standing for the object itself, e.g., The quarterback tossed the pigskin. O. In metonymy, the name of one thing is applied to another thing with which it is closely associated, e.g., I love Shakespeare.

Elements of Rhetoric Style: • Imagery • Syntax • Figures of Speech • Diction • Phrasing • Point of View • Coordination/subordination • Devices of Language (alliteration, • Selection of Detail assonance, etc.) • Parallelism • Tone • Repetition

Modes of Discourse (Purpose): • Definition • Cause/effect (causal analysis) • Comparison/contrast • Argumentation • Description • Narration • Summary • Persuasion (logic – emotion) • Classification/division • Process analysis

Tone The analysis of tone evaluates the speaker’s attitude toward (1) the subject and (2) the audience. Anyone can sense a speaker’s attitude in tone of voice; however, understanding tone in written prose is an entirely different matter. The reader does not have voice inflection to carry meaning. To misinterpret tone is to misinterpret meaning. Thus, an understanding of diction, images, details, and syntax all contribute to the understanding of tone in a written work.

Shifts in Tone  As you grow more aware of tone, you will discover that good writers rarely stick with one tone. Shifts in tone are often cued by the following: o key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although) o punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) o stanza and paragraph divisions o changes in line and stanza or in sentence length o sharp contrasts in diction Positive/Happy Tranquility candid Anger amiable apprehensive clinical accusatory amused calm didactic bitter benevolent contemplative doubting callous cheery meditative effusive choleric compassionate peaceful erudite condemnatory complimentary reflective explanatory contentious confident relaxed forthright disappointed contented serene informative disgusted conventional soothing insipid furious earnest spiritual instructive indignant ecstatic Sadness/Sorrow/Fear pedantic inflammatory elated apologetic persuasive insulting elevated concerned probing malicious enthusiastic despairing questioning outraged exuberant diffident rational querulous friendly disturbed thoughtful savage hopeful dramatic Satire (see comedy sullen jovial elegiac also) threatening jubilant fearful belittling wrathful lighthearted foreboding derisive Romance loving gloomy disdainful affectionate optimistic hopeless haughty amorous passionate incisive insolent erotic sprightly lugubrious insulting fanciful sympathetic melancholy Arrogance ideal whimsical mournful boastful lustful zealous poignant bold provocative Comedy regretful condescending seductive comical resigned contemptuous sensual cynical sentimental flippant tender ironic serious irreverent Neutral mocking sober obsequious apathetic ridiculing solemn pretentious impartial sarcastic tragic pompous sardonic Logic supercilious taunting argumentative turgid

AP Style Analysis Notes Domain Questions to Ask Imagery • What sensory information do I find in the • Sensory details language: color, scents, sounds, tastes, or • Symbols textures? • Allusions • What is the author trying to convey or • Words/phrases achieve by using this imagery? • Effect/intent • Are these images part of a larger pattern or • Connection to: structure within the text (e.g., does it connect o Mood/tone to one of the major themes)? o Theme • What figures of speech––metaphors, similes, o Plot analogies, personification––does the writer o Character use? How do they affect the meaning of the text? What is the author trying to accomplish by using them? Diction • Types • Which of the following categories best • Slang describes the diction in the passage or text? • Colloquial o Low or informal (e.g., dialect, slang, • Jargon or jargon) • Dialect o Elevated or formal language • Concrete o Abstract and concrete diction • Abstract o Denotation and connotation • Denotation • What effect is the author trying to achieve • Connotation through the use of a specific type of diction? • What does the author’s use of diction suggest about his or her attitude toward the subject, event, or character? • What are the connotations of a given word used in a particular context? (To begin, you might ask if the word(s) have a positive or negative connotation, then consider them in the specific context.) • What words would best describe the diction in a specific passage or the text in general?

Syntax • Sentence structure • Sentence patterns • Punctuation: How does the author punctuate • Declarative the sentence and to what extent does the • Imperative punctuation affect the meaning? • Interrogative • Structure: How are words and phrases • Exclamatory arranged within the sentence? What is the • Simple author trying to accomplish through this • Compound arrangement? • Complex • How would you characterize the author’s • Comp-Complex syntax in this text? • Loose/Cumulative • Changes: Are there places where the syntax • Periodic clearly changes? If so, where, how, and why? • Balanced • Sentence length: How many words are in the • Inversion different sentences? Do you notice any • Interruption pattern (e.g., acluster of short sentences of a • Juxtaposition particular type)? • Parallelism • Devices: How would you describe the • Repetition author’s use of the following: o Independent and dependent clauses o Coordinating, subordinating, or correlative conjunctions o Repetition o Parallelism o Fragments o Comparisons • Sentence beginnings: How does the author begin his or her sentences? (Does the author, for example, consistently begin with introductory phrases or clauses? • Language: What use does the author make of figurative language or colloquial expressions?

Attitude (Tone) • Word choice • How does the author’s use of words, • Details imagery, or details such as gesture or allusions • Imagery reveal the author’s attitude toward a character or event in the story? • What words best describe the author’s attitude toward this subject, character, or event?

Literary Elements • Setting • How does the author’s use of these different • Characterization elements contribute to the text’s meaning? • Plot • Do the different elements interact with or • Theme otherwise affect the meaning of the others? • Point of View • Do you notice any significant shifts in any of • Tone/Attitude the elements at any point? If so, what changes, how, and why? What is the importance and meaning of this change? • What words best describe the different use of these elements? For example, how would you describe the point of view and the effect it has on the meaning of the text?

Organization • Compare/Contrast • Which organizational pattern does the • Importance author use? • Chronology • Why does the author choose to use that • Cause-Effect particular organizational strategy? • Order of degree • Are there places where the author blends or • Classification alternates between different organizational • Spatial patterns? If so, what is the author trying to accomplish by mixing them in these ways? • To what extent and in what ways do you think the author’s organizational strategy is effective? Why? Types of Writing • Narrative • Exposition: Is the author defining, • Persuasive comparing, classifying, analyzing (a process), • Expository describing, or narrating? • Descriptive • Persuasion: Is the author arguing about what something means, whether something is true, which alternative is the best (or most important), or what course of action someone should take? • General: What is the author trying to accomplish? How is the writer using e.g., narrative to solve that problem?

Figures of Speech: Tropes and Schemes both have to do with using language in an unusual way. Trope: An artful deviation from the ordinary or principal signification of a word.

Reference to One Thing as Another o Metaphor - implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it. Ex: No man is an island—John Donne

o Simile - an explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'. Ex: My love is like a red, red rose—Robert Burns.

o Synecdoche – A part of something is used to refer to the whole. Ex: The rustler bragged he’d absconded with five hundred head of longhorns. (both “head” and “longhorns” are parts of cattle that represent them as wholes.)

o Metonymy – An entity is referred to by one of its attributes. Ex: We await word from the crown.

o Personification - attribution of personality to an impersonal thing. Ex: “England expects every man to do his duty.” Lord Nelson

Word Play and Puns o Antanaclasis- Repetition of a word in two different senses. Ex: In thy youth learn some craft that in thy age thou mayest get thy living without craft. (The meaning of “craft” first means “vocation”; in its repetition, it means “fraud” or “cunning”.)

o Paronomasia- Using words that sound alike but that differ in meaning (punning). Ex: A pun is its own reword.

o Syllepsis – when a single word that governs or modifies two or more others must be understood differently with respect to each of those words. A combination of grammatical parallelism and semantic incongruity, often with a witty or comical effect. Not to be confused with zeugma. In a rhetorical sense, syllepsis has more to do with applying the same singe word to the others it governs in distinct senses. Ex: “Fix the problem, not the blame.”—Dave Weinbaum (The verb “fix” governs both the “problem” and “blame”. In its first instance, “fix” means “solve,’ but this verb shifts its meaning when applied to its second object, where the understood “fix” means “assign”.)

o Onomatopoeia - use of words to imitate natural sounds; accommodation of sound to sense.

Substitutions o Anthimeria – One part of speech, usually a verb, substitutes for another, usually a noun. Ex: Did you see the way those blockers defenced on that last play?

o Periphrasis – A descriptive word or phrase is used to refer to a proper name. Ex: The New York Rangers and the New York Islanders vie to be the best hockey team in the Big Apple.

Overstatement/Understatement o Hyperbole – An exaggeration for effect. Ex: My room looked like a tornado had run through it.

o Litotes – An understatement, for intensification, by denying the contrary of the thing being affirmed. Ex: “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.”—J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye **Can be used as a means of expressing modesty in order to gain the audience’s favor (establishing ethos). Semantic Inversions o Rhetorical Question – A question asked for effect, not in expectation of a reply. No reply is expected because the question presupposes only one possible answer.

o Irony-Using language in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite of what the terms used denote (often by exaggeration).

o Oxymoron – Words that have apparently contradictory meanings are placed near each other. Ex: When you have to face your best friend in competition, whoever wins feels an aching pleasure.

o Paradox - an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it. Ex: “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” George Bernard Shaw

Scheme: An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words Structures of Balance o Parallelism – Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. o Isocolon - A series of similarly structured elements having the same length. A kind of parallelism. Ex: Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered) **This example also demonstrates tricolon and asyndeton.

o Antithesis – A related scheme involving balance in which parallelism is used to juxtapose words. Ex: “It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues.”—Abraham Lincoln

o Climax - arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next. Ex: “One equal temper of heroic hearts, Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.” Tennyson, Ulysses 14

Changes in word order o Anastrophe – inversion of natural word order. Ex: Glistens the dew upon the morning grass. (Normally: The dew glistens upon the morning grass. Ex: She looked at the sky dark and menacing. (Normally: She looked at the dark and menacing sky.)

o Parenthesis – insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow. Ex: But what might you think, When I had seen this hot love on the wing— As I perceiv'd it (I must tell you that) Before my daughter told me—what might you, Or my dear Majesty your queen here, think...? —Shakespeare, Hamlet 2.2.131-35 o Apposition – addition of an adjacent, coordinate, explanatory element. Ex: Albert Einstein, perhaps the greatest scientists, seemed not to have mastered the physics of hair combing.

Omission o Ellipsis – the deliberate omission of a word or words which are readily implied by the context. Ex: John forgives Mary and Mary, John. (The comma signals what has been elided, “forgive”.)

o Asyndeton – An omission of conjunctions between related clauses. Ex: I skated, I shot, I scored, I cheered – what a glorious moment of sport!

o Brachylogia – omission of conjunctions between a series of words. Ex: Love, hate, jealousy, frenzy, fury drew him from pity.—Angel Day

o Polysyndeton – opposite of asyndeton, a superabundance of conjunctions Ex: I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right," and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was all right only she was full of water.—Ernest Hemingway, "After the Storm."

Repetition o Alliteration - repetition of the same sound at the beginning of several words in sequence (also could be contained within several words) Ex: Why not waste a wild weekend at Westmore Water Park?

o Assonance - repetition of the same vowel sound in words close to each other. Ex: Like alliteration, assonance may occur either initially – “all the awful auguries” – or internally – Edmund Spenser’s “Her goodly eyes like sapphires shining bright, / her forehead ivory white…” and it can help make common phrases unforgettable: “eager beaver,” “holy smoke.”

o Antanaclasis – repetition of a word in two different senses. Ex: Your argument is sound...all sound. —Benjamin Franklin (The meaning of "sound" first appears to be "solid" or "reasonable"; in its repetition, it means something very different, "all air" or "empty”)

o Anaphora – Repetition of the same group of words at the beginning of successive clauses. Ex: Exercise builds stamina in young children; exercise builds stamina in teenagers and young adults; exercise builds stamina in older adults and senior citizens.

o Epistrophe – Repetition of the same group of words at the end of successive clauses. Ex: What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us." —Emerson

o Epanalepsis – repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause. Ex: “A lie begets a lie." —English proverb

o Anadiplosis – The repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. Ex: Mental preparation leads to training; training builds muscle tone and coordination; muscle tone and coordination, combined with focus thinking, produce athletic excellence.

o Antimetabole – A figure in which the same words or ideas are repeated in transposed order. Ex: You can take the gorilla out of the jungle, but you can't take the jungle out of the gorilla.

o Chiasmus – repetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases or clauses (not to be mistaken with Antimetabole) Ex: It is boring to eat; to sleep is fulfilling (The pattern is present participle-infinitive; infinitive-present participle)

Other non-classified Rhetorical Figures o Anacoluthon -lack of grammatical sequence; a change in the grammatical construction within the same sentence. Ex: “Agreements entered into when one state of facts exists -- are they to be maintained regardless of changing conditions?” J. Diefenbaker

o Anamnesis – calling to memory past matters. More specifically, citing a past author from memory. Ex: Was it not Socrates who said the unexamined life is not worth living. **Especially useful when used to promote the credibility of the speaker (ethos). 16

o Anangeon – Arguing on the basis of inevitability or necessity Ex: Yes, I killed him, but it was in self-defense. o Apostrophe - a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or personified abstraction absent or present. Ex: “For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him.” Shakespeare, Julius Caesar **Can be used to provoke an emotional response (pathos) o Consonance - a kind of slant rhyme occurs when the rhymed words or phrases have the same beginning and ending consonant sounds but a different vowel, as in chitter and chatter. Ex: “Now men will go content with what we spoiled Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled, They will be swift with the swiftness of the tigress. None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress. Courage was mine, and I had mystery, Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery: To miss the march of this retreating world Into vain citadels that are not walled.” Owen o Dehoratio – Dissuasive advice given with authority. Ex: “Never give all the heart.” William Butler Yeats o Diaphora – Repetition of a common name so as to perform two logical functions: to designate an individual and to signify the qualities connoted by that individual’s name or title. Ex: Boys will be boys. o Euphemism - substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant. Ex: Unfortunately my elderly aunt passed away (as opposed to died). o Hypophora – Raising questions and answering them. Ex: “What is honor? A word. What is in that word honor? What is that honor? Air – a trim reckoning! Who hath it? He that died a Wednesday. Did he feel it? No. Doth he hear it? No. ‘Tis insensible then? Yea, to the dead. But will it not live with the living? No. Why? Detraction will not suffer it. Therefore I’ll none of it. Honor is a mere scutcheon – and so ends my catechism.” Shakespeare, Henry IV, Part One o Zeugma – A general term describing when one part of speech (most often the main verb, but sometimes a noun) governs two or more other parts of a sentence (often in a series). The zeugma figures are of two types: those in which the governing word is the main verb (in which case these are subsequently categorized according to the position of that governing verb), and those in which the governing word is another part of speech (usually the subject noun).

Literary Terms and Elements

Abstraction—a concept or idea without specific example; idealized generalizations

Abstract noun—ideas or things that can mean many things to many people, such as peace, honor, etc.

Absolute – a word free from limitations or qualifications Ex: “best,” “all,” “unique,” “perfect”

Allegory – A piece of literature that can be read on two distinct levels: symbolically and literally. Ex: George Orwell’s Animal Farm

Allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place or work of art. Allusions can be historical (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to John Knowles’ A Separate Peace), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Zeus). There are, of course, many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Ambiguity – The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, or a word, phrase, sentence or passage.

Anecdote – a brief narrative that focuses on a particular incident or event

Analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Aphorism – A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.

Appeal to authority—one of several appeals strategies; in appealing to authority, the writer refers to expert opinion

Archetype – a detail, image, or character type that occurs frequently in literature and myth and is thought to appeal in a universal way to the unconscious and to evoke a response.

Assertion—the claim or point the author is making

Bias—a preference or an inclination, especially one that inhibits impartial judgment

Candor—open and honest communication; truthfulness

Circumlocution—to write around a subject; to write evasively; to say nothing

Cliché – an expression that has been overused to the extent that its freshness has worn off

Climax – the point of highest interest in a literary work 18

Colloquial/Colloquialism – The use of informal (or slang) language in speech and/or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local and regional dialects. Ex: Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God

Concession – Figure wherein a speaker/writer concedes a disputed point or leaves a disputed point to the audience to decide.

Connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.

Deductive Reasoning – reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case. Ex: The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.

Denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

Dialect – a variety of speech characterized by its own particular grammar or pronunciation, often associated with a particular geographical region.

Diatribe—an explosion of harsh language that typically condemns an idea

Diction – a speaker’s word choice intended to convey a certain effect; typically divided into two components: vocabulary and syntax

Digress, digression—to move off the point, to veer off onto tangents

Dissonance – harsh, inharmonious, or discordant sounds

Empirical, empiricism—knowledge based on experience or observation; the view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only source of knowledge

Epic – a long narrative poem written in elevated style which presents the adventures of characters of high position and episodes that are important to the history of a race or nation. Ex: Beowulf

Epigram – A pithy saying, often using contrast. The epigram is also a verse form, usually brief and pointed.

Epithet – Using an appropriate adjective (often habitually) to qualify a subject. Ex: “heartfelt thanks” or “blood-red sky”

Ethos – Persuasive appeal based on the projected character of the speaker or narrator. According to Aristotle, the chief components of a compelling ethos are good will, practical wisdom, and virtue. Distinctions are commonly made between situated ethos and invented ethos.

Euphemism – the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh, or blunt. Ex: “To pass away” is a euphemism for “to die.” 19

Extended Metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Fallacy, fallacious claim—an error of reasoning based on faulty use of evidence or incorrect inference

Flashback – the insertion of an earlier event into the normal chronological order of a narrative

Foreshadowing – the presentation of material in such a way that the reader is prepared for what is to come later in the work

Genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels or short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc). Poetry divides into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama divides into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. [On the AP exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.]

Homily – This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Hubris – excessive pride or arrogance that results in the downfall of the protagonist of a tragedy

Idiom – an expression in a given language that cannot be understood from the literal meaning of the words in the expression; or, a regional speech or dialect

Imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms relate to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader or deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks. An author, therefore, may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all images in a work. [On the AP exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of that imagery.]

Inductive Reasoning – deriving general principles from particular facts or instances Ex: Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals.

Inference – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. [On the AP exam, when a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong.]

Invective – An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Jargon – The special language of a profession or group. The term jargon usually has pejorative associations, with the implication that jargon is evasive, tedious, and unintelligible to outsiders. Ex: The writing and speech of a lawyer are susceptible to jargon.

Juxtaposition – A sentence in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, thus creating an effect of surprise and wit. Ex: The little children skipping on the lawn; a field of butterflies dancing in the wind.

Malapropism – the mistaken substitution of one word for another word that sounds similar Ex: The doctor wrote a subscription.

Maxim – a concise statement, often offering advice; an adage

Metaphor—a comparison of two unlike things in order to show one more clearly or in a new way

Mood – Two meanings: 1) grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker’s attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences; i.e. “Joe eats too quickly.” The subjunctive mood is used for a doubtful or conditional attitude; i.e. “If I were you, I’d get another job.” The imperative mood is used for commands; i.e. “Shut the door!” 2) Literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work; setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

Motif – a standard theme, element, or dramatic situation that recurs in various works

Naiveté—innocence in perception, lack of worldly knowledge

Parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As a comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original.

Pun – A word that suggest two of its meanings or the meaning of a homonym. Ex: The tipped-but-caught third strike, ending a bases-loaded rally, was a foul most foul.

Refutation – The part of a discourse wherein a speaker/writer anticipates opposing arguments and answers them.

Riddle – a question requiring though to answer or understand; a puzzle or conundrum Ex: The Sphinx from Oedipus Rex

Round Character – a character who demonstrates some complexity and who develops or changes in the course of a work

Sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic – that is, intending to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it’s simply cruel.

Satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose or writing. A satirist often uses irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Ex: Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” or anything by Dave Barry

Style – The way an author uses language to convey his ideas. An author’s style includes his diction, syntax, imagery, figurative language, selection of detail, and tone.

Syllogism – a three-part deductive argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise Ex: “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.”

Tautology – needless repetition which adds no meaning or understanding Ex: “widow woman” or “free gift”

Understatement – Figure of speech in which a speaker/writer deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is. Ex: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her appearance.” Jonathan Swift

Vernacular – the everyday speech of a particular country or region, often involving nonstandard usage

Viewpoint – The attitude of the narrating persona toward events, characters, or ideas. A shift of viewpoint may enhance meaning. Viewpoint may shift because of a character’s place in time (In A Separate Peace, the older Gene sees events differently from the sixteen-year-old Gene, and even comments on the misperceptions of his younger self.) or because of a change in understanding (In Cheever’s “Reunion,” the narrating son sees the real nature of his father emerge to contradict the son’s childhood image of him and to warn the son of his own future.).

Wit – Intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.

AP Language Question Stems

Questions about Rhetoric: Most of the questions on the test are of this type and test your ability to understand how language works in each passage. These questions ask you to analyze the syntax (sentence structure and word order), diction (word choice), point of view, and figurative language and its effects. Your mere recognition of these elements is not enough; you must be able to understand precisely how and why the devices of rhetoric produce particular effects.

1. The shift in point of view has the effect of … 2. The syntax of lines _____ to _____ serves to … 3. The author’s reference/allusion to “___” serves primarily to … 4. The second sentence is unified by metaphorical references to … 5. As lines _____ and _____ are constructed, "_____" is parallel to which of the following? 6. The antecedent for "_____" is … 7. The diction in the piece is best described as… 8. The syntax in the piece is best described as … 9. In paragraph __ the author employs which of the following rhetorical strategies … 10. One prominent stylistic characteristic of the piece is the use of… 11. The primary rhetorical function of lines--- “____” is to … 12. In the sentence “___” the speaker employs all of the following EXCEPT…

Questions about the Author's Meaning and Purpose: These question types also appear frequently on the test. They measure your ability to interpret the author's theme, meaning, or purpose. As with the rhetorical questions, these questions are closely tied to specific word choices; however, now you must determine why the author chooses the wording, not what effect it produces. These questions demonstrate the understanding of the author's thematic reason for choosing certain phrases.

13. Which of the following best identifies the meaning of "_____"? 14. Which of the following best describes the author's purpose in the last sentence? 15. The author’s primary purpose is to… 16. The primary audience of the piece could be described as… 17. The authors uses (this certain image) for the purpose of… 18. The author emphasizes "_____" in order to … 19. The reason for the shift in tone in paragraph __ is due to … 20. The sympathy (or other word) referred to in line _____ is called "adjective" because it … 21. What is the function of _____ ? 22. The phrase, “__” functions primarily as …

Questions about the Main Idea: These questions also appear quite frequently; they test your understanding of the author's ideas, attitude, and tone. To prepare for these questions, paraphrase everything that you read. First, make yourself practice this skill in writing- literally write down an author's point in a sentence or two. After such practice, you'll be able to do it internally while you read, and you'll have greater comprehension 23. The theme of the second paragraph is … 24. The speaker's attitude is best described as one of … 25. The tone of the piece (or parts of it) is one of… 26. In context, the sentence "_____" is best interpreted as which of the following? 23

27. The atmosphere is one of … 28. Which of the following would the author be LEAST likely to encourage? 29. Which of the following best summarizes the main topic of the passage … 30. In the piece, the author makes all of the following assumptions about his/her readers EXCEPT…

Questions about Organization and Structure: Appearing less frequently than the first three question types, these questions test your ability to perceive how the passage is organized. For example, you need to know if the passage follows a compare/contrast structure or if it gives a definition followed by examples. Other passages may be organized around descriptive statements that then lead to a generalization. These methods are just a few of the ones an author may use to organize ideas. You also need to understand how the structure of the passage works. For example, you must know how one paragraph relates to another paragraph or how a single sentence works within a paragraph. 31. The quotation "_____" signals a shift from … 32. The tone of the passage shifts from one of___ to one of ___. 33. The speaker's mention of "_____" is appropriate to the development of her argument by … 34. The type of argument employed by the author is most similar to which of the following? 35. The author uses a pattern of organization best described as … 36. The relationship between _____ and _____ is explained primarily by the use of which of the following? 37. Which of the following best describes the function of the ____ paragraph in relation to the paragraphs that precede it …

Questions about Rhetorical Modes: You should expect only a few questions of this type on the test. These questions ask you to identify and recognize the various rhetorical modes that authors use. You must know the difference between narration, description, argumentation, and exposition. Understanding why a particular mode is effective for the author's ideas is also helpful.

38. The pattern of exposition exemplified in the passage can best be described as … 39. The author's use of description is appropriate because … 40. Which of the following best describes the author's method? 41. Because the author uses expository format, he is able to … 42. The speaker's rhetorical strategy is to … 43. The author contrasts ___ and ___ in order to …

The Rhetorical Précis Format a) In a single coherent sentence give the following: -name of the author, title of the work, date in parenthesis; -a rhetorically accurate verb (such as "assert," "argue," "deny," "prove," disprove," "insist," etc.); -a that clause containing the major claim (thesis statement) of the work. b) In a single coherent sentence give an explanation of how the author develops and supports the major claim (thesis statement). c) In a single coherent sentence give a statement of the author's purpose, followed by an "in order" phrase. d) In a single coherent sentence give a description of the intended audience and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience.

Charles S. Peirce's article, "The Fixation of Belief (1877), asserts that humans have psychological and social mechanisms designed to protect and cement (or "fix") our beliefs. Peirce backs this claim up with descriptions of four methods of fixing belief, pointing out the effectiveness and potential weaknesses of each method. Peirce's purpose is to point out the ways that people commonly establish their belief systems in order to jolt the awareness of the reader into considering how their own belief system may the product of such methods and to consider what Peirce calls "the method of science" as a progressive alternative to the other three. Given the technical language used in the article, Peirce is writing to a well-educated audience with some knowledge of philosophy and history and a willingness to other ways of thinking.

The 11 sentence paragraph (a Review)

You need to know the following terms:  Thesis Statement – a statement having a subject and an opinion. The possibility of disagreement is always present. Possible synonyms include argument, claim, assertion or main idea. The thesis must be proved by reasons, not by emotions, in order to be proved valid. The thesis statement is the first statement (sometimes called a topic sentence) in a mini – essay, and usually the fourth statement in the introductory paragraph of the multi-paragraph essays. o Example: Atticus Finch in Harper Lee’s To Kill A Mockingbird models integrity for his children and community (literary – based).  Concrete Detail – facts and examples that support the thesis or topic sentence. They include direct quotations from and summaries or paraphrases of literary texts. These must be documented unless they are in the public domain or are common knowledge. They are another author’s thoughts and words, not the student essayist’s. o Example: Atticus chose to defend Tom Robinson against Mayella Ewell’s false charge, despite the fact that he was risking his reputation as well as his personal safety.  Commentary – the student essayist’s opinions and insights, not concrete detail. Other synonyms include development, elaboration and explication of the concrete detail. o Example: Atticus’ moral code was stronger than peer pressure or his fear for his personal safety. [It also suggests that] he was willing to risk the treasures of his good name and economic security in order to show the community the demands of conscience.  Closing Commentary – the "clincher" at the close of a paragraph or mini essay. It also rephrases the thesis statement and provides a sense of completion to the paragraph.  Chunk – a cluster of CD/CM/CM sentences in a paragraph

Part Two: Writing the Mini – Essay  A mini – essay is a simple body paragraph of 8 or 11 sentences composed and arranged in the following order: Sentence 1 – Thesis (Topic) Sentence Sentence 2 – Concrete detail (example to prove/support #1) Sentence 3 – Commentary (explains why/how the detail proves or clarifies the thesis Sentence 4 – Commentary (further explains or analyzes CD) Sentence 5 – Concrete detail (gives a second example to prove/support #1) Sentence 6 – Commentary (explains why/how #5 relates to #1) Sentence 7 – Commentary (further explains or analyzes CD) Sentence 8 – Concrete detail (example to prove/support #1) Sentence 9 – Commentary (explains why/how #8 relates to #1) Sentence 10 – Commentary (further explains or analyzes CD) Sentence 11-- Closing Commentary (summarizes paragraph, restates topic or thesis sentence, and does not introduce new information.)

Part Three: Converting to a Multi – Paragraph Essay  Keep in mind: The thesis statement for a multi-paragraph essay is generally more complicated than for a mini – essay or a body paragraph. It will have either a compound subject or predicate or be a compound or complex sentence. It will need support from the two body paragraphs.  A multi-paragraph essay is constructed according to the following pattern: o Paragraph 1: Introduction: should consist of at least 40 words and 4 sentences, and move in a "funnel" progression from general to specific ideas. The first sentence arouses the reader’s attention and interest, while the fourth and final sentence is usually the thesis. The paragraph is entirely commentary. o Paragraphs 2 and 3: Body or Support paragraphs, which should follow the 8 or 11 sentence, format and include transitions connecting the main ideas. The topic sentences should refer directly to the thesis. These paragraphs should have a minimum of 100 – 120 words. o Paragraph 4: Conclusion: should consist of at least 40 words and 3 or 4 sentences. The conclusion should rephrase the thesis and close the argument. The paragraph is entirely commentary.

(You will use the 8-11 sentence until your writing skill has been full assessed. A transition to this structure will be made at that time.)

Structure for Writings (In-class and Out)

Opening paragraph with Focus/Thesis statement: 3-5 sentences: Don’t waste your time or the reader’s time on an extended opening. Get the reader hooked; provide a clear transition; get to the point (focus/thesis). Avoid verbosity – no one likes a rambler.

Body paragraphs: 6-8 sentences: topic sentence addressing what the paragraph is going to speak to, transition sentence, evidence from the text, commentary, transition to next paragraph/concluding sentence.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE (this is NOT a thesis sentence) A topic sentence makes an assertion. It has to be an insightful and arguable point. It cannot be so obvious that no one would disagree with you. It cannot be a detail from the text. It is the purpose of your entire paragraph. Everything that follows must contribute to proving this point. You cannot shift topics. Your topic sentence must include the following, though you are welcome to rearrange the order of the elements:

Author’s name employs (or other suitable verb) tool of language when/while the context of the passage where the tool is being used to convey (or other suitable verb) _whatever it is you have been asked to analyze_.

EXAMPLE:

Orwell employs repetitive parallel syntax as the narrator of On Shooting an Elephant struggles with his personal identity, conveying both the conflict of the narrator and his changing consciousness within paragraph seven.

A few words on Five-Paragraph Themes (Essays) from the University of North Carolina While high school courses tend to focus on the who, what, when, and where of the things you study—”just the facts”—college courses ask you to think about the how and the why. You can do very well in high school by studying hard and memorizing a lot of facts. Although college instructors still expect you to know the facts, they really care about how you analyze and interpret those facts and why you think those facts matter. Once you know what college instructors are looking for, you can see some of the reasons why five-paragraph themes don’t work so well for college writing. Five-paragraph themes often do a poor job of setting up a framework, or context, that helps the reader understand what the author is trying to say. Students learn in high school that their introduction should begin with something general. College instructors call these “dawn of time” introductions. For example, a student asked to discuss the causes of the Hundred Years War might begin, “Since the dawn of time, humankind has been plagued by war.” In a college course, the student would fare better with a more concrete sentence directly related to what he or she is going to say in the rest of the paper—for example, a sentence such as “In the early 14th century, a civil war broke out in Flanders that would soon threaten Western Europe’s balance of power.” If you are accustomed to writing vague opening lines and need them to get started, go ahead and write them, but delete them before you turn in the final draft. Five-paragraph themes often lack an argument. Because college courses focus on analyzing and interpreting rather than on memorizing, college instructors expect writers not only to know the facts but also to make an argument about the facts. The best five-paragraph themes may do this. However, the typical five-paragraph theme has a “listing” thesis, for example, “I will show how the Romans lost their empire in Britain and Gaul by examining military technology, religion, and politics,” rather than an argumentative one, for example, “The Romans lost their empire in Britain and Gaul because their opponents’ military technology caught up with their own at the same time as religious upheaval and political conflict were weakening the sense of common purpose on the home front.” Five-paragraph themes are often repetitive. Writers who follow the five-paragraph model tend to repeat sentences or phrases from the introduction in topic sentences for paragraphs, rather than writing topic sentences that tie their three “points” together into a coherent argument. Repetitive writing doesn’t help to move an argument along, and it’s no fun to read. Five-paragraph themes often lack “flow;” that is, they don’t make smooth transitions from one thought to the next. The “listing” thesis statement encourages writers to treat each paragraph and its main idea as a separate entity, rather than to draw connections between paragraphs and ideas in order to develop an argument. Five-paragraph themes often have weak conclusions that merely summarize what’s gone before and don’t say anything new or interesting. We call these “that’s my story and I’m sticking to it” conclusions: they do nothing to engage readers and make them glad they read the essay. Most of us can remember an introduction and three body paragraphs without a repetitive summary at the end to help us out. Five-paragraph themes don’t have any counterpart in the real world. Read your favorite newspaper or magazine; look through the readings your professors assign you; listen to political speeches or sermons. Can you find anything that looks or sounds like a five-paragraph theme? One of the important skills that college can teach you, above and beyond the subject matter of any particular course, is how to communicate persuasively in any situation that comes your way. The five-paragraph theme is too rigid and simplified to fit most real-world situations. Perhaps most important of all: in a five-paragraph theme, form controls content, when it should be the other way around. Students begin with a plan for organization, and they force their ideas to fit it. Along the way, their perfectly good ideas get mangled or lost.

Introducing what “They” say • A number of ______have recently suggested that ______. • It has become common today to dismiss ______.

Introducing Standard Views • Americans today tend to believe that ______. • Common sense seems to dictate that ______. • Conventional wisdom has it that ______. • Many people assume that ______.

Introducing something implied or assumed • Although X does not say so directly, she apparently assumes that ______. • While they rarely admit as much, ______often take for granted that ______.

Introducing an Ongoing Debate • When it comes to the topic of ______, most of us will readily agree that ______. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of ______. While some are convinced that ______, others maintain that ______.

Capturing Authorial Action • X acknowledges that ______. • X demonstrates that ______. • X agrees that ______. • X celebrates the fact that ______. • X argues that ______. • X emphasizes that ______. • X believes that ______. • X insists that ______. • X denies/ does not deny that ______. • X observes that______. • X claims that ______. • X refutes the claim that ______. • X complains that ______. • X concedes that ______.

Templates for Disagreeing, with Reason I think X is mistaken because she overlooks ______. X's claim that ______rests upon the questionable assumption that ______. I disagree with X's view that ______because, as recent research has shown ______. X contradicts herself/can't have it both ways. On the one hand, she argues ______. But on the other hand, she also says ______. By focusing on ______, X overlooks the deeper problem of ______. X claims ______, but we don't need him to tell us that. Anyone familiar with ______has long known that ______.

Templates for Agreeing I agree that ______because my experience ______confirms it. X is surely right about ______because, as she may not be aware, recent studies have shown that ______. X's theory of ______is extremely useful because it sheds insight on the difficult problem of ______. I agree that ______, a point that needs emphasizing since so many people believe ______. Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be interested to know that it basically boils down to ______.

Templates for Agreeing and Disagreeing Stressing disagreement - NO, BUT ... Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his overall research that ______. Stressing Agreement - YES, BUT ... Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse his final conclusion that ______. Though I concede that ______, I still insist that ______. X is right that ______, but she seems on more dubious ground when she claims that ______. While X is probably wrong when she claims that ______, she is right that ______. Whereas X provides ample evidence that ______, Y and Z's research on ______and ______convinces me that ______instead Mixed Feelings - IM OF TWO MINDS ... I'm of two minds about X's claim that ______. On the one hand, I agree that ______. On the other hand, I'm not sure if ______. My feelings on the Issue are mixed. I do support X's position that ______, but I find Y's argument about ______and Z's research on ______to be equally persuasive.

A Brief Spelling Review: Forms to Remember Accept, Except  accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: o He accepted their praise graciously.  except = preposition meaning all but, other than: o Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

Affect, Effect  affect = verb meaning to influence: o Will lack of sleep affect your game?  effect = noun meaning result or consequence: o Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?  effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: o Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.

Advise, Advice  advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: o I advise you to be cautious.  advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: o I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience  conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving: o Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.  conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: o Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal  idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization: o Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!  ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: o Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.  ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best: o Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's  its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): o The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.  it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): o It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

** Their, There, They're  Their = possessive pronoun: o They got their books.  There = that place: o My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)  They're = contraction for they are: o They're making dinner.

**To, Too, Two  To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: o They went to the lake to swim.  Too = very, also: o I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.  Two = the number 2: o Two students scored below passing on the exam.  Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")

**We're, Where, Were  We're = contraction for we are: o We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)  Where = location: o Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)  Were = a past tense form of the verb be: 31

o They were walking side by side.

Your, You're  Your = possessive pronoun: o Your shoes are untied.  You're = contraction for you are: o You're walking around with your shoes untied.

Quick Guide to Commas

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

In MLA style, sources are acknowledged by short parenthetical citations in the text instead of numbered footnotes. The parenthetical citation includes just enough information to point the reader to the complete information about the source in the Works Cited list. The parenthetical usually includes the author's last name (if an anonymous work, the first one or two words from the title), and the page number cited. Leave the author's name out of the parenthetical if it is clearly stated in your sentence. When your Works Cited list includes more than one work by an author, the parenthetical should include part of the title, i.e., (Nielsen, Hypertext 141). If the entire work is being acknowledged, or there is no page or paragraph number (as in the case of many online works), incorporate the author's name into the sentence instead of using a parenthetical.

Type of Entry Works Cited List Citation in Text

Book - single author Nielsen, Jakob. Hypertext & (Nielsen 141) Hypermedia. Boston: Academic Press Professional, 1993. Print.

 Italics is now used everywhere in place of underlining—for titles, for words, etc.

Book - more than one author Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The (Gilbert and Gubar 9) Madwoman in the Attic. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979. Print.

Work in an anthology Hooker, Thomas. "A True Sight of Sin." The (Hooker 154) American Puritans: Their Prose and Poetry. Ed. Perry Miller. New York: Columbia UP, 1982. 153-64. Print.

Newspaper article (unsigned) "Give Georgia More HOPE." Atlanta Journal ("Give" G6) Constitution 18 Dec. 1994: G6. Print.

Newspaper article from online Fletcher, Michael A. "Study Finds Wide Racial Mention in your text: database Disparity in Death Penalty." Washington "Fletcher reports..." See When citing an online source, section 6.4.1 of the MLA include the publication date (5 Post 5 June 1998: A24. LexisNexis Handbook for more June 1998) and the date you Academic: News. GALILEO. 25 Sept. 2003. information. visited the site (25 Sept. 2003). Print.

Magazine article Cowley, Geoffrey. "I'd Toddle a Mile for a (Cowley 70) Camel." Newsweek 23 Dec. 1991: 70-71. Print.

Journal article (continuous Levin, Richard. "The Poetics and Politics of (Levin 498) pagination) Bardicide." PMLA 105 (1990): 491-505. Print.

MLA no longer makes a distinction between journals paginated by volume and journals paginated by issue. All entries must have both volume and issue numbers for all journals.

Journal article (issues paged Snodgrass, Susan. "The Rubbish Heap of (Snodgrass 156) separately) History." Art in America 88.5 (2000): 156-57. Print.

Article from an online Voss, Paul J. "Debris from Heaven in Paradise Mention in your text: database Lost." English Language Notes 35.3 (1998): "According to Voss..." When citing an online source, See section 6.4.1 of the include the publication date 37-41. Academic Search Premier. MLA Handbook for more (1998) and the date you visited EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 25 Sept. 2003. information. the site (25 Sept. 2003). Web.

Article from a Web site Blume, Harvey. "Geek Studies." Atlantic Mention in your text: When citing an online source, Online 13 July 2000. 25 Sept. 2003.Web. "Harvey Blume states..." include the publication date See section 6.4.1of the (13 July 2000) and the date you MLA Handbook for more visited the site (25 Sept. 2003).  MLA does not require a URL information.  MLA no longer requires the location of the database  MLA style requires a sponsor or publisher for most online sources. If a source has no sponsor or publisher, use the abbreviation “N.p.”  If there is no date of publication or update, use “n.d.” (for “no date”) after the sponsor.  For an article in an online journal or an article from a database, give page numbers if they are available; if they are not, use the abbreviation “n. pag.”

Reprinted article Parks, Edd Winfield. "Edna St. Vincent (Parks 311) Millay." The Sewanee Review 38.1 (1930): 42-49. Rpt. in Twentieth Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Sharon K. Hall. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 1981. 310-11. Print.

Article from well-known "Tutankhamen." The New Encyclopaedia ("Tutankhamen") encyclopedia (unsigned) Britannica: Micropaedia. 15th ed. 1994. Print.

Article from lesser-known Schafer, Elizabeth D. "Andrew's Raid." (Schafer 53) encyclopedia (signed) Encyclopedia of the American Civil War. If a reference source is arranged alphabetically, you Eds. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. don't need to include the Heidler. 5 vols. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, article's page numbers or 2000. Print. volume number in Works Cited.

Article from online Killam, G.D. "Chinua Achebe." Dictionary of Mention in your text: encyclopedia on GALILEO Literary Biography. Ed. Bernth Lindfors "Killam's analysis..." (paid for by UGA Libraries) See section 6.4.1 of the When citing an online source, and Reinhard Sander. Vol. 117. Detroit: MLA Handbook for more include the publication date Gale, 1992. 15-34. Literature Resource information. (1992) and the date you visited Center. Gale. U of Georgia Lib. 25 Sept. the site (25 Sept. 2003). 2003. Web.

Entire Web site Electronic Poetry Center. 2003. SUNY Buffalo. Mention in your text: When citing an online source, 25 Sept. 2003. Web. "The Electronic Poetry include the publication date Center archives..." (2003) and the date you visited See section 6.4.1 of the the site (25 Sept. 2003). MLA Handbook for more information.

Web page within a larger Web Martin, Thomas R. "An Overview of Classical (Martin 4.8.IV) site Greek History from Homer to Alexander." If the site has section or When citing an online source, paragraph numbers include the publication date Perseus Digital Library. Ed. Gregory R. (1999) and the date you visited Crane. 1999. Tufts U. 25 Sept. 2003. Web. the site (25 Sept. 2003).

Film or video Taxi Driver. Screenplay by Paul Schrader. Dir. Mention in your text: See section 5.8 of the MLA Martin Scorsese. Perf. Robert De Niro, "The violence in Taxi Handbook for citing radio, Driver..." TV, live performances, Cybill Shepherd, and Jodie Foster. See section 6.4.1 of the recordings, interviews, and Columbia Pictures, 1976. Film. MLA Handbook for more works of art. information.

Based on the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed., 2009, examples courtesy of University of Georgia Libraries

FOOTNOTES FORMAT

Footnotes should be used when: Citing specific facts, opinions, or exact quotations;

Making cross-references to other material;

Making incidental comments or;

Acknowledging someone else’s work.[1]

Footnote numbers should be sequential beginning with (1) and continue throughout the paper. Footnote numbers should be placed at the end of the sentence. The number should be placed slightly above the line at the end of the sentence and without a period or other embellishment. Footnotes should be arranged in numerical order at the foot of the page and separated from the text by a line 2 ½ inches long extending from the left margin. All items to which a reference is made should appear on the same page as the footnote (see examples below). The formats for footnotes and bibliographic references differ slightly, so attention is required. Abbreviations:  Opere citato (op. cit.) is Latin meaning a reference previously cited. It should be used when quoting from a reference used earlier in the paper. Proper format is to use the abbreviation—op. cit., then the author’s last name, then the page number.

o Op. cit., Bozeman, p. 34.

 Ibidem (ibid.) is Latin meaning the reference cited just before. It should be used when quoting a citation from the same reference as the one immediately preceding it on the page. Proper format is to used the abbreviation—ibid., then the page number.

o Ibid., p. 37.

Examples of Footnotes: Books (Single Author): Peter J. May, Recovering from Catastrophes (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985) p. 97. (Multiple Author): Dennis S. Militi, Thomas E. Drabek, and J. Eugene Haas, Human Systems in Extreme Environments: A Sociological perspective (Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Press, 1975) pp.89-90. (Article in a Book): Dwight W. Chapman, “A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Disaster Research,” in Man and Society in Disaster, edited by George W. Baker and Dwight W. Chapman (New York: Basic Books, Inc. 1962) p. 18.

Newspapers “Bay-Area Community Groups Accuse U.S. of Slighting Poor after Quake,” Washington Post, 16 November 1989, sec. A. p. 17. Periodicals Robert Agranoff and Valerie A. Lindsey, “Intergovernmental Management: Perspectives from Human Service Problem Solving at the Local Level,”Public Administration Review, Vol. 43, No. 3 (May/June 1983): 227. Magazines Tim Darnell, “A State of Emergency,” American City and County, Vol. 104, No. 12 (December, 1989): 25. Encyclopedia (No Author): Encyclopedia Americana, 1964 ed., s. v. “Red Cross.” Interviews Interview with Richard N, Smith, Deputy Manager, Eastern Operations Headquarters, American Red Cross, 9 March 1990. Unpublished Papers Louis J. Levy and Llewellyn M. Toulmin, “Improving Disaster Planning and Response Efforts: Lessons From Hurricanes Andrew and Iniki,” Paper prepared for Booz-Allen & Hamilton, August 1993. p. 16. Government Documents Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, "U.S. Scholarship Program for Developing Countries" (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1984), 7. Departmnent of Labor, Employment Standards Administration, Resource Book: Training for Federal Employee Compensation Specialists (Washington, D.C., 1984), 236. Electronic Documents Lawrence Squires. “A virtual Tour of the White Hhouse, circa 1900,” National Landmarks: Then and Now, 1999 (21 August 2000). Videos Weather Underground, 92 min., New Video Group, Inc., 2004, videocassette. Personal Comments It was the success of citizens "cordinating" groups in the aftermath of the 1900 Galveston Hurricane and flood that led to the populatity of the city council form of government.

Plagiarism is using someone else’s word without giving adequate credit.  Using someone else’s ideas without acknowledging the source.  Paraphrasing someone else’s argument as your own.  Presenting an entire paper or major part of it developed as another writer did.  Arranging your ideas exactly as someone else did-even though you acknowledge the source(s).

Give credit for any information that is not common knowledge or your own original thinking. This means that you do not have to give a source for information you are expected to know or something that you came up with on your own.

Guidelines for Using Quotations:  Be choosy-use the quotes to nail your point  Get the best- use quotations from recognized experts whose distinctive voice lends authority to your argument  Use direct quotes- include direct quotations if paraphrasing that would water them down and blunt their impact  Be careful- be sure to copy the quote exactly as it appears. Check and double-check your work  Don’t over quote- too many quotes make it appear that you didn’t do much original thinking  Avoid long quotes- they are boring, useless, and it looks like you are using it to take up space Paraphrase: To retain the ideas in the original passage but put them in your own words, often because you want them to be clearer to your readers. The following is an example of paraphrasing using internal citations: Original Source The story of Hester Prynne, heroine of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, takes place in 17th century Boston. Hawthorne no doubt wandered through the King’s Chapel Burial Ground when he worked in the nearby Custom House from 1839 to 1841. Tradition says that the fictional Hester Prynne is based on the original Elizabeth Pain (or Payne), who is buried in that graveyard. There is a big red A with two lions on the upper-left-hand corner of Pain’s gravestone. The crest looks amazingly like Hester’s gravestone, as described in the last line of The Scarlet Letter: “On her stone there appears the semblance of an engraved escutcheon with ‘on a field, sable, the letter A gules.’”

This source comes from page 191 in a book by James Powers. The final quote comes from the last page of The Scarlet letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, page 273. This is an example of taking the following passage, paraphrasing the information, and using the correct internal citations: Hawthorne set his romance The Scarlet Letter in Boston in the 1600s. The story describes characters who could be buried in the King’s Chapel Burial Ground. Hawthorne had probably walked through this graveyard when he worked in the nearby Custom House in the nineteenth century. People think that Hawthorne’s character Hester Prynne is based on the original Elizabeth Pain (or Payne). The two gravestones are a lot alike, since both have a big red A with two lions on the upper-left-hand corner (Powers 191). Pain’s gravestone looks like Hester’s, as described in the last sentence in The Scarlet Letter: “On her stone there appears the semblance of an engraved escutcheon with ‘on a field, sable, the letter A gules’” (Hawthorne 273).

Some things to keep in mind when creating internal citations:

1. Keep internal citations brief and accurate. 2. When possible, incorporate the author’s name into the quotation or paraphrase to avoid a long internal citation. 3. Place internal citations as close to the relevant material as possible without disrupting the sentence. 4. Place internal citations OUTSIDE a quotation and always BEFORE a punctuation mark, such as a period.

5. Always add your own words to a direct quote; never let a quote stand by itself.

• Your words “direct quote” (Author’s last name page). • “Direct quote” your words (Author’s last name page). • Your words “Direct quote” your words (Author’s last name page).

6. Every internal citation in your paper must have a corresponding citation on your Works Cited page.

7. Place internal citations in your essay as you write; DO NOT wait until the essay is finished—it will be MUCH HARDER to look up the information later!

When you are writing, you may reference other people writing or refer to books, magazines, or movies by underlining, or italicize, the titles or using quotation marks. The question, when do you underline and when do you use quotation marks? Below is a listing of types of titles you would underline or put in quotation marks.

Underline or Italics Title of a book, Name of a magazine, Name of a newspaper, Title of a play, Title of a film, Name of an encyclopedia, Title of a pamphlet, Title of a long poem, Title of a radio program, Title of a TV show, Title of a comic strip, Title of computer software, Title of a video game, Title of a work of art

“Quotation Marks” Newspaper articles, Magazine articles, Poems, Short stories, Songs, Episodes of radio programs, Episodes of TV shows, Chapters of books, Subdivisions of books

Verbs to Use in Analyzing Aim/Purpose/Intention: In writing about an author’s purpose or intent or in analyzing any aspect of an author’s work, avoid using such weak verbs as “said,” “show,” “state,” and “demonstrate.” Practice using a variety of precise verbs that give a clearer picture of your understanding of an author’s purpose, style, and message.

accuse correlate flatter present add corroborate flaunt proclaim address create forbid produce admonish defend foreshadow promote advise define formulate propose affect defy guide protest affirm demand harass question allude deny hint reaffirm amplify describe honor refer apologize detail identify reflect ascertain deter illustrate reinforce attack detract imply reiterate balance develop incite relate beg diminish indicate relay blame direct infer render boast disagree inquire represent build discourage insult resemble cause discover interpret reveal certify dismiss introduce reward characterize display invalidate scare clarify draw involve shock combine effect justify signify communicate emphasize juxtapose simplify compare enable laud specify complain encourage lead stem complement enforce legitimize strengthen complicate enhance link suggest comprehend entail magnify support conclude entertain mark taunt condemn envelop maximize teach confide epitomize minimize testify confuse establish mislead trace congratulate evaluate notify translate connect evoke pacify urge consider evolve paint validate continue excite persuade verify contradict excuse plead vouch contrast exemplify point warn contribute explain portend weaken convince express portray yield

Scoring Rubric for Free Response Questions in AP Language and Composition

9 (98)--This is a well-organized and well-written essay. With apt and specific references to the passage, it will analyze the prompt in depth and with appropriate support. While not without flaws, this paper demonstrates an understanding of the text and a consistent control over the elements of effective composition. This writer read with perception and expressed his/her ideas with clarity, skill and maturity. Essays earning a score of 9 meet all the criteria of 8 papers and in addition are especially thorough in their analysis or demonstrate a particularly impressive control of style.

8 (95) Essays earning a score of 8 effectively assess how the author accomplishes the writing style and/or techniques that the question addresses. Such essays present a carefully reasoned argument in support of their position and enlist appropriate evidence from the text that supports it. They refer to the passage explicitly or implicitly and explain the function of specific strategies. Their prose demonstrates an impressive control of the elements of effective writing, though it is not flawless.

7 (90)—Essays earning a score of 7 fit the description of 6 essays but feature either more purposeful arguments or a greater command of prose style. They are less incisive, developed, or aptly supported than papers in the highest ranges. They deal accurately with the prompt, but they are less effective or thorough than the 8-9 essays. These essays demonstrate the writer's ability to express ideas clearly but with less maturity and control than the better papers. Generally, essays scored a 7 present a more developed analysis and a more consistent command of the elements of effective exposition than essays scored a 6.

6 (85)—Essays scoring 6 accurately assess how the author uses rhetorical techniques to convey his or her tone, purpose and point of view. Their arguments, while generally sound in nature and adequately supported, are nevertheless not as persuasive as papers earning scores of 7 or better due to their being less developed or less cogent. Though these papers may feature lapses in diction or syntax they are generally clear and effective.

5(80)—Essays scoring 5 generally understand the task but are either limited in scope or insufficiently developed. Though they may be marked by errors in syntax or diction, they nevertheless reflect a certain level of competence. Customarily, these essays are superficial and unfocused. The writing is adequate to convey the writer's thoughts, but these essays are typically ordinary, not as well conceived, organized or developed as upper-level papers. Often, they reveal simplistic thinking and/or immature writing. They may also be characterized by uneven or limited development.

4(75)—Essays scoring 4 respond inadequately to the question’s task, often misunderstanding, misrepresenting, or oversimplifying the author’s attitude, or providing insufficient evidence as to the rhetorical techniques he or she uses to convey the perspective. Though the prose is often adequate enough to convey the writer’s claims, it generally suggests a limited control over organization, diction, or syntax.

3(70)—Essays earning a score of 3 meet the criteria for a score of 4, but are either less persuasive in illustrating how the author used rhetorical techniques, or display a more limited control over the elements of effective composition.

**These lower-half essays may reflect an incomplete understanding of the passage and fail to respond adequately to part or parts of the prompt. The discussion may be inaccurate or unclear, and misguided or undeveloped; these essays may paraphrase or summarize rather than analyze. The treatment is likely to be meager and unconvincing. Generally, the writing demonstrates weak control 41 of such elements as diction, organization, syntax, or grammar. These essays typically contain recurrent stylistic flaws and lack persuasive evidence from the text. Any essay that does not address the prompt can receive no higher than a 4.

2(65)—Essays scoring 2 achieve little success in illustrating how the author uses rhetorical techniques. They may on occasion misread the passage, fail to develop their argument to any substantive level, summarize rather than analyze the passage, or display significant weaknesses in organization, clarity, fluency, or mechanics.

1(60)—Essays earning a score of 1 meet the criteria for a score of 2 but are either overly simplistic or marred by severe deficiencies in the elements of composition.

**These essays compound the weaknesses of the papers in the 3-4 range. They seriously misread the passage or fail to respond to the question. Frequently, they are unacceptably brief. Often poorly written on several counts, these essays may contain many distracting errors in grammar and mechanics. Although some attempt may have been made to answer the question, the writer's views typically are presented with little clarity, organization, coherence, or supporting evidence.

0 Essays scoring 0 offer an off-topic response that receives no credit or a mere repetition of the prompt.

-- Indicates a blank or completely off-topic response.

Rhetorical Analysis Reflection

Complete all of your work on a separate sheet of paper. Respond fully to each part. You will also need your AP Essay Rubric for this assignment. There may be other parts to this assignment. Please pay close attention to all verbal directions.

1. Re-read your thesis. a. Are you satisfied with it? Why? b. Is it a listing one (naming rhetorical devices used by the author)? c. Does it identify the author’s purpose? What is his purpose? d. Re-write your thesis. Everybody’s needs some work. 2. Re-read your introduction. a. Does it make you cringe? Do you wish you could do it over? b. Re-write your introduction. Change a few words or the whole thing. Now is your chance for a do over. 3. Body paragraph 1/Point 1 (If you wrote one big paragraph you will need to first divide your essay into points in order to complete this part of the assignment, and then stop being a sophomoric writer and write in paragraph form. Sigh.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. Do you provide a thorough, in-depth analysis to support your thesis? Are you sure? How? Be specific. c. Re-write your first body paragraph/point 1 making ALL the necessary changes to ensure that you are supporting your thesis AND providing in-depth analysis. 4. Body paragraph 2/Point 2 (This is where some of you are going to have to figure out what to do because you only have one big paragraph or maybe even only one point. Have a Tim Gunn moment—and make it work.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. Do you provide a thorough, in-depth analysis to support your thesis? Are you sure? How? Be specific. c. Re-write your second body paragraph/point 2 making ALL the necessary changes to ensure that you are supporting your thesis AND providing in-depth analysis. 5. Continue with the body paragraph part if you have more paragraphs or move to the Conclusion. (You will need to adjust your numbering to your needs. Don’t worry about me; I should be able to figure it out based on what you are writing. I got this.) a. Did you provide a conclusion? A concluding statement? Why or Why not? b. Add a conclusion if you didn’t get to it. Or re-write the one you currently have. Again, just like the introduction it could use a little work. 6. Credibility a. How did you establish your credibility (ethos)? Provide 3 examples. Can’t find at least 3 examples? Move on to part B. Found them? Move on to part C. b. Didn’t adequately establish your credibility? Not great, but now is the time to fix it. Develop 3 sentences that you can use in your essay to get this done. Or maybe re- write some of your current sentences.

c. Upon reflection was this the best way to establish your credibility? How could you make it better? Do this now.

7. Purpose a. Was your purpose clear to the reader? How do you know? Give 3 examples. 8. You did something right in this essay. You probably did at least 3 things right in this essay. Provide examples of those 3 things. 9. There are also parts of this essay that need work. Identify 3 of them. Now write them to make them better. (You can use parts that you have already worked on, but try to find at least one thing you haven’t already addressed. 10. Score your original essay based on the AP Essay Rubric. Provide 3 specific pieces of evidence to support your score. Be truthful. Until you are able to assess the quality of your own work, your writing will never improve.

**If you rushed through this assignment please begin to accept the lower half grades you are willing to produce.

Argument Reflection

1. Re-read your thesis. a. Are you satisfied with it? Why? b. Does it clearly identify your claim? c. Re-write your thesis. Everybody’s needs some work. 2. Re-read your introduction. a. Does it make you cringe? Do you wish you could do it over? b. Re-write your introduction. Change a few words or the whole thing. Now is your chance for a do over. 3. Body paragraph 1/Point 1 (If you wrote one big paragraph you will need to first divide your essay into points in order to complete this part of the assignment, and then stop being a sophomoric writer and write in paragraph form. Sigh.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. Do you provide specific, valid evidence to support your claim? Are you sure? How? Be specific. c. Re-write your first body paragraph/point 1 making ALL the necessary changes to ensure that you are supporting your claim AND providing specific, valid evidence. 4. Body paragraph 2/Point 2 (This is where some of you are going to have to figure out what to do because you only have one big paragraph or maybe even only one point. Have a Tim Gunn moment—and make it work.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. Do you provide specific, valid evidence to support your claim? Are you sure? How? Be specific. c. Re-write your second body paragraph/point 2 making ALL the necessary changes to ensure that you are supporting your claim AND providing specific, valid evidence. 5. What about a qualifier? Did you use language that is absolute? Leaves your argument open for an “outsider” (think Dr. King) to come in and do some damage. a. Mark all the places where you used absolute language b. Re-write these sentences. 6. What about counter-arguments? Did you even think about any of those? a. What counter-argument did you address? Re-write to improve. b. Didn’t include a counter? Do it now. 7. Continue with the body paragraph part if you have more paragraphs or move to the conclusion. (You will need to adjust your numbering to your needs. Don’t worry about me; I should be able to figure it out based on what you are writing. I got this.) a. Did you provide a conclusion? A concluding statement? Why or Why not? b. Add a conclusion if you didn’t get to it. Or re-write the one you currently have. Again, just like the introduction it could use a little work.

8. Credibility a. How did you establish your credibility (ethos)? Provide 3 examples. Can’t find at least 3 examples? Move on to part B. Found them? Move on to part C. b. Didn’t adequately establish your credibility? Not great, but now is the time to fix it. Develop 3 sentences that you can use in your essay to get this done. Or maybe re- write some of your current sentences. c. Upon reflection was this the best way to establish your credibility? How could you make it better? Do this now. 9. Purpose a. Was your purpose clear to the reader? How do you know? Give 3 examples. 10. You did something right in this essay (hopefully). You probably did at least 3 things right in this essay. Provide examples of those 3 things. 11. There are also parts of this essay that need work. Identify 3 of them. Now write them to make them better. (You can use parts that you have already worked on, but try to find at least one thing you haven’t already addressed. 12. Score your original essay based on the AP Essay Rubric. Provide 3 specific pieces of evidence to support your score. Be truthful. Until you are able to assess the quality of your own work, your writing will never improve.

**If you rushed through this assignment please begin to accept the lower half grades you are willing to produce.

Synthesis Reflection Complete all of your work on a separate sheet of paper. Respond fully to each part. There may be other parts to this assignment. Please pay close attention to all verbal directions.

1. Re-read your position statement. a. Are you satisfied with it? Why? b. Does it respond to the writing task? c. Re-write your position statement. Everybody’s needs some work. 2. Re-read your introduction. a. Does it make you cringe? Do you wish you could do it over? b. Re-write your introduction. Change a few words or the whole thing. Now is your chance for a do over. 3. Body paragraph 1/Point 1 (If you wrote one big paragraph you will need to first divide your essay into points in order to complete this part of the assignment, and then stop being a sophomoric writer and write in paragraph form. Sigh.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. What source(s) did you use to support your position? Was it the best one? Are you sure? How? Be specific. 4. Body paragraph 2/Point 2 (If you wrote one big paragraph you will need to first divide your essay into points in order to complete this part of the assignment, and then stop being a sophomoric writer and write in paragraph form. Sigh.) a. Re-read this paragraph—critically. b. What source(s) did you use to support your position? Was it the best one? Are you sure? How? Be specific Continue with the body paragraph part if you have more paragraphs or move to the Conclusion. (You will need to adjust your numbering to your needs. Don’t worry about me; I should be able to figure it out based on what you are writing. I got this.)

5. Did you provide a conclusion? A concluding statement? Why or Why not? a. Add a conclusion if you didn’t get to it. Or re-write the one you currently have. Again, just like the introduction it could use a little work. Purpose

6. Was your purpose clear to the reader? How do you know? Give 3 examples.

**If you rushed through this assignment please begin to accept the lower half grades you are willing to produce.

Works Cited

Blue, Tina. “A Partial Defense of the Five-Paragraph Theme as a Model for Student Writing,”. March 25, 2004. Web. May 12, 2014.

Blue, Tina. “AP English Blather,”. Feb. 3, 2004. Web. May, 12, 2014

Burton, Gideon O. "Rhetorical Figures." Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric. Brigham Young University, 28 Feb. 2007. Web. 15 Aug. 2011.

Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors, eds. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.

“Gains in Houston Schools: How Real Are They?” The New York Times, Dec. 3, 2003, Print.

Hillocks, George Jr. The Testing Trap: How State Assessments Control Learning. New York and London: Teacher’s College Press, 2002. Print.

Katzman, John, Lutz, Andy, and Olson, Erik. “Would Shakespeare Get Into Swarthmore?” The Atlantic Monthly, March, 2004, 97-99. Print.

Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Print.

Lollin, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 4th edition. New York: Longman, 2003. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. Everything’s an Argument. 5th edition. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010. Print.

Shen, Andrea, “Study looks at role of writing in learning,”. Feb. 3, 2004. Web. May 12, 2014.