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Notion Press

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ISBN 978-1-68466-656-0

Cover Page Photography: Ar. Praschaya Kaushik

This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.

No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

The editors, reviewers and the publisher shall not be responsible or liable to any person or entity with respect to any error, plagiarism, improper citations, credits and any loss, incidental or consequential commercial damages accruing thereof. CONTENTS

Preface �� vii Acknowledgements �� xi List of Contributors ��xiii

1. Contemporary Geospatial Technology and Current Requirements for Mapping Wetlands �� 1 S.K. Patnaik

2. Mitigating extreme weather events through wetland conservation �� 15 Vinay S P Sinha, Nehru Machineni, Prasoon Singh and Himani Singh

3. Development of Framework for the Assessment of Riverine Floodplain Wetland Inventory in Majuli Island, Assam, India �� 27 B.P. Bhaskar and Utpal Baruah

4. Status of Wetlands in Kamrup District of Assam: A Geo-spatial Analysis �� 57 Prasanna Boruah, Ramen Sarma, Rashmi Hazarika and Pradip Sharma

5. A Study on the Sources of Pollution in the Deepar Beel �� 69 Dhwajendra Nath Das and Neeta Baishya iv | Contents

6. Socio-Ecological Importance of Wetland A Case Study on Rudrasagar Lake (Ramsar), Melaghar, Tripura �� 83 John Zothansanga Rokhum and Abhinandan Saikia

7. Degradation of Wetland (beel) Environment: A Case Study of Selected Wetlands (beels) of Sipajhar Revenue Circle, Darrang, Assam �� 97 Dhanjit Deka and Binod Kumar Nath

8. Change of Wetlands: A Threat to the Living Conditions of People in Guwahati city, Assam, India �� 111 Praschaya Kaushik

9. Ecological Status of Wetlands in Barpeta District, Assam �� 125 Anjan Deka and Mala Dutta

10. Dynamics of Decadal Landuse/landcover Change and Analysis of Certain Water Quality Parameters of Chandubi Lake, Assam, India �� 137 Tanvi Hussain, Pankaj Gogoi, Kaustubh Rakshit, Jaideep Baruah and Arup Kumar Misra

11. Challenges to Traditional Livelihood Practices of Village Dwellers Around Dora Beel in Kamrup District, Assam �� 153 Meghna Das and Barnali Gogoi

12. Study of Change in Water Level and Development of Interactive Gis Dashboard for the Ramsar Site ‘Deepor Beel’ using Space Technology and Python Script �� 163 Amlan Saikia, Mustak Ali, Runjun Baruah, Utpal Sarma and Samiran Kalita

13. Environmental Status of Maguri Wetland (beel) Using Aquatic Insect Community as Bioindicator �� 171 Arundhati Gogoi and Pradip Kr. Sarma Contents | v

14. Macrophytic Composition of Deepor Beel: The only Ramsar Site of Assam, India �� 185 Samiran Kalita, Manisha Sharmah, Parthib Kashyap Sarma and Jaideep Baruah

15. An Analysis on the Livelihood Issues Related to the Wetlands: A Case Study of Samaguri and Gotanga Beels of Nagaon District, Assam �� 193 Ananya Saikia and Pradip Sharma

16. The Deepar Beel catchment and landscape: A spatial assessment using Remote Sensing and GIS for facilitating management of sustainable ecosystem services �� 211 Partha Jyoti Das and Arup Kumar Das

17. Understanding the livelihood sources, benefits sharing and future aspects of the communities around Batha beel; Darrang District, Assam �� 229 Firdoushi Al Islam

18. Impacts of Urbanization on the Wetlands of Bashistha and Bahini-Bharalu River Basins in Guwahati, Assam �� 241 Tarali Devi and Pradip Sharma

19. Gageli Beel and its Native Ichthyo-faunal Diversity: A Study with its various threats, challenges and measures �� 255 Rajib Ratan Kashyap

20. Environmental Status of Selected Wetlands in Lower Part of Digaru and Kalong River Basin, Assam �� 267 Dharma Ram Deka

21. Ecosystem Services, Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Culture: Case of the Chandhubi Lake, Assam �� 277 Barsha Baishya vi | Contents

22. Formation and Subsequent Changes of Wetland Along the Course of South Dhansiri River �� 287 Nitashree Mili and Parmita Saikia

23. Alien Plant Invasions: An Emerging Threat to the Wetlands of Assam �� 299 Durlav Nr Singha and Gunajit Kalita

24. A Study of Fish Mortality by temperature in water of the Wetland Ecosystem �� 317 Neeta Baishya and Dhwajendra Nath Das

25. Livelihood of Char Dwellers in the midst of the Brahmaputra: A Case Study of Chaprapara Char in Nalbari District �� 327 Abul Fazal Murtaza Ahmed and Parijat Borgohain

26. Assessment of Water Quality of the Batua Kamakhya Wetland of Nalbari District �� 341 Rashmita Goswami

27. Land Use/land-cover Analysis for Conservation of Deeporbeel Area, Assam: a Geospatial Approach �� 351 Parimita Saikia

28. Lands of India: a Review of Ramsar Sites �� 363 Vipin Solanki and Aparna Joshi

Excerpts from the Keynote Speech �� 377 A Note on Stakeholders Meeting �� 381 CONTEMPORARY GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY AND CURRENT REQUIREMENTS FOR MAPPING WETLANDS

S.K. Patnaik Corresponding Author E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Wetlands are an integral part of the landscape ecosystem. Wetland/wetland vegetation Mapping and its importance has been witnessed and academics have been engaged since 1956. Ramsar Convention 1971 provided a platform for countries to work individually and collectively towards mapping and managing wetlands throughout the globe. India also prepared State-wise and National Wetland Atlas by 2013 at 1:50000 scale with wetland units less than 2.25ha area as points. This is a handicap for administration to identify, assess and implement management and conservation practices. These became target for encroachment, conversion to crop fields and settlements. A case study was done in 2014 for Jay Sagar Wetland area in Nagaon district and was found that it is used commercially by wet rice cultivation and fisheries. LandSat 8 for two time line and two seasons for the adjacent areas of Brahmaputra River covering districts of Nagaon, Morigaon, Darrang, Sonitpur have been processed for LULC with same training sets. LULC of year 2005 from Bhuvan have been utilized to compare estimates. NDWI have been derived to associate with the presence of wetlands in the area. Topographic Position Index (TPI) and Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) have been derived and related to the existing wetlands. The results are fuzzy and become unreliable, when a high accuracy data set is envisioned. Conservation and reclamation of wetlands are of prime importance now, as encroachment is a slow and continuous process besides altering the local hydrological and surface runoff routings. A policy for administrative interventions can be framed after visualization and estimation through 2 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood accurately defined extent at cadastral level for wetlands. Digital Land Records maintained by Administration can also be utilized in conjunction with satellite image based reconnaissance survey, GIS based modeling for surface hydrology and runoff routing and cadastral or mobile mapping; to map the wetlands accurately.

Keywords: Ramsar Convention, wetland mapping, local hydrology, runoff routing, Topographic Position Index, border mapping

INTRODUCTION Land has been the most valuable resource that has supported civilizations. Water is the indispensible resource that has facilitated civilizations to thrive. Drainage Basin has been the defining unit for provisioning of land and water resources at different levels; local to regional; that helped civilizations to colonize at few areas within its boundary. Different climate regimes have played their role in allowing or restricting human use of land and water. Brahmaputra River Basin covering an area of 712,035 km2 has an average discharge of 19,800 m3/s commands a huge hydro-geomorphological control. An area of 194,413 km2 is drained by Brahmaputra and its tributaries in India. Due to its vastness and its importance Brahmaputra River with average water Resource potential of 537240 million m3 and utilizable surface water resource of 24000 million m3; its parameters are extensively monitored by Central Water Commission through 108 hydrological stations, 27 flood forecasting stations. Terrain and topographical conditions from the point of it’s descend from Himalayas are considered as flat terrain with occasional remnant hills. Local topography in Brahmaputra Plains in Assam is undulating due to: impact of crustal movement and neotectonics and differential fluvial erosion, channel shift, formation of oxbow lakes. The plain is in a state of perpetual flux due to rapid geomorphological changes [1]. As a result, many surface water bodies, wetland, dotting across the width and breadth of Assam plains have become characteristic to landscape, landscape ecology and cultural ecological setup of Assam. “These undrained depressions like abandoned channels, oxbow lakes forming wetland or marshy lands are generally known as locally as ‘Bils/Beels’, possess tremendous ecological significance as unique habitats for an exquisite variety of flora and fauna. These beels function as flood water retention basins and traditional fisheries” [2]. S.K. Patnaik | 3

Wetlands are an integral part of the landscape ecosystem. Wetland/wetland vegetation Mapping and its importance has been found from work on Flood Plain Vegetation of the Millstone River, New Jersey. The field work was done in the summer of 1956. The entire area was visited on foot and notes were taken as to the role of the various species, stages of succession, and other features of interest such as disturbance by man [3]. One of the seminal works is “Status and Trends of Emergent Wetlands in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1950-2010”, where in declining wetland area as well as concerns for disruption in plethora of services provided by wetland have been highlighted[4].

CHARACTERIZATION AND MAPPING Wetland environment are characterized by its soil, water, biogeochemistry and vegetation and succession. Its mapping encompasses inclusion and decision making using various domains of knowledge. Current Remote Sensing (RS) technology coupled with Geographic Information System (GIS) has become an indispensible tool in identification, delineation and monitoring wetlands throughout the globe. High spatial and spectral resolution satellite images, hyperspectral images, high-resolution altitude data are being used to perform analysis and detect wetlands. [5]. Regional ecosystem mapping in Queeensland depend upon satellite imagery. Queensland Wetland Program has been working with Remotely Sensed data especially LANDSAT images extensively for mapping wetlands (EPA 2005). Satellite images have been a source for study of various aspects of wetlands e.g. wetland loss using LANDSAT, IRS-P6 [6]; temporal and spatial patterns of wetland extent influence variability [7]; Delineation and quantification of wetland depressions [8]; mapping wetlands from satellite images [9].Most commonly and widely used sensors for wetland mapping are LANDSAT with a resolution of 30m and IRS LISS III with spatial resolution at 23.5m in Indian context. Mapping technique includes Image classification with suitable classifier with sample training sets [9], [10], [11]. Besides this classification technique, several band ratioing techniques like i) Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI) = (Green-NIR)/(Green + NIR); ii) Modified Normalised Difference Water Index (MNDWI) = (Green-MIR)/ (Green + MIR); iii) Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) = (NIR - Red)/(NIR + Red); iv) Normalised Difference Pond Index (NDPI) = (MIR – Green/MIR + Green); v) Normalised Difference Turbidity Index (NDTI) = 4 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood

(Red – Green)/(Red + Green) are used to augment detection of wetlands using satellite images. [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17]. Wetland is a unique landscape. Terrain components and characteristics are unique to enable land to retain water permanently or seasonally. Seven terrain components have been used in the past; three of these are the most important in determining characteristics: i) macro form, ii) relief and iii) landform [18]. Wetland studies include terrain analysis to validate presence of appropriate topographic characteristics. These parameters are: Slope, profile curvature, Topographic Wetness Index (TWI), Flow Accumulation, Topographic Position Index (TPI), volume-area-depth relations; area-capacity curve [19], [20], [21] [22], [23].

CURRENT LEVEL OF WORK Ramsar Convention 1971 provided a platform for the parties to “BEING CONVINCED that wetlands constitute a resource of great economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational value, the loss of which would be irreparable. The participating parties have worked individually and collectively towards mapping and managing wetlands throughout the globe”. Many Government Departments across globe have been working as well refining methodology for wetland mapping. Federal Geographic Data Committee, USA, prepared “Wetlands Mapping Standards” in 2009, “Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States” in 2013. Currently, Natural Resources Conservation Service in USA, [24]. Department of Environment and Energy in Australia; European Environment Agency for its member and collaborating countries; State Forestry and Grassland Administration in China, Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change in India etc. are engaged in wetland mapping, conservation and management activities. Directory of Indian wetlands:1993 is first of its kind in India that enumerated wetlands based on personal contact and correspondence, reference from Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN, WWF, IWRB. As per the directory Assam stand to have 1392 beels. Wetlands of India:1998 mapped both at 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 with constraints of minimum mapping size of 56.25 and 2.25 hectare using LISS I/II satellite images. India being a party of the Ramsar Convention prepared State-wise Wetland Atlas with district level compilation by 2010. It also prepared “National Wetland S.K. Patnaik | 5

Atlas: Wetlands of International Importance under Ramsar Convention” by 2013 using Remote Sensing data, image analysis and GIS techniques. All these have been done at 1:50000 scale with wetland units less than 2.25ha area as points. This is a handicap for administration to identify, assess and extend management and conservation practices. These became target for encroachment, conversion to crop fields and settlements. NRSC monitors the status of all water bodies, having area more than 2 ha in size, in the India using multi-resolution satellite images since January, 2012. The estimated water spread area as on the date of image is published as Water Body Information System (WBIS). NRSC-ISRO has used Satellite image based analysis for i) wetland extent (area, perimeter); ii) Open water spread (pre and post monsoon season); iii) Aquatic vegetation (pre and post monsoon); iv) Qualitative turbidity of open water (pre and post monsoon); v) Wetlands in the catchment (type, number, seasonal status) all at 1:50,000 scale.

A CASE STUDY As mentioned above wetlands have been mapped at 1:50,000 scale has its limitations, that makes the line Departments like Revenue, Planning, Environment helpless as a line of 0.5 mm showing boundary has a width of 25m on ground. It is impossible for a relevant property level management. A case study was done for Jay Sagar Wetland area in Nagaon district (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 237 hectares and depth of water varying up to three meter i.e. from 67m to 70 m amsl. In 2014 only nine entrepreneurs or SHGs were engaged in fisheries with one pond each. Production ranged from 500 kg to 1200 kg per pond per annum and income of about INR 25000 to INR 50000 [25]. The wetland also has wet rice cultivated area, used for sustenance. As of now the area has shrunk with expansion of paddy fields. For status of the Jay Sagar (Fig. 2) during dry period Landsat 8 satellite image of January 2018 and for wet period Landsat 8 satellite image of August 2017 have been taken. For Base conditions Landsat 5 images of September 1996 and January 1999 have been taken. Both are compatible in terms of resolution. EO1 satellite image with 10m resolution for intermediate year of 2002 has been taken for a comparison. Besides, Jay Sagar other areas adjacent to Brahmaputra River covering districts of Nagaon, Morigaon, Darrang, Sonitpur have been taken to relate it to the Wetland maps as produced and made available by SAC 6 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood

ISRO in 2013 (Fig. 3). For all four image data sets have been processed for LULC targeted with moisture regime with same training sets. LULC of year 2005 from Bhuvan have been utilized to compare estimates. NDWI have been derived to associate with the presence of wetlands in the area. Topographic Position Index (TPI) and Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) (Fig. 4) have been derived and related to the existing wetlands. All these high quality geospatial analytical tools have been utilized to map extent in an automated manner. But the results are fuzzy and become unreliable, when a high accuracy data set is envisioned.

Fig. 1: Location of Jay Sagar Lake, Nagaon, Assam and fish ponds as on 2014 S.K. Patnaik | 7

November 1973 MSS January 1990 LandSat

December 2002 EO1 August 2016 LandSat

January 2018 LandSat NWDI January 2018 Fig. 2: Jay Sagar Lake, Nagaon: Satellite Images and its derivatives (NDWI) 8 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood

Fig. 3: Jay Sagar Lake. Wetland Atlas: Assam. GoI SAC ISRO 2013

Fig. 4: DEM and TWI S.K. Patnaik | 9

The constraints are glaring as the Government is struggling to accurately delineate and establish property level digital database corresponding to the ground extent of wetlands. Currently small area mapping has been carried out using Total Station for urban areas and it is becoming cost effective due to high registration fee, holding tax etc. Wetlands are not productive assets of the Government, thereby has suffered in terms of asset mapping and conservation programmes. Inaccessibility within the wetland is another constraint to measure and demarcate wetlands with the help of traditional chain and tape survey. With current level of accuracy of sub meter with DGPS/RTK based survey, mobile mapping can be expected from Government to workout extensive and intensive mapping for wetland demarcation.

LAND RECORD SYSTEM Different State Governments in India have Land record portals to cater to the need for registration, change of Title of land with patta, plot, khatiyan system instead of universal coding. Government of Odisha under its Bhulekh/ Bhunaksha portal has map services for individual plots as well as cluster of plots with a rationalized administrative structure. These are not with proper scale as well as without and spatial reference or coordinates (Fig. 5a). This makes the whole exercise unconnected to the ground realities. Area of plots on Title record is the area as mentioned by the surveyor, which may or may not match actual area on ground. Government of Gujarat has taken a step further to visualize the recorded plots on Google Earth (Fig. 5b). This needs actual ground verification and corrections of mismatch between actual land holding and area mentioned in Title Document. Government of Assam; as it is understood, have been digitizing the land records by making a mosaic of the existing the paper copy records, which have little ground correspondence in terms of location and area. The Dharitree portal of Land record system will host it through currently under process “Bhu-Naksha web services. (Fig. 5c). 10 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood

Fig. 5a: BhuNaksha Odisha

Fig. 5b: Gujarat Land Record (Sample)

Fig. 5c: Ongoing Land record and digitization (Dharitree & Bhu-naksha) S.K. Patnaik | 11

CONTEMPORARY REQUIREMENTS AND POSSIBLE SYSTEM IN PLACE There is a great demand for these wetlands for conversion to crop fields in tandem with population growth, as the paddy is a low land cropping system throughout the world [26]. Thus it is attracting neighbouring households to expand and establish new crop fields starting at the periphery of the wetlands. Secondly, encroachment is rampant for construction of buildings in and around these wetlands closer to urban areas. Some have started calling wetlands as Wait-land i.e. Land in waiting for construction of building. Thirdly, in the absence of any effective authority or regulatory mechanism; wetlands have become designated waste dumping area for both solid and liquid waste generated in surrounding area. Jay Sagar Lake area has been encroached for new ponds, cropping and temporary hutments/semi permanent structures (Plate 1-2).

Plate 1: Jay Sagar Lake Plate 2: Jay Sagar with Fish pond and semi-permanent structure

Conservation and reclamation of wetlands are of prime importance now as encroachment is a slow and continuous process besides altering the local hydrological and surface runoff routings. A policy can be framed after visualization and estimation at a mid level scale of estimation e.g. 1:50000. This must be followed by accurately defining extent of wetlands for administrative interventions, which requires a cadastral survey at 1:1000 for wetlands smaller in size as well as closer to urban areas and 1;5000 to 1;10000 for other wetlands. Boundary must be demarcated using concrete pillars along surveyed boundary. Moreover, the wetlands must be incorporated in the land record system to address any legal dispute. Digital Land Records maintained by Administration can also be utilized in conjunction with satellite image based reconnaissance 12 | Harnessing Wetlands for Sustainable Livelihood survey, GIS based modeling for surface hydrology and runoff routing and cadastral or mobile mapping; to map the wetlands accurately. Once these are in place, a periodic online satellite based surveillance framework can be established to monitor encroachment using Cartosat 2 to 2e AoI based images having sub- meter (0.65m) spatial resolution. Wetlands seasonal water level and turbidity scenario can be monitored using hyper spectral images from recently launched HysIS sensor that uses push broom technique featuring 55 spectral bands in VNIR (0.4-0.95 µm) with bandwidths of 10 nm and a spatial sampling of 30 m.

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