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The Ashgate Research Companion to Imperial Germany

Matthew Jefferies

Prussian Governance

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 Hartwin Spenkuch Published online on: 28 May 2015

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 which centre on discourses, representations and other hitherto unexplored questions must questions unexplored hitherto other and representations discourses, on centre which about Prussiangovernanceand currentlyfashionableculturalapproaches completely, interpretations andapproachesdonotdevalue well-known evidenceorestablishedopinions which precisely delineate differences can be must upheld, which continuities remained and which however, changes took place. New particular, in historians Comparative contours clear blurred. with grey, light in portrayed neatly is Prussia far. too gone have revisions is no longer demonized or celebrated as a model state. For the present author, some of these …butits a consequenceofnewcomparative studies,Prussiaappearstohave becomenormalized;it fulfilment notPrussia’s was undoing’, he argues. In the wake of this book, following a change of political climate and as ‘Germany explanation: latter the prefers clearly and changePrussia? Christopher Clark,authoroftheprize-winningstudyIronKingdom, Germany’s shape political system and political culture Prussia in its own image or, Did conversely, did Germany infiltrate Empire? the in role political Prussia’s was What assessed? with greatregionaldiversity. was the rear side of this face. And Prussia covered 65 per cent of Germany’s surface, albeit Prussia then Janus-faced, was Germany If persisted. Empire the of essence authoritarian than the survival ofpre-modernelites,butrecentlyit has alsobeenpointed out thatthe the 1980shasbeentostressprocessesofmobilizationoreven democratizationrather 263–92. Sonderwegs”’, “deutschen des Kern als Preussens Strukturen und System ‘VergleichsweisePolitisches article besonders? review my follow essay this in Arguments politischen Kultur’, in Lothar Gall (ed.), der Demokratisierung die und Bismarckzeit “lange” die Jahrhundertwende, ‘Die Kühne, Thomas and the long shadow cast by authoritarianism – are true’. are – authoritarianism by cast shadow long the and modernity of triumph the – stories ‘Both phrase: single a in Prussia and Empire the two moststriking,albeitcontradictory,tendenciesofrecenthistoriographyaboutboth to takea the up summed He peculiarities’. important most Germany’s Imperial of one constituted therefore, enough, Reason Prussia survival of ‘the that written has Retallack James historian the questions. Indeed, look. closer political key on influence continuing to thisquestionisbefoundinitsimprintontheformationofEmpire,and Why was Prussiasoimportantforthedevelopment oftheGermanEmpire?Theanswer in Roger Chickering (ed.), including the prerogativesuntouched, of the Kaiser’. Research is treated by Brett Fairbairn, ‘Political Mobilization’, remained system constitutional Prusso-German the of pillars central ‘The agreed: 418, p. pp. 271–2. David Blackbourn, How didthepoliticalsysteminPrussiaworkandhowisitslegislative recordtobe 2 1

James Retallack, ‘Looking Forward’, in idem (ed.), idem in Forward’, ‘Looking Retallack, James In memoriam Emil Spenkuch(1917–2013). Prussian Governance Imperial Germany: A Historiographical Companion The Long Nineteenth Century. Nineteenth Long The History ofGermany1780–1918 A (Oxford, 1997), Hartwin Spenkuch Otto von Bismarck und Wilhelm II. (Paderborn, 2000), pp. 85–118. (Oxford, 2010), (Oxford, Imperial Germany1871–1918 2 , 29 (2003), pp. (2003), 29 Geschichte undGesellschaft, The main thrust of research since (Westport, 1996), pp. 303–42; 1 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 conclude theessay. research future possible for proposals Some historiography. recent much of focus the been a fourth section will deal with those aspects of the politicalsystem and culture which have its legislativeachievements record,the interventionist andfailuresofanearly while state, in the Empire, before looking at the profile of its leading personnel. A third part will look at specific areas. It will begin with Prussia’s constitution and formal role as the hegemonic state four on concentrate will chapter available,this space limited the of view In topics. research historiographical trendsorcontroversiesdelineate recent aswell asindicatepossiblefuture make-up of its personnel and the legislative record over time. A research companion should German Empire The PrussianConstitutionandHegemonyinthe Th European countries, but his thesis is flawed for three reasons. three for flawed is thesis his but countries, European Martin Kirsch has argued that the Prusso-German case was normal when compared to most historian The intact. monarchy Prussia’s of dominance the left franchise, three-class the by 1866, in at arrived Bismarck’s compromise violent success in forging national unity, foul and the right-wing agreatleap majorities produced the taken However, government. have parliamentary would towards Prussia succeeded, 1862–66 of conflict constitutional the the in majority liberal the Had conservativearistocrats. were whom of cent restrictions resultedfromasecond chamber ofappointedmembers,theHerrenhaus Further 111). and 63 (articles exempted werewar or emergency of states of declaration the and decrees executive but laws, state all and Thediet budget annual the approve onalllegislation. to veto had (Landtag) anabsolute and command, military supreme the affairs, church Protestant policy, foreign 44), (article appointments and acts executive all included prerogatives His monarch. the to power great accorded also it responsibility, ministerial as liberties andtheruleoflaw,promisingfurtherconstitutionalprogressvialawsonsuchthings personal guaranteed it Although tone. the set 1918, until parts important politically its in unchanged and reaction, of era the royalin a imposition 1850, of Constitution Prussian The n te as ecuin f h Sca Dmcai pr o te ouain r neglected. are population the of part Democratic Prussia remainedaconstitutionalstate,butitdidnotproceed toaparliamentarysystem. Social the of exclusion harsh the and political actual constitutions, of text the practice isnotscrutinized;thebigsocietalquestforparticipation, thepoliticalmassmarket at mainly many looking in by 1914; majorities by parliamentary gained which countries dominance the consider not does Kirsch 1880, not endingeneraluncertainties. should literature of abundance The Prussia. in context political specific the of sight lose not are detailedinSpenkuch,‘Vergleichsweise besonders?’,pp.271–3. Grünthal, Günther are critical More 54–128. pp. 1988), (Stuttgart, 3 vol. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit1789, of pastresearch. Empire, 1871–1918 (Oxford, 2008), pp. 3–4, also warns against rash revisionism resulting from the neglect 2 (Munich, 1990), pp. 106–19; and Rainer Wahl, ‘Der preussische Verfassungskonflikt und das und Verfassungskonflikt preussische ‘Der Wahl, Rainer and 106–19; Boldt, pp. byHans 1990), examined (Munich, is 2 conflict constitutional The 1998). (Düsseldorf, Landtages des Kammer Ersten der in Bürgertum und Adel 1854–1918. Herrenhaus Preussische e As 4 3 The term ‘governance’ refers to the use of the structures of government, the socio-political 5

n h Pusa cnttto wt a r-tt ad plgtc is se rs Rdl Huber, Rudolf Ernst see bias, apologetic and pro-state a with constitution Prussian the On My arguments contra Martin Kirsch, Christopher Clark,IronKingdom (London, 2006), p. xxi. Matthew Jefferies, hgate Rese P reussen 1848/49–1857/58 arlamentarismus inPreussen (Düsseldorf, 1982); and Hartwin Spenkuch, arch Comp 3 anio Monarch und P n to Impe 34 rial Ge arlament im 19. Jahrhundert vol. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte , rman 4 By ending his study around study his ending By y Contesting theGerman (Göttingen, 1999) Landtag during , 75 per 75 , Das 5 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 of culture, in a 1913 letter declared his preference for ‘enlightened despotism’ –because despotism’ for‘enlightened parliament ‘usually converts well-informed governmental preference policies into dilettante splits’. his declared letter 1913 a in culture, of superiority of the Prussian benign the of view the internalized Hintze Otto and Schmoller Gustav as such scholars and from university chairs (Ordinariaten) in public law or history in Prussia. Most public leaders to the monarch as the bearer of sovereignty. The few dissenting progressives were excluded constitutional barriers. Professors of constitutional law even accorded complete state power Empire: anyquestforparliamentarygovernment was deterred, ridiculedandhinderedby Holste, DerdeutscheBundesstaat imWandel (1867–1933)(Berlin,2002),pp. 206–23. expanded they took over, and Prussia’s direct grip on national regulations loosened. regulations national on grip direct Prussia’s and over, took they expanded offices imperial the as but laws, the prepared staff. ministries bureaucratic Prussian first At The questions. tax and tariff military, in veto Prussian facto de a recalled states, Prussia very rarely failed to win majorities. The Bavarian delegate, Count Lerchenfeld, and sometimes did. Prussia commanded 17 out of 58 votes; usually supported by the smaller every block could It parliament. through government of dominance the or centralization against states mobilize to meant was institution This ). (Bundesrat council sovereignty rested with the monarchs and their governments assembled in thesecret federal this national parliament gradually dwarfed state parliaments. But on the national level, too, market, mass political evolving the and franchise male equal an on Based there. confidence the states. federal the and movement The constitution allowed for the development of a gradually more powerful parliament, Liberal National the with compromise a marked time

osiuinle ytm e Kierih’ i EntWlgn Bcefre (ed.), Böckenförde Ernst-Wolfgang in Verfassungsgeschichte 1815–1914 Kaiserreichs’, des System konstitutionelle and chairman of the federal council, the emperor depended on his Prussian power base. power Prussian his on depended emperor the council, federal the of chairman and parliamentary by censure. Very occasionallyministerswere dismissedafterdefeatsonthefloor. ousted be not could governments but expenditure, executive and laws system remained a dualistic arrangement of mutual veto powers: parliaments could block constitutional German the whole, the On minister-presidents. Prussian as acted also 1918), (Reichsstaatssekretäre state of depended on secretaries the assent of imperial the chancellors who, except for for three short role periods (1873, 1892–94, larger the Yet colonialism. and naval or expansion army from incurred expenses the and policy; social law; civil to matters economic from reaching codification legislation: of areas three in influence gained Reichstag rges Pusa a te eertd edr f emn oe, t amnsrto was success. by dignified be administration to seen was its power, (sachlich objective German and economic interests special of from slower removed be leader to and declared celebrated policy the social was on Prussia records progress. poor with regimes corrupt despotism’; ‘majority as denounced were systems parliamentary Western shown, has Hewitson Mark that Prussia could merge into Germany, as it was the eminent rock resisting the flood of flood the resisting democracy. rock eminent the was it as Germany, into merge could Prussia that (review article); Manfred Rauh, Manfred article); (review (Berlin, 1913),p.112. World War’, JournalofModernHistory,73(2001),pp.725–80. The Prussian constitutional system prefigured the political constellation of the German the of constellation political the prefigured system constitutional Prussian The 7 6 same the at yet imprint, and descent Prussian of was 1871 of Empire German The 9 8 The German emperor was to be the Prussian king. Formally only a only Formally king. Prussian the be to was emperor German The Reichstag, althoughthechancellorandimperialsecretariesdidnotneedavoteof

Hans Fenske, ‘Reich, Bundesrat und Einzelstaaten 1867 bis 1914’, in Roethe, Gustav ‘The Hewitson, Mark Geh. StaatsarchivPreussischerKulturbesitz, C.H.Beckerpapers,filenb.327(letter6/12/1913). 8 Preussen. Deutschlands Vergangenheit und Deutschlands Zukunft. Vier Vorträge Vier Zukunft. Deutschlands Vergangenheitund Deutschlands Preussen. in Question: Constitutional Crisis in Germany Before the First the Before Germany in Crisis Constitutional Question: in Kaiserreich . C.H. Becker, in the 1920s a famous liberal minister liberal famous a 1920s the in Becker, C.H. Beamtenstaat. (Königstein,1981),pp.208–31. Die P (Düsseldorf, 1977); Heiko 1977); (Düsseldorf, Deutschen Reiches des arlamentarisierung 7 In 1912 Professor Gustav Roethe vehemently denied vehemently Roethe Gustav Professor 1912 In 35 Pruss Der Staat ), and its constitution its and ), ian , 13 (1974), pp. 265–79 Reichstag initiative primus interpares Bundesrat hadno Go Moderne deutsche v e rnance 9 The 6 As ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 1899–1900. In 1901 a Badenese diplomat noted the resurgence of an earlier endemic split endemic earlier an of resurgence the noted diplomat Badenese a 1901 In 1899–1900. and 1897 1894–95, 1892, in ministry state the shattered personalities individual and policies The authorityoftheminister-presidentsafter1890was smallerandcrises over leadership, the British ambassador, the cabinet appeared by as a ‘ministry of the clerks … of who dismissed do as wife they are Russell, told’. minister Emily Lady To any cabinet. the have into discipline firm to brought emperor-king capacity his remarked, Bismarck on, then From 1871and1890 conservative course in Between 1876–79. This was accompanied by the dismissal of several ministers. stateministry. the in vote Bismarck was the dominant figure and he amajority pushed through the turn fromby a mildly liberal to a decided were matters (Staatssekretarisierung). chancellor-minister-president who replenishedthestateministrywithimperialsecretaries was the It (1908/14). affairs financial and (1898) affairs naval (1876), affairs foreign (1869), interior the of secretaries the for established waspermanently This ministry. state Prussian imperial secretaries had gainedtherighttobepresentand vote atthemeetingsof the several time, this By statements. written of exchange lengthy the end to order in secretaries state the of meetings formal proposed Delbrück Clemens Vice-Chancellor 1914 In affairs. of thestateministryallowed thesecretaries to bepresentattopicsdealingwithimperial decision a that 1896 until not was It 1900. after times few a only and Bismarck under twice since secretariesofstatemetonly 1890s quasiastheimperialcabinet, late acted uptothe all ministers had a bureaucratic background. The Prussian state ministry (Staatsministerium there was nogovernment byparties,theadministrationtookplaceofgovernment; nearly it as ‘status-quo conservative’ as opposed to ‘reform-conservative’ in the imperial sphere. As proportion of nobles and a decidedly conservative outlook. Thomas Nipperdey characterized and public political debates, yet itwas characterized by a strong bureaucracywitha high Prussia was a constitutional monarchy with the rule of law (restricted in notable exceptions) The Personnel ofthePrussian Administration Th (Gerhard P.Groß). (eds), al. et Ehlert Hans 90. 283– pp. ‘Vergleichsweisebesonders?’, Spenkuch, see military, Prussian the On coup. a of idea the on relevantliterature the lists 12, p. 2003), (Hildesheim, 1890–1900 8: vol. 1817–1934/38 , Staatsministeriums und Preussen im Kampf um die Führung. Von Bismarck bis 1918 (Berlin, 1931) provides relevant documents. Delbrück’s memo of 1914 is cited by Rauh, Schlieffen plan. imprint their on Germany, left from the now undoubtedly cherished institution culture of a reserve and officer to tradition are the highly military risky Staff specific General Prussia’s but central topic, the separate and generals, commanding war, of minister Prussian the via Germany in dominance its and military Prussian the of status extra-constitutional The coup. a via franchise had to give up thereactionaryidea of abolishing theequalReichstag II Wilhelm 1898 after although trend, this follow not did emperors German as role their in to affinity with ministers appointed and interference Baden, Bavaria, Hesse or Württemberg in the latter years of the Empire abandoned political Prussian rulers Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II defended the prerogatives of monarchy. Rulers in the unity, German of creators evenas and prestige rights their legal on their more on Based e As 10 The eightministerswere legallyindependentoftheminister-presidentandcontroversial 11

ati Sekc, Itouto’ o ca ousc, N.F., Borussica, Acta to ‘Introduction’ Spenkuch, Hartwin hms Nipperdey, Thomas hgate Rese 10 arch 11 (Paderborn, 2006), pp. 117–60 pp. 2006), (Paderborn, Dokumente und Analysen Schlieffen-Plan. Der vl 2 Mnc, 92, . 8. Clemens 487. p. 1992), (Munich, 2 vol. 1866–1918, Geschichte Deutsche Comp anio P arlamentarisierung, pp. 38–43. Hans Goldschmidt, n to Impe 36 rial Ge majorities. The Prussian kings Prussian The majorities. Landtag rman i Poool ds Preussischen des Protokolle Die y Das Reich ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 expectation ofjoiningafuturegovernment. around 1900noted,itcurtailedtheneedforpoliticalparties toactresponsiblyinthe ministers meantadissociation of parliamentaryandadministrative elitesand,asobservers Prussian as hue conservative of officials state appointing of and practice PartyThe Progressives. Centre the the of members by joined was and vice-president, as ministry state the and 1905. It was not until 1917 that the National Liberal caucus chairman Friedberg entered 1901 between trade of ministry the headed Möller ex-deputy Similarly, had links. party he his cut but minister, finance became Miquel deputy Liberal National the 1890 In Kartell). Bismarck (the conservatives the with alliance the into entry party’s his for compensation a governor,was appointed Bennigsen chairman party Liberal National the 1887 In 1870s. the in office took they when deputies active been had Hobrecht and Falk Liberals National the office, or as provincial governors. The reform conservatives Achenbach and Friedenthal and overwork. As compensation, theex-ministerreceived ordersandhonorarytitles. the defeat of an important bill was publicly camouflaged as being due to health problems or staunch conservative, but he convinced him to stay. Generally, a minister’s resignation after this overlooked deliberately indeed had Bethmann him. upon distrust of shadow a thrown and authority his diminished had and refusal this ministry, that noted He state resignation. his the submitted he of vice-presidency the him denied Minister- Hollweg because Bethmann wasinsulted President Rheinbaben, von minister, finance long-term the 1909 easier. In ministers of ousting the made honour, (male) of attitude, concept This specific a monarch. with the combined to loyalty complete demanded position their that convinced Thus, the state ministry remained a conservative council. Many highly placed officials were men. various refusing and Bülow von Bernhard promoting selection, in role active an took ministerial proposal. Bismarck proposed only reliable conservatives; in the 1890s Wilhelm II

1915), pp.434–35. John Robertson, Zilch. C.G. and Marriott A.R. vol. 9: 1900–1909 (Hildesheim, 2001) and vol. 10: 1909–1918 (Hildesheim, 1999), both edited by Reinhold 1934/38, vol. 6: 1867–1878, edited by Rainer Paetau and Hartwin Spenkuch (Hildesheim, 2004), as well as N.F., Borussica, Acta on based are observations Führungsgruppen parlamentarische 1867–1918’, und Deutschland Modernisierung in ‘Politische Best, Heinrich (Rheinbaben). (eds), Deist Wilhelm and Mombauer Annika in 1914’, à 1933(Paris, 2006),pp.186ff. Marie Vincent, and York,ff.; 361 pp. 1991), Bonham, Gary by described are officials imperial and (Russell). Spenkuch, Nathans, Eli and quote); (Bismarck 22 p. N.F., Borussica, to ‘Introduction’ Spenkuch, and agriculturalministrieswere always highlyconservative. on the ministers, in some periods the administrations of finance and education. The interior depending were, as administrations, justice and works public trade, the were pro-modern Moderately camps. two in roughly grouped be can ministries The Solz). zu Trott Loebell, reform in 1910 (Arnim, Rheinbaben, Moltke) and political franchise reorientation in 1917 refusing (Schorlemer, ministers the to down 1900, and 1894 between Hohenlohe–Miquel and 1892–94 in Caprivi–Eulenburg duos stressful the from conservativeranged highly faction a (Zweiseelenwirtschaft) in the state ministry. Indeed the division between reformist figures and 13 12 ministerial to appointed were politicians party active of handful a only decades, For upon officials state all dismissed and appointed king the constitution, the to According

ahrn A Lra, Te asrs lt? ihl I ad h Bri Amnsrto, 1890– Administration, Berlin the and II Wilhelm Elite? Kaiser’s ‘The Lerman, A. Katherine On the governmental crisis, see John C.G. Röhl, C.G. John see governmentalcrisis, the On , vol. 7: 1879–1890 (Hildesheim, 1999), (Hildesheim, 1879–1890 7: vol. Staatsministeriums, Preussischen des Protokolle Die Herrenhaus i Protokolle Die Historical , p. 458 (Zweiseelenwirtschaft ). Differences between Prussian bureaucrats 1 (98, p 57, 6 5 (iscain. My (dissociation). 51 46, 5–74, pp. (1988), 13 Social Research, , vol. 8: 1890–1900, pp. 26–29. Idem, ‘Introduction’ to Acta to ‘Introduction’ Idem, 26–29. pp. 1890–1900, 8: vol. , The Serviteurs de l’État. Les élites administratives en Prusse de 1871 de Prusse en administratives élites Les l’État. de Serviteurs (Oxford, Empire an of Making The Prussia: of Evolution The (Oxford, 2004), p. 111 p. 2004), (Oxford, Politics of CitizenshipinGermany Die Protokolle des Preussischen Staatsministeriums 1817– Staatsministeriums Preussischen des Protokolle Die 13 37 (New Ideology intheGermanState and Interests Germany WithoutBismarck Germany Cmrde 20) p 6–0 8 f. 80 63–90, pp. 2003) Kaiser (Cambridge, The 12 Pruss ian (London, 1967); and 1967); (London, Go v e rnance Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 endorsing repressive laws since 1878, staying elitist, governmental and pro-employer, this pro-employer, and governmental elitist, staying 1878, since laws repressive endorsing But group. this with sided Bismarck, including bureaucrats, Many Conservatives. Free the to middle-class National Socialism. After 1867 there was also a moderate conservative party, state, Protestantism and social order. In the 1920s, the Conservatism meanttheiron-clad preservation oftheGod-given hierarchiesofmonarchy, article by Margaret L. Anderson and Kenneth Barkin in 1982 contested this interpretation. this contested 1982 in Barkin L. Margaret Kenneth and by Anderson article democracy. influential liberal An the to blocking way thus Purge), Puttkamer so-called (the interior, Puttkamer, had given the Prussian administration a decidedly conservative outlook (recruitment). Zilch (ed.),Protokolle als systemstabilisierender Faktor in Preussen im 19. Jahrhundert’, Jur. Diss. (Frankfurt, 1976), pp. 69–94 seePatrick Jahrhunderts EastPrussia, in landowners liberal against Wagner, fight the and cleansing political On 315–27. open to antisemitism and after 1893 to radical nationalist or nationalist radical to 1893 after and antisemitism to open They resented government.commerce and industry, cities and modern culture; from the 1860s they were parliamentary and democracy liberalism, disdained and state an authoritarian of idea the to clung party their and They East Elbiannobles,theinfamousJunker. by Party should not be equated with Conservativeits German British the equivalent. but officials, Its conservative to steering close committeecome wascould Liberals dominated National eea dsrc gvros ee eoae. f aaon iprac ws h mto of method the was selection for young importance jurists entering the paramount state service as Of relocated. were governors district several and replacement, for governors provincial moderate four designated Bismarck 1881–82, In only. conservatives staunch to given increasingly were positions important but dismissed, Puttkamer was the main protagonist of change in Prussia: liberal officials were not generally early as 1876 when he approved the founding of the German Conservative Party. After 1881 as Bismarck by initiated turn anti-liberal the overlooked they officials, But Liberals. National many Catholic against discrimination decade-long the culminating indozens of dismissals during theKulturkampf,whichwere applauded by stressing in right were They Th Dsedr, 94, p 6–7 40 . and f.; 410 60–77, to pp. ‘Introduction’ Spenkuch, 1994), (Düsseldorf, Massenmarkt politischem und Tradition korporativer zwischen Modern History,54(1982),pp.647–86. Germany’, Imperial of Historiography Recent the on Reflections Some Kulturkampf: the of conservatives to high offices and to choose more moderate National Liberals. National moderate more choose to and offices high to conservatives in 1917: Minister-President Bethmann Hollweg urged his colleagues to stop appointing only meeting ministry state a of protocol the in found be to is this of Proof thereafter. preserved conservative outlook of the Prussian state bureaucracy, encouraged by Puttkamer, was largely compromises withright-wingparties,whilebrandingallothersasenemiesoftheReich. resumed government electoral The join to conservative.Liberals National encouraged and pro-conservativeelectioneering be massive to had judges interior; the of ministry the by confirmation weredenied self-administration of bodies in councillors and towns in mayors liberal-leaning as well as landowners trade in the eastern free provinces were of no longer acceptable advocates for state office; Moreover, elected liberal patronage. pure of system procedure a this called have alike contemporaries and Historians important. were – status officer reserve fraternities, family, – Connections backgrounds. social certain to restricted to co-optation. Thus, in the 1880s the socio-political basis of men eligible for state service was were acceptedbythedistrictgovernors without anypublicorcourtcontrol,thisamounted e As n 99 te on hsoin cat er rud ht atr 89 te iitr f the of minister the 1879, after that, argued Kehr Eckart historian young the 1929, In 15 14 Through a plethora of measures the political climate changed in the 1880s. The staunch The 1880s. the in changed climate political the measures of plethora a Through

Dreiklassenwahlrecht und Wahlkultur in Preussen 1867–1914. Landtagswahlen 1867–1914. Preussen Wahlkulturin und See ThomasKühne,Dreiklassenwahlrecht Reality the and Purge Puttkamer the of Myth ‘The Barkin, Kenneth L. and Anderson Margaret hgate Rese Bauern, Junker und Beamte. Der Wandel lokaler Herrschaft und Partizipation im Ostelbien des 19. des Ostelbien im Partizipation und Herrschaft lokaler Wandel Der Beamte. und Junker Bauern, (Göttingen, 2005), pp. 511–26. Achim Mehrlein, ‘Die Zweiteilung der Juristenausbildung der Zweiteilung ‘Die Mehrlein, Achim 511–26. pp. 2005), (Göttingen, arch vl 7 p. –, 8 9, oe ; n Spenkuch, and 2; note 94, 88, 6–7, pp. 7, vol. Protokolle, Comp , vol.10,p.187(20/03/1917). anio n to Impe 38 rial Ge völkisch Regierungsreferendare völkisch rman outlookfunctionedasabridge y ideas. In sum, Prussian sum, In ideas. . Since applicants Herrenhaus 15 Right-wing Journal of pp. , 14

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 Democrats and Jews from office was less harsh and the political culture less divisive. culture cautioned againstilliberalmeasuresproposedbyPrussia. thepolitical and harsh less governmentsGerman internally South least succeeded. at 1900 after reforms Constitutional was office from Jews and Democrats Social therewere Progressives, of Here exclusion The officials. high states. liberal moderately German and Catholic thesouthern more and therewere Prussia Moreover between differences existed. marked inPrussia division an east–west and outlook social affiliations, their conservativenobles, of proportion the to regard With echelons. higher the in to Protestantismserved asOberpräsidenten converted had who origin Jewish of men two and Catholics eight only that fact The origin. cent were old aristocrats, 10 percentnewly created nobles and 29 percentof bourgeois per 61 period, same the in governors provincial 116 Of nobles. created newly or aristocrats old were state of ministers Prussian 120 the of cent per 70 over 1918 to 1815 From optation. the nineteenthcentury;this was secured by monarchical patronage and opinionated co- in commerceorindustry;and12percenttheprofessions. working had fathers per cent 18 came only big landowners; and officers officials, of families from cent per 70 surveyed: officials 1,858 the of background social the concerns statistics 1910 the in information of piece important A second officials. liberal mildly and non-noble Here Prussia came closer to thepictureinsouthernGermanstateswithmarkedlymore judiciary. the or branches technical in so less and (Regierungsräte), and counsellors government (Ministerialräte) counsellors privy of ranks middle the in aristocrats 22 of to share 14 cent a per only was There ambassador. first-class or general senior as In such ranks provinces. highest eastern the in concentrated (Landräte), sheriffs service aswellmilitary asinthediplomaticcorps,aristocratshadanearmonopolyon county of cent per 55 and (Oberpräsidenten governors twelve provincial of out eleven ministers, eleven of out seven to amounted officials higher amongst nobles of proportion the that reveal 1910 from Statistics administration. the scrutinize we mlyet uig h rs o te nevnins sae A etmtd . million 2.7 estimated An state. interventionist the of rise the during employment (Lebenslüge

SPD, see Gerhard A. Ritter (ed.), the On 407–48. pp. 1994), (Frankfurt, 1866–1918 Hessen und Baden Preussen, in Richter der Disziplinierung Ormond, Thomas see judges, On 1806–1914’, Verwaltung deutschen by Bernd Wunder, ‘Prüfungsgrundsatz und Adelsprivilegien: Das Scheitern eines Elitenwandels in der provided summary the and 15–80; pp. especially 1983), (Boppard Kleinstaaten und Mittel- deutschen der einer 1945.Sozialprofil bis SchwabeKlaus see states, German other (ed.), with comparisons For 249–76. pp. 1985), 1815 (ed.), Oberpräsidenten Schwabe ‘Die preussischen Klaus in Verwaltungselite’, Brocke, vom Bernhard ff.; 43 Henning, Hansjoachim 1970), ff.; York, New 202 reprint, pp. (1944; 1888–1914 II, William Under Administration Prussian the in Junker The Verwaltung und Beamtenschaft in Deutschland 1871–1914 (Göttingen, 1988), pp. 193–6. Lysbeth W. Muncy, Konservatismus inderkonstitutionellenMonarchie(Düsseldorf,2000). Alexander, Matthias and 2000); (Düsseldorf, 1890 Stalmann, Volker in explored idem, and 1920: Political Limitsofthe 1988), Authoritarian Imagination (London, 1876–1918 Germany, in Mobilization Political and not stopitselectoraldecline. did imperialism and colonialism of championship party’s The support. popular lost group With some fluctuations, nobles played a large role in the administration throughout theadministration in role alarge played nobles fluctuations, some With 17 16 public sector of the growth by increased enormously was influence state’s The delusion’ ‘grand the called rightly non-partisanship, governmental of chimera The

90 ttsi epand y io Süle, Tibor by explained statistic 1910 n rsin osraim se ae Retallack, James see conservatism, Prussian On ) of monarchical Prussia by Gustav Radbruch in 1930, becomes apparent when apparent becomes 1930, in Radbruch Gustav by Prussia monarchical of ) Die Partei Bismarcks. Die Deutsche Reichs- und FreikonservativePartei1866– und Reichs- Deutsche Die ParteiBismarcks. Die 16 Der Aufstieg der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung (Munich, 1990), pp. xiii–xix. Richterwürde und Regierungstreue. Dienstrecht, politische Betätigung und Betätigung politische Dienstrecht, Regierungstreue. und Richterwürde , 17 (2005), pp. 51–83. pp. (2005), 17 Verwaltungsgeschichte, europäische für Jahrbuch Die deutsche Beamtenschaft im 19. Jahrhundert 19. im Beamtenschaft deutsche Die , 3 f 6 itit oenr (Regierungspräsidenten governors district 36 of 23 ), (Boppard, 1945 bis 1815 Oberpräsidenten preussischen Die reflects the restricted nature of the of nature restricted the reflects russh Brkaitaiin Zr nwcln von Entwicklung Zur Bürokratietradition. Preussische 39 Trno 20) p 2. oeae osraim is conservatism Moderate 20. p. 2006), (Toronto, i Feknevtv Pre 19–98 Gemässigter 1890–1918. Partei Freikonservative Die oals f h Rgt Te osraie Party Conservative The Right: the of Notables 17 Pruss h Gra Rgt 1860– Right, German The ian (Stuttgart, 1984), pp. 1984), (Stuttgart, Go Die Regierungen v juste milieu e rnance ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 116 (2001),pp.76–113, 83–91. Germany’, of Historian an of Politics and Career The Dawson: ‘W.H. Berger, German and economy German the admired social policy butcriticizedthePrussianpoliticalsysteminanearlyiterationof the Sonderweg: seeStefan Dawson 49. p. 1914), (London, Germany in Government Dawson, H. William 2005). (Göttingen, 1871–1914 Erfurts Beispiel am Bürgertum und 1918 bis 1860 von Schweiz Schmidt, der Jürgen and 1999); (Göttingen, und Deutschland in Vergesellschaftung und Individualität zwischen Bürger Hettling, Manfred are studies case Important officials. municipal elected of action for cities’ associations. Spenkuch, Beckstein, Hermann ff. 143 ff., (443 after 1906) deputies of the of deputies 1906) after (443 433 the for true is same The 1980s. late the since handbooks biographical regional of host a the statejealouslyguardsitspowers istoputthemattermildly’. municipal Prussian ‘thatwrite: to urged Williamfelt of author Dawson British H. renowned the administration, admirers foreign many the Amongst organisations. Social to integrate Democratic efforts its for officials state by admonished and monitored even was – Progressives by dominated and franchise equal local a with – Main am Frankfurt like city A conciliatory. comparatively often were administrations city and mayors but level, urban endorsed both of industrializationandthebigpoliticalcontroversies couldnotberemediedatamunicipal (SPD) Party Democratic Social consumer interests against the state administration and producers’ lobbies. The problems the and cities liberal-run 1900, After population. the for effects beneficial the of because reforms such with along went often Democrats Social conflict. social off edge the take to attempting thereby education, welfare and social policies ranging from public health to labour exchanges and vocational dominance of liberals. In their urban strongholds, liberal theexperts assured developed – poor gains relief Catholic or into Democratic Social against intensified occasionally later – franchises local Restricted republics’. ‘communal distrusted the for actions of sphere the limited and interference state extensive instituted representatives), of council the above mayora (with constitutionalism of manner dualistic the in it formed intentionally 1853 of Th 1850–1918 (Berlin,1973),pp.83–154. conduct controls, see Hans-Jürgen Rejewski, a million:seeSüle,Bürokratietradition 77–9. pp. A, appendix 1964, University, Columbia dissertation, fear oflossstatus. the during officials higher many turbulent Weimar of years mirrored their comfortable well-off position before stance 1914 and their anti-republican The associations. active by (Beamte), servants civil especially enjoyed comparatively large employees,salaries and significant benefits. Their governmental demands were pressed and rewards, material by desire for political regimentation, but also its incomplete success. Loyalty had to be gained decrees admonishing public servants to support the governmental stance illustrate the voting fortheLandtag,muchlesssoinsecretReichstag towards political regimentation. This could be achieved by controls of conduct and public States. United the employerthe as state the And tendedwomen (rarely) and men these of or Britain of that double was this force, labour total the of cent per Prussia. At11 around 600,000 in transportation, mainly for almost the state railways,and of whom service two-thirds were based postal in the in 300,000 about included 1907 in employees government e As 19 18 documented by The socio-politicalcompositionofthePrussianadministrationhasbeen law A government. municipal was administration state conservative to contrast The

Wolfgang R. Krabbe, PhD unpublished Germany’, in Employment Governmental of Growth ‘The Cullity, P. John hgate Rese 18 arch tadt im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert Die deutscheStadtim19.und Comp (Düsseldorf, 1991) treats the limited radius of radius limited the treats 1991) (Düsseldorf, Interessenpolitik Städtische and the 397 seats of the of seats 397 the and Landtag , p. 29; for their material well-being, see pp. 107 ff. On political On ff. 107 pp. see well-being, material their for 29; p. , anio Begrenzte Spielräume. Eine Beziehungsgeschichte von Arbeiterschaft Beziehungsgeschichte Eine Spielräume. Begrenzte Herrenhaus Die Pflicht zur politischen Treue im preussischen Beamtenrecht n to Impe 40 , pp. 315 ff., stresses conflicts about state confirmation rial Ge Beamte inthestrictsenseamountedto rman , of which 236 were236 which of Reichstag, (Göttingen, 1989), pp. 42 ff., 54 19 y Politische Bürgerlichkeit. Der Bürgerlichkeit. Politische English Historical Review , Historical English after 1903. Numerous Municipal Life and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 (Münster, 2010). idem, 2004); (Münster, 1871–1918 idem, 1999); (Düsseldorf, 1933 bis 1871 von Zentrums al., et Mann Haunfelder, Bernd 1988); (Düsseldorf, 1867–1918 Preussische Abgeordnetenhaus Bernhard 1994); (Düsseldorf, 1816–1945 Rheinprovinz n Mrug 18) Hrt Romeyk, Horst 1988); Marburg, and (Darmstadt 1867–1945 Waldeck in und Hessen-Nassau Provinz preussischen der Verwaltungin allgemeinen Klein, Thomas 1969); (Münster, Westfalen1815–1918 VerwaltungsbeamtenProvinz der 1983), pp.9–54. Hentschel, Volker 223–67; pp. 2001), Baden, Sozialpolitik in Deutschland Grundlagen. bis 1945’, ‘Historische in Lamberti, Stolleis, Michael Marjorie 1989); 1999); (Oxford, (Frankfurt, the ElementarySchool in Imperial Germany Monarchie konstitutionellen der in Verfassung eiltv aheeet icue h rfr o cut ad rvnil self-government provincial and county (Kreisordnung of reform the include achievements Legislative on. later reforms on block a and setbacks but law, private and public and self-government The imperialperiodinPrussiawas characterizedbyimportantearlyreformsuccesses in The Legislative Record: Achievements andShortcomings Posadowsky-Wehner andClemens Delbrück. by led Interior, the of Office Imperial the by over taken was 1896 to up Berlepsch Minister and Lohmann Theodor by of era the labour in trade of and ministry obstructed Prussian the of policy role leading the social waslaw, In tax. (Reichsfinanzreform) inheritance planned of 1909 a of because conservatives bill Prussian finance imperial The materialized. imperfect an only and (1892) divisions liberal–Catholic of the law, school primary of codification a two the between dissent of because failed (Städteordnung) reform strengthened thethree-classfranchise. classes voting and tax of interdependence the and weakened, was control oftheLandtag revenues.higher tax!) maximum cent per four (via produced and budget corollary, a as But tax and financial reform of 1891–93 was also a success, as it lessened direct taxes for the poor administrative courts and competences (Landesverwaltungsgesetz politician Erzberger Party Centre the 1913 in and – administrative liberals left although war, Its the during evident became limits modernization. and infrastructural managed bills but authoritarian, of remained administrations studies detailed Prussian First, accepted. generally seem Further assumptions basic Three desirable. are behaviour administration. Prussian the of the performance about togeneralize sufficient fully not are officials high-ranking of origins social the on statistics or analysis positional noble–non-noble a but outcome, the influences led to political despair when the democratic republic experienced a serious crisis after 1929. which education, political civic of bereft were but state, paternalistic active an experienced people Thirdly, minorities. ethnic or class working Democratic Social the integrate not did unnecessary conflicts. Secondly, during the imperial decades the conservative administration rsin Te adok cnan aa n huad o individuals. of thousands on data contain handbooks The Prussian. 21 20 22 On the other hand, there were several failures: a liberal bill on municipal administrative

Spenkuch, Christian Leitzbach,MatthiasErzberger Data collections with analytic introductions include: Dietrich Wegmann, , 1872; , Herrenhaus 21 , 1875; Provinzialordnung, –criticized the administration as being paralyzing, petty and causing and petty paralyzing, being as administration the –criticized p. 1–7 sl-oenet; nra Thier, Andreas (self-government); 519–37 pp. , i knevtvn berntn e Dushn ecsas 1871–1918 Reichstags Deutschen des Abgeordneten konservativen Die i liedn talce ud omnln ewlugbatn der Verwaltungsbeamten kommunalen und staatlichen leitenden Die Geschichte der Sozialpolitik in Deutschland seit 1945, vol. 1 (Baden- (Frankfurt, 1880–1980 Sozialpolitik deutschen der Geschichte (Frankfurt,1998),p.38. Volksschulgesetz, couldnotbeagreedonbecause 41 22 , 1891), and laws on the on laws and 1891), , Landgemeindeordnung Die liberalen Abgeordneten des Deutschen Reichstags Deutschen des Abgeordneten liberalen Die Schulunterhaltungsgesetz igahshs aduh ü das für Handbuch Biographisches , 1875/83). Minister Miquel’s Pruss chambers (1875); chambers Landtag Die Reichstagsfraktion des Reichstagsfraktion Die 20 Steuergesetzgebung und Steuergesetzgebung Social composition ian Die leitenden staatlichen Die leitenden Leitende Beamte der Beamte Leitende Go State, ocietyand v e rnance (1906) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 guarded andintheseareastheresponsiveness tosocietaldemandswas generallylow. wasfiercely Prussia in quo status socio-political and constitutional The Introductory Act. privilege (such as entailed estates) were exempted from the Civil Code of 1900 through its nobleand associations for regulations example, for interference: regulations againstReich pressed other German states to follow its example. In other areas, Prussia also defended its Danes andthe and whichPrussia in executed Jews. werestrictly immigrant laws most of these expulsion All Poles against discrimination facilitated to1913, 1842 from effective estates (Gutsbezirke) existed as long as 1927. The citizenship law (Staatsangehörigkeitsrecht), rural separate and 1918; to 1810/1854 from (Gesindeordnung) workers rural and servants from 1851to1918;themilitarypenalcode18451898;theregulationsfordomestic decades: the association law from 1850 to 1908; the ‘state of siege’ (Belagerungszustand) law for on dragged century mid-nineteenth the Conversely, from codification severalof relics assent. parliamentary obtain not could liberties civil of restrictions reactionary Prussia, in even that, show failures These Vereinsgesetz1897). zum , (Novelle law association the in Prussian the in parties Liberal National the Centre nor the neither Similarly, 1899). (Zuchthausvorlage, Bill Labour Hard the or 1894–95) (Umsturzvorlage, Bill Sedition the either for found be not could majority but aReichstag circles – attempted to push through repressive bills intended as an Century Germany: The Origins of the Civil Code (Oxford, 1989), pp. 165 ff. (Prussian vs. Sozialistengesetz Bismarcks 1878–1890 Pack, Wolfgang also See 1870. after nation-state the to due mainly 1870s; the anti-socialist law of 1878; and the intensification of anti-Polish policies after policies anti-Polish of 1886/95. To intensification attribute them the to unspecified and side-effects 1878; of the of Empire misreads law their anti-socialist genesis. the 1870s; state traditionandrecordofrepressionagainstpoliticaldissenters:theKulturkampf and sought an accommodation with right-wing nationalist groups. As these radicalized these As groups. nationalist right-wing with accommodation an sought and allies political of need in were leaders Prussia’s confrontational culture. political fostered Germany’s and in features pillarization political their to contributed it equally but – Democrats Social and Catholics Poles, of mobilization the encouraged actions state such less brutal options existed, but Prussia’s governments did not choose them. Inadvertently law against Polish lands, the high point of Germanization. Even in the age of nationalism, initiated further discriminatory anti-Polish measures ministryleading up to the 1908 state expropriation the 1895–96 In institutions. cultural and the churches schools, in from removed criticized strongly were steps Both established. was commission colonization a 1886 in expelled; were citizenship Prussian without Jews and Poles 32,000 1885 in and 1882–83, in measures discussed ministry state The provinces. eastern the in Germanization full for called Bismarck 1863 Polish in and of culture eradication the about wrote Posen in governor provincial the 1851 In culture. political opponents asdeadlyenemiesofhisReich. Both attitudes formed part of Prussian political fighting of stance lifelong his and authority state of perception idea a specific a Prussia, on against founded rebellion Polish and Catholic joint a of spoke He 1878. in to resort to state force in decided 1871–72, and he alone who gave this up Bismarck when entertaining new waspolitical priorities it Prussia in But Europe. nineteenth-century in ecclesiastical and common were – organizations marriage Catholic and liberals civil or church, and state inspection, between orders school over controversies – wars Culture Th e As In the 1890s Prussia – or rather Wilhelm II, on the advice of reactionary court and military Three large conflicts in Germany originated in Bismarckian Prussia, with its strong its with Prussia, Bismarckian in originated Germany in conflicts large Three 23 24 Clark, Nathans, hgate Rese p. 7 f, 7, 8 f, otns ht oeat rsin oiis shifted policies Prussian tolerant that contends f., 582 579, f., 575 pp. Kingdom, Iron , pp. 111–84; Michael John, Michael 111–84; pp. Politics ofCitizenship , arch Comp (Düsseldorf,1961), pp.76ff. anio n to Impe 42 Te oih agae a t be to was language Polish The Reichstag. Landtag agreedtoarbitraryparagraphs rial Ge Politics and the Law in Late Nineteenth- Late in Law the and Politics rman Das parlamentarischeRingenumdas y ersatz anti-socialistlaw, Reich bureaucracy). 23 24

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 Peter Ullmann,PolitikimDeutschen Kaiserreich1871–1918 public opinion. and revived in 1894–98, lost out against a pluralistic press and could not effectively guide democratization. toward clearly On theotherhand,governmental pressofficeslikethoseorganizedbyPuttkamerin1882, lead to as unequivocal as not were processes learning counter measureswere taken,butthebasicstructuresremainedandsubsequent government the Some of monarchy. prestige the the and undermined 1913) affair, Zabern the 1906–07; misdemeanours and offices imperial trade, municipal authoritiesoftenchampionedmodernism. of ministry Prussian the arts, fine the in historicism favoured (1894: 720; 1908: 34). While Wilhelm II, most Prussian ministries and large parts of the public for journalists of Convictions root. take to culture modern for niches were counter-productive; marketforces,cities and bourgeoispatronsprovidednumerous or weakened efforts these 1900 After arts. fine the in expressionism and impressionism or theatre naturalist curb to attempts or majesté, censorship measures, numerous trialsforlèse island prevent not did 1874 of Law museum Press Imperial the be Prussia in not but decrees, could Berlin’s by controlled sphere fully cultural the in of actors of multitude The Site policy. government as forces Heritage World UNESCO (Museumsinsel today’s and successful,

intermittently moving imperial ship. Empire. areasof the The predominantviewisthatPrussiamainlyactedlikea giant anchor,slowingdownthe in role Prussia’s at thefollowing and rule conservative government, central variety; regional inparticular directed been political development inPrussia:theelectoralandpartysystem;ruralgovernment and has attention decades recent In in RecentResearch Continuities andConflicts:PrussianPoliticsPoliticalCulture era was decidedlymixed,andanyjudgementofitmustremainambivalent. Theater (ed.), Ther Philipp in (1815–1914)’, Akteure und realhistorische Ausprägung Begriff, – Kulturstaat als ‘Preussen Spenkuch, Hartwin ff.; 183 ff., 77 ff., 26 pp. 2003), (Basingstoke, 1871–1918 Censorship in Imperial Germany, 1871–1918 (Oxford, 2009); Matthew Jefferies, Medizinalwesen und Künste (Berlin, Kirchen, 2010), especially my Wissenschaft, summaries on pp. Schule, 89–92 and 266–70; Gary Wirkungsfeldern D. Stark, seinen auf Kultusministerium pp. 106ff. Hagen, William 1851/63); of (documents f. 226 f., 191 pp. 1963), (Berlin, Reiches Deutschen des Gründung zur bis im Wilhelminischen Deutschland1890–1914 2009), pp. 121–35. Gunda Stöber, (eds), Torp Cornelius and Müller Oliver Sven in sorcerer’s apprentice,unabletocurbtheforcestheyhadsummonedup. and pushedforGermanizationoreven pre-emptive war, someministersfeltlikethe 26 25 Leckert-Lützow-Tausch(the Prussia in originating Scandals colonial 1896–97; scandal, generally were education and science of area the in policies Prussian positively, More 28 27

(Vienna, 2012),pp.99–126,115–20. (Chicago, 1980), (Chicago, 1772–1914 East Prussian the in Conflict Nationality The Jews: and Poles, Germans, ca ousc NF, rusn l Klusat W Nueae (eea e., o. 2/1: vol. ed.), (general Neugebauer W. Kulturstaat, als Preussen N.F., Borussica Acta Baske, Siegfried Nipperdey, Kaiserreich’, im Skandale und Politik Medien, “Obrigkeitsstaates”. des ‘Grenzen Bösch, Frank to sae n hs eid atog i ws s uh h pout f social of product the much as was it although period, this in shape took ) 27 In short, one can conclude that Prussia’s legislative record in the imperial , pp. 488, 610 f.; Kühne, f.; 610 488, pp. Deutsche Geschichte, Praxis und Prinzipien der preussischen Polenpolitik. Vom Beginn der Reaktionszeit der Beginn Vom Polenpolitik. preussischen der Prinzipien und Praxis Pressepolitik als Notwendigkeit. Zum Verhältnis von Staat und Öffentlichkeit Affair and Eulenburg scandal, 1907–08; the 1907–08; scandal, Eulenburg and Daily TelegraphAffair 28 (Stuttgart,2000),pp.32ff.,218 ff. Thomas Kühne has written the definitive study of the Das Deutsche Kaiserreich in der Kontroverse der in Kaiserreich Deutsche Das 43 , 2ndedn(Munich, 2005),p.76. 26 , pp. 575, 582; Hans- 582; Dreiklassenwahlrecht575, pp. , Pruss Imperial Culture in Germany, lèse majesté decreased lèse Banned in Berlin: Literary ian 25 Go Kulturpolitik und Kulturpolitik v (Göttingen, e rnance Das

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 soften ‘plutocratic excesses’ – in 1903, 94 per cent of the electorate in Cologne, including the to order In instead. ballot public direct a proposed but Progressivespreferred, and Liberals He rejected outright modernization via a direct and secret ballot as the Centre Party, the National in majorities Conservative/NationalLiberal Conservative/Catholicand both of Democrats, Poles or Progressives; assent of the conservatives; and to preserve the feasibility Social for gains were,however,substantial premises no restricted rather His task. the to up faced finally Hollweg, Bethmann successor, Bülow’s – II Wilhelm of unwillingness the and two years of postponements – due to the financial reform, Prussian bureaucratic obstruction Bülow to promise a franchise reform in 1908 at the height of the ‘Bülow Bloc’ nationally. After and thereby the basis for their political power in the Empire. Liberal discontent led Chancellor Th Wahlprüfung undpolitischenRealitätderReichstagswahlen 1871–1914(Düsseldorf,2003). been challenged by Robert Arsenschek, conservatives andJunkers sees increasingly fairprocedures in theReichstagelectionsbutalsorecognizes the enduringpower of Anderson, L. Margaret ff. 92 pp. 1992), (Frankfurt, Deutschland idem, and f.; 114 pp. 1990), York, (New 1867–1987 Systems, Party and pp. 277–305; Karl Rohe (ed.), (eds), Langewiesche Dieter and Gall Lothar in Kaiserreich’, im and occasionalgovernmental attemptsatpoliticalrealignment,allremainimportant. cartel, the in Liberals National keep to efforts sustained the thereafter, stance conservative was not just top-down. Nevertheless, Bismarck’s turn to the right and the governments’ pro- process political the that show innovative findings Kühne’s run-offs. in support their them denying Progressives Prussian even outlaws, remained Democrats Social opponents. were conservatives Prussian and Progressives Generally, 1918. until least at Prussia, be to applied cannot – camp Catholic a and Democratic Social a liberals, and conservatives of camp ‘national’ a – Rohe Karl late the of model camps’ Prussia ‘three the why East is This Silesia. Pomerania, Lower and Brandenburg, in conservatives and liberals left and west, the in Liberals National the and Party Centre the between cleavages persistent were There own. Schleswig-Holstein and Saxony; and local party leaders with elsewhere building contrasted alliances on their trends These areas). Catholic numerous regionalvariations: allGermanpartiesagainstPolesinPosen;cartelssurviving (in Party Centre the and east) rural the in of the all-liberal alliances after 1898, now competing with the Conservative Party (dominant over theinformalanti-cartelofCentreParty, PolesandProgressives; andtheresurgence 1898 to 1882 from dominating cartel Conservative–NationalLiberal the 1879; to up Landtag For Kühne, three phases stand out: the all-liberal alliances rendering liberal majorities in the run-off the so, Even sedated. and system oftenforcedthepartiestobuildelectoralalliances. contained was market mass political the that suggest facts these Kühne, For decades). over party one to loyalwere them of cent per 50 over and cent) and competition decreased (40 per cent of the constituencies in 1913 were uncontested per (18–32 Turnoutslow colleges. remained electoral the of members as allegiance political their to show willing men find and campaign to difficult often was it opposition local the wasof localinterestsintheLandtag. rather astheagent politician, but notseenasaparty For specific A expected. were corporate outlook (Wahlkultur rewards ) characterized rural areas for long material periods. The future deputy and given was notables was loyaltypowerful locally political onthe widespread, dependency ballot: secret urban, the from differed for the 443 Prussian constituencies. He found that public, indirect voting in non-urban areas ignominious three-classfranchiseandhasmeticulouslydocumentedtheelectoralprocesses e As 29 The three-classfranchisewas thecornerstoneofconservative dominanceintheLandtag This frequent co-operation between parties influenced their parliamentary behaviour too. Kühne, hgate Rese Dreiklassenwahlrecht; see also idem, ‘Die Liberalen bei den preussischen Landtagswahlen arch in the rural east (pp. 152–98). Anderson’s assumption of democratization has Elections, P Comp anio Der Kampf um die Wahlfreiheit im Kaiserreich. Zur parlamentarischen arties, andPolitical Traditions: Social FoundationsP ofGerman n to Impe 44 rial Ge (Munich, 1995), (Munich, Region und Liberalismus Practicing Democracy rman Wahlen und Wählertraditionen in Wählertraditionen und Wahlen y (Princeton, 2000) (Princeton, Landtag. 29 arties Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 noble, exerting influence over military recruitment, tax assessment and the distribution of thedistribution and conservatives.liberal the to for contrary victories For, election engineering wellas as permits, taxassessment recruitment, military over influence exerting noble, Secondly, power. state leased on surviving Junker remained masters on their estates and to a large extent were awarded local offices, thus the while hand, other the On replaced. was broadenedandLandrätehadtowinover therural elites;iftheLandratfailedatthishewas administration county of basis social The administration. state the to concerns local reporting men starting their bureaucratic careers, had the dual role of ‘developmental The executiveaide’ and ‘broker’, (Kreisordnung). its reforms and 1872 the (Kreistag) after council (Kreisausschuss) county committee the to admitted were farmers as waned power reveals an ambivalent situation. On the one hand, the local administrative monopoly of scrutinized iscounty administration by the Landräte. Using original documents, Patrick Wagner It was mobilizationanddivisive interactionthatledtostalemate. result of virulent antagonisms between separate active forces pulling in different directions. matters was not the result of deference fromadministrative the people or perennial stasis. Rather itand was the constitutional Prussia’s in royal paralysis, even immobility, The a change. for no opted But officials high and Dallwitz, towns. von interior, the and of minister conservative cities staunchly the by district vis-à-vis (Landräte) held commission bureaucratsandprofessors of high-rankingwas convened invain, andthe confirmation sheriffs and liberals, county control Urban and of rights governors decentralization. the from diminish benefit to wanted would moreover, procedures slow administrative and thecomplicated that structures intheory agreed officials some and writers political Many 1914. and 1910 between administration regional the in procedures reform to attempt

1907), pp.1143–80. (Berlin, Partei Nationalliberalen der Handbuch resentment againstCatholicsis displayed inPolitisches Stasis’, inidem, of ‘Meanings Retallack, James by discussed is decisions skirted and reform stasis, of conceptualization (eds), Spenkuch zwischen Ausbau der Selbstverwaltung und Bewahrung bürokratischer Staatsmacht’, in B. Holtz and H. were crammedintothethirdclass. voters million 2.7 of out million two roughly because least not ballots, cast 460,000 or cent per 16.8 of basis the on seats 200 won parties conservative two The (776,000). votes the of until 1908 and in 1913 gained just ten of 443 seats, despite commanding a 28.4 per cent share voters livedmillion urban inonly41districts.SocialDemocratsboycotted eight while constituencies, rural 161 in inhabitants million wereeight there 1903 In 1860. in established first constituencies preventedlong-overdueof Poles the redistribution and SPD further initiatives for fear of renewed quarrels amongst the parties. In the same vein, the vein, upper chamber(Herrenhaus same the In parties. the amongst quarrels renewed of fear for initiatives further Unable toachievegovernment thisaim,the and abstainedfrom altogether bill withdrewthe cartel. Conservative–NationalLiberal a of revival the at aimed who Hollweg, Bethmann to unacceptable was solution blue-black a to Ceding rights. church and interests, schools rural confessional for concern parties’ both on based was and 1890s the since in theLandtag the reform to the introduction of a secret ballot. This informal limit Conservativesto ‘blue-black’ the with alliance alliance an formed Partyhad Centre the However,existed class. higher a in placed be to now were men educated – class third the in voted had president, district 30 been recently has which administration Prussian of aspect characteristic further One the is system political Prussian the of immobility the for example instructive Another 31 Underlying all of this were deep socio-political cleavages. The need to avoid gains for the Kühne,

Hartwin Spenkuch, ‘“Es wird zuviel regiert”. Die preussische Verwaltungsreform 1908–1918 Verwaltungsreform preussische Die regiert”. zuviel wird ‘“Es Spenkuch, Hartwin German Right,pp.108–34. p. 6–, 2–9 Spenkuch, 529–69; 461–6, pp. Dreiklassenwahlrecht, (Berlin, 2001), pp. 321–56. The historiographical The 321–56. pp. 2001), (Berlin, Moderne politische Wegdie Preussens in ), abastionofconservative Junker,remainedunreformed. 30 Landrat mayhave given thestatealocalpresence, Landräte were invariably conservative andoften 45 p. 4–. Liberal 542–8. pp. , Herrenhaus Pruss 31 , often young Landräte, oftenyoung ian Landtag elections Go v e rnance Junker

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 (2004), pp.254–78. by an alliance of the two conservative parties with the National Liberals as junior partner. junior as Liberals National the with parties conservative two the of alliance an by successivewantedsupported Bismarck Prussia, governmentsbe after In to chamber. upper the and king the government, the against laws effect to unable been have would it existed gagslshf i dr wie Hlt ds 9 Jahrhunderts’, 19. des Hälfte zweiten der in Agrargesellschaft political quarrelsandlanguagedifferencescoincided. east, the in traces ofseparateregionalidentitycanbedetected,themore so if Catholicism, tradition, Even exploration. further deserve still integration of processes painful These incorporated forcefully – population Their era. imperial wellthe Hesse-Nassau) into Schleswig-Holstein, the (Hanover, quickly 1866 and Saxony-Thuringia) of too parts and Westphalia Province, Rhine all (the 1815 dismissed historiography Prussian Traditional persisted intheconqueredprovincesof animus, resentmentsandhiddenresistancethat areas. rural the of the were Berlin and industrial powerhouses of Prussia,yet politicalpower was Westphalia wieldedbyrepresentatives Rhineland, The alike. historians and contemporaries by in the culturally vibrant big city, Berlin. The east–west division of Prussia is a fact recognized the situationindensely populated western areas, where towns dominated and, of course, electoral competition between them in western regions. divide confessional the of between lower view middle class Catholics and elite Protestant in liberals, and also because of fierce improbable was majority liberal–Catholic a seats, 100 remained important, equally and, thereafter overPartygained Centre consistently moderate 1879 the deputies after Though decades. for divided 120 about at stuck were – majority 1870s parties the in – constitution, factions liberal two The and seats. (443) 433 of Monarchy 200 over won regularly 1879. after course conservative franchise and administration were the prerequisites. After 1885 the a two conservative parties to Prussia unbending the predestined to counterweight a as Prussia used He Bismarck. with Th extremely valuable reference. Wahlkandidaten und Wahlbündnisse Wahlergebnisse, und Region.Identitätsstrukturenim DeutschenKaiserreich (ed.), Burmeister, Thüringen Arne Ingmar 211–72; der Reichsgründungszeit pp. 1866–1881 in (Darmstadt and Marburg, Kurhessen 2012); Thüringer Landtag Provinzen: (ed.), (1998), “neuerworbene” Preussens Nationsbildung. 134 regionale und Integration politische Landesgeschichte, deutsche Kaiserreichs’, für des während Identität Blätter regionale die um “Welfen” der Kampf Der Hannover. Provinz 1866–1918 Katholizismus politischer Aschoff, Hans-Georg 2011); (Münster, Beziehungsgeschichte Eine Preussen. und inexperienced ruralvoterstoturntheradicalrightin1920s. Nevertheless, the experience of tutelage and post-war economic problems led many politically legal tutelage of employers over rural workers, and a Social Democratic government in Berlin. Germany east of the River Elbe only arrived after 1918, with universal southern suffrage, therural abolition and of of democratization real Spain a that Wagnerconcludes in changes, incremental of Andalucía spite In as Italy. such Europe, of regions peripheral other in found be can landowners large with alliance in state-building local of examples Similar notables. local from pressure social and localism egoism, agricultural pro-tariff of mixture a by motivated hopes, farmersandpoorvillagersdidnotsupportthem,butvotedconservative instead, e As 33 32 the and government central the to Returning This situation of simultaneous change and stasis in theruraleastcontrasted sharply with 34 Wagner,

Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins Geschichte Karl Teppe (ed.), aduh e Whe zm russhn berntnas 1867–1918. Abgeordnetenhaus preussischen zum Wahlen der Thomas Kühne,Handbuch hgate Rese (Rudolstadt, 2001); Hans Schultz Hansen, ‘Demokratie oder Nationalismus’, in U.Lange Nationalismus’, oder ‘Demokratie Hansen, Schultz Hans 2001); (Rudolstadt, Muss-Preussen ep p. 7–2 ie, Gthre–aenBoe. i ostelbische Die ‘Gutsherren–Bauern–Broker. idem, 579–92; pp. esp. Bauern, arch Westfalen und Preussen Comp – could skip Prussian identity with the rise of a German Empire. Dsedr, 97; rs Shbr, Vreke poiin n der in Opposition ‘Verdeckte Schubert, Ernst 1987); (Düsseldorf, (Neumünster, 1996), pp. 427–85; Michael B. Klein, B. Michael 427–85; pp. 1996), (Neumünster, anio n (Münster, 1991); Georg Mölich (ed.), to Impe 46 Dsedr, 95, p 5 f Ti vlm i an is volume This f. 54 pp. 1995), (Düsseldorf, (Stuttgart,2005). rial Ge 33 n eln w hv t start to have we Berlin, in Landtag 34 In any case, if such a coalition had Journal of rman 32 Modern EuropeanHistory,2 y Welfische Bewegung und Bewegung Welfische Reichstag, thushe Rheinland, Westfalen Zwischen Reich Zwischen Das preussische Annexion, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 , and in 1914 with Count Heinrich Yorck von Wartenburg’s motion in the upper the in motion Wartenburg’s Yorckvon Heinrich Count with 1914 in and Bundesrat, this occurred during the1890s, forinstance,throughtheobstructionofseveral billsinthe Progressives’ the defeated motion infavourofdirectandsecretfranchiseMay1912 throughabstention. narrowly wings right respective Their left. the to turn similar it asa the has described In mentality’. ‘siege Retallack James fiercely; so Prussia in bastions their defended they and theCentrePartyin theReichstag isolated the Conservative Party. This helps explain why time their number of seats decreased. After 1911–12 the leftward shift of became the National groups Liberals antisemitic electoral competitors; Social Democracy and the trade unions were and growing threats; so over League Agrarian the like movements popular persisted; stance andruralegoism their authoritarian economic basis;abadpublicimagefuelledby to citiesinthewest and thedeclineofagriculturerelative toindustryundermined their and theconservatives. government of dependency mutual the demonstrating thus anti-conservativemajorities, to Several them. against campaign electoral an staging from refrained II Wilhelm and government the canal, the of rejection their despite the aftermath of in the imperial finance and reform, 1909–14. Caprivi 1899; was ousted in by conservatives Canal and, Mittelland controversial the of construction 1891–94; the for chancellorship, bill the Caprivi’s over during 1866–74; Empire, the of years formative the in

not elected. full parliamentary rule, as governmental majorities generally prevailed. But this chamber was appointed, itself. A differentmajoritycouldhave ledtoconstitutionalcrisis. electorate; eligible the of secondly, the systemworkedsmoothlyonlyaslonggovernment was conservativeless much and voters actual of (1913) cent per 17 even or (1893) cent per 28 just on achieved were seats conservative the that fact the overlooks contention in Prussia’s constellation the of any description Anderson’s off Margaret staveNevertheless, change. could constitutional and untouched areas Catholic in strongholds Party’s Centre the and countryside eastern the in conservatives’bastions the left combination This quo. status the safeguard for best the alliance tobe leader ErnstvonHeydebrandconsideredablue-black groupings tendedtobelessactiveconservative thanintheReichstag. 1900, faction After were commonvirtuallynocompletebillsoriginatedintheLandtag,andallparty here,but overseen by a government that profited from a deferential These rewards. or concessions co-operating inthisway,position andcouldachieveof these partieshadabargaining both By Centre. the and conservatives or Liberals; National (some) and conservatives disposal: their at majorities of types two had governments Prussian the Here, In played. was minorities. game and sided liberals left SPD, of majority left-wing a avoid to classes didnotruleinPrussia. middle government;the the of allies close wereconstantly Liberals National the nor Centre was mainly the two conservative parties which were courted by the government. Neither the National Liberals of helping to deliver government majorities for important bills. Even so, it cold by the government. From then on, the Centre took on the position formerly held by the the from in brought was it 1879/1885 in tariffs increased to agreed Party Centre the When It was not unusual for Prussia’s conservative elites to take a stance against the Empire: the against stance a take to elites conservative Prussia’s for unusual not was It Migration 1890. after increased conservatives Prussian for threats and challenges The Tensions between conservativesgovernment andthe were evidentinfourperiods: 35 In the

, p. 193. TakingAnderson, Practicing193. Democracyp. , the view, this the Centre PartyCentre Reichstag the held acrucialpositionaslongthegovernment wished Landtag before 1914 as crypto-parliamentary is wrong for two reasons: first, this , however, Catholics and National Liberals did not take a take not did Liberals National and Catholics however, Landtag, quid proquotransactionsbetween thepartieswere largely 47 elections from the 1870s to 1912 led 1912 to 1870s the from elections Reichstag Landtag. Parliamentary questions wouldhaveHerrenhaus displayed Pruss 35 ian Landtag athree- Go v e rnance Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 (pentagram). . 1 osrcin; Spenkuch, (obstruction); 51 p. Kühne, Retallack, 205–20; pp. 1984), (Düsseldorf, Deutschlands system putforward byHans-UlrichWehler originatedinPrussia. socio-political German the of peculiarities twelve the of all Almost south. the in conducted culture political which socialandpoliticallifewascasual easewith the Empire with of the in thenorth-east divisive and class-ridden the contrasted (1933) Hartung Fritz and (1922) Ritter Gerhard historians the retrospect in And Germany. southern in unknown was sort this of discrimination political that their thought He through functions. conservativescourt or to administrative various went decorations most that meant impartiality’ ‘political for deputies of exclusion the him For decorations. with fared had liberals badly how letter The National Liberal leader Ernst Bassermann, from Baden, complained in 1913 in a private army. the and monarch the were underpinnings whose Prussia, in caste the strongJunker Schillingsfürst confided in his diary that southern liberalism could not overcome the rule of Hohenlohe- zu Chlodwig Minister-President 1898 In states. European Western many and and after1900Prussia was politically backward whencomparedtosouthernGerman to Prussia. A ground-breaking edition covering the British reports between 1816 and 1866 and 1816 between reports British the covering edition ground-breaking A Prussia. to up, yet thePrussianimprintonGermanpoliticalmentalitieslingeredon,withfataleffects. existed. It took war and revolution to remove them in 1918. New horizons were then opened for as long as the Prussian monarchy, military, three-class franchise and Conservative Party Th corresponding minutesoftheReichstagarenowaccessibleonline. Abgeordnetenhauses Preussischen des Verhandlungen die über Berichte privateas (Stenographische sittings parliamentary Prussian of records published The papers. Kulturbesitz Preussischer by scholars such as James Retallack, seems to have been exhausted. The Conservativehand, thecorrespondenceof von Partyleaders HeydebrandandWestarp, used Alfred deputy or archive, family a Gossler (1867–1946), in the in kept (1866–1959), Keyserlingk Robert president Count district of those like memoirs for Unpublished publication. will, for Jena, basis in a be discovered instance, recently Delbrück, Clemens State of Minister of papers The found. be still can editing worth material but done, been has much sources, to regard With Further ResearchPossibilities Clge 20) p. 36. See 33–60. pp. 2006), (Cologne, reichstagsprotokolle.de (1864–1945) Westarp von Graf Kuno Politikers konservativen des (Bassermann); Hans-UlrichWehler, DeutscheGesellschaftsgeschichte , vol.3(Munich,1995),pp.1284–95. be added to make a seven-pointed star. seven-pointed a make to added be could ministry state the and monarchy Prussian the questions, many On and theLandräte. the of chambers two the (1913): pentagram a as rely on the five Prussian pillars which their party leader, Ernst von Heydebrand, referred to chamber calling for an end to imperial interference in Prussian affairs. Conservatives had to e As 36 The viewfromoutsideisdocumented richly indispatchesofGermanandforeignenvoys Prussia remainedaconservative bastionagainstparliamentarizationanddemocratization 38 37

, p. 572 (abstention of Centre/National Liberals); Rauh, Liberals); Centre/National of (abstention 572 p. Dreiklassenwahlrecht, Wilfried Loth, ar E Jns n Wlrm ya (eds), Pyta Wolfram and Jones E. Larry Spenkuch, (Hohenlohe); 276 p. besonders?’, ‘Vergleichsweise Spenkuch, hgate Rese Katholiken im Kaiserreich. Der politische Katholizismus in der Krise des wilhelminischen arch in Berlin contains still unexplored sources, governmentsources, unexplored still contains Berlin in as files well Bundesarchiv at Freiburg, would be worthwhile too. On the other Comp Herrenhaus anio p 57 . Yrk oin; Retallack, motion); (Yorck f. 507 p. , 36 n Germany could not be governed Germanycouldnotbe againstPrussia, to Impe 48 ‘Ich bin der letzte Preusse’. Der politische Lebensweg politische Der Preusse’. letzte der bin ‘Ich Landtag, thearmy,centralbureaucracy , pp. 177 ff. (siege mentality); (siege ff. 177 pp. Right, the of Notables rial Ge rman 37 38 y ae nipnal; the indispensable; are ) Geheimes Staatsarchiv p 396 p. German Right, P Herrenhaus arlamentarisierung, p 118 p. , www. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 smaller federalstateswithPrussia,whichremainsanunder-researchedtopic. Prussian reports from other German capitals are a potential source for the interplayof the deserve selective publication, since only small parts currently exist in print. Conversely, the still – past the in scholars for source cherished a already and quality in differing though – reports Their Berlin. in politics Prussian and imperial observed also Lübeck and Thuringia (Oxford, 1915). (London, 1914); John A.R. Marriott and C.G. Robertson, Angell, Norman 1913); (London, Price Collier,GermanyandtheGermans oiiy n te rfsin big h ms feun dnr. ulc eeois uh as such ceremonies Public festivalsalso national can or funerals parliament, of opening state the donors. jubilees, monarchical frequent most the being professions the and nobility discoveringcame overwhelminglythey that fromtheoldprovincesofPrussia,with has focused on giftstomembers of theroyal familyas one indicator of monarchical loyalty,Giloi Eva large. at population the with interaction monarchy’s the include to widened should be scope The rewarding. be would – II Wilhelmthe on on Röhl building John of – work I distinguished Wilhelm under politics and society court Prussian of exploration An shortly. appear will Grünthal Günther P series the in ago decades planned 1867–1918, years

as recentlyattemptedbyMarkTilse. eastern regionsofPrussia,politicalhistoryalsohastodevelop atransnationalperspective, mixed nationally the For Progressives. the for Thompson Alastair and Party Centre the for Loth Wilfried of examples the following 1890–1914, years the for Prussia in Party Liberal Catholic workers – are also on desirable. Secondly, dissertation we Sun’s need C. a detailed Raymond treatment of of the lines National the along is – studies 1914) local Smaller by book. members a worth 100,000 than more had SPD the (where east Prussia’s labour in the movement First, parties. big two of histories are missing Still transactions. parliamentary in PrussiaandtheEmpirebebasedongovernmental documents,private papersand period, such as the years 1907–14. Such an analysis could offer a synthesis of domestic issues s tl lacking. still is perceptions ofthePrussianpolity;somethemarewella systematictreatment known,but travellerswhich foreign books andarticlesin the view isprovidedby their wrote about Conflict toSynthesis, 1871–1914 Tilse, Mark 2000); (Oxford, Germany Wilhelmine Loth, 1999); MA, (Boston, (ed.), Ritter 76–89. G.A. in pp. 1983), 1867–1918’, (Düsseldorf, Gegenwart zur bis 1848 von Preussen Deutschland und Preussen in Parlament und in Bürokratie Parlament und Bürokratie Regierung, von (Stuttgart, 1990–92). 1871–1918, 2vols Gesandten preussischen der Berichterstattung politischen der in Baden Grossherzogtum Das des hessischen Gesandten Karl Hofmann aus Berlin 1866–1872 (Darmstadt, 2001); Hans-Jürgen Kremer (ed.), See www.ghil.ac.uk/publications/british_envoys_to_germany/kaiserreich.html matters, but themes such as cultural transfers and mentalities. and transfers cultural as such diplomatic themes but matters, just not cover generally reports These era. imperial the into continued be will , seems to need an energetic author; the volume for the years 1858–66 by 1858–66 years the for volume the author; energetic an need to seems arlamentarismus, 42 41 40 39 agenda. research current the on large loom processes political to approaches Cultural the for system parliamentary Prussian the analyzing volume the history, political In 43

Raymond C. Sun, C. Raymond Verhältnis zum Bemerkungen Partikularismus. und Hegemonie ‘Zwischen Mann, Bernhard Frank Zimmer (ed.), Sarolea, Charles include examples Eminent M. Mösslang et al. (eds), al. et Mösslang M. 40 German diplomats from Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Saxony, Hesse, Saxony, Württemberg, Baden, Bavaria, from diplomats German Katholiken Before the Enemy is Within our Walls: Catholic Workers in Cologne 1885–1912 Cologne in Workers Catholic Walls: our Within is Enemy the Before Vom Norddeutschen Bund ins Deutsche Reich. Gesandtschaftsberichte und Briefe (Basingstoke,2011): onSocialDemocrats,seepp. 155–75. , 4 vols (Cambridge, 2000–2010). (Cambridge, vols 4 1816–1866, Germany, to Envoys British ; Alastair Thompson, Alastair ; 43 42 It would also be worthwhile to examine a shorter a examine to worthwhile be also would It 49 Transnationalism inthePrussian East: From National Lno, 92; L. 1912); (London, Problem Anglo-German The The Evolution of Prussia: The Making of an Empire Left Liberals, the State, and Popular Politics in Politics Popular and State, the Liberals, Left aduh e Gshct ds deutschen des Geschichte der Handbuch 39 A different kind of external of kind different A Pruss Prussianism anditsDestruction . ian Go 41 v e rnance Regierung, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 19 (2007),pp.333–44. zur kulturhistorischen Verwaltungsgeschichtsschreibung’, Haas, 1960), p.115. a t b tasedd t icue oua rsoss n mnaiis Gnrly the Generally, mentalities. necessary. and is conceptualization responses popular include to cultural approachtopoliticalandadministrative historyispromising,althoughacareful transcended, be to has (Verwaltungsgeschichtehistory ) administrative traditional of viewpoint juridical narrow the interaction could be examined on the basis of governmental documents and newspapers. Here In thissensethepictureofPrussiangovernance isnotasuncertainsomemightsuggest. Th oenzto, o a eaie i Pmrna alone. Pomerania societal and in building examined state far on so be modernization, could focus second A research exist. already of Silesia Upper line and fruitful potentially One 1989–91. in thisveinconcentrates onquestionsofnationality; importantstudiesforEastPrussia of upheavals political the following theeast. in those Here studies based onarchival sources have beenratherscarce, but thingsstartedtochange than researched better much are – Schleswig-Holstein and (Thuringia) Saxony Prussian also Westphalia,but Rhineland, Hesse, – Hanover, provinces western The insights. new offer still would treatment systematic their but monographs, and collections choosing, but under circumstances already existing, given and transmitted from the past.’ the from transmitted givenand existing, already circumstances under but choosing, but they donotmakeitasplease;undercircumstances of theirown history, own their make ‘Men Marx: Karl of remark famous the remember to well would do researchers future However, generations. the with change used, be to base source the and past, the of asked questions the expected: be to only and legitimate is This revised. movement to nature conservation. In this way the picture of Prussia may be diversified and exchanges in education, the arts and sciences; and international networks, from the women’s looking atissues such as: migration inallitsforms; global economic interdependence; explored inco-operationwithPolishhistorians. divides of 1871 and 1918. Fortunately, the provinces east of the River Oder can nowadays be European perspective would be useful. Additionally, it would make sense to look across the Dirk Mellies, Dirk (ed.), 2007); (Cologne, Perspektive Stamm-Kuhlmann vergleichender in Thomas Entwicklung gesellschaftliche 243–68; und Staatliche pp. Jahrhundert. 19. (2013), 21 Europa, östlichen im Deutschen 1871–1918’, Posen Provinz der in Beamten höheren der Kontakten und Funktion Stellung, sozialer Zu “Preußisch-Sibirien”. in ‘Dienen Myschior, nor Pole: Traba, Catholicism and National Indifference in Robert a Central European Borderland 2001); (Ann Arbor, 2008); Christian (Wiesbaden, Bjork, E. James 2010); 1870–1956 (Osnabrück, Provinz deutschen einer Konstruktion die – Ostpreussen Nationalismus ethnischen des Spannungsfeld im Masuren at (eds), Deutschen Kaiserreich1871–1918(Düsseldorf,2008). al. et Biefang Andreas 2011); (Cambridge, in Germany1750–1950 idem, approach. be explored further; a volume edited by Andreas Biefang demonstrated the potential of this (Göttingen, 2012):desideratafor Pomerania listedonp.351. http://docupedia.de/zg/Kulturgeschichte_der_Politik?oldid=75525 e As 46 45 44 everyday their and population governed the vis-à-vis administration interior The 47 More generally, all areas of Prussian history could benefit from a transnational perspective,

Die Kultur der Verwaltungder Die Kultur (2005), see Bernd Wunder, ‘Verwaltung als Grottenolm? Ein Zwischenruf , 3 vols (Cambridge, 1999, 2004, 2014); Eva Giloi, Eva 2014); 2004, 1999, (Cambridge, vols 3 II, Wilhelm o te etr poics se oe 2 nra Kossert, Andreas 32. note see provinces, western the For online 11/2/2010, Docupedia-Zeitgeschichte in Politik’, der ‘Kulturgeschichte Mergel, Thomas John Röhl, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ‘The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’, in hgate Rese 44 Modernisierung in der preussischen Provinz? Der Regierungsbezirk Stettin im 19. Jahrhundert 19. im Stettin Regierungsbezirk Der Provinz? preussischen der in Modernisierung The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany (Cambridge, 1994); arch Comp 45 Regions or provinces have been covered widely in essay in widely covered been have provinces or Regions anio aruh e Bneisius ü Klu ud ecihe der Geschichte und Kultur für Bundesinstituts des Jahrbuch n to Impe 50 rial Ge Jahrbuch für europäische Verwaltungsgeschichte, 46 o ti apoc a comparative a approach this For Monarchy, rman Preussen, Deutscheoderolen? Die . For a trenchant critique of Stefan of critique trenchant a For . Das politische Zeremoniell im y Myth, and Werke, vol. 8 (Berlin, Material Culture Neither German Pommern im 47

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 00:33 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613048, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613048.ch2 Kühne, Thomas. Kühne, Kossert, Andreas. Thomas. Klein, Kirsch, Martin.MonarchundP Jones, Larry E. and Pyta, Wolfram (eds). Jefferies, Matthew. Graf. Robert Grais, de Hué uash Wlhr gnrl ed.) (general Walther Hubatsch, — ‘The Mark. Hewitson, Manfred. Hettling, Henning, Hansjoachim.DiedeutscheBeamtenschaftim19.Jahrhundert(Stuttgart,1984). — — Haunfelder, Bernd.DieReichstagsfraktiondesZentrumsvon1871bis1933(Düsseldorf,1999). William. Hagen, Hans. Goldschmidt, E. James Bjork, (ed.) von Rudolf Bitter, (eds). al. et Andreas Biefang, Matthias. Alexander, N.F. Borussica Acta Online: http://preussenprotokolle.bbaw.de/editionsbaende-im-Internet Vol. 10:1909–1918,bearbeitetvonReinholdZilch(Hildesheim,1999). Vol. 9:1900–1909,bearbeitetvonReinholdZilch(Hildesheim,2001). Vol. 8:1890–1900,bearbeitetvonHartwinSpenkuch(Hildesheim,2003). Vol. 7:1879–1890,bearbeitetvonHartwinSpenkuch(Hildesheim,1999). Vol. 6:1867–1878,bearbeitetvonRainerPaetau andHartwinSpenkuch(Hildesheim,2004). N.F. Borussica Acta Suggestions forFurtherReading zwischen korporativer TraditionundpolitischemMassenmarkt (Düsseldorf,1994). Nationalismus 1870–1956 Nassau undinWaldeck 1867–1945 konservativen PolitikersKunoGrafvonWestarp (1864–1945)(Cologne,2006). Deutschen Reiche,1stedn(1882);22nd(Berlin,1914). Reihe A, 12vols(Marburg,1975–81). First WorldWar’, JournalofModernHistory,73(2001),pp.725–80. Wahlbündnisse undWahlkandidaten (Düsseldorf,1995). Vergesellschaftung inDeutschlandundderSchweiz von1860bis1918(Göttingen,1999). 1914 (Chicago,1980). (Berlin, 1931). European Borderland(Ann Arbor, 2008). and Leipzig,1911). 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