Beethoven as Heard by the Romantics:

A Study of Romantic-Style Cadenzas Composed to Beethoven's

Fourth Piano Concerto, Op. 58

Orit Wolf

Department of Musicology

Ph.D. Thesis

Submitted to the Senate of Bar-Ilan University

Ramat-Gan, Israel October 2006 This work was carried out under the supervision of

Professor Judit Frigyesi

Department of Musicology, Bar-Ilan University Acknowledgements

I would first like to express my most sincere gratitude to Prof. Judit Frigyesi for her extraordinary wisdom and magnificent ideas throughout the entire course of this dissertation. From its conception to its final completion she has been my most constructive critic and partner. Her enthusiasm, encouragement and faith are not so easily found these days.

A special thanks for Dr. Pninah Kanovsky for her most professional editing work and constant support. Without her remarkable assistance, this work could never have been brought to its completion.

I am also thankful to my true friend, Mr. Harald Fiedler, for his marvelous German translations, and to Dr. Duncan Irving, for finding me the most rare cadenzas with tremendous generosity.

On a more personal level, I wish to express my love and gratitude to all my family and especially to my mother, Ruth, who has been so patient, supportive and helpful in every possible way to make this work become a reality.

Table of Contents

Abstract i

Chapter I Introduction 1

1.1 The Concerto in the Nineteenth-Century and the Problem of the Cadenza 5 1.2 Literature Review 9 1.3 Scope and Methodology 14

Chapter II New Structural Ideas in Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto 18

2.1 The Place of the Fourth Piano Concerto in Beethoven's Oeuvre 18 2.2 The Dramatization of the Contrast between Orchestra and Piano 20 2.3 Improvisatory Coda and Cadenza-like Writing 23 2.4 Unity across Movements 29 2.5 Integrity through Thematic Derivation: The Six "Elements" 33 2.6 The Ambiguous Function of the Second Movement 40

Chapter III The Cadenzas Composed By Beethoven 44

3.1 Historical Background 44 3.2 Stylistic Eclecticism and Conceptual Integrity in Beethoven’s Cadenzas 47 3.3 Beethoven's Cadenzas to his Fourth Piano Concerto in G major, Op.58 52 3.3.1 The Cadenzas for the First Movement 52 3.3.2 The Cadenzas for the Third Movement 55

Chapter IV Clara Schumann's Cadenzas for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 58

4.1 General Background 58 4.2 Clara Schumann's Cadenza for the First Movement 59 4.3 Clara Schumann's Cadenza for the Third Movement 65

Chapter V Johannes Brahms' Cadenzas for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 76

5.1 The Sources for Brahms' Cadenzas 76 5.2 Brahms' Cadenza for the First Movement 82 5.3 Brahms' Concept of the Cadenzas as a “Second Development” - 93 Comparisons with his Cadenzas to Mozart 5.4 Brahms' Cadenza for the Third Movement 95 5.5 Publishing Aspects of Brahms' Cadenzas and 100 the Question of Authenticity

Chapter VI Ferruccio Busoni's Cadenzas for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 106

6.1 The Idea of the “Romantic Cadenza” as a Transcription 106 6.2 Busoni's Perception of a Cadenza 108 6.3 Busoni's Original Cadenzas 113 6.3.1 Busoni's Cadenza for the First Movement 114 6.3.2 Busoni's Cadenza for the Third Movement 124

Chapter VII Anton Rubinstein's Cadenzas for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 128

7.1 General Background and Major Influences 128 7.1.1 The Concept of the "Romantic Cadenza" through 132 Rubinstein's Fourth Piano Concerto 7.2 Rubinstein's Cadenza for the First movement of Beethoven's Op. 58 134 7.3 Rubinstein's Cadenza for the Third Movement 149

Chapter VIII The Cadenzas of the "Modernists": Tovey, Kempff, Medtner and Levin 162

8.1 Donald Tovey 162 8.1.1 Tovey's Cadenza for the First Movement 165 8.1.2 Tovey's Cadenza for the Third Movement 170 8.2 William Kempff 173 8.2.1 Kempff's Cadenza for the First Movement 175 8.2.2 Kempff's Cadenza for the Third Movement 181 8.3 Nicholas Medtner 184 8.3.1 Medtner's Cadenza for the First Movement 185 8.3.2 Medtner's Cadenza for the Third Movement 193 8.4 Robert Levin 199 8.4.1 The Cadenza as a Live Improvisation 199

Chapter IX Discussion and Summary 203

9.1 The Cadenza as a Place for a Dialogue between Performer 206 and Composer: Busoni and Levin 9.2 The Cadenza as a Fantasia-like Composition and its 208 Contribution to the Concerto's Dramatic Narrative: Rubinstein and Levin 9.3 The Structure of the Romantic Cadenza: a Second-Development 209 Section or a Piece within a Piece? 9.4 The Dual Potential of the Third-Movement Cadenza: an Episode 211 or an Integrating Factor for all Three Movements 9.5 The Third-Movement Cadenza as a Response to the 213 First-Movement Cadenza 9.6 The Decisions with regard to “Authenticity”: 216 What it Means and to What Extent it is a Relevant Demand

Appendix 1: Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto, Op. 58 in G major: 218 List of Themes

Appendix 2: List of Cadenzas to Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto 221

Appendix 3: Cadenzas' Analysis (1-16) 223

Appendix 4: Cadenzas' Scores: 250 Ludwig Van Beethoven's Cadenzas 251 Clara Schumann's Cadenzas 266 Johannes Brahms' Cadenzas 278 Ferruccio Busoni's Cadenzas 286 Anton Rubinstein's Cadenzas 292 Francis Tovey's Cadenzas 305 Wilhelm Kempff's Cadenzas 314 Nicholas Medtner's Cadenzas 320

Bibliography 332

Editions and Published Scores 342

א Hebrew Abstract

Abstract

The objective of this work is to examine how various Romantic composers viewed the function of the cadenza in general and how they dealt with the task of writing cadenzas for Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto in particular. Until now, cadenzas have mostly been viewed as separate entities. They were analyzed according to accepted rules of cadenza writing which had been popular until the beginning of the nineteenth-century. The possibility of perceiving the cadenza as part of the concerto as a whole has not yet been addressed. Moreover, the idea of the cadenza reshaping the overall design of the concerto and affecting its thematic, harmonic, tonal structure and dramatic effect has not yet been considered.

This study shows how Beethoven had already increased the importance of the cadenza and how the Romantic composers coped with those changes. Beethoven used the cadenza both as a tool to add an extra interpretation of the concerto and as a tool to enhance the integrity of the concerto. These two new functions of the cadenza created numerous challenges for Romantic composers who had to cope with the clash that emerged between styles and compositional concepts when a Beethoven concerto was performed with their Romantic-style cadenzas. They had to find the balance between delivering the ideas of the original concerto on the one hand and expressing their individual voice on the other hand.

Apart from the six composed cadenzas which Beethoven wrote for his Fourth

Piano Concerto, there are over forty composers who also wrote their own versions.

The cadenzas chosen to be examined in this work are those by Clara Schumann,

Johannes Brahms, Ferruccio Busoni, Anton Rubinstein, Nicholas Medtner, Wilhelm

Kempff, Francis D. Tovey and Robert Levin. This study discusses how each

i composer perceived the cadenza in general and how each composer applied this perception in Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto in particular.

Clara Schumann's major innovation was in incorporating thematic unity in the third-movement cadenza. By integrating the major themes of all three movements in the third-movement cadenza, she created a cyclic feel of the Concerto, as well as stylistic integrity with Beethoven's text.

Medtner followed Clara Schumann's lead in unification between movements, but unlike Clara’s theme unification, his was a rhythmic unification – using rhythmic patterns to create a cyclic, integrated cadenza. Another major innovation was the structural freedom of choice that Medtner offered the performer, allowing him to personally decide upon the cadenza's inner structure.

Both Tovey and Brahms used their first-movement cadenza as an opportunity to add a developmental section to the Concerto. Yet, whereas Brahms inserted his own voice, using manipulations of themes, modulations, and rapid changes in the harmonic language, Tovey chose to be rather conservative and remained loyal to a more Classical style.

Busoni coped with the challenge of compositional integrity through the medium of performance. He viewed the cadenza as a platform for the performer, allowing him to suggest his own transcription of the piece. The performer thus becomes a co-composer, reshaping the overall result of the composition. For Busoni, it was only through the cadenza that the performer could achieve performance integrity with the rest of the concerto, since it served as a meeting point between the composer and the performer in action.

Rubinstein's uniqueness was in his use of non-thematic material to convey drama on the one hand and intimacy on the other. He contrasted recitative-style

ii passages with lyrical themes from the movement, a technique which had not been used earlier by any other Romantic composer writing cadenzas to Beethoven’s concertos. Moreover, his cadenzas for the first and third movements of the Concerto are connected through the use of conflict and resolution, the first-movement cadenza presenting the conflict and the third-movement cadenza supplying the resolution.

Unfortunately, the general practice in the 20th century was to look for an authentic cadenza, one that was similar to Beethoven’s style; either the style of the concertos or the style of his later composed cadenzas. Both Tovey and Kempff approached Beethoven in this careful manner, trying to find the golden path between their need to project loyalty to the composer and their need to express their individual voice as well. Levin was the exception to the rule in his refusal to write down his virtuosic improvised cadenzas, believing that by doing so, his contemplations would automatically turn the concerto genre into a static one. He believed that only expectancy and suspense of the unknown would keep the genre fresh and alive and that could only be created by offering a new listening experience each time the concerto was performed.

Although this study proves the importance of examining cadenzas in the context of the concerto for which they were written, the end result has turned out to be much more than that. By showing how unique the role of the cadenza was in the

Romantic period in turning the concerto into an open form that allows stylistic and conceptual multiplicities, this study comes forth and challenges today’s composers and performers to continue the tradition. It encourages them to maintain the practice of transforming the cadenza from a mere performing opportunity into a fully shared compositional act.

iii Chapter I

Introduction

In Classical concertos, the cadenza normally occurs before the last tutti of the first or third movement of the concerto. It is the only section of any Classical form where the performer is required to improvise. The raison d’être of the cadenza is to give the performer an opportunity to display technical skills without altering the basic structure and message of the piece. Thus, though the cadenza is part of the total listening experience, it is not a fully integral part of the composition. It is essentially a grandiose suspension before the closure of the movement. As a result, both performers and scholars have tended to regard the cadenza as a separate unit whose musical logic and inner drama are governed by the generally accepted rules for the cadenza rather than by the particular character and structure of the specific composition. The cadenza, in a sense, has been viewed as an insertion into the concerto, a piece within the piece, as it were.

This study will demonstrate how since Beethoven, the cadenza has assumed an importance far greater than simply providing suspension through free display of virtuosity. For Beethoven, and even more for the Romantics, the cadenza became an essential tool for interpreting both the movement and the piece as a whole. Through this new conception, the cadenza became an integral part of the concerto; it became vital in creating an overall understanding of the concerto’s thematic, harmonic, and tonal structure as well as its dramatic effect. While the original function of the cadenza remained intact, the emphasis was no longer on the display of virtuosity. Rather, the cadenza became the place where the performer/composer could express his

1 compositional-structural thoughts about the piece. The cadenza became the performer’s

quasi analytical interpretation of the work.

In this study, I will examine the Romantic-style cadenzas written for Beethoven’s

Fourth Piano Concerto in G major, op. 58. I will illustrate how various composers in the past and present balanced the need to express their personal view about cadenza- improvisation with the need to express the concrete message of the given work.

The study will first discuss Beethoven’s approach to the cadenza by analyzing the cadenzas that Beethoven wrote for his own concertos as well as for Mozart’s Concerto K.

466. Next, it will examine cadenzas that were written to Beethoven’s Fourth Piano

Concerto by various performers and composers such as Johannes Brahms, Clara

Schumann, Ferruccio Busoni, Anton Rubinstein, Nicholas Medtner, Wilhelm Kempff,

Francis D. Tovey and Robert Levin. Each cadenza will be analyzed in its historical context, taking into account its composer’s style and tradition, ideas about improvisation, pianistic aspects, cadenza writing and the concept of the concerto as a genre.

In the course of this work, it will be necessary to address questions of meaning and validity. Since the insertion of the Romantic cadenza into Beethoven concertos considerably alters the original work, one is left with the question of what exactly this new work represents. Does the cadenza broaden the frame of composition in order to deepen and enhance its meaning from within, or rather: is it a free "commentary" on the work that stands apart? Should the Romantic composer/performer be "loyal" to his own style or rather to that of Beethoven's? What is the meaning of "loyalty" when the composer/performer intends to remain within Beethoven’s style? Is it to the

Beethovenian model of the cadenza in general or to the basic style of the given concerto

2 (since Beethoven himself wrote the cadenzas to his concertos years after their

composition and in a considerably different style). The central theme of this work is thus

to explore the structure and the global effect of the composition when it is reshaped by a

given cadenza.

Although this is a fairly circumscribed topic, its implications are far-reaching, and

its basic argument challenges the traditional assumptions of musicology. The field of

musicology has not yet dispensed with the idea that a composition primarily belongs to

its creator. Conceptual integrity is the axiom of analysis, since it is assumed that behind each composition stands a "persona." However eclectic the composition may be, the fact that it is composed by a single person of a specific character and historical era is taken as a guaranty for integrity.

Indeed, music in reality is never the creation of one person but of at least two – composer and performer, and possibly many more (several performers, listeners, teachers providing the rules of the performing traditions, etc.). In most of the Classical repertoire, the worlds of the composer and the modern performer clash dramatically, since they emerge from different times, places, ideologies and cultural contexts. Nevertheless, since it does not express itself in the notation, this clash has never been taken seriously by scholars. There are general theoretical contemplations upon this problem, but when it comes to concrete analyses, music is still regarded as the work of one person. Since the cadenza alters the notes of the composition, and as a result, alters many of its essential aspects (proportion, thematic scheme, tonal plan, etc.), the study of cadenzas demands a new approach. This study will deal with questions of authorship in a composition in

3 which integrity is no longer guaranteed by the presence of a single person, style, and

historic context.

There are over 120 cadenzas written for the first four Beethoven concertos1 and

over 40 for the Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58 alone.2 However, these cadenzas are rarely

played in public today, nor are they published as a collection. Most performers do not

know of the existence of Romantic cadenzas. Most pianists are not even aware that

Beethoven himself wrote several optional cadenzas to some of his concertos.3 In the concert repertoire, Beethoven’s concertos have become fixed pieces. In each case, one of

Beethoven’s original cadenzas has been accepted and entered the text of a given concerto, turning it into a fixed form. This new "tradition" has eliminated the original function of the cadenza, the act of improvisation. Moreover, it has eliminated the conflict of styles and personalities that emerge due to the interpretative function of the cadenza, a conflict that appears to have been Beethoven’s original intention, as shall be further explained. In an era of postmodernism, when the world has become increasingly fragmented and eclectic, and when disintegration is the norm, it is ironic that the demand for stylistic integrity has become much greater in the domain of the Classical concert life. The concerto, which in the late Classical and early Romantic era allowed for stylistic multiplicity, has become a genre that no longer allows stylistic and conceptual interplay between composer and performer.

1 For a list of cadenzas see Lydia Hailparn. "Exploring Cadenzas to Beethoven's Piano Concertos." College Music Symposium. 21 (1981): 48-59.

2 For full updated list see Appendix 2.

3 Concerto op. 15 has three optional cadenzas; Concerto op. 58 has three written cadenzas for the first movement and two for the third movement. The full collection of cadenzas is currently in the new complete edition of Beethoven works: L. van Beethoven: Werke: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke. Ed. J. Schmidt-Görg etc. Munich and Duisburg, 1961.

4 The reason for the tendency to play only the more familiar Beethoven cadenzas is

rather complex. It is connected to historical, social and musical considerations. This

dissertation cannot hope to explore all the questions that may arise in the course of the

investigation of our topic, since many would require an in-depth analysis of modern

society and ideologies. Nevertheless, it is the aim of this work to provoke a new way of thinking about the phenomenon of "composed cadenzas" and its unique role in forming a

new concerto concept, namely the concept of an open form that allows stylistic and

conceptual multiplicities. This will be achieved through concrete examples of personal

and stylistic clashes that emerge in Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto when regarded together with newly inserted cadenzas.

1.1 The Concerto in the Nineteenth Century and the Problem of the Cadenza

The form of the solo concerto went through radical changes in the Romantic era, and these changes had direct impact on how the cadenza fit or did not fit into the piece.

An important reason for these changes was the development in the technique of both the piano and the orchestra. Together with the violin, the piano became the primary virtuoso instrument in the Romantic era. For the Romantics, however, virtuosity meant more than the mere display of technical skills; it responded to the inner need of the artist for a more spontaneous and fantasy-like expression. Some of the most virtuoso pieces of the nineteenth century are also the most avant-garde and expressive ones, like Liszt’s B minor Sonata, Schumann’s Fantasia, and many of Liszt’s, Schumann’s, Chopin’s and

Brahms’s short compositions for solo piano. At the same time, orchestral writing

5 techniques developed greatly; the orchestra gradually became a “virtuoso instrument”,

capable to capture all the nuances of intimacy as well as expressive drama.

We see two interrelated developments: the development of technique that led to greater virtuosity (both in piano and orchestral writing), and a tendency to compose in a more directly expressive manner. Enhanced expressiveness resulted in the dissolution of the symmetrical and balanced forms and styles inherited from the Classical era. The symmetrical flow of music was replaced by rhapsodic, fantasy-like free forms, using a wide range of contrasting techniques and styles. Virtuosity became part and parcel of the style, one of the major means to express extreme emotions.

It was difficult to reconcile the genre of the traditional concerto with these novel ideas. First, the conventional separation of orchestral and solo roles lost its meaning, since both the piano and the orchestra were able to depict any character from the most lyrical to the most forceful. In the Romantic concerto, long sections in which the piano is silent are rare. On the other hand, the piano often provides accompaniment to the orchestra. Second, the first-movement sonata-form of the traditional concerto, which normally called for double exposition,4 hardly suited the free fantasy-like forms of the

new era. The idea of double exposition was difficult to give up, since it provided a

perfect frame for the individual presentations of orchestra and solo. However, it was a barrier to the imaginative, freely flowing, dramatic narrative.

The form as a whole became more integral; the movements were often combined by common themes and overarching narratives that spanned from the first to the last movement. The differentiation between the materials and the styles of the piano and the

4 The same opening material was presented twice; first by the orchestra and then by the piano.

6 orchestra diminished, and there was greater freedom as to when and how each of them

assumed the leading role in the narrative of the form. For example, in several Romantic

concertos, the piano enters immediately at the beginning of the exposition (see

Beethoven’s late concertos, op. 58 & op. 73, Grieg, Schumann, Mendelssohn and

Tchaikovsky). The idea of connecting the movements (attacca) had already appeared in

Beethoven’s Concerto op. 73,5 and was adopted by various Romantic composers such as

Mendelssohn, Weber and Schumann.6 Liszt carried this idea the furthest, as he treated

the concerto as a symphonic poem in one movement.7

These developments affected the style and the function of the cadenza. Since the

entire concerto has become virtuoso and fantasy-like, there was no need to place a formal

cadenza at the end of the movement.8 As Whitmore suggests: "In such a concerto where virtuosity was distributed fairly evenly throughout the movement, it made little sense to

articulate dramatically a moment of particular virtuosity towards the end. The cadenza

had either to be conceived on an enormous scale or to be omitted altogether."9

In the Romantic era, composers often chose to eliminate the cadenza completely,

like Clara Schumann, Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Liszt, whose concertos were written in

5 Here Beethoven connects the second movement to the Finale, not only by an attacca, but by ending the second movement with a citation of the opening melody of the third movement.

6 The first version of the Concertos of both Clara and Robert Schumann were written as a one-movement composition. The two other movements were only added at a later stage.

7 While Liszt’s First Piano Concerto is written in four-movements, similar to that of the symphony, his Second Concerto is written in a one movement form with contrasting sections of mood and tempo, bound together by the same melodic material.

8 Even when a composer chose to place a cadenza in its traditional place, the cadenza could no longer carry the importance and meaning it had had before.

9Philip Whitmore. Unpremeditated Art: The Cadenza in the Classical Keyboard Concerto. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991, p.59.

7 an especially free style and form that rendered the traditional cadenza superfluous.10

Because the piece was thought of as a whole, it became more natural to have only one

cadenza and at the very end of the piece, in the last movement – a solution that Brahms

opted for in both of his concertos.11 Even when the cadenza remained more or less traditional, composers preferred to compose it as an integral part of the composition

(obbligato cadenza), as could be seen in the works of Grieg, Schumann and Tchaikovsky.

What is then the solution of these composers to the cadenza when they are faced with a Beethoven concerto, still a relatively classical composition? The opportunity to improvise a cadenza for Beethoven’s concertos presented a challenge for the Romantics.

On the one hand, it allowed for a free, fantasy-like improvisation, something that accorded well with the spirit of Romanticism. On the other hand, Romantic composers/pianists approached Beethoven from an entirely different framework of thought of concerto form. In their concept of the concerto, a separate and isolated place for the cadenza had no real function. Beethoven’s concertos allowed for something special: they had the freedom to enter into the piece of another composer, so to speak, and to enlarge it with their own ideas (something they did not allow pianists to do in their own compositions). The possibility to add their own cadenzas to Beethoven’s concertos

gave them a framework that was in harmony with their aesthetic ideals (fantasy and

improvisation), while at the same time was still alien to it (the cadenza as a section that is

not controlled by the composer and thus betrays the ideal of “integrity”).

10 The omission of the cadenza is evident with other composers as well, such as Hummel, Moscheles, and Field.

11 This approach was evident earlier in Clara Schumann's third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58. For more details see chapter IV on Clara Schumann.

8 1.2 Literature Review

The goal of this work is not merely to analyze the various cadenzas structurally.

Its main objective is to examine how various Romantic composers utilized the

possibilities of the cadenza in general, as well as how they dealt with the Beethoven

concertos in particular. The cadenzas will therefore be considered through their effect in

changing the global design and form of Beethoven’s concertos. Until today, musicology

has not viewed the cadenzas in this manner. Cadenzas were discussed as separate units

without considering their potentiality to alter the message of the piece.

Although no study exists on this subject, there is ample literature on related

topics. Several works deal with the concerto and its movements as a whole. Koch,

Steinberg, Veinus, Layton, Roeder, Tovey, Stevens, Keefe and Balthazar focus on the history of the concerto. Lindeman’s12 recent book gives a thorough structural analysis of

all the concertos by Mozart and Beethoven, as well as those of early Romantic composers

such as Clara Schumann, Weber, Elkan, Field and Moscheles. Two works discuss the

concertos of Beethoven specifically: Plantinga’s recent book: Beethoven Concertos:

History, Style, and Performance and Ezra Rust’s dissertation: The First Movements of

Beethoven's Piano Concertos. However, none of these works treat the cadenzas.

Similarly, the informative dissertation by Furey,13 which gives a detailed analysis of

Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, including issues of performance practice, contains no discussion of the cadenza.

12 Stephen Lindeman. Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1999. 13 Charles Furey. Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto op. 58: Its Strategy and Design, an Analysis and Performance Study. D.M.A Diss., Stanford University, 1984.

9 Other literature relates to the analyses of the cadenzas as a separate form.

Discussions and instructions for the writing of cadenzas date back to the beginning of the eighteenth-century. The most important works are those of C.P.E. Bach, D. Türk and J.

Quantz. They contain a basic description of the structure of the cadenza, which corresponds approximately to the style of the cadenzas in Mozart’s concertos. Already at that time, there were various opinions as to the level of freedom allowed in the improvisation of the cadenzas. While Türk was in favor of a planned cadenza, Quantz and Bach preferred an improvised cadenza in the form of fantasia.14

Among relatively recent works, Whitmore's book stands out for its thorough and

detailed discussion of the cadenza.15 This book gives an overview of the definition of

cadenzas, the history of the genre, and the characteristics of the cadenzas by various

Classical composers, including those of Beethoven. However, Whitmore does not

discuss the Romantic cadenzas. Similarly, Isaacs’ recently published The Keyboard

Cadenza examines nineteenth-century musical developments that affected the cadenza, but does not discuss the cadenza in the context of the concerto form.

Works on the cadenzas written for Mozart's concertos are relevant to this research, since some of the composers who wrote cadenzas for Mozart's concertos also wrote cadenzas for Beethoven's works. Badura- Skoda16 and Robert Levin,17 as well as

14 Esther Wang. Mozart Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453: The First Movement Cadenzas. University of Cincinnati: D.M.A., 1997, p. 19.

15 Philip Whitmore. Unpremeditated Art: The Cadenza in the Classical Keyboard Concerto. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.

16 Eva and Paul Badura-Skoda. Interpreting Mozart on the Keyboard Instruments. Trans. Leo Black. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1962. See also Eva Badura-Skoda, "Cadenza" The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980, Vol. 3. p. 586.

10 the dissertations by P'ng,18 Schrade,19 and Wang,20 provide in-depth analyses of various cadenzas written for Mozart’s concertos, but they do not discuss the interpretative effect of these cadenzas in relation to the concertos themselves.

A number of studies discuss Beethoven’s cadenzas, such as Friedman's dissertation (a detailed Shenkarian analysis of the cadenzas), Block21 (the cadenza for op.

15), Freeman22 (the cadenza for op. 58), Matthews23 (a general discussion of the

Beethovenian cadenza) and Küthen, who offers a new interpretation of Beethoven’s cadenza for op. 58 in light of the newly discovered version of Concerto op. 58 for string quintet.24 Kwan's dissertation25 provides a theoretical analysis of selected cadenzas for the first movement of Beethoven's Concerto op. 58. Hailparn’s article is of major importance for this research because it provides a list of all the accessible written

17 Robert Levin. "Improvisation and Embellishment in Mozart Piano Concertos." The Musical Newsletter 5 (1975): 11.

18 P'ng, Tean-Hwa. First Movement Cadenzas for Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Piano Concertos K. 466, 467, 482, 503 and 537. West Virginia University: D.M.A., 1997.

19 Rorianne Schrade. Cadenzas to Mozart's Piano Concerto K. 467: A Perspective on Theory and Practice. Temple University: D.M.A., 1995.

20 Esther Wang. Mozart Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453: The First Movement Cadenzas. University of Cincinnati: D.M.A., 1997.

21 Geoffrey Block. "A New Cadenza for Beethoven's Fortepiano Concerto in C major, op. 15." The Beethoven Newsletter 4 (1989): 62-67.

22 Robert Freeman. New Sources for Beethoven's Piano Concerto Cadenzas from Melk Abbey. Beethoven Forum 1 (1992): 63-80.

23 Dennis Matthews. "Beethoven and the Cadenza." Musical Times CXI (1970): 1206-7.

24 Hans-Werner Küthen. "The Newly Discovered Authorized 1807 Arrangement of Beethoven's Fourth Fortepiano Concerto for Fortepiano and String Quintet: An Adventurous Variant in the Style of the Late Cadenzas." The Beethoven Journal 13 (1998): 2-11.

25 Kelina Kwan. Cadenzas as Reception: Stylistic and Structural Analysis of Selected Cadenzas for the First Movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto Op. 58. Hong Kong University: Ph.D. Diss., 1994.

11 cadenzas for Beethoven’s concertos (more than 120, though the list of cadenzas has not

been updated since 1981).26

It is only quite recently that the idea of an improvised cadenza has received some

attention in the literature. Swain, in his article "Form and Function of the Classical

Cadenza"27 analyses major characteristics of the Mozart and Beethoven cadenzas and

suggests that performers should take an innovative approach in creating new cadenzas for the Classical concertos. He is one of the few scholars who encourage the writing of new cadenzas. It is not merely in order to allow for the creativity of the performer, but also because in his view, creative new cadenzas enhance the effect of the work. In his words:

"A deepening appreciation of the cadenza, not just as a flashy solo that uses the themes of the concerto, but as a functioning part of the whole concerto form as well, can only help performers choose and compose cadenzas that will increase, rather than spoil, the pleasure of hearing these works."28

An article of major significance is Richard Kramer’s "Cadenza Contra Text:

Mozart in Beethoven's Hands." Kramer examines the two cadenzas written by Beethoven to Mozart’s Piano Concerto, K. 466, and raises the question of whether the cadenza's function is an embellishment or reflection on the movement. He deals with the performer’s dilemma as to whether to play Beethoven’s cadenza to Mozart’s Concerto in a "Beethovenian manner" or in a "Mozartian manner." Kramer maintains that if the piece is played with Beethoven’s cadenza, it becomes in effect Beethoven's work, as the effect

26 Lydia Hailparn. "Exploring Cadenzas to Beethoven's Piano Concertos." College Music Symposium 21 (1981): 48-59.

27 Joseph Swain. "Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza." The Journal of Musicology 6 (1988): 27-60.

28 Swain, p. 59.

12 of the cadenza is crucial in the actual concert experience. He believes that the cadenza mediates between the rhetoric of the performance and that of the composition. Kramer is the first scholar who treats the cadenza not as a separate unit of the movement but as an integral part that effects the perception of the piece as a whole. However, he does not expand his research beyond Beethoven's cadenzas to a Mozart's concerto.

In sum, although substantial literature exists on the concerto in general and on

Beethoven’s concertos and cadenzas in particular, there has been no study yet that aims

to view the cadenza in the context of the concerto as a whole. The cadenzas are mostly

viewed as separate entities and analyzed according to accepted "rules" of cadenza writing

which were popular up until the beginning of the nineteenth-century. The clash that

emerges between styles and compositional concepts when a Beethoven concerto is

performed with a Romantic-style cadenza has never been addressed.

This study will show how the cadenza reinterprets the piece in question and

becomes a moment in the work where performers and composers may express their own

compositional thoughts about the piece. This active participation creates a shared rhetoric

of two active players, the composer and the performer.

13 1.3 Scope and Methodology

The cadenzas chosen to be discussed in this work were carefully selected from the

over forty cadenzas written to Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto by nineteenth and

twentieth-century composers and performers. Although an in-depth exploration of all

cadenzas would have been best in order to exhaust the subject, doing so would have

extended well beyond the scope of this study. It is necessary to stress again that the aim

of this dissertation is not the analysis or the stylistic discussion of the cadenzas per se, but rather the exploration of that complex conceptual context that determines how a composer or performer thought about the problematic nature of the cadenza, one that includes issues of authority, artistic integrity, style and questions of improvisation and the

like. Or to say it differently: the emphasis of the discussions is less on the cadenza in

itself than on the ideas about the problematic nature of the cadenza as seen by the person

who wrote it.

Therefore the first criterion in choosing the cadenzas to be discussed in this work

was that a cadenza had to be written by a person who left behind other works, be it

compositions or theoretical writings that illustrate his or her ideas about cadenza-writing.

For instance, composers who wrote concertos themselves and/or left behind several

cadenzas composed to concertos of Beethoven or other composers, or composers or

analysts who wrote about the issue of cadenza (or related issues like improvisation or

performance practice) met this criterion. The second criterion, although seemingly

subjective, was no less important: those were cadenzas which appeared to the author of

this work as provocative. The word provocative is used here to mean that a given cadenza

14 is conceived in such a manner that it challenges the conventional assumptions of its era in

terms of cadenza-writing. Clara Schumann’s cadenza, for instance, fits both criteria

perfectly.

The third criterion was to select a group of cadenzas in a way that the totality

would give a balanced general picture of the approaches to cadenza writing throughout

the span of the Romantic and Early Modern periods. Thus, in order to give a complete

overview, it was necessary to choose a few works that were not provocative in the sense

that had been defined above, but rather illustrate the growing decline in cadenza writing

in the twentieth-century. Thus Tovey was selected in order to illustrate the new

conservatism of a twentieth-century musician who although devoted a lot of thought to the cadenza, was essentially less daring in his own work than his Romantic predecessors.

In general, cadenzas which appeared neither provocative, nor representative of some historical direction were not included in this dissertation, even if it they were written by important composers. One could argue, for instance, for the inclusion of the cadenzas of Ignaz Moscheles (1794-1870) since Moscheles was the only composer of our list who knew Beethoven personally. One could also argue for including Bülow and d’Albert29 simply because both were important musical figures of their era. But in spite

of their fame and importance, and relative authority in the case of Moscheles, the

cadenzas of these composers appeared neither strikingly original, nor representative of

their time. In essence, their cadenzas exemplify virtuoso bravura writing on a high level.

After reviewing the complete collection, the cadenzas chosen to be discussed in

this work are those by Clara Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Ferruccio Busoni, Anton

Rubinstein, Francis D. Tovey, Wilhelm Kempff, Nicholas Medtner and Robert Levin.

29 Bülow lived in 1830-1894 & d’Albert in 1864-1932.

15 All selected composers had extraordinary performing careers and strong improvisational skills. They each wrote cadenzas in a distinctly different manner that

reflected not only their compositional style but also their conception of Beethoven’s

Concerto and the function of the cadenza within it. Therefore, this thesis will also

examine the composers' broader attitude towards piano concerto writing in general, and

the cadenzas they wrote for their own concertos in particular. Brahms, for instance,

perceived the cadenza as a second development section (such as his cadenzas for the

Beethoven and Mozart concertos)30, whereas Busoni perceived it as a means to create a more holistic, cyclic form through the unification of various themes.

In addition, this thesis will examine Beethoven's own cadenzas, since they have never been considered for their interpretative value in the context of the work as a whole.

In sum, three viewpoints will be examined in the course of this dissertation: a. The composer's viewpoint about Beethoven and his Fourth Piano Concerto. b. The composer's viewpoint about the role of the cadenza. c. The composer's unique manner of inserting a "Romantic" style cadenza into a

"Classical" text (stylistic integrity challenge).

Chapter 2 gives a general overview of Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto, its innovations, thematic treatment and dramatic features. Chapter 3 analyzes the cadenzas that were written by Beethoven for his Fourth Piano Concerto. They will serve as a basis for comparison with the later cadenzas written by Romantic composers. Chapters 4

through 7 discuss the cadenzas written by Clara Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Ferruccio

Busoni and Anton Rubinstein respectively. Chapter 8 touches upon cadenzas that were

30 Brahms wrote cadenzas for Bach's D minor Concerto, Mozart's Concertos K. 453, K. 466, K. 491 and Beethoven Concertos op. 37 and op. 58.

16 written for the Fourth Piano Concerto by Modern composers. Chapter 9 draws upon the

preceding chapters to discuss the cadenzas’ effect upon the different movements and on the Concerto as a whole. Appendix 3 contains the detailed analysis for each cadenza in

comparative charts, taking into account the following criteria: length, selection of themes,

thematic treatment and use of dramatic effects, general outline and structural design, use of modes, performance markings and use of rubato, harmonic progressions,

compositional language, use of improvisational material and virtuosic elements, orchestral versus soloist writing, placement of climax, rhetoric and idioms the cadenza aims to project, sources of inspiration, and identity type (composer/ performer/ listener oriented). These criteria will be applied to the cadenzas of both the first and third movements of Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto.

As mentioned above, among the various composers who wrote cadenzas for

Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto, only eight representatives have been chosen to fit

into the uttered categories. Yet, it would still be interesting to examine other composers

who are not necessarily goverened by the categories of this current research. One possibility would be to look at twentieth-century performers of the French and German school (Backhaus, Bowen, Casadesus, Friedman, Fischer and Weiner)31. In general, these

composers/ performers were found to approach the cadenza in a more traditional way, trying to pursue a Classical perspective of harmonic language, structure and size.

Another possibility would be to explore the twentieth- century performers of the

Russian school (Nikolaiev, Feinberg, Michnowsky and Sorokin). These performers

tended to treat the cadenza as a platform for magnificent virtuosity and a daring, post-

romantic harmonic language, which had to find its path back into Beethoven's text.

31 For a full list of cadenzas, refer to Appendix 2.

17 Chapter II

New Structural Ideas in Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto

2.1 The Place of the Fourth Piano Concerto in Beethoven’s Oeuvre

Beethoven composed the Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58 in 1806 - 1807. He was also the soloist in its first public performance, which was held at the Theatre an der Wien on December 22, 1808. Aside from the Concerto, the concert included the performance of the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies, as well as the newly written Choral

Fantasy, op. 80.1

The decade in which the Fourth Piano Concerto was written, known as

Beethoven’s "middle period", is considered the most prolific period for the composer.

The Heiligenstadt Testament of 1802 and the composition of the Third Symphony in

1803 mark the beginning of Beethoven’s "middle" or "heroic" period.2 Around that time, Carl Czerny, who was the composer’s student, quoted Beethoven’s words to his friend Krumpholz: "I am not satisfied with the works I have written so far. From now on I am taking a new direction."3 Indeed, this period is not only more prolific, but also reveals new horizons in Beethoven’s compositional language, leading towards

1 Barry Cooper. Beethoven. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 355.

2 Michael Thomas Roeder. A History of the Concerto. Amadeus Press, 1994, p. 185. Also refer to Anthony Hopkins. The Seven Concertos of Beethoven. Aldershot, Hants: Scolar Press, 1996.

3 Carl Czerny. On the Proper Performance of all Beethoven’s Works for the Piano. Ed. Paul Badura- Skoda. Vienna: Universal Edition (Wiener Urtext Ausgabe), 1970, p. 13.

18 more Romantic approach. The Fourth Piano Concerto is one such milestone, opening new vistas in Beethoven’s Piano Concertos, and indeed in the whole genre.4

One Romantic feature immediately evident in this Concerto is the use of a new piano. In 1803, Beethoven was given a new piano by the Parisian maker, Sebastian

Erard. This new piano had an extended range of a fourth higher and was triple-strung, as opposed to the former Viennese pianos that had used only two strings for each note.5 In addition, this piano had a unique feature of four pedals: a lute stop, a damper pedal, a buff and a hushed una corda.6 These pedals replaced the knee levers that had been used in the old Viennese pianos, enabling the performer to attain greater control of sonorities.

Thomas Roeder emphasizes that the innovations in the new piano placed increased tension upon the instrument and thus required a heavier construction and a player’s deeper touch. These changes created a broader dynamic range (reaching fff – ppp), as well as new tone colors that had not been attainable in the older models.7

Leon Platinga comments that while in his early sonatas and concertos, Beethoven struggled with the upper part of the instrument, in Concerto op. 58 there is a new use of c’’’, creating a special feature of an individual “Solo Persona” sound.8

It is not surprising, therefore, that starting with Beethoven; the piano was increasingly perceived as a massive force, equal to a full orchestral sound. As the

4 From 1806- 1806 Beethoven composed the 4th, 5th and 6th Symphonies, the Cello Sonata op. 69, the Piano Trios op. 70, the Mass in C, the Coriolan Overtures, the “Razumovsky” Quartets, the Fifth Piano Concerto and the Violin Concerto.

5 Patrick Charles Fuery. Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto op. 58: Its Strategy and Design, An Analytic and Performance Practice Study. Stanford University: Ph.D. Thesis, p. 14.

6 For more details regarding the features of each pedal see Fuery, pp. 14-17.

7 Michael Roeder. A History of the Concerto. Ed. Reinhard G. Pauly. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1994, p. 184.

8 Leon Platinga. Beethoven Concertos: History, Style, Performance. NY: Norton, 1999, p. 202. (The use of the upper c’’’ occurs in the first movement, bars 300 and 310).

19 century wore on, the orchestral quality of the piano sound became an inherent characteristic of the piano concerto. However, the novelty of Piano Concerto op. 58 goes beyond innovations in instrumental technique and sonority. It is modern in terms of form, tonal scheme, harmonic language and interaction between movements.

These novelties all serve the central idea of new aesthetic principles.

2.2 The Dramatization of the Contrast between Orchestra and Piano

The main idea of Concerto op. 58 is that of drama; the conflict between opposing forces: between piano and orchestra; heroic and lyric; tender melodies and march-like rhythm. Although the piano-orchestra conflict has always been the essence of the concerto genre, Beethoven intensifies this conflict and turns it into the central theme of the piece.

The dramatization of the orchestra-piano conflict also reshapes the narrative of the Concerto. The conflict no longer proceeds in the balanced Classical way, in which piano and orchestra subsequently share time and formal functions according to an established pattern. Here the conflict becomes the “motto” of the entire piece, a

“motto” that is stated immediately at the beginning of the piece.9

The idea of a lyrical theme at the beginning of a concerto challenges basic stylistic conventions. Furthermore, this opening stands in contrast with the underlying character of the piece as a whole, a bravura concerto with highly virtuosic

9 Leonard Ratner. Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style. New York: Schirmer, 1980, p. 434. Ratner observes that one of the main characteristics of Beethoven’ middle period was the tendency to present a musical conflict immediately at the beginning and then resolve it over the course of an entire movement.

20 material, technically demanding passages, improvisations and full use of the new piano range.10

In the Fourth Piano Concerto, the first fourteen bars of the first movement are the key to understanding the dramatic concept of the piece. The Concerto begins with a piano solo, in p dolce, with an asymmetric five-bar phrase in the tonic key, G major.

This phrase, which forms the first motive (A), is followed by the strings, playing the same motive in pp. The repeated phrase, however, is expanded to an asymmetric phrase of nine bars and is also transposed to the unrelated key of B major (example no. 2.1). Such an abrupt key change, from G major to B major, at the very beginning of the piece, has no precedence in the tradition.11

Example No 2.1:

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58: The phrasal asymmetry in the opening of the Concerto, bars 1-13.

There are some earlier Beethoven works that begin with a motive in piano (for example: Piano Concerto No. 1, Piano Sonatas op. 27, No.1 & 2, op. 31, No. 2, op. 53

10 Charles Fuery suggests that the halting beginning of the movement is derived from the idea of operatic aria, where the piano anticipates the entrance of the singer. Here, the singer’s role is taken over by the orchestra.

11 Fuery, pp. 50-57. (Refer also to Roeder, Platinga, Veinus, Lockwood, Tovey and Dennis).

21 and op. 57). It is also not the first instance of a piano solo opening the concerto.

Mozart‘s Concerto K. 271 in E flat major begins with a piano solo. However, in that

Concerto, the piano functions as a partner, in a playful dialogue with the orchestra, the theme presented in the same key and in a question-answer format. Thames Hudson regards the piano solo in the opening of K. 271 as "an extra dimension" of the orchestra, an integral part of the orchestral exposition, after which the piano enters again at the proper place in the form.12

In Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, the opening solo theme is self-contained, and the piano remains silent during the rest of the orchestral exposition.13 The dolce indication, the chordal texture, the declamatory note repetitions, and the sudden emphatic gesture (with a scalar upward run) endow it with a dreamy, hesitant, lyrical character, evoking both declamation and choral quality.14

The idea of two entities – the piano theme and the orchestral theme – confronting one another continues to be apparent throughout the Concerto. It reaches its climax in the second movement (example no. 2.2), where the orchestra begins with a dotted rhythm, harsh, military-like theme (marked f and sempre staccato), clashing with the piano’s response, an intimate, delicate, choral-like theme (slurred and marked p and molto cantabile).

12 Barry Cooper. Ed. Beethoven Compendium. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1991, p. 218.

13 It is only in the Fourth and Fifth Piano Concertos that Beethoven opens the piece with a piano solo.

14 Charles Furey suggests that the halting beginning of the movement is derived from the idea of operatic aria, where the piano anticipates the entrance of the singer. Here, the singer’s role is taken over by the orchestra.

22 Example No. 2.2

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 2nd Movement, bars 1-13; conflict between orchestral and piano themes.

2.3 Improvisatory Coda and Cadenza-like Writing

Beethoven’s affinity for creating a freer form in the Concerto is apparent in other aspects as well. From the Third Piano Concerto onward, the soloist joins the orchestra after concluding the cadenza, playing through the very end of the movement; an act which puts the soloist on equal footing with the orchestra. The

Fourth Piano Concerto brings yet another innovative act. The beginning of the recapitulation is marked by a piano solo (first movement, bar 253), not by the conventional orchestra, thus blurring the formerly clear boundaries between the role of the soloist and that of the orchestra.15

15 Stephen D. Lindeman. Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1999, pp. 22-26.

23 One of the most apparent signs of Beethoven’s dramatization of form can be seen in his innovative use of cadenzas. The Fourth Piano Concerto is the first concerto with two ad- libitum cadenzas. Besides the conventional place before the final ritornello of the first movement, there is a cadenza in the third movement as well.16

Moreover, bars 55-63 in the second movement suggest a cadenza-like piano section even though they are not part of an "official" cadenza (example no. 2.3).

Example No. 2.3

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 2nd Movement, bars 55-63.

Thus, there are actually three cadenzas in this concerto. Apart from being unusual, this design shows how the "cadenza concept" permeates sections other than its designated place in the form: the cadenza-like material becomes integral to the movement as a whole.

16 The only concerto to have two ad libitum cadenzas, both in the first and third movements, is the Violin Concerto op. 61, written in 1806, the same year as the Fourth Piano Concerto.

24 Finally, the relation between freer form and the role of the cadenza could not be fully discussed without considering what Tovey calls the "enormous coda" of the third movement.17 Platinga also noted that the coda contains more than one quarter of the movement.18 Its design serves as an example of how Beethoven expands the form toward improvisation and fantasy. The listeners are led to believe again and again that the end of the piece is approaching, but the ending is delayed by constantly evolving coda-like or fantasy-like sections.

Coda-like features appear as early as bar 443. Broken piano chords in fortissimo with citations of the ritornello theme in the winds announce that the movement is about to conclude (example no. 2.4).

Example No. 2.4

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rd movement, bars 443-447.

17 Donald Tovey. Essays in Musical Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981. Vol. 3, p. 81.

18 Leon Platinga. Beethoven Concertos: History, Style, Performance. New York: Norton, 1999, p. 210.

25 However, instead of closure, the second theme returns in a series of modulations: from F sharp major, to C major to G major (bars 459-471, example no.

2.5).

Example 2.5

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rd movement, bars 459-471.

In bar 479 we are once again led to believe that the movement is about to conclude: the piano announces the dominant D (V/G) in affirming, accelerating scales in unison. And again, instead of closure, a piano cadenza “sia corta”19 is added (bar

499) followed by a citation of the ritornello theme in the tonic key. This is the first time the ritornello is heard in the winds, transforming it into a lyrical theme (bars 520-

545, example no. 2.6).

19 A short cadenza.

26 Example No. 2.6

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rd movement, bars 520-531.

It is only at bar 546 that the “real” coda begins with a piano dolce recitative that is followed by a final presto section. This section is characterized by double trills and a final return of the ritornello in a full orchestral fortissimo (example no. 2.7).

Example No. 2.7

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rd movement, bars 546-556.

27 What did Beethoven try to achieve by creating a coda that lasts one-fourth of the whole movement? In my view, this section is a hidden cadenza. The thematic material is highly improvisational; themes appear in hints and in character transformation, modulations occur, accelerating scales in unison are used abundantly, as are recitative-like passages and double trills. Though a substantial part of these features could also characterize a development, the affirmation of the tonic and the stretto towards a conclusion imply a coda with “cadenza-like” features.

28

2.4 Unity across Movements

Beethoven developed the concerto form in another direction as well; he began to perceive the three-movement form as one integral unit. As the century wore on, the idea of unified form became an essential feature of the concerto. The movements of the Romantic concerto were either connected by common thematic material or composed as one continuous movement. Moscheles’ 7th and 8th Piano Concertos,

Schumann’s Cello Concerto, Mendelssohn 1st Piano Concerto and Liszt 2nd Piano

Concerto for example, were written as one-movement symphonic poems.20 In

Concerto op. 58, Beethoven does not go as far, yet the seed of some of these ideas are already apparent.

The overall tonal scheme of the piece forms a C major triad, which alludes to the atypical key chosen to begin the last movement. The first movement is in G major, the second is in E minor and the Finale is commencing in C major (later returning to the home key of G), forming thus the major triad through its movements' introductions G-E-C.21 The beginnings of the movements are also connected through their phrase structure, in the use of asymmetry that was introduced in the first movement. Both the first and second movements open with an asymmetric five-bar phrase,22 while the Finale begins with an orchestral ten-bar phrase (see example no.

2.8). This consistent asymmetrical phrasing at the beginning of each of the movements is unlikely to be a mere coincidence.

20 Leon Platinga. Beethoven Concertos: History, Style, Performance. p. 210.

21 Ezra Rust. The First Movements of Beethoven's Piano Concertos. Ph.D. Diss., Musicology: University of California, 1970, pp. 268-271.

22 See list of themes, Appendix 1.

29

Example No. 2.8

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rd Movement, bars 1-20.

Furey suggests another aspect that creates unity among the main themes. He observes that though none of the themes begins with an upbeat, they all share a long agogic accent on their first beat.23 Rust points out the rhythmic similarities between the opening themes of each movement, all sharing a repetitive note motive.24

Beethoven experiments in the first movement with thematic character transformations, a technique that is to become central to Romantic form (especially with Liszt). The themes of this movement take on contrasting characters, that is, a theme is repeated in a sharply different character from that of its first appearance in the movement. The lyrical first theme in the opening bars of the piano returns as a

23 Charles Furey. pp. 61-64.

24 Ezra G. Rust. The First Movements of Beethoven's Piano Concertos. PhD. Diss., Musicology: University of California, 1970, pp. 270-271.

30 heroic, bravura theme at the beginning of the recapitulation in bars 253-257 and as espressivo in the coda, bars 356-361 (example no. 2.9 and example no. 2.10).

Example No. 2.9

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, recapitulation, bars 253-257.

Example No. 2.10

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, bars 356-361.

31 The dotted-rhythm, march-like second theme (B2) in bars 50- 58 (example no.

2.11), recapitulates as "dolce e con espressione" in bars 170-174 (example no. 2.12), and as p dolce following the cadenza in bars 347-353 (example no. 2.13).

Example No. 2.11

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, the original B2 theme, bars 50-58.

Example No. 2.12

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, bars 170-174.

32 Example No. 2.13

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, bars 347 -353.

Thematic transformations are unique in that they serve a double function. On the one hand they provide connectivity by originating from one theme. On the other hand, they pull away from connectivity through progressive change of the original character of the theme.

2.5 Integrity through Thematic Derivation: The Six "Elements"

Aside from the use of thematic transformations, Beethoven also uses thematic derivation for the purpose of connecting different themes through similar elements.25

The first movement uses several themes of various characters, yet all themes ultimately belong to two basic contrasting types: a lyric, choral-like theme on the one

25 Thematic derivation refers to the technique of creating new themes or motives heard earlier in the composition. The word "derivation" means in this context that the new theme or motive is a variant of the original theme/ motive and that it is arrived at by some developmental technique, such as fragmentation, addition or elimination of notes, subtle changes of rhythm, etc. Thematic transformation refers to the technique of thematic variations in the course of which the character of the theme changes. The two techniques may, but do not necessarily overlap; thematic derivation may or may not result in thematic transformation.

33 hand (first appearing in theme A, example no. 2.14), and a dotted-rhythm, energetic, theme on the other hand (first appearing in theme B1, bar 29, example no. 2.15).

Example No 2.14

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, the A motive, bars 1-5.

Example No. 2.15

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, the B1 Motive, bars 29-32.

Despite their contrast, the first-movement themes are integrated through six melodic and rhythmic elements taken from the two main themes, A and B1. The six elements are: a repetitive note pattern, syncopation, appoggiatura, ascending and descending scale, dotted-rhythm and triplets. Through these six elements, the two themes, A and B1,26 become the foundation for the rest of the themes and motives that appear not only in the first movement, but in the piece as a whole.

26 For a full list of all themes, refer to Appendix 1.

34 The first A theme (bars 1-5) contains four of the "six elements": the repetitive note pattern (bar 1-2), the appoggiatura element (bar 2), the syncopation element (bar

3), and the ascending and descending scale element (bars 4-5). The B1 theme (bars

29-32) introduces the two other elements - the dotted rhythm element in the first violin section, cellos and double basses and the use of triplets in the second violins and the violas (example no. 2.14 and example no. 2.15).

All the ensuing themes are derived from these six elements. In the second exposition (bars 74-191), Beethoven uses two new themes right after the A theme.

These new themes are derived from both themes (A and B), though they are unique in the sense that each theme is always played by the same instrument and will never be transformed. The first new theme (theme A2, bars 105-111) is played by the piano. It uses the rhythmic pattern of theme A in its right hand part, as well as the appoggiatura element (bar 2), and the triplets of theme B1 in the left hand part (example no. 2.16).

Example No. 2.16

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, the A2 theme, bars 105-111.

35 The second new theme (theme C, bars 119-123) is played by the orchestra. It uses the choral-like character and the syncopation element of theme A (see the two sf in bar 121) and the dotted-rhythm element of theme B1. The appoggiatura element appears in its piano accompaniment (example no. 2.17).

Example No. 2.17

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, C theme, bars 119-123.

The two opposing themes, A and B1, extend beyond the scope of the movement, serving as the starting point for generating the thematic material of the second and third movements as well. The opening orchestral theme of the second movement is based on a unison motive in dotted- rhythm, and answered by the piano in what is reminiscent of the choral-like opening of the first movement. It is to be played softly in legato and molto cantabile.27 In the main theme of the third movement there is an explicit use of both the repeated-note element (see the piano

27 Refer to example no. 2.2.

36 right hand, example no. 2.3) and the syncopation element (left hand).28 The second theme in the upper register (bars 80-92) makes new use of the melodic element of ascending and descending scale, as well as the appoggiatura element in its third and seventh bar (example no. 2.18).

Example No. 2.18

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 3rdt movement, 2nd theme, bars 80-92.

The use of the six elements is not limited to thematic derivation. Some of the elements are featured in other musical layers, such as the accompaniment. The repetitive note element in the opening theme, for example, permeates most of the accompanying material even when the theme itself is not heard. This motive – repetition of eighth notes leading to a long note on the downbeat – has a specific connotation in Beethoven’s musical language. This is the motive that is commonly referred to as the "fate motive", appearing most prominently in the first movement of

28 Refer to example no. 2.3.

37 the Fifth Symphony and that of Sonata in F minor, op. 57, "Appassionata." Both these works, together with the Fourth Piano Concerto, were written during the years

1804-1808.29 Furthermore, the sketches for the Fourth Piano Concerto and the Fifth

Symphony were found side by side in Beethoven’s notebook, and thus it is unlikely that Beethoven would not have noticed the similarity of these motives and that of the

Concerto. Yet, unlike the Fifth Symphony and the “Appassionata,” the Concerto does not develop the semantic potential of the motive.30

The triplet element is also apparent in non-thematic material. The sense of fantasia in the Fourth Piano Concerto is mainly due to Beethoven’s frequent use of the triplets. Yet, the triplets are not merely for the sake of creating an effect of improvisation. Although playing them is technically demanding and requires a great deal of virtuosity, they are there for functional reasons as well. They empower the harmonic tension, supply a countersubject to the underlying stated themes, and create bridges and rests between the various sections of the movement and its main thematic material.

The inventive use of these six elements is of primary importance in the development section. As opposed to a more Classical approach, in which the development section transforms the themes appearing in the exposition, Beethoven develops here the "six elements" rather than the themes. Though all the elements are utilized in the development, the triplets are its core, permeating the section.

The only theme that appears in its entirety in the development is the A theme, but even this is transformed through the addition or incorporation of one of those of

29 The Sonata “Appassionata” op. 57 was written in 1804, the Concerto in between 1806-1807 and the Fifth Symphony in 1808.

30 Basil, Deane. “The Concertos” in The Beethoven Reader. Arnold Dennis & Nigel Forture. Ed. New York: Norton & Company, 1971, p. 325.

38 the six elements that originally were not part of the theme. For instance, in bars 203-

215, the A motive is played in its tranquil character by the winds under the legato strings’ triplets (example no. 2.19).

Example 2.19

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, bars 203-215.

In bars 219-220, the solo piano plays the A motive in diminution while the dotted- rhythm element is present (example no. 2.20).

Example No. 2.20

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, bars 219-220.

39

In bars 231-234, the strings take over the A theme in pizzicato while the piano plays a C sharp minor descending scale in unisons, marked dolce pp. The scale motive that was introduced at bar 4 in a major and upper scale version now appears in a minor descending mode, played unisono in p. (example no. 2.21).

Example No. 2.21

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, 1st movement, A motive under the descending-scale motive, bars 231-232.

The six "elements" are connected to Beethoven’s thematic transformations in that they facilitated the creation of a wide variety of thematic transformations in the exposition and the development parts. It would therefore be challenging to check if and how the Romantics utilized the six elements, whether they used them for thematic transformations or whether they created their own micro patterns when writing cadenzas to Beethoven’s Concertos.

40

2.6 The Ambiguous Function of the Second Movement

In Concerto op. 58, the function of first movement is to ground the thematic material and form tonal and harmonic relations. However, the function of the second movement has long been an enigma. On the one hand, it develops a basic idea of the first movement, the contrast between piano and orchestra. The battle between the opposed forces of piano and orchestra appears here in an extreme form. On the other hand, this movement also functions as an introduction to the Finale, as often seen in later nineteenth-century concertos.31 It glides into the third movement without a pause, sharing the very same note, E.32 Furey and Platinga link the two last movements together. They emphasize that the concise second movement hardly deviates from its tonality of E minor and keeps to a rather limited thematic material, thus strengthening the hypothesis of it being an introductory movement.33

Lewis Lockwood comments that the bond between the Concerto movements through the second movement enhances the sense of an unfolding drama. He suggests that the orchestration of the B major theme in the first movement of the Concerto (bar

6) hints to the orchestration choice Beethoven makes in the theme of the second movement. In both cases only the strings are used. The beginning of the first movement could be better understood in retrospect, after examining the repeated

31 Charles Rosen. The Classical Style. New York: Norton, 1972, p. 392.

32 In his Fifth Piano Concerto, Beethoven goes further by anticipating the third movement theme in the very last bars of the second movement, thus blurring the known boundaries between the last two movements of the concerto.

33 Furey, pp. 51-108; Leon Platinga, pp. 185-204.

41 choice of opposed forces, eventually reaching a climax in the first half of the second movement, as Lockwood puts it:

We should remember that the gentle opening of the Fourth Piano Concerto brings the first phrase by the piano solo, then the answering phrase, with a harmonic contradiction by the strings alone. Thus the beginning of the whole Concerto foreshadows the opposition of forces that is worked out so dramatically and rhetorically in the slow movement as if the Piano were in its operatic soloist and the work were a special kind of music drama.34

Dennis Matthews goes even further, showing that in both the first and second movements, the two opposing harmonic forces reach B major. In the first movement the piano starts in G major followed by the orchestral response in B major, while in the second movement, the orchestra begins with an E minor motive, answered by the piano in B major.35

Many theorists comment that the drama in the Fourth Piano Concerto, particularly in the second movement, is enhanced by several programmatic attributes.

Carl Czerny claimed that "In this movement one can not help thinking of an antique tragic scene and the player must feel with what intense, pathetic expression this solo is performed, in order to contrast with the powerful and austere orchestral passages, which are, as it were, gradually withdrawn."36 Owen Jander argues that this movement is "Beethoven’s most elaborate venture into the realm of program music."37 Ten years later, in another article on this movement, Jander expands his opinion about the Concerto’s dependence upon the Orpheus myth. He suggests that

34 Lewis Lockwood. Beethoven: The Music and the Life. NY: Norton, 2003, p. 244. 35 Dennis Matthews. Beethoven. London: Dent, 1990, p. 177.

36 Carl Czerny. On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven's Works for the Piano. Ed. Paul Badura- Skoda. Vienna: Universal Edition (Wiener Urtext Ausgabe), 1970, p. 110.

37 Owen Jander. "Beethoven's 'Orpheus in Hades': The Andante con moto of the Fourth Piano Concerto." 19th Century Music 8 (1985), p. 196.

42 Beethoven may have based his idea on Glucks’ Orfeo ed Euridice and on operas by

Johann Gottlieb Naumann and Friedrich August Kanne.38

William Kinderman argues that linking the second movement with the

Orpheus myth is not a problem, as long as we do not limit the music to this association.39 Unfortunately, Beethoven did not leave us with any specified dramatic personae, and as Platinga remarks: "any comparison to certain programmatic scenes is to be taken in restrain."40

The functional multiplicity of the second movement, functioning concurrently as an introduction to the Finale, a dramatic dialogue between piano and orchestra and as programmatic music, makes it difficult to locate the dramatic peak in the Concerto as a whole. If the second movement functions as an introduction to the Finale, how could it function as a dramatic climax of the entire concerto as well? I believe that the climactic point of the Fourth Piano Concerto can not be defined without reexamining the concept of climax in a concerto within a larger context, that is, the concerto together with its cadenzas. This thesis will show that by including the cadenza in the scheme of a movement, form and climax take on a whole new perspective, both within a movement and in the musical work as a whole.

The next chapter will examine Beethoven’s original cadenzas within the larger context of a concerto movement. It will serve as a platform for understanding the later cadenzas that were written to Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58 by Romantic composers.

38 Owen Jander. "Orpheus Revisited: A Ten- Year Retrospect on the Andante con moto of Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto." 19th Century Music 19/1 (summer 1995), pp. 31-49.

39 William Kinderman. Beethoven. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 113-116.

40 Leon Platinga. Beethoven Concertos: History, Style, Performance. New York: Norton, 1999, pp. 185-194.

43 Chapter III

The Cadenzas Composed by Beethoven

3.1 Historical Background

Beethoven wrote the ad libitum1 cadenzas for his first four piano concertos in

18092, several years after the composition of the concertos.3 This strange legacy of

Beethoven – a set of cadenzas composed retrospectively for four concertos – has long

intrigued performers and scholars and yet, to this day, some essential questions

concerning them remain unanswered. One cannot know for sure why Beethoven thought

it necessary to notate his cadenza-improvisations exactly at that time for pieces he had

written some time before. Was it Beethoven’s intention to provide, retrospectively, a

definitive "authentic" cadenza for the earlier compositions?

Among Beethoven scholars, there is a variety of opinions as to the significance

and meaning of these cadenzas. One assumption is that Beethoven was inspired by two

eighteenth-century treatises, with which he was preoccupied at the time, those of C.P.E.

Bach and G. Türk. Bach and Türk devoted substantial sections in their books to the

1 Philip Whitmore defines ad libitum cadenza as one that can be replaced by a composer or performer other than the composer of the work (See Unpremeditated Art. p. 219).

2 The cadenzas were published in 1864 by Breitkopf and Härtel.

3 The dates of the composition of the piano concertos: op. 15: 1795-1800, op. 19: 1793-1798, op. 37: 1800, op. 58: 1806, op. 73: 1809.

44 methods of cadenza improvisation.4 It was also at that time that Beethoven became occupied with the instruction of Archduke Rudolf.5 It is therefore possible that he wrote

the cadenzas for pedagogical reasons.

Another possible reason for Beethoven’s sudden interest in writing the cadenzas

in 1809 is that two years before, he had retired from the concert stage as a performer. His

increased deafness made it difficult for him to perform in public or to hear other

musicians. It may be that Beethoven felt an urge to preserve his improvisations in order

to provide an example of his preferred style of cadenzas.

For whatever reason, it appears that Beethoven had an increased interest in having

more control over future performances of his concertos. The fact that he wrote all

cadenzas at the same time signals that this project meant more to him than just a passing

interest in notating some improvisations; he wanted to create a systematic and complete collection of the cadenzas. Furthermore, in the Fifth Concerto, op. 73, which Beethoven composed also in 1809, he no longer allowed an improvised cadenza, but inserted his composed version into the score. Similarly, six years later, in 1815, he planned a fully notated cadenza for his unfinished Sixth Piano Concerto.6

Nevertheless, Beethoven’s apparent need for more control in future performances

of his cadenzas does not necessarily mean that he would have objected to pianists playing

their own improvisations. An episode involving his pupil, Ferdinand Ries, who

4 C.P.E. Bach: Versuch Bach's Versuch über die wahre Art daas Clavier zu speilen, Vol. 2, written in 1753, and Daniel Gottlob Türk's Clavierschule of 1789. See Richard Friedman. The Original Cadenzas in the Piano Concertos of Beethoven: An Analysis. Ph.D. Diss., Musicology: Boston University, 1989, p. 4.

5 Richard Kramer. "Cadenza Contra Text: Mozart in Beethoven's Hands." 19th Century Music 15 (1991): 25.

6 Lewis Lockwood. "Beethoven's Unfinished Piano Concerto of 1815: Sources and Problems." The Musical Quarterly 56 (1970): 627.

45 performed the C minor Concerto, op. 37, in 1804, is telling of Beethoven’s attitude.

When Ries asked the composer to write a cadenza for this piece, Beethoven refused to do

so and told Ries to write his own instead, while he would be glad to correct it afterwards.7

Even though this occurred some years before Beethoven’s writing of the cadenzas, there

is no reason to suppose that his attitude changed radically. Ries’ request indicates that it

was natural for a composer to write cadenzas for his works, and apparently, it was not

unusual for a performer to rely on such previously composed cadenzas. At the same

time, Beethoven’s answer indicates that he preferred that the pianist perform his own improvisation, although he was interested in having the last word in giving it a final form.

This conversation also indicates that the cadenza was not necessarily (and perhaps not even preferably) improvised during performance but had been thought out beforehand. It was supposed to be a "composition" to which the performer had devoted considerable thought.

Beethoven did not think of his cadenzas as definite versions, as he wrote three different first movement cadenzas for two of his concertos (op. 15 and op. 58). These cadenzas differ greatly in their length, form, and dramatic processes.8 It could therefore

be concluded that Beethoven intended to record in writing a collection of possibilities for

the cadenza, thus providing models that inspire rather than limit the performer.

7 Alexander Thayer. Ed. Life of Beethoven. Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964, p. 355.

8 In op. 58, the first cadenza lasts 100 bars, the second lasts 51 bars, while the third is only 11 bars long.

46

3.2 Stylistic Eclecticism and Conceptual Integrity in Beethoven’s Cadenzas

Beethoven wrote the cadenzas for his four piano concertos at a time when he enjoyed a new six-foot piano. The new instrument enabled him to explore a greater variety of registers, sonorities and dynamic range that were not available to him when he

composed the concertos. These cadenzas, written retrospectively, exploited the potential of the new instrument to its full capacity. They show that Beethoven did not intend to

imitate the concertos’ original techniques and sonorities.

Since no notated cadenzas survive from the time of the composed concertos, we

cannot know how Beethoven played the cadenzas at that time and to what degree the

written cadenzas of 1809 represent a different style. Nonetheless, it is likely that the

1809 cadenzas were the fruits of an emerging novel approach to cadenza-improvisation, not only in their extended register and dynamics but also in their style.

Beethoven had been experimenting with the insertion of improvisation and fantasy into his piano compositions since the op. 27 sonatas (No.1 in E flat major and No.

2. in C sharp minor, 1801). His interest in extending the limits of the Classical forms

towards fantasy reached another stage with his so called "heroic period" (in the case of

the piano sonatas, especially with the F minor Sonata, op. 57, "Appassionata", 1805).

The year 1809 (the year Beethoven wrote the cadenzas) may be seen as the high point of

his preoccupation with fantasy. In this extremely productive year, besides the cadenzas, he wrote the Fifth Piano Concerto, op. 73, the Choral Fantasy, op. 80 and the Piano

Fantasia, op. 77. All three pieces open with an extensive virtuoso piano passage that

47 gives the impression of a fantasy-like improvisation. The Choral Fantasy, op. 80 and the

Piano Fantasia, op. 77, are essentially extended fantasies that do not follow the accepted

norms of any Classical form. Aside from the cadenzas, these are the only improvisatory

compositions in Beethoven’s oeuvre that he considered worth notating. It is clear that at

that time, Beethoven became fascinated with the idea of a piano fantasy that would be

extravagant both in its virtuosity and in its innovative and rhapsodic chain of musical processes.

Many Beethoven’s contemporaries wrote about the composer’s improvisation techniques. Among them were Johann Schenk9, Carl Czerny and Paul Ries. Czerny stated

that:

No piano was safe with Beethoven while he was improvising. His improvisation was brilliant and astonishing in the extreme; and no matter in what company he might be, he knew how to make such an impression on every listener that frequently there was not a single dry eye, while many broke out into loud sobs, for there was a certain magic in his expression, aside from the beauty and originality of his idea and his genial way of presenting them.10

In 1809, the very same year in which Beethoven wrote the piano cadenzas for his

concertos, Barone de Tremont remarked the following: "I maintain that unless one has

heard him improvise well and quite at ease, one can but imperfectly appreciate his vast

scope of his genius."11

Apparently, Beethoven thought it fitting to insert these new fantasy-like cadenzas

into the previously composed concertos, even though the technique and style of the

9 Johann Schenk (1753-1836) was Beethoven’s counterpoint teacher as well a theorist and opera composer.

10Harold Schonberg. The Great Pianists. NY: Simon & Schuster, 1963, p. 73; Robert Taub. Playing the Beethoven Piano Sonatas. Portland: Oregon: Amadeus Press, 2002, chapters 4 & 7.

11 William Meredith. “Beethoven's Creativity: Improvisations.” The Beethoven Newsletter 1 (1986): 25- 28.

48 cadenzas were in conflict with the style of the concertos. Similarly, in the cadenzas

Beethoven composed for Mozart’s concertos, he did not aspire for stylistic integrity.

Richard Kramer comments about Beethoven’s cadenza to Mozart's Concerto in D minor,

K. 466:

In the cadenza, Beethoven dissociates himself from a work, indeed from a style, to which he could no longer subscribe. The cadenza holds no claim to authenticity in the sense that those Mozart cadenzas do. There is no genuine engagement here with the dramaturgy and diction of the concerto. The composer in the cadenza rebukes the composer in the concerto.12

Beethoven’s cadenzas to his own concertos surely do not rebuke the composer in

the concerto. Still, they show the mark of a new Beethoven, that of the "heroic period".13

Beethoven explores here a new form of the cadenza that contrasts sharply with that of

Mozart. The most immediately noticeable difference between Mozart’s and Beethoven’s cadenzas is, of course, their technical difficulty (for instance, Mozart hardly uses double trills, while Beethoven often uses this technique both at the end of his cadenzas and at deceptive cadences within the cadenza).14 More important are the differences in style and

in the conception of form. Mozart's cadenzas are always in three sections and usually

occupy 10% of the movement,15 while Beethoven’s cadenzas have a great variety of

forms, with lengths ranging from as short as 20 bars to as long as over a hundred.16 They

12 Richard Kramer. "Cadenza Contra Text: Mozart in Beethoven's Hands." 19th Century Music 15 (1991): 123.

13 Beethoven’s "heroic period" began in 1802.

14 Examples include the second cadenza to the first movement of Concerto op. 15, last bar; third cadenza for the same movement, bars 116-121; cadenza for Concerto op. 37, bars 55-61; second cadenza to the first movement of Concerto op. 58, bars 36-51.

15 Joseph Swain. "Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza." The Journal of Musicology 6 (1988): 44.

16 The length of the first cadenza for op. 15 is 126 bars long (a length which exceeds the development section of 80 bars and nearly equals the recapitulation section of 132 bars.)

49 occupy between 10-20% of the movement,17 a considerable change in proportion. Mozart uses a dominant pedal in order to create harmonic tension and builds the cadenza around the quotations of the main thematic material. Beethoven on the other hand, explores a wide range of keys and has a variety of solutions as to which themes to use for what purpose. Furthermore, he does not merely quote the themes but elaborates on them in a developmental manner.18 Examples of this tendency can be found in the fugato-like

opening of the cadenzas for op. 15, no.1 and 2, op. 19, and op. 58, no. 1. Beethoven’s

cadenzas are replete with sudden dynamic changes and occasional changes in meter, key

signature and tempo markings (for example, in the cadenza for op. 37 and the cadenzas

for op. 58).

In spite of their fantasy-like style, Beethoven’s cadenzas for Mozart’s concertos

are more integrated with the movement than the cadenzas Mozart wrote. For Mozart, the

function of the cadenza is a grandiose dominant suspension leading to the final tutti.

Beethoven, however, integrates the cadenza into the coda, the last formal block of the

movement which is responsible for delivering the final message. As a result, the cadenza

often acts as a quasi second development, in accordance with Beethoven’s ideal of form

in which the coda is often developmental.19 As described in the previous chapter, in the

first movement of Concertos op. 37, op. 58 and op. 73, the soloist continues to play after

the end of the cadenza and keeps playing until the closing bars of the movement. This is

in sharp contrast with the Classical norms. In a Classical concerto, the piano and the

17 Joseph P. Swain. "Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza." The Journal of Musicology 6 (1988): p. 52, Table 2.

18 Eva and Paul Badura-Skoda. Interpreting Mozart on the Keyboard Instruments. Trans. Leo Black. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1962, p. 220. . 19 Paul Mies. Die Krise Der Konzertkadenz Bei Beethoven. Bonn: H. Bouvier Co. Verlag, 1970, p. 19.

50 orchestra display the contrasting functions of suspension-resolution: the feeling of suspension during the piano cadenza is resolved by the closing orchestral tutti (in the case of op. 37, since the final trill of the cadenza is not resolved in the tonic, the harmonic tension is sustained through the very end of the movement. Even after the cadenza, the piano does not merely provide an accompaniment to the tutti, but becomes a true partner of equal importance to the orchestra).20

It may sound paradoxical, but it is precisely through the loosening of the form of the cadenza and expanding it toward fantasy that Beethoven was able to reconsider its function and to make it more integral to the piece as a whole. The framework of fantasy allowed him to select themes and tonalities more freely, and fashion the connection between them in different ways. This freer framework was then exploited in a variety of ways, fulfilling whatever developments Beethoven thought proper in order to create an integral form.

But here arises the question of stylistic integrity. There was a definite desire on the part of Beethoven to integrate the cadenza into the movement, yet he cared little about the stylistic integrity of the piece (since he composed the cadenzas in a different technical and compositional frame of mind than those of the concertos). The conflict between the desire for conceptual integrity (meaning the basic structure and the message of the work) and stylistic eclecticism (meaning the technical-stylistic tools through which this integrity is expressed) will continue to be discussed in detail in the course of this study.

20 Philip Whitmore. Unpremeditated Art. pp. 195-201.

51 3.3 Beethoven's Cadenzas to his Fourth Piano Concerto in G major, Op. 58

The following analysis of Beethoven’s cadenzas will illustrate the two points

discussed above: (1) the freedom of form in the cadenzas and (2) Beethoven’s apparent

intention to integrate the cadenza into the dramatic narrative of the movement.

Beethoven wrote three cadenzas for the first movement of op. 58 and two cadenzas for

the third movement. These cadenzas differ greatly from one another in their length, use

of thematic material, rhythmic, melodic and motivic outline, and harmonic plan.21 Each

of them can be looked upon as a "study" on the movement to which they belong, as they

highlight and develop some of the movement’s aspects in order to deepen and sometimes

alter its message.

3.3.1 The Cadenzas for the First Movement

Of the three cadenzas for the first movement, the cadenza that is played today by most pianists is an extensive, one-hundred bar long fantasy, full of dramatic stops, fermatas and rhapsodic "jumps" from one theme to the other. In this cadenza, Beethoven

develops two ideas that appeared in a latent form in the core text of the movement. The

first idea relates to the first theme of the Concerto, which appears in the character of an

intimate, dolce melody in the solo entry and as a heroic, energetic joyful theme in the

recapitulation. As previously discussed, the note repetition in this opening theme is one

of the several elements Beethoven uses for thematic transformation and motivic

21 The three cadenzas for the first movement contain 100 bars, 51 bars and 11 bars respectively.

52 unification of the movement. Yet it is also used in connotation with the dark and tragic

dramatic effect of the "fate motive" appearing in both the related Fifth Symphony and the

Appassionata Sonata. In the cadenza, Beethoven explores these associations and

chooses to treat this theme in the form of the "fate motive."22 Each time he presents this

insistent, repetitive motive, it appears in 6/8 meter instead of 4/4.23 The 4/4 meter is saved for the more lyrical motives.24 The 6/8 meter and the cadenza tempo marking,

Allegro (as opposed to the Allegro Moderato of the first movement) support the dramatic

character of the "fate motive". Playing in a 6/8 meter in a fast tempo forces the listeners

to think in two beats in a bar instead of four, just as in Beethoven 5th symphony the 4/4 meter and the tempo of Allegro force the listener to hear the fate-motive in a two beat

meter. This device pushes the music forward and creates a feel of urgency which is vital

in supporting the idea of fate.

After a long improvisatory beginning a grandiose introduction based on the fate- motive, Beethoven brings back one of the second themes of the movement, a theme that until now has been played exclusively by the orchestra (Theme C, bar 119). The return of this theme in the piano at this formally accented point, as if in a spotlight, solves the mystery of the theme’s origin. In the orchestral exposition, it sounds like new theme. The fact that it is actually the condensation of the dotted-rhythm, military orchestral theme and the opening, choral-like theme of the piano is difficult to perceive due to the unusual

22 The Appassionata Sonata, op. 57 was the last piano sonata Beethoven wrote before writing the piano cadenzas in 1809.

23 See bars 1-20, 36-75, and 77-78.

24 See bars 21-45, 79-100.

53 orchestral color.25 However, when Beethoven brings back the theme at the center of the

cadenza, in the dolce performing style of the piano soloist, this connection becomes

evident.

The tension reaches its peak in the subsequent bars: the increased use of fermatas

(bars 17-20), the deceptive cadence into new thematic and metric format (bars 35-36),26 and the abrupt transitions between sections. Some transitions are accompanied by new tempo marking (bars 20-21, bars 35-36), while others consist of rapid succession of themes. It is here that Beethoven uses the themes for dramatic purposes - connecting between the heroic and lyric and between the characters of the piano and the orchestra, all through nuances that are characteristics of programmatic music.

In his second cadenza for the first movement (51 bars long), Beethoven chooses to treat only the first theme of the movement. This cadenza is rhapsodic, with sudden

shifts in tempo, dynamics and meter markings (see Appendix 4). Technically, it is as demanding as the first cadenza, but melodically, it is simpler, since it focuses on only one theme. When put into the context of the whole movement, however, the series of exuberant variations on the first theme become the climax of the recapitulation. In the movement, up to the cadenza, the first theme makes an initial journey from a dolce to a heroic voice. In the cadenza, however, the transformation pace accelerates. The first theme takes on a variety of new characters that follow one another in rapid succession, thus expanding and completing its journey of character changes.27

25 See Appendix 1 for list of themes (the dotted-rhythm, "military" theme is B1 and the choral-like theme is C).

26 Another harmonic deceptive cadence occurs at bar 66.

27 See for example the orchestra-like, dramatic opening bars of the cadenza, appearing in double octaves. This is changed to the opposite extreme in bar 33, where the theme appears in its original dolce form. Bars

54 The third cadenza for the first movement seems at first less meaningful than the

other two. It is only eleven bars long, does not contain any surprising harmonic, metric or

thematic shifts, and is based solely on the repetitive-note element which is derived from the first half of the opening theme. Furthermore, the shortness of the cadenza does not allow the virtuoso soloist to shine in the spotlight. Consequently, a more holistic approach of the movement is in order, an approach that is often used in symphonic concertos. The fact that after concluding the cadenza the soloist plays with the orchestra till the end of the movement creates a strong link between the recapitulation and the coda as well as a stronger tie between piano and orchestra.

3.3.2 The Cadenzas for the Third Movement

Beethoven wrote two short cadenzas for the third movement of the Concerto, one lasting 35 bars and the other lasting 6 bars only. The brevity of both cadenzas was intentional, as seen in the strict order Beethoven wrote in the score for future cadenza composers;28 "la cadenza sia corta." Beethoven’s preference to insert a short cadenza in

the Rondo Sonata movement affected his choice of thematic material and form.

Beethoven uses only the second, lyrical theme, which is characterized by the ascending

and descending note motive.29 There is also no pause for the virtuoso pianist to

demonstrate his skills. The technical demands required in the cadenza do not exceed the

36-39 provide another format of the theme: high registered canonic dialogue between the two hands in augmented fourths, accompanied by double trills.

28 See bar 499.

29 Refer to the previous chapter, example no. 2.13.

55 demands required in the movement itself (which could not be said regarding the first movement and its three composed cadenzas). Since the cadenza in the third movement does not initiate the final coda section, but is rather a part of it, it can be assumed that

Beethoven wanted to maintain a smooth transition to and from the cadenza within the

coda.30

The 35-bar cadenza begins with a ten-bar introduction, played in 4/4 meter and

marked forte. The five-note ascending-scale motive which dominates this part is derived

from the second theme, only in a mirrored format. Bars 11-21 present the second theme

motive in 2/4, first in C major and then in G major, between ascending scales played in

semiquavers and 4/4 meter. Those scales are derived from the piano figuration just before

the cadenza (see bars 466-487), enhancing the motivic unification between the two

sections.

The last part of the cadenza (bars 21-35) repeats the familiar arpeggio figuration that was apparent throughout the movement (for example, bars 329-353). Just as throughout the movement, Beethoven always places this improvisatory figuration after the appearance of the second theme, he does so in the cadenza as well. This is another

affirmation to the supposition that Beethoven wanted to integrate the cadenza into the rest

of the movement. The cadenza here is about creating a flash of improvisation as an

integral part of the movement rather than offering new perspectives upon open questions

raised in the course of the piece.

The 6-bar cadenza is marked presto. It functions as a bridge and transition

towards the harmonic affirmation of the dominant-seventh on D in bar 500. The phrase

consists of arpeggios based on I 6/4 chord, maintaining the tension required towards the

30 The third-movement coda begins at bar 443 whereas the cadenza beings at bar 499.

56 anticipated dominant. This cadenza supports the analysis of the first cadenza. Both are to be played as an integral part of the coda, the piano and orchestra functioning as two equal entities laid side by side.

The cadenzas that Beethoven wrote for his Fourth Piano Concerto shed an important light on the way he perceived the function and form of the Romantic cadenza.

Aside from the traditional thematic connection between the cadenza and the movement, the cadenza was given an added function of resolution, explaining ambiguous moments in the Concerto. In addition, through the cadenza, the form of the concerto was expanded into a more intricate, fantasia-like composition. With these valuable insights in mind, this thesis will now turn to evaluate cadenzas written by Romantic composers to the same

Concerto. The cadenzas discussed will be those of Clara Schumann, Brahms, Busoni,

Anton Rubinstein, Tovey, Kempff, Medtner and Robert Levin.

57 Chapter IV

Clara Schumann's Cadenzas for Beethoven Concerto Op. 58

4.1 General Background

As a prominent concert pianist of her time, Clara Schumann was highly engaged with the music of Beethoven. She received her musical education mainly from her father, Friedrich Wieck, who had personally met with the composer.

Consequently, she was exposed to the works of the Master from a very young age, and indeed by the end of her career, she had performed most of Beethoven's piano music by heart all over Europe.1

Clara was fond of playing her own cadenzas in the concertos she performed.

The first two cadenzas she composed were for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58 (first and third movement). They were written in 1846, prior to her performance of the Concerto in the Gewandhaus that October.2 In 1868, Clara wrote a cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven’s C minor Concerto, No 33 and in 1891, her two cadenzas for

Mozart’s D minor Concerto, K. 466 were published.4

Of the two cadenzas Clara Schumann wrote for Beethoven's op. 58, the one written for the third movement is more revolutionary in structure and thematic

1 Nancy Reich. Clara Schumann: The Artist and the Woman. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985, p. 263.

2 The first edition was by Reiter-Biedermann, Leipzig, 1870.

3 The cadenza was written prior to her first performance of the Concerto in November 1868 in Bremen. It was published in 1870 together with the cadenzas for Beethoven’s op. 58. For more details see Reich, p. 328.

4 The date of composition is unknown.

58 material. It will be viewed in the light of Clara’s Piano Concerto, written at same period as the cadenzas.

4.2 Clara Schumann's Cadenza for the First Movement

The structure of the first-movement cadenza (75 measures long) is ambiguous.

It could be seen either as a quasi “orchestral-exposition” section with an introduction and a coda or as a rondo.

When interpreted as an exposition, the first thirteen bars of the cadenza are the piano introduction, leading into the cadenza's main section (bars 14-63), with a virtuosic coda in the cadenza's final thirteen bars. This interpretation is supported by the performance markings which appear at the beginning of each of the mentioned parts. The introduction is marked Quasi Improvisata, the second part: Tranquillo and the final section: Allegro con fuoco.

Both the introduction and the coda serve as a platform to present the A theme alongside bravura passages of broken arpeggios and parallel octaves. Other thematic material, such as B1 and A2 (the Chopin-like character theme),5 are present in the larger, middle part of the cadenza. This larger section also begins with the A theme, in a citation of the orchestral opening theme of the movement, played in the same unique tonality of B major (refer to first movement, bar 6).6 Opening both sections with the

A theme strengthens the idea of an introduction and orchestral exposition.

5 For list of themes please refer to Appendix 1.

6 Schumann mirrors the relationship between G major and B major at the very beginning of the Concerto.

59 In the cadenza, Clara clearly differentiates between the parts which are usually reserved for the piano and those that are reserved for the orchestra; the citation of the orchestral theme in the fourteenth-bar appears after a "Schumannseque" introduction, characterized by many modulations, a gradual crescendo and use of diminished and half-diminished seventh chords. This is followed by a seven-bar transition (bars 7-13) of broken, modulated arpeggios. On one hand, one could sense that the disparity between the inner parts of the cadenza is growing, emphasizing the idea of contrasts, not only between textures and piano-orchestra roles, but between two compositional languages that differ in era and style (example no. 4.1).

Example No. 4.1

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; bars 1-20.

On the other hand, one could interpret Clara’s addition of the transition part

(bars 7-13) as a compensation of what had been left out by Beethoven in the course of the movement. In the Concerto, Beethoven places the orchestral A theme at the sixth bar, right after the piano citation of the theme, with an abrupt change of tonality (from

G major to B major) and no transition. As discussed in the previous chapter, this unique beginning has challenged both performers and listeners as to what it meant and

60 how it should be played. By adding a transitional bravura passage between the two

opening phrases, the solo and the orchestral one, Clara was perhaps suggesting to fill

in the missing link, offering a subjective interpretation of the intriguing opening.

There are two possible ways to perceive the structure of the first-movement

cadenza; either as a three-part form- consisting of a major orchestral and

improvisational introduction (bars 1-13), main cadential material ( the form of which

resembles that of an exposition, bars 14-63), and a bravura soloist coda (bars 64-76).

A second way to interpret the cadenza is that would be as a rondo, in which theme A

acts as the refrain7 (table I):

Table I:

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza of Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; structural analysis:

Bars 1-6 7-13 14-29 30-42 43-46

Theme A Trans. A B1 A

Tonal center G B f sharp G

Performing marks Quasi Improvisata Tranquillo

Bars 47-53 54-63 64-68 68-76

Theme Trans. A2 Trans. A

Tonal center E flat VII7/V I 6-

Performing marks Allegro con fuoco

The fact that the cadenza could be interpreted as a rondo shows the

significance of the A theme in the cadenza.8 However, another significant element

7 Kwan, Kit-Hin Kelina. Cadenzas as Reception: Stylistic and Structural Analysis of Selected Cadenzas for the First Movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto Op. 58. Hong-Kong University: Ph.D. Diss., 1994, p. 49.

61 that is used in the cadenza is the chromatic descending and ascending bass which contributes to the harmonic tension. Examples of this technique are the opening six- bar phrase, bars 33-45 and bars 50-54 (examples nos. 4.2.1, 4.2.2 and 4.2.3).

Example No. 4.2.1

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 1-6.

Example No. 4.2.2

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 33-46.

8 This approach is similar to Beethoven's own cadenzas, where the A theme is the most prominent.

62

Example No. 4.2.3

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 50-53.

Apart from the coda and the free transitional passages, the cadenza is not virtuosic. It is expressive and lyrical, begins in piano and ends with a diminuendo, thus reflecting the original temperament of the movement (example no. 4.3).

Example No. 4.3

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 74-76.

63 In sum, Clara Schumann’s cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven’s

Fourth Concerto is structured yet ambiguously so. With a rebellious urge, she could not avoid the temptation to play around with the musical element that most of her contemporaries had not yet dared touch, and that is form. And while she did preserve some semblance of form, she did not hesitate to break free of traditional harmony, experimenting with new tonal centers and advanced harmonic language.

64 4.3 Clara Schumann's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Clara Schumann’s cadenza for the third-movement of Beethoven's op. 58 needs to be understood in connection to her own Concerto, the Piano Concerto in A minor op. 7. Clara’s Concerto will also shed light on the way she perceived the

"Romantic" cadenza and the concerto as a genre.

Clara Schumann began to write her Piano Concerto in A minor op. 7 in

January 1833. At thirteen, she had already made her name as a first-class concert pianist who toured Europe extensively. Just two years prior to writing her Concerto, she was playing for Goethe, Spohr, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Paganini, Rossini and many others.9 Her exposure to various styles of concerto-writing contributed to her unusual, daring writing style.10

At first, Clara wrote the Concerto as a Concertsatz, a one-movement work for piano and orchestra. It is not clear why Clara, who was familiar with the concerto genre, had initially decided to write a concerto in one-movement form rather than in a traditional three-movement concerto structure. Yet, after the Concertsatz was orchestrated by Robert Schumann in February 1834, she turned it into the Finale of the Concerto.11 This movement is crucial in understanding Clara’s concept of the genre.

9 Stephen D. Lindeman. Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1999, p. 131.

10 In 1847, Clara left an incomplete concerto movement, written for her husband’s thirty-seven birthday. Only lately was the movement found and published by Breitkopf & Härtel.

11 Robert Schumann also wrote his Piano Concerto, op. 54 as a Fantasy, which later became the first movement in his concerto.

65 Clara wrote the first movement in June 1834 and the second movement in the summer of 1835.12 She did not miss the opportunity to perform the Concerto as a

Concertsatz several times before she completed the entire Concerto.13 In November

1835 the entire Concerto was played in the Leipzig Gewandhaus where Felix

Mendelssohn conducted with Clara Schumann as soloist.14 Two years later it was published in Leipzig by Hofmeister, with a dedication to Louis Spohr.15

Structurally, there are no pauses between the movements and no written or improvised cadenzas. The first movement has no orchestral-exposition before the entrance of the soloist16, no formal development, or a final tutti.17

Where did Clara attain her inspiration towards such an unusual first-movement form? Nancy Reich believes that Clara was inspired by Mendelssohn’s G minor

Piano Concerto. Mendelssohn’s Concerto, which was performed in Leipzig by the composer in 1835, had no orchestral exposition, no pauses between the movements and did not contain any cadenzas. Janina Klassen, who edited the Clara Schumann’s

Concerto, disagrees with Reich’s assumption. She claims that Clara, unlike

Mendelssohn, did not follow the conventional inner structure of a first-movement sonata form.18 Instead, the Concerto is built as a fantasia with an improvisatory

12 Reich, p. 297.

13 For list of performances see Reich, p. 298.

14 Reich, p. 297.

15 According to Reich, the copy of the engraver was discovered only in 1999 in the Hofmeister archives in Leipzig.

16 There is no concrete orchestral exposition. The primary theme is introduced by a brief tutti introduction and the soloist then enters in bar 17.

17 For complete analysis see Lindeman, pp. 135-137.

18 Reich, p. 227.

66 character. 19 Therefore, it is more likely that Clara’s models for the piece were the concertos of Weber and Spohr, which were one-movement improvisatory compositions.20 Lindeman argues that Clara had been affected by Mendelssohn, but also by Cramer and Alkan; both wrote their concertos with no formal development, recapitulation or third ritornello sections.21

Whatever the source of inspiration was, the Concerto is most innovative in its cyclic design and the function of its third movement. The thematic material in all three movements is derived from one motive which appears in its entirety only in the

Rondo-Finale (example no. 4.4). In all three movements, the four-bar motive in the piano part consists of a two-bar upper scale in A minor (or A flat major in the second movement), followed by a two-bar downwards scale, all sharing a lyrical melody in the right hand, accompanied by a simple harmonic chord-progression of I-V-I in the left.22 Another unique melodic feature that unites the first themes in all the movements is the appearance of the tritone, strengthening the melancholic, passionate atmosphere (example no. 4.4).

Example No 4.4

List of main themes: Clara Schumann: Concerto op. 7

1. First movement: Allegro maestoso, piano theme, bars 37-41:

19 Ibid.

20 Janina Klassen’s preface to the new edition of the Clara Schumann’s Concerto by Breitkopf & Härtel, 1990.

21 Lindeman, p. 134.

22 This is found specifically in the first and third movements.

67

2. Second movement, Romanza: Andante non troppo con grazia, piano theme, bars 1-6.

3. Third movement, Finale: Allegro non troppo, piano solo theme, bars 5-8.

The third movement is not only the thematic source for the rest of the

Concerto, but is also the richest in its orchestration, and the most virtuosic for the piano.23 It is more than three-hundred and fifty measures long, almost double the length of the first two movements.24 The energy is directed towards the end of the

Concerto. The climax is saved for the last movement, while the first two movements function more as an introduction to this climax. The second movement (Romanza) is an interlude of sixty- two measures, where the piano conducts an inspirational dialogue with the first cello.25 This movement is written in A flat major, a favorite transitional key in Clara’s Concerto, often used by her in developmental passages through the first movement.26

23 Robert Schumann orchestrated this Rondo-Finale, whereas Clara orchestrated the first two movements afterwards.

24 The first movement contains 146 bars; the second movement: 62 bars. For more details see also Lindeman, p. 136.

25 Nancy Reich observes that the use of cello solo in the second movement is adopted later on by both Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms in their Piano Concertos (Schumann Piano Concerto op. 54, 1845 & Brahms 2nd Piano Concerto, 1882). For more details see Reich p. 228.

26 See for example first movement, bars 92-96.

68 The absence of strict form, cadenzas, and pauses between movements on the one hand, and the strong thematic unity on the other hand, all contribute to the supposition that Clara chose to rebel against the familiar dramatic design of the

Classical concerto.

The same rebellion is reflected in Clara’s cadenza for the third movement of

Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58. As seen in the previous chapter, Beethoven left room for an improvised cadenza at the end of the third movement27, yet he did not intend it to be a long cadenza. His instruction called for “La cadenza Sia Corta” (a short cadenza), and the two cadenzas he wrote in 1809 are indeed short: one lasts only six bars while the second contains thirty-five. Clara’s cadenza, however, comprises one- hundred bars and suggests a grand composition. Why did she choose to ignore

Beethoven’s clear instruction? What did she aim to achieve by writing such a long cadenza? Is the movement perceived differently when played with Clara’s cadenza?

What are the consequences of playing a cadenza of one-hundred bars in a movement which lasts six-hundred bars?

The cadenza has four main sections.28 The first section (bars 1-26) opens with a series of sequences on the four-bar motive (appearing earlier in the movement in the orchestra in bar 41). This is a transitional motive which connects between the first, festive theme of the movement and the second, lyrical theme (example no. 4.5).29 In her cadenza, Clara preserves Beethoven's contrapuntal texture of this motive, and by

27 The cadenza appears at bar 499 in the score.

28 First section: bars 1-26, second section: bars 27-64, third section: bars 65-84, fourth section: bars 85- 101. For complete score see Appendix 4.

29 This motive is presented as a dialogue between the orchestra and the piano, an unusual collaboration after the presentation of opposed forces throughout the first two movements. It is therefore one of the only incidents in which Beethoven conducts mutual conversation between the two thematic forces in the course of the Concerto (see Beethoven's score, third movement, bars 41-67).

69 transposing it over three keys,30 she creates a sense of developmental beginning. The remaining eight bars (bars 19-26) are sequences on the bridge motive prior to the appearance of the second theme, imitating Beethoven’s original score, bars 68-79.

Example No. 4.5

Clara Schumann: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; part I, bars 1-26.

The first section functions as an introduction towards the core part of the cadenza (second part, bars 26-64); the expressive, second theme of the movement

(Beethoven's score, bars 80-92) alternates with the dark, opening orchestral theme of the second movement (example no. 4.6).

30 From G major, to A major and B major.

70 Example No. 4.6:

Clara Schumann: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; part II, bars 27-64.

This latter theme (second movement, bars 1-5), had never been played by the piano part nor had it ever appeared in the course of the third movement. In its original context, this theme is a harsh dotted-rhythm element, representing the voice of the orchestra. It stands in contrast with the gentle theme of the piano at the beginning of the second movement; all of which brings about the most dramatic clash between themes and instruments within the entire piece.

The third section of the cadenza (bars 65-84) opens with the first theme of the movement. It is the brightest and most virtuosic part (example no. 4.7.1). Clara applies here the same technique she had applied earlier in the closing bars of her first- movement cadenza; a quotation of the first movement’s main theme, played by the

71 left hand below a cadential trill (example no. 4.7.2). By inserting material from the

first-movement cadenza into the third-movement cadenza, a thematic cycle is created.

Example No. 4.7.1

Clara Schumann: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; part III, bars 65-84.

Example No. 4.7.2

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; coda part.

72 But the unity of movements is reinforced by yet another thematic insertion.

The last section of the third-movement cadenza (bars 85-101) is an exact repetition of

Beethoven's first- movement coda (bars 347-354). The placement of a quotation from the coda of the first movement into the end of the third-movement cadenza completes the circle: it signals how in Clara Schumann’s world, not only cadenzas for outer movements share common material, but all movements are integrally connected to one another in a circular manner (example no. 4.8).

Example No 4.8

Clara Schumann: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58; part IV, bars 85-100.

73

The thematic unity created by the link between the two cadenzas is strongly felt when playing the Concerto. Although the three main themes of the Concerto are all derived from the core motive of the first-movement opening theme, there are no explicit citations of motives from one movement in another movement.31 It is only through her cadenzas that Clara Schumann united the movements of Beethoven’s

Concerto, thus changing conventions regarding the concept of the genre. Moreover, because the unity of movements only becomes apparent in the third movement, the climax of Beethoven’s Concerto shifts to the last movement rather than the first.

Clara Schumann’s cadenzas create a new dramatic design whose formal proportions are in contrast with Beethoven's compositional intention.

31 In his Fifth Symphony, however, Beethoven did use this technique of thematic-unity, inserting the four note “fate motive” in the third movement.

74 Clara Schumann's cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto, viewed in connection with her own Concerto, is an enlightening example as to how a Romantic composer views Beethoven. Beethoven’s Concerto, played with such a Romantic cadenza, becomes a different piece with a different dramatic development and message. No doubt, the Romantic era was fascinated by this duality between the original Classical piece and its Romantic reinterpretation; hence the many composed cadenzas to

Beethoven’s works. For the Romantics, the Classical concerto was not merely a fixed piece of a great composer of a past era. Rather, it was an "open work," subject to performers' creativity and personal understanding of the piece.

75 Chapter V

Johannes Brahms' Cadenzas for Beethoven Concerto Op. 58

5.1 The Sources for Brahms' Cadenzas

Brahms’ affinity with past style and his belief in the value of earlier music had a substantial effect on his perception of music in general, and his own compositions in particular. Not only was his range of interest, knowledge and performance of early music vast, but he was also dedicated to research and editing, having numerous collections of manuscripts and printed first editions of compositions by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven,

Haydn and Schubert.1

Brahms' close connection to the music of Beethoven made it only natural to pick

his cadenzas for Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto as a faithful example to this work. A

composer who performed Beethoven's piano works extensively and approached them

from an intellectual, research point of view, would certainly offer a compelling

observation through his cadenzas for Beethoven’s concertos. Indeed, many of Brahms'

contemporaries considered him a true follower to Beethoven. Both Schumann and

Hanslick named Brahms the 'Second Beethoven',2 and von Bulow placed him as one of

the three Bs' in music (after Bach and Beethoven), referring to Brahms' First Symphony

as the "Tenth" Symphony of Beethoven.3

1 Most of these treasures were transferred to the archive of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreude in Vienna.

2 Robert Haven Schauffler. Beethoven: The Man who Freed Music. New York: Tudor, 1947, p. 45.

76 It was during the 1850s that Brahms wrote all his cadenzas for the classical

concertos. Besides the cadenzas for Beethoven’s op. 58 and op. 37 (1855), he wrote

cadenzas for Mozart Concertos K. 466, K. 491 and K. 453, as well as for Bach's D minor

Concerto. Brahms wrote these cadenzas mainly because of his performance

engagements. In November 1855, he played Beethoven’s Emperor Concerto in his first

performance with an orchestra, and in January 1856, he played Beethoven’s Fourth Piano

Concerto with the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig, offering his own cadenzas. The

same month he played Mozart’s D Minor Concerto, K. 4664 in Hamburg, at the festival

celebrating the 100th anniversary of Mozart’s birth.5 During the following two years he

was also engaged with Mozart’s K. 453 and K. 488 which he performed with Princess

Friederike of Lippe-Detmold at the court of Detmold.6

Aside from performing Mozart’s and Beethoven’s concertos, Brahms was

engaged with the music of Bach at that time. According to Walter Frisch, towards the

end of 1854, Brahms entered into a self-imposed study period in which the music of Bach

played an important role. During these two years of 1854-55 Brahms wrote a group of dance-movements, including Gavottes, Gigues and Sarabandes7 and drew upon Bach’s

style when he approached improvisation, a fact that is crucial when analyzing Brahms'

3 Hans Gal. Johannes Brahms: His Work and Personality. Trans. Joseph Stein. New York: Knapf, 1963, p. 69.

4 Playing his own cadenza.

5 This concerto was one of Brahms’s favorite since his youth (see Kalbeck I, 255, in Imogen Fellinger, p. 44).

6 Briefwechsel V 192, Schumann- Brahms Briefe I 239 cited in Fellinger, p. 49.

7 These movements were intended to be part of complete keyboard suites modeled on those of Bach. Later on, they were catalogued as WoO 3-5 in the Brahms Werkverzeichnis. (For more information see Walter Frisch. “Bach, Brahms, and the Emergence of Musical Modernism,” Bach Perspectives (1998) III, p. 110).

77 cadenzas. Henschel8 stated that Brahms would often improvise with a remarkable facility

of transposition and key modulations as he did while practicing the Well-Tempered

Clavier by Bach, pieces which he would start playing “first thing in the morning.”9 It is

essential therefore to realize that Brahms wrote the cadenzas for Classical concertos with

thorough preparation, applying his knowledge of past traditions and improvisational

techniques.

During the time Brahms composed the cadenzas, he also wrote his Piano

Concerto in D minor, op. 15 in 1854-1858.10 Tovey11, Rosen12, Roeder and Wilson

emphasize the similarity of this Concerto with Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto op.

58. Like his master, Brahms was fond of developing musical material from the smallest

motivic ingredients, often through various techniques such as variations, contrapuntal

devices, rhythmic exploitations and play upon meter.13 In his essay “Brahms the

Progressive,” Schoenberg expressed his admiration for the richness of Brahms’ harmonic

language and his talent to develop themes and entire compositions from a core of a small

8 Sir George Henschel (1850-1934) was a German composer, conductor, teacher and singer. From 1886 onwards he conducted Brahms at his London Symphony concerts. His memories of Brahms include a diary of his meetings with the composer since 1874.

9 George Henschel. Musings and Memories of a Musician. New York: Da Capo Press, 1979; Michael Musgrave. A Brahms Reader, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000, p.128.

10 Brahms began to write the Concerto when he arrived to Düsseldorf to assist Clara Schumann after Robert’s attempt to commit suicide. He completed it after substantial revisions. The first performance took place in Hanover in January 1859, and repeated five days later in Leipzig, under the direction of Joachim.

11 Donald Tovey. Essays in Musical Analysis III (Concertos) London, 1936, p. 74.

12 Charles Rosen. “Influence: Plagiarism and Inspiration.” 19th Century Music, fall 1980, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 87-100.

13 Roeder, p. 259.

78 motive.14 For Schoenberg, this ability of inner-variation technique of which Brahms was

a master, paved the way towards the musical language of the twentieth century.

Brahms connected the three movements of his Concerto through the use of

thematic-transformation and thematic-unity techniques. The second movement, Adagio,

although contrasted in character with the first, is also written in 6/4 meter, opening with a

pedal point on D. The tonic is the same, yet this time in major.15 The third movement,

Finale in a rondo form, has a refrain which is very similar to the first movement opening

solo-exposition theme, now in new character and syncopated rhythm16 (examples nos.

5.1.1 and 5.1.2).

Example No. 5.1.1

Brahms: Concerto op. 15 in D minor; third-movement piano refrain.

Example No. 5.1.2

Brahms: Concerto op. 15 in D minor; first movement, solo- exposition theme.

14 Arnold Schoenberg. “Brahms the Progressive.” Style and Idea. NY: Philosophical Library, 1950.

15 Richard Wilson. “Concertos.” The Compleat Brahms. Ed. Leon Botstein. New York & London: Norton, 1999, p. 49.

16 Roeder, p. 264.

79 Although Brahms’ approach to his concerto is Classical in terms of form, a cadenza in the first movement is not included. There is a short cadenza in the second movement and two more in the third, yet all function more as transitional passages between thematic sections and harmonic progressions rather than solo-virtuosic display

(examples nos. 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3).17 Layton argues that the drama in Brahms' Concerto is maintained by its large symphonic design. The addition of a cadenza would have only lessened its impact and was therefore unnecessary.18

Example No. 5.2.1

Brahms: second-movement cadenza of Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, bars: 91-97.

17 This approach to cadenza writing is also evident in Beethoven’s violin concerto, op. 61, which perhaps served as a model to Brahms (The Beethoven Concerto op. 61 contains a cadenza in the second movement as well as in the third).

18 Robert Layton. Ed. A Companion to the Concerto. New York: Schirmer, 1988, p. 162.

80 Example No. 5.2.2

Brahms: third-movement cadenza of Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, bars: 376-409.

Example No. 5.2.3

Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, third-movement, 2nd cadenza, bars: 499-518.

81 If none of the cadenzas in Brahms’ Concerto are separate compositional entities, then what model did Brahms have in mind when composing the cadenzas for

Beethoven’s concertos? Did he choose to preserve the rules of the Classical cadenzas or did he impose his new notion of the cadenza's function, as seen in his Piano Concerto?

Virtuosity is not typical in the cadenzas of Brahms, nor is the concept of improvisation (Beethoven himself allows more freedom in the cadenza for his Concerto op. 37 by omitting the bar lines). Brahms does not wish to imitate Beethoven’s concertos nor the composer’s cadenzas. Although in his cadenzas for Beethoven op. 58 and Mozart

K. 491 he opens with a musical texture close to that of the composer, in the latter part of the cadenzas he gradually expands the boundaries of tonal deviations, harmonic progressions, manipulation of themes and virtuosity. The design of the cadenza is therefore a combination of two different styles - Beethoven's and Brahms'. The following analysis will demonstrate how this is done.

5.2 Brahms' Cadenza for the First Movement

Brahms’ cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven’s op. 58 lasts one-hundred bars.19 The first half of the cadenza is developmental. The modulations, rapid changes of keys, deviation from tonal stability, use of variations, canonic textures and formulation on chosen thematic material - all reinforce this intention.20 It begins with a seven-bar

19 The development section in the Beethoven’s score lasts only 72 bars (including its orchestral introduction (see Beethoven’s score, bars 180-252).

82 introduction of theme B321, recalling the orchestral introduction to the beginning of the

movement’s development section.22 The tonal center is different (G major instead of D

major), yet the thematic material and texture is taken from Beethoven's development section, with clear developmental gestures, such as the use of octave unisons in forte, accompanied with a fermata (example no. 5.3). The theme, which was only played by the orchestra in the development section, is given here to the pianist. This is Brahms’ concept of the cadenza; a meeting point between soloist and orchestra and between two styles and generations.

Example No. 5.3

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 1-6.

In fact, the entire first part of the cadenza (bars 8-24) is equivalent to Beethoven's

development section of bars 202-215. Although the harmonic modulations deviate to

different tonal centers (F major, B minor, G7 & V2 of C major), Brahms preserves the

sequence of thematic material, texture, registers and rhythmic pattern, and even uses

20 Both cadenzas for op. 58 and for Mozart's K. 491 (as well as the misattributed cadenza for Beethoven's op. 37) have a well-structured form and use the cadenza as a second development. This could be seen by the fact that the cadenzas begin with the same order of thematic material as it appears in the development section.

21 For list of themes, refer to Appendix.

22 Brahms does not begin his cadenza with the main themes of the movement, but rather with a bridge section prior to the development section. This is not incidental and occurs also in the cadenzas Brahms wrote for Mozart’s K. 466 and K. 453.

83 Beethoven's pitch of F natural to recall the A repetitive motive23 (example no. 5.4). This

device both strengthens the cadenza's connection to Beethoven's development section and emphasizes the core message which Brahms wanted perhaps to call attention to, that of drama and fate, given by the repetitive-note element.

Example No. 5.4

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 8-24.

23 The repetitive note motive, taken from theme A is closely connected to the idea of the "fate" motive as seen also in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Sonata Appassionata.

84

The second section of Brahms' cadenza (bars 25-36) marks a departure from

Beethoven’s piano development section. This section returns to the “repetitive-note” motive through a typical Brahms chordal texture24, a canonic-type exchange of material between left and right hands. This canonic dialogue reaches its climax through rhythmic diminution and a huge crescendo to ff, recalling a pattern from Beethoven's orchestral exposition (example no. 5.5, bars 25-36). This section is of a thicker texture than the first part of the cadenza. In emulating the full orchestral sound of a typical tutti closure, this section serves as a contrast to the former piano-oriented section.

Example No. 5.5

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 24-36.

Brahms' placement of the 'B-A-C-H' symbol over the F major “repetitive-note” motive (bars 25-27) is original. Kwan suggests that by referring to Bach, Brahms did not only relate his cadenza to Beethoven, but went further into Beethoven’s past as well.25

24 This texture is often characterized by the use of thirds and sixths in full chords. 25 Kelina K. Kwan, p. 77.

85 When this motive appears in the movement's development-section, it is not presented in a

triumphant gesture as it is presented in the cadenza. Beethoven saves the triumphant,

festive entrance of the full theme to the piano entrance of the recapitulation part. What

was then Brahms' purpose in proposing a new character to the familiar motive in a

developmental cadenza? Perhaps he meant to strengthen the direction to which

Beethoven pointed in his own cadenzas, that is the “fate” scheme of the core A motive.26

What Beethoven does not provide in the development section, Brahms compensates for in his own cadenza, making it as "a development within a development."

The third section (bars 37-64) of the cadenza dispels the expectations regarding the choice of thematic material. Brahms refrains from following the exact pattern of

Beethoven’s development as well as the material that appears right after the vast orchestral exposition part. Instead, he chooses to place new material in a perfectly symmetrical plan; A transitional bar (36) leads the cadenza from F major to a new key area of D flat major, where the pastoral A2 theme (Chopin- like character) and the B2 theme (D major, bar 44) exchange an expressive discourse through hand-rotation, each lasting six-bars.27 This exchange repeats itself in bars 49-64 where the tonal deviation is

now B major and C major respectively.

The rapid exchange of tonal centers implies the beginning of deviation from the

Classical scheme which dominated the opening thirty-six bars. In addition, each time the

A2 theme appears (bars 37-42 & 48-53), a series of sustained long notes in descending

26 The use of the “fate” motive in the first movement cadenza is further developed in Brahms' cadenza for the third movement.

27 The Chopin-like A2 theme appears here twice: in D flat major and then in F sharp (bar 49) as opposed to its original key of B flat. The B2 theme appears here in A major and then C major (bar 55) as opposed to its original key of G major in the Beethoven orchestral exposition, bar 50).

86 chromatic octave scale are attached above and below the melodic line, thus adding a

Post-Romantic compositional flavor to the harmonic idiom (example no. 5.6).28 Just as

the major orchestral texture of the second section contrasts the piano-oriented first

section, the lyrical, Romantic texture, played in p espressivo and dolce of the third

section contrasts the triumphant second section.

Example No. 5.6

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 37-53.

In the third section, Brahms chooses unique thematic material; the A2 theme. This

theme, which is a transformation of the A theme, has never appeared in both the

orchestral exposition and the development sections, nor has it appeared in any of

Beethoven's cadenzas. This act may suggest an inclination towards a development-style

cadenza as its content aims to reveal a new character of transformed thematic material, as

28 Note also the exquisite enharmonic change in the bass part in bars 40-41, where the A flat turns into G sharp (shifting from D flat major center to C sharp minor).

87 is often done in development parts. Kwan goes further and suggests that the choice of the

A2 theme (primarily associated with the piano) alternated here with the B2 theme

(primarily an orchestral theme), represents an alternation between the two elements of the

Concerto (soloist versus orchestra). She compares this device with Brahms' opening of the cadenza, where the first bars begin with the orchestral B3 motive before the piano motive entrance in the eighth bar.29 Clara Schumann also used the A2 theme in her

cadenza. The two composers were known to have shared thoughts about their cadenzas

and it is therefore possible that they discussed this idea as well.

Whereas Clara chooses to place the coda of her cadenza (for Beethoven's first

movement of op. 58) after presenting A230, Brahms continues his cadenza with yet

another developmental section (bars 64-82). In this section, Brahms uses thick texture

and advanced harmonic manipulations. B2 is used as thematic material, going through a

variety of developments, variations and sequences.31 Brahms no longer presents the

theme in its natural melodic and expressive mode32 but rather in its most opposed

orchestral version; vigorous, even military in character, played in ff and ben marcato

articulation.33 The section begins with a decisive sequenced canon, based on the dotted-

rhythm and melodic pattern taken from the fourth bar of the B2 theme34 (example no.

5.7). The theme goes through rapid harmonic changes and modulations of dominant

29 Kwan, p. 74.

30 See Clara Schumann's first-movement cadenza, bar 64.

31 For list of themes, refer to Appendix 1.

32 In the original score, the melodic version of the B2 theme is played exclusively by the piano; at the end of the piano exposition, in the recapitulation, coda and the long- version cadenza.

33 See original score, bars 50-59.

34 This is parallel to Beethoven’s score, bar 53.

88 chords35, beginning and ending on G 6/4, providing thus a harmonic extension as well as building anticipation towards a peak ending.

Example No. 5.7

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 64-82.

35 G major second inversion (I 6/4 chord, bar 65) - A minor (bars 66-67) - C major (bars 68-69 ) - D major (bar 71) - C major (bar 72) - F major (bar 73) - B flat major (bars74-75) - E flat major (bar 76) - C major (bars 77-78), concluding with C minor, leading into the starting chord of G major I 6/4 (bars 79-82).

89 The descending and ascending scale motive of the theme (originally appearing in

Beethoven’s score, bars 54-55) leads the canonic section through a gradual crescendo, where it rotates and modulates frantically between the two hands in a stretto manner. The

climax is reached in the last three bars of the section (bars 80-82). Although these bars

sound like a typical, rich Brahmsian language, they are in fact an exact citation of

Beethoven's orchestral closure in bars 56-57. By maintaining the exact same texture,

tonal center and harmonies, Brahms is reinforcing both the return to the context of the

first movement, as well as to the idiomatic orchestral character which this part emulates

(see example no. 5.7, bars 74-82).

In his development section, Beethoven does not give the orchestra the

responsibility of developing material. Rather it is the piano which gets the developmental

roles; the frequent use of canonic textures as well as the motivic-rotation between hands

(example no. 5.8). Brahms corrects this imbalance by selecting mainly orchestral

material to be developed in the cadenza.

Example No. 5.8

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58, first-movement, part of the development section, bars 239-244.

90 The last part of Brahms’ cadenza could be seen as a coda (bars 83-100). Its first

half (bars 83-89) presents a flat version of the repetitive-note motive, which is taken from

the A theme36 (note that Beethoven himself concludes the development section with this

motive). The rich harmonic language is still dominant, as was in the previous section, yet this time it appears in a softer dynamic sign of mf, marked sostenuto. It leads to the dominant (D, bar 89) in thick-chordal texture, while the bass descends in chromatic octaves (example no. 5.9, bars 83-88).

Example No. 5.9

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 83-88.

The closure of the "quasi-coda" part of the cadenza occurs in the last eleven bars,

all played in double-trills, a technique which was favored by Beethoven.37 The trills

appear above ascending and descending scales, as well as chromatic passages, eventually

resolving into the dominant key (D) through a gradual decrescendo to the final p. The last four bars are a citation of the repetitive-note motive as a last reminiscence of the movement's core material (example no. 5.10, bars 89-100).

36 The opening motive appears in diminished second (B flat – A). 37 Beethoven often used double-trills as a common device to end his cadenzas (see the two cadenzas for the first movement of op. 15, the first-movement cadenza for op. 37 and the two first-movement cadenzas for op. 58).

91 Example No. 5.10

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 89-100.

Whereas the beginning of Brahms' cadenza conveys the idea of a cited

development section, its second half is dedicated to various developmental characteristics, such as the manipulations of themes, modulations, and rapid changes in the harmonic language. Brahms used the cadenza as an opportunity to add a second- development section at the end of the first movement. This idea was not new at the time.

In his middle compositional period, Beethoven often used the codas of his works as a podium for a second-development section.38 Whether Brahms wanted to emulate

Beethoven's style or provide a personal interpretation as to what the “Romantic” cadenza should represent is not clear. What is most relevant, however, is Brahms' confrontation with the given dilemma of how to enter and affect a given Classical concerto. On the one hand stands his ambition to stay loyal to the master, respecting the spirit of the original

38 Kwan, pp. 74-75.

92 work, and on the other hand, stands the keenness to renovate, interpret and insert a new voice into the concerto, making it sound differently with a new cadenza.

5.3 Brahms' Concept of the Cadenza as a "Second-Development" -

Comparisons with his Cadenzas to Mozart

Brahms' inclination to treat a Classical cadenza as a second development section is also seen in his cadenza to Mozart’s Concerto in C minor, K. 491. In that cadenza, the symmetry between the first-movement development section and Brahms' cadenza is even greater. Brahms cautiously preserves the thematic material and its order in the same way as it appears in Mozart's development section.39 Mozart’s thematic choice for the

development section is the two contrasting, chief themes of the movements; the melodic, solo exposition theme,40 and the opening orchestral theme, with its dramatic, dark

character. These two themes, played exclusively by the soloist and the orchestra, are

presented in Brahms' cadenza as well. Here too (like in the case of the cadenza for

Beethoven's op. 58), Brahms places the two contrasting and exclusive themes in the

opening of his cadenza, thus using the cadenza as an opportunity to break rigid

conventions of roles. The switch of roles in the cadenza merges and balances the two

concerto personas, the soloist and the orchestra.

Another common feature shared between Brahms' cadenza for Beethoven’s op. 58

and his cadenza for Mozart's K. 491 is the gradual deviation from the Classical harmonic

39 Mozart’s development section lasts 78 bars (see score, bars 283-361) whereas Brahms’s cadenza for the movement lasts 76 bars.

40 Original score bars 98-117.

93 language into a more Romantic style of his own. The cadenza for Mozart's K. 491 begins the same way the movement's development section does, preserving Mozart’s exact harmonic language and thematic material (example no. 5.11).

Example No. 5.11

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Mozart’s Concerto K. 491 in C minor, bars 1-14.

With a gradual deviation from the Classical Mozartian style, the final part of the cadenza unmistakably reflects the language of Brahms, played in parallel octaves, virtuosic arpeggios, full chords and wide use of the instrument’s register capacity

(example no. 5.12, bars 57-76).

94 Example No. 5.12

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Mozart’s Concerto K. 491 in C minor, first movement, bars 57-76.

These cadenzas show that Brahms planned each cadenza thoroughly. At times he considered cadenzas as an opportunity to place a second development section, and at times an opportunity to reverse the recapitulation section, presenting it backwards from its conclusion to its beginning (as in Brahms' cadenza for Mozart's Concerto in G major,

K. 453).

5.4 Brahms' Cadenza for the Third Movement

Brahms adhered to Classical traditions by preserving formal structures in his

Romantic cadenza and therefore felt he could play more freely with harmonic language.

Indeed, in his third-movement cadenza, Brahms preserves Beethoven’s own cadenza’s

95 structure,41 but deviates from the Classical musical language from the beginning of the cadenza. By doing so, he retains a balance between the Beethoven’s wish for a short cadenza and his own wish to imprint his personal style. The cadenza is divided into three main sections. The first section (bars 1-11) is an introduction and uses the thematic material appearing after the first rondo refrain, a descending scale motive (bars 41-48).

The second section (bars 11-38), is dedicated to the lyrical, second theme of the movement. In the first half of the section, the opening two bars of the theme are presented implicitly through contrary motion of an ascending octave-scale in the bass with upper syncopated chords in descending-scale in the right hand (example no. 5.13).

Example No. 5.13

Brahms: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 1-31.

41 Beethoven's longer cadenza version.

96 From bar 23 onwards, the B theme is more explicitly presented, yet only in its

first four-bar format and in minor modes (B and G minor); Beethoven also quotes this theme in his cadenza, but in major (C and G major). The current deviation from a familiar tonal-center is a Romantic characteristic, but the use of B as a tonal center recalls the tonic G, a throwback to the Classical part of the concerto.

The last part of the cadenza (bars 38-57) is built around a gradual crescendo towards a climax ending, forming a strong return to a dominant center (example no.

5.14).

Example No. 5.14

Brahms: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 31-58.

97 The thematic material Brahms uses in bars 39-48 is derived from the strings section in bars 216-248. In Beethoven’s score, this section is highly developmental, modulating from E flat major- B flat minor -F minor (example no. 5.15), yet its significance lies in its rhythmic association with the opening theme of the Concerto's first movement.

Example No. 5.15

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58 in G major, third-movement, bars 216-235.

The way in which the motive is presented in both scores (Beethoven and Brahms) has an exact rhythmic similarity to the motive beginning the whole Concerto, the repetitive-note “fate” motive. It is a two-bar motive written in semiquavers, always starting on the second beat of the first bar (example no. 5.16, bars 236-244).

98 Example No. 5.16

Beethoven: Concerto op. 58 in G major, third-movement, bars 236-244.

The use of the idiomatic “fate” motive in the cadenza, a motive which Beethoven himself had inserted in the last movement, connects both the movements and their cadenzas. This proves yet again the important contribution of the cadenzas to the organic unity of the Concerto as a whole.42

Here, too, Brahms saw the cadenza as an opportunity to imprint his own interpretation of the Concerto and its form. He does so in a subtle way, first identifying with the original composer and only then inserting his own voice. This is Brahms’

“legitimate solution” to the enigma of Romanticism versus Classicism in his cadenzas to

Beethoven’s concertos.

42 As mentioned, Brahms uses this technique in his own concertos as well.

99 5.5 Publishing Aspects of Brahms' Cadenzas and the Question of

Authenticity

All the cadenzas Brahms wrote for the concertos of Bach, Beethoven and Mozart

were under the title of unpublished works, having no opus numbers. The reason Brahms

did not publish the cadenzas is not yet revealed. It is known that Brahms had initially

written the cadenzas for his own use as a performer, before being commissioned to do so.

The cadenzas were written during the mid 1850s' and Brahms, who lived long after, must

have had a reason for not publishing them during his lifetime. Even after his death,

Brahms left little doubt regarding his unpublished compositions.43 In a letter known as

the “Ischl Testament,” which he wrote to his friend and publisher Fritz Simrock in May

1891, he stated clearly:

I wish that all I leave behind in manuscript (unpublished) be burned. I am now taking care of this as best as possible, particularly with respect to music; you will find little on which you will be able to fulfill my wishes…44

The only unpublished works besides the cadenzas were eleven Chorale-Preludes

for Organ, composed prior to his death, and arrangements for piano four-hands, dating

from 1854, of Joseph Joachim’s Overtures to Shakespeare’s Henry IV and Hermann

Grimme’s Demetrius. Some of these unpublished works were attributed to Brahms by mistake. It was not until 1977 that Richard Davies has raised the issue of misattributing

Moscheles' cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven’s Concerto No. 3, op. 37 to

43 For a full list of Brahms’s Posthumous compositions and arrangements see George S. Bozarth. “Brahms’s Posthumous Compositions and Arrangements: Editorial Problems and Questions of Authenticity.” in Brahms 2 Biographical, documentary and analytical studies. Michael Musgrave. Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 59-94.

44 Ibid. This citation originally appears in Max Kalbeck. Johannes Brahms, IV, pp. 1912-21.

100 Brahms. The manuscript of this cadenza had gone through several hands before it

reached its permanent home in the collection of the Vienna Stadtbibliothek.45 According

to Bozarth, by that time, the cadenza had passed through the hands of at least two Brahms experts: Max Kalbeck46 and Brahms’s biographer, Eusibius Mandyczewski47. None of

the two questioned the cadenza’s authenticity. Mandyczewski regarded the manuscript to

be a copy, not a Brahms holograph, but nevertheless included it in the Brahms complete

edition of 1927 without a comment. The manuscript contained no additional comments or

revisions that could be attributed to Brahms and it was entitled merely as a “cadenza”

with no mention of a composer.48

It is now known that the cadenza for Beethoven’s op. 37 was actually written by

Moscheles as part of his cadenzas collection to all the Beethoven’s concertos. It was

published simultaneously by Cramer, Beale & Co in London and Maurice Schlesinger/

Brandus in Paris in 1845 or 1846.49

Unfortunately, Mandyczewski’s mistake made its mark upon decades. This

misattribution was included in the list of Brahms’s works in the fifth edition of Grove,

and even appeared in the Dover publication as late as 1971.50

45 For more information see George Bozarth. “A Brahms Cadenza by Moscheles.” in Letters to the Editor. The Musical Times (1980): 14.

46 Kalbeck was the president of the Viennese Brahms-Gesellschaft and editor of several volumes of Brahms letters.

47 Mandyczewski was the appraiser of the Miller Collection for the Viennese Brahms-Gesellschaft, archive director of the Gesellschaft der Musicfreunde and co-editor of the Brahms collected edition.

48 Bozarth also adds the fact that the highly controlled, professional looking handwriting is clearly different from the earliest samples of Brahms’s handwriting and from all later examples.

49 Richard Davies. “Moscheles Brahms.” The Musical Times Vol. 118 (1977): 1006.

50 Ibid.

101 The Brahms’ saved holograph of this cadenza was clearly Moscheles’ cadenza, except for certain stave alterations, minor omissions of dynamic, pedaling and tempo markings.51 It is not clear why Brahms copied the cadenza and what his intentions were.

Why did he not mention anything regarding his acquaintance with the Moscheles cadenza? Did he receive it from him privately? Did he intend to put it under his own name? Why was the cadenza found in his collection, left without an indication of the composer? It may be that we will never be able to answer these questions. What is important however, is to realize that before Richard Davies’ article about the cadenza’s original source, no one questioned the cadenza's origin. It is also interesting to find out why Brahms found this cadenza fascinating. Perhaps it is because this cadenza for op. 37 is actually closer to Brahms’s musical language than that of Moscheles52 and written in the same form that Brahms used in his cadenzas for the Beethoven op. 58 and Mozart’s

K. 491. As viewed earlier in this chapter, both the cadenzas for Beethoven op. 58 and

Mozart's K. 491 (as well as the misattributed cadenza for op. 37) have a well-structured form, turning the cadenza into a second development section.

It seems that despite Davies' resolution of Brahms-Moscheles' cadenza ambiguity, one is still left somewhat puzzled regarding the remaining questions. It is a challenge to find out to what extent Brahms affected other composers' writing and to what extent he was affected by his contemporary colleagues. A further examination discloses captivating

51 For full scores see Appendix 4.

52 This claim will be viewed in more detail later on in this chapter.

102 similarities between Brahms’ cadenza and Clara Schumann’s cadenza for the first

movement of op. 58.53

Clara Schumann’s concept for the cadenza to Beethoven's op. 58 is quite different

from that of Brahms; she does not adopt a development-style approach as Brahms, nor does she use similar thematic materials. Quite the contrary, the B1 theme and the intimate, choral C theme, both appear in Clara’s cadenza. Yet Brahms was unmistakably familiar with her cadenza; consciously or not, Brahms was highly affected by it, having cited from Clara measures in their entirety (bar 46 and 49 respectively) using an exact transitional arpeggio of an ascending diminished chord, leading to the transformed A

theme (A2) in both cadenzas (examples nos. 5.17.1 and 5.17.2).

Example No. 5.17.1

Brahms: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 46-47.

Example No. 5.17.2

Clara Schumann: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 49-50.

53 As mentioned in the previous chapter, Clara Schumann wrote the cadenzas for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58 in 1846 for her own performance of the Concerto in the Gewandhaus in Leipzig on October 22 that year.

103 Such an exact similarity between the two cadenzas cannot be a coincidence. Yet, this is not the only mutual musical moments Brahms shares with Clara Schumann. There is also a resemblance between the cadenzas of Brahms and of Clara Schumann to

Mozart’s Concerto in D minor, K. 466. Brahms gave his cadenza to Clara to play for her premiere performance of the Concerto in the Gewandhaus in January 1st, 1857. The date of composition of her cadenza for the Concerto remains unknown, but we know it was published in 1891 by Reiter-Biedermann. It is therefore likely that during that time she exchanged ideas with Brahms, altering and editing her original cadenza, as well as suggesting changes in Brahms’ own cadenza. In a letter she wrote to Brahms, dated

September 29th 1891, prior to publishing her cadenzas, she told him she would place his name on the score of the cadenza to indicate that she had used his work. Brahms immediately responded from Vienna, saying:

Even the smallest J.B (Johannes Brahms) would only look peculiar; it really isn’t worth the trouble, and I could show you many a more recent work in which there is more by me than an entire cadenza! What’s more, by rights I would then have to add to my loveliest melodies: actually by Clara Schumann! For after all if I think of myself, nothing clever, let alone, beautiful, could occur to me! I owe more melodies to you than there are passages or suchlike that you could take from me.54

Clara Schumann, however, did eventually note in her score that she had used several passages from Brahms’s cadenza. She also left a note on Brahms' autographed cadenza which she privately owned, saying: “Brahms' cadenza for the D minor Concerto by Mozart, which makes use of a cadenza by me.”55

54 Styra Avins. Ed. Johannes Brahms: Life and Letters. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 687.

55 Nancy Reich. Clara Schumann: The Artist and the Woman. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985, pp. 328-329.

104 The question of authenticity is therefore intriguing. Who was the first to come up

with the original concept of the cadenza? Did Clara Schumann take credit for Brahms’

cadenzas for Mozart’s K. 466 more than she indeed deserved? Was the exchange of ideas

about Mozart’s cadenzas so substantial that Brahms indeed revised his original

manuscript thanks to Clara? And did Clara indeed help Brahms in writing the cadenza for

Mozart's K. 466? We may never know the answers to these questions. Nevertheless, they

show how important it is to examine the cadenzas of Brahms and Clara Schumann in the

light of each other.

The legacy Brahms left with his cadenzas reveal essential information regarding

the way he approached Classicism and the way he perceived the role of the performer in

the overall concerto experience. Brahms was dedicated to maintain structural balance and loyalty to the concerto's form in his cadenzas. In an era where virtuosity was

considered an authority, Brahms chose to remain true to the idea of shape and symmetry,

rather than impose an extravagant soloist performance. The discord between the value of

these cadenzas and Brahms' refusal to publish them would remain unsolved. However, it

could perhaps explain the modesty in which he wrote them, applying his ideas from a

standpoint of a composer-performer who enjoys the given opportunity to play his

cadenzas, yet not wishing to exceed the mark of his Master's (Beethoven) published

cadenzas.

105 Chapter VI

Ferruccio Busoni's Cadenzas for Beethoven’s Concerto Op. 58

6.1 The Idea of the Romantic Cadenza as a Transcription

For many years, Busoni has been considered the “Paganini of the Piano.” He was greatly appreciated as a performer, yet much less as an original composer. Unfortunately, the fact that he was one of the most prolific transcribers and improvisers of all times did not earn him a position of a respected composer. On the contrary, various composers, critics and scholars attributed his preoccupation with transcription-writing to lack of originality and individual taste.1

Nevertheless, Busoni was far from being only an outstanding performer and a great transcriber. He was an intellectual, music theorist, editor and a prolific composer.

His views about transcription which are discussed in this chapter shed new light upon the value of his edition of Beethoven’s cadenzas, as well as his proposed cadenzas for the

Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58.

As a pianist, Busoni was preoccupied with finding new ways to perform the works of other composers, thus transcribing them through various paraphrasing techniques. For Busoni, transcription meant reconsidering the meaning of compositions from past eras in order to find certain aspects that spoke to his era most deeply. In his transcriptions, he lived through the creative experience of the given piece; he intended to

1 Antony Beaumont. Busoni the Composer. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985; Edward Dent. Ferruccio Busoni. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933.

106 make the works of the past “contemporary” and personal. By doing so he demonstrated

how a work of art could be seen differently with the passage of time. There was no one-way transcription technique for Busoni that could be traced as a connecting thread in his compositions. Every transcription supplied a different solution to a given compositional or performance dilemma.2 Transcription for Busoni had to have a life of

its own. He did not consider transcription secondary to composition. On the contrary, he

regarded transcription, as well as editing, as independent forms of art.3

Busoni’s interest in transcription goes back to his early thoughts about the art of

notation; “Every notation is in itself the transcription of an abstract idea.”4 According to

Busoni, the idea that grows in the mind of any composer can never be transferred purely.

The very act of writing it down is in fact a form of transcription. Any further

transformation, be it the transcription to a different instrumental medium or the act of

performance, is therefore secondary to the initial act of notation.5

In order to fairly assess Busoni’s musicianship, it is therefore important to first recognize that the three categories - performance, composition and transcription, are not

to be separated when approaching his creative output. They must be regarded as one

unit. Since for Busoni, a composition was already a kind of transcription, a transcription

also had a compositional life of its own. So did a musical performance; a serious

performer was allowed to use further transcription techniques in order to stamp his

2 Ibid.

3 Larry Sitsky. Busoni and the Piano. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986, p. 297.

4 Ferruccio Busoni. Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music. Trans. Theodore Baker. New York: Schirmer, 1911, p. 15-19.

5 Sitsky, p. 296.

107 individuality upon the text. This is an important point to consider when viewing Busoni’s

edition of Beethoven’s cadenzas.

Busoni edited, transcribed and wrote cadenzas to works of many composers,

among them works by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms and Liszt. For Busoni,

Mozart’s compositions were "divine" while Beethoven’s compositions were "human."

Busoni sensed the pain and depression in Beethoven’s music, as well as the constant

defiance and the explicit desire for resolution of dissonances.6 According to Egon Petri,

Busoni’s pupil and a renowned pianist, Busoni's performance of Beethoven was

considerably flexible: “The playing underlined the monumental aspect of Beethoven’s

music and was marked by great flexibility and rhythmic freedom, with far more stress on

the melodic element than usually given by most pianists.”7

6.2 Busoni's Perception of a Cadenza

Apart from writing two cadenzas for Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58,

in 1901, Busoni published his own edition of Beethoven’s original cadenzas; the

cadenzas for the first movements of the C major and C minor Concertos (op. 15 & op.

37) as well as the cadenzas of the G major Concerto (op. 58). This edition does not

include Beethoven’s cadenza for the B flat major Concerto (no.2, op. 19), perhaps

because Busoni never performed that concerto.

6 Ferruccio Busoni. The Essence of Music, Trans. Rosamond Ley. New York: Dover Publications, 1965, p. 130.

7 Sitsky, p. 270.

108 Busoni’s 1901 edition of Beethoven’s cadenzas are better understood when considering Busoni's attitude towards the art of transcription. Busoni meant his edition to

be an interpretation, modifying the original score in various ways. These modifications

fall into three categories: performance markings, alterations in orchestration and

alterations of content.

1. Performance Markings: addition of dynamic and pedal indications, character markings,

tempo references and articulation signs (example no. 6.1).

Example No. 6.1.1:

Beethoven: first-movement cadenza for the Concerto op. 58, last 8 bars (Editor: Busoni).

Busoni’s performance indications suggest that he envisioned a rather free, improvisatory

performing style for this passage. Apart from alterations in tempo (such as poco

accelerando and poco ritenuto), additional performance markings (such as improvisando,

piu ampiamente, robustamente and raddolcendc) reinforce the idea of an intuitive,

improvisational playing style.

109 2. Alterations in orchestration: These are changes which are typical in transcriptions,

where the music has to fit the characteristics of the intended instrument. In this case, the

texture is adjusted to the modern piano through added notes, rich chords and shifts to

lower and upper registers. In example 6.1.2 Busoni suggests alternative measures,

featuring higher registers and fuller chords.

Example No. 6.1.2

Beethoven: first-movement cadenza for the Concerto op. 58, bars 21-24 (Editor: Busoni).

3. Alterations of content: These are changes that are typical to improvisations. They alter

the meaning of the composition through addition or deletion of thematic material. In example 6.1.3, Busoni modifies the left hand. Instead of basso ostinato of broken chords,

Busoni inserts chords from the repetitive-note motive.

110 Example No. 6.1.3

Beethoven: first-movement cadenza for the op. 58, bars 62-70 (Editor: Busoni).

In the preface to his edition, Busoni explains that his additions and alterations were not intended to change Beethoven’s music. They were meant to “render the pieces more suitable for the modern concert hall without altering the original idea of the composition.”8 Busoni wanted to reproduce the dramatic effect of Beethoven’s cadenzas as they would have been experienced during Beethoven’s time, when they were performed in a smaller concert hall, on a different piano. In order to achieve that effect,

Busoni felt that he needed to change not only dynamic marking and textural aspects but sometimes also the musical material.

The unusual freedom Busoni takes as the editor of Beethoven’s cadenzas is further explained in his introduction to the 1901 edition. He discusses how a cadenza should be selected, the role of the performer, and the issue of musical unity:

8 Preface to Beethoven: Kadenzen zu den Klavierkonzerten. Ed. Ferruccio Busoni. Germany: Heinrichshofen, 1901.

111 The question as to which cadenzas should be played in Beethoven’s Concertos is answered by this volume. The improvisations contained therein and written by Beethoven himself correspond most closely to the spirit and style of his “Piano Symphonies.” Pianists, therefore, who do not play their own cadenzas, should give preference to those given by the Master. Cadenzas written by the performer are doubtless admissible as they are in unity and keeping with the performer’s individuality; and this is evidently the composer’s object in ceding his place to the performer. Whereas cadenzas emanating from third persons should be discarded, as introducing into the performance a third element is still more alien to the whole.9

Why does Busoni call the cadenzas “improvisations” and what does he mean by the term “Piano Symphonies?” Busoni understood that the improvisatory nature of

Beethoven’s cadenzas was what created musical unity between composer and performer.

That is why Busoni encouraged performers to compose their own cadenzas and was not in favor of performing cadenzas written by composers other than Beethoven or the performer.

Busoni differentiates between "Beethoven of the concerto" and "Beethoven of the cadenzas"10 and since Beethoven himself allowed a new integration of styles in his concertos with him as a performer of the newly written cadenzas, it is only logical that a twentieth-century performer may suggest his own interpretation as well.11 Busoni places himself in the shoes of Beethoven the pianist, evaluating his choices from a standpoint of a performer. This vision corresponds with Busoni’s idea that a performer is and should be a composer in action. It also explains why Busoni took liberty to make changes in

Beethoven’s original edition, suggesting adjustments to fit the newer piano and naming the cadenzas "Improvisations."

9 Preface to Beethoven: Kadenzen zu den Klavierkonzerten. Ed. Ferruccio Busoni. Germany: Heinrichshofen, 1901.

10 This is due to the fact Beethoven wrote his collection of cadenzas much later than the concertos.

11 Refer to the second chapter on the Beethoven cadenzas.

112 Using the word “improvisations” as substitute to “cadenzas” implies a freer form,

subject to changes and modifications during live performances, all to be controlled by the

performer, not the composer. For Busoni, a “legitimate” cadenza should reflect a

performer’s integrity of styles; integrity between his performance of the concerto and his improvisatory composition of the cadenza. The two dimensions (i.e. the style of which the concerto is played and the style of its composed/improvised cadenza) should be related in the performer’s mind and played with similar temperament and characteristics.

Thus Busoni grants the performer the ultimate authority to “transcribe” a composition in action. It is the performer’s responsibility to deliver the composer’s message, but at the same time, he must bring it up to date with present times.

6.3 Busoni's Original Cadenzas

The only Beethoven concerto for which Busoni wrote his own cadenzas was the

Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58. The cadenzas for the two movements were written in

1890,12 the same year in which Busoni wrote Conzertstück, his first piece for piano and orchestra.13 He was only twenty-four when he wrote these early cadenzas, and during

that time his compositional style was influenced mostly by the works of Anton

Rubinstein and Brahms, to whom he was very close. Busoni also wrote cadenzas for

Brahms and Mozart,14 but they were written much later, in 1919-1923.15 It is difficult to

12 The cadenzas were published a year later, in 1891 by Rahter.

13 For both pieces, Busoni was rewarded the Anton Rubinstein’s prize for composition.

14 Busoni wrote cadenzas for Mozart’s Piano Concertos K. 271, K. 453, K. 459, K. 466, K. 467, K. 482, K. 488, K. 491 and K. 503.

113 trace common characteristics between Busoni’s cadenzas for the Beethoven Concerto op.

58 and his cadenzas for Mozart’s concertos. Busoni had no prepared pattern or strict

form for his “Romantic” cadenzas. He treated each case carefully, first understanding the

concerto at hand and only then suggesting a cadenza.

Busoni’s cadenzas for Beethoven op. 58 reveal a notable concern with finding the balance between piano and orchestra, thematic and non-thematic material, and between

Busoni and Beethoven. Despite Busoni’s reputation as an extraordinary virtuoso of his

time, these cadenzas are technically not too demanding. Nevertheless, Busoni finds the

way to combine his individual voice together with his personal understanding of

Beethoven’s style and form, as well as the subtle idioms of the Concerto.

6.3.1 Busoni's Cadenza for the First Movement

Busoni’s cadenza for the first movement is 73 bars long. It is divided into four

parts. The first part (bars1-32, example no. 6.4.1) begins unexpectedly with the orchestral

theme, B1, accompanied by the repetitive-note motive of the opening theme. This

opening six-bar motive, characterized by an advanced harmonic language of diminished

and augmented chords, tritones and considerable use of dissonances, appears in a sequence of three different keys (G minor, B flat major and F major respectively).

Between the sequences, a familiar motive from the Concerto is cited. It is taken from the piano accompaniment, which is originally played underneath the orchestral B1 theme

(bars 311-312, example no. 6.4.2). By doing so, Busoni throws his audience right from the beginning into a world of duality; duality between two masters, two styles and two

15 With the exception of the cadenzas for Mozart's K. 466 which were written in 1906.

114 musical languages (the advanced harmonic language is Busonian, while the melodic treatment of the beginning is Beethovenian).

Example No. 6.4.1

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, first part, bars 1-32.

Example No. 6.4.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, theme B1, bars 311-312.

115 The abrupt transitions from one motive to another, the rapid shifts between major and minor modes and the insertion of unusual thematic material point to a style that fits

Busoni’s era.

The unusual choice of non-thematic material is also apparent during the second part of Busoni’s cadenza (bars 33-46). As before, Busoni uses Beethoven’s piano accompaniment to the orchestral B1 theme as it appears in the second exposition (with a change to 4/4 meter). The Beethovenian texture of this piano accompaniment appears with additional chromatics and higher octaves, a technique which Busoni is very fond of.

The last four bars of this section once again imply the opening repeated-note motive (A), played now in rich chords with a sudden shift to the lower register (example no. 6.5.1).

Example No. 6.5.1

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, part II, bars 33-46.

116 Busoni uses themes B1 and A in juxtaposition, just like Beethoven does in the

second exposition and the recapitulation (see example no. 6.5.2 where the winds play theme B1 above the A theme, played by the strings).

Example No. 6.5.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 138-147.

The third part of the cadenza is a stretto section, leading towards the climax of the cadenza (bars 47-58). It is written in a canon-like texture with a gradual crescendo until

it reaches its peak at bar 59; there, a vigorous citation of the opening repetitive-note

motive appears in unison and ff under full diminished chords. The only thematic material

chosen for this stretto part is an inversion of the B2 theme (see the descending scale

motive in example 6.6.1). The implicit use of the motive, which requires both the

performer and the audience to maintain some previous knowledge of the Concerto, show

117 that Busoni regarded the cadenza as a well-thought composition and an intellectual challenge (example 6.6.2).

Example No. 6.6.1

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, B2 theme, bars 52-55.

Example No. 6.6.2

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, Part III, bars 47-57.

118 Pseudo-canon writing is a typical Beethovenian technique, but Busoni often used

it as well, like in his cadenza for Conzertstück op. 31a (example no. 6.7).

Example No. 6.7

Busoni: Conzertstück op. 31a for Piano and Orchestra, cadenza.

The last part of Busoni’s cadenza opens with a climactic bravura part (bars 59-

64), where the repetitive-note motive (A) appears in full stream, marked appassionato,

and played in diminished seventh chords in rapid triplets. The motive alternates between

the two hands, bass-octaves contrasting with upper register parallel thirds, continuously accompanied by massive chromatic passages (example 6.8).

119 Example No. 6.8

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, part IV, first half, bars 59-65.

The cadenza could have ended here with the return to the opening theme. Yet

Busoni had a different plan in mind. While continuing with the thematic material and the bravura texture, an abrupt shift to a new tonal center of D major occurs in bar 65 (this is

accompanied by a sudden dynamic change to p with a calmato and dolce markings).

Busoni gradually prepares the ground for his unexpected ending; bars 69-72 are an exact citation of the opening bars of the second exposition.16 Other than its original appearance

at the beginning of the second exposition, this is the only time this thematic material is

used in the movement (example no. 6.9).

16 Bars 82-85 in the original score.

120 Example No. 6.9

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, Part IV, bars 64-73.

Busoni adds yet another dimension to this concluding reminiscence; one can not

avoid noticing the similarity between the ending of Busoni's cadenza and Brahms' second movement piano part taken from his Piano Concerto No. 1. This could be seen in the

above example where thick chords in the right hand appear above a dominant pedal bass

on D, alluding to Brahms' harmonic language, accompanied by his known characteristic of two-against-three metric device (example no. 6.10).

Example No. 6.10

Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, second-movement bars 29-30.

121 The last bar of Busoni’s cadenza is identical to Beethoven’s last bar of his first

cadenza; i.e. a free improvisation played by the right hand prior to the final coda part.

This gesture shows how significant it was for Busoni to connect his musical ideas with

those of Beethoven. It also expresses Busoni’s aspiration to create a cycle in the piano part, thus unifying the cadenza with the rest of the piece.

The idea of creating a cyclic piano form through citation of the piano exposition at the end of the cadenza is also found in Busoni’s cadenza for the first movement of

Mozart’s Concerto k. 466. As mentioned earlier, Busoni wrote most of the cadenzas to

Mozart’s Piano Concertos in 1915-1922.17 However, the cadenza for K. 466 was written much earlier, in 1907.

The cadenza to K.466 begins with the same motive, pitch and texture as the piano exposition (examples no. 6.11.1 and 6.11.2).

Example No. 6.11.1

Mozart: Piano Concerto in D minor, K. 466, first-movement, bars 77-87.

17 Franck Reinisch in his preface to Busoni: Cadenzas to Piano Concertos of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1991.

122 Example No. 6.11.2

Busoni: first-movement cadenza for Mozart Piano Concerto in D minor, K. 466, bars: 1-17.

As in the cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, the thirteen-bar citation does

not appear anywhere else in the movement. This proves Busoni’s inclination to create a cyclic form with the piano exposition rather than with the orchestral exposition. By using more pianistic material in the cadenza, Busoni musically articulates his view of the function of a cadenza; the cadenza is a podium for the performer, and what best represents the performer if not the piano part of the concerto.

In sum, Busoni maintains his individuality in the first cadenza of op. 58 by

incorporating advanced harmonic language, but he is also careful to maintain thematic

loyalty to Beethoven. However, even in that domain, Busoni reaches beyond traditional

123 thematic manipulation. By creating a thematic cycle between the piano exposition and the end of the cadenza, he is subtly expanding the function of the cadenza to serve as an additional unifying element in the movement.

6.3.2 Busoni's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Despite its improvisational nature, Busoni's third movement cadenza is concise

(74 bars), uses abrupt tonal and motivic shifts, dissonances, chromatics, diminished seventh chords and enharmonic changes.18 It is more daring harmonically than his first- movement cadenza. Yet, it is less structured, providing the listener with the sense of a freer composition and an improvised cadenza.

Busoni’s cadenza for the third movement is characterized by hasty jumps between motives and tonal centers. Busoni does not remain in one key for longer than two bars.

This harmonic instability clashes with the cheerful character of the final movement

(opening in C major, later returning to the home key of G). As in the cadenza for the first movement, Busoni does not use even one full citation of thematic material. Instead, he develops selected fragments of thematic material, and emphasizes their strong rhythmic implications. For example, only the first bar of the opening theme is developed for the first thirty-four bars (example no. 6.12).

18 Note the enharmonic change in the beginning of the cadenza, D flat- C sharp, bars 6-9 ( F minor center-F sharp major respectively). Another enharmonic change occurs in the last cadential phrase, where D sharp changes to E flat in bars 59-74 (V6/Em – V2/Gm).

124

Example No. 6.12

Busoni: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, part I, bars 1-38.

The second, lyrical piano theme19 is treated quite differently in this cadenza (bars

39-74). Rather than being placed in the upper register of the instrument, accompanied

with a piano dolce sign as it originally was, the motive appears in the low octaves. This is

cut by a sudden interference of the rhythmic opening, orchestral motive. At this point

(bars 39-74) the thematic material of the orchestra is superimposed on that of the piano20

(example no. 6.13).

19 Beethoven's third-movement, bars 80-92.

20 The tonal shift between the two motives is also sharp: from E major to F major.

125 A six-bar grand crescendo into G major occurs in bars 53-58. It anticipates the

tonic but leads to a deceptive cadence instead. Under right-hand trills in fortissimo,

followed by a pp subito, the opening motive appears in an unexpected V6 chord of E

minor, with a final enharmonic change into the dark, diminished-chord on E flat, later

resolving chromatically after an attacca sign to the dominant D.

Example No. 6.13

Busoni: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, part II, bars 39-73.

Whereas the first part of the cadenza mainly appears in major keys, its second part

conveys a minor sound. The contrast is highlighted when looking at the cadenza’s overall

harmonic scheme; although the cadenza begins and ends with the same motive, it begins

in A flat major, introducing the opening motive in its piano version, played in parallel sixths (bars 1-9). The ending introduces the same motive, yet in its orchestral mode,

126 characterized by the reminiscence of the dotted-rhythm figuration, played in minor thirds

(bars 60-74), reflecting strong deviation from the major color which opened both the

movement and the cadenza.

In both cadenzas, Busoni succeeded in inserting his own voice on the one hand

and creating integrity with the Concerto on the other hand. However, what is truly unique

about Busoni is that the integrity he achieved between concerto and cadenza did not stem

from the philosophy of thematic unity but from the philosophy of performance integrity.

The performer’s individuality is the strongest link between past and present. Through his

knowledge of both past and present, he is able to infuse both the old with new and the

new with old, all the while maintaining balance through his musical personality.

The fact that Busoni left two versions of his cadenzas to Beethoven's op. 58, his transcription to Beethoven's original cadenzas and his own Romantic-style cadenzas

exemplifies the two options that Busoni set before the pianist in choosing a cadenza for

performance: the pianist could either use the composer’s original cadenzas or write his

own. In order to exemplify the first option, Busoni took Beethoven's original cadenzas

and transcribed them into a style that fit his own era. In order to exemplify the second

option, he wrote his own cadenzas and showed how he could also unify the Concerto

through his individuality as a performer. In both cases, Busoni remained true to his belief

that ultimately, in cadenza writing, it is evidently the composer’s object in ceding his

place to the performer.21

21 Preface to Beethoven: Kadenzen zu den Klavierkonzerten. Ed. Ferruccio Busoni. Germany: Heinrichshofen, 1901.

127 Chapter VII

Anton Rubinstein's Cadenzas for Beethoven Concerto Op. 58

7.1 General Background and Major Influences

If one was to choose Rubinstein’s greatest mark on the musical world, it would

doubtless be his performing career as a virtuoso pianist and his extraordinary

improvisation techniques.1 Karl Goldmark gives an account of Rubinstein improvising

on a motive from the last movement of Beethoven’s Eighth Symphony: “He counter-

pointed it in the bass; then developing it first as a canon, next as a four-voiced fugue, then

returned to Beethoven’s original form, later changing it to a gay Viennese waltz…a

perfect storm of sound in which the original theme was still unmistakable. It was

superb.”2

As a composer, Rubinstein was often criticized by his contemporaries for not

having the necessary patience and concentration for writing.3 Various critics complained

that Rubinstein wrote “too much and too quickly with monotony” and Liszt had even

written to him personally that “…It has been justly said that it is not sufficient to make a

composition; one should complete it.”4

1 Refer to writings by Garden, Norris and Comini.

2 Harold C. Schoenberg. The Great Pianists. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963, p. 257.

3 Paderewski in Edward Garden. “Rubinstein.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980, Vol. 21: 532.

4 Jeremy Norris. The Russian Piano Concertos. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Vol. 1, pp. 21-22.

128 The underestimation of Rubinstein as a composer and an interpreter has been continued until recent years. Jeremy Norris, in his chapter on Rubinstein’s Piano

Concertos, could not avoid a judgmental tone towards Rubinstein the composer throughout his writing; He addresses Rubinstein's plagiarism of Beethoven, his lack of

self-criticism and his “flawed” manuscripts.5 Kwan, in her chapter on Rubinstein’s

Cadenza for Beethoven's op. 58, concludes that: "Rubinstein’s Cadenza emphasizes his

'improvisational' but not his 'compositional' skills… It captures the spontaneity of an

improvised cadenza but lacks the more complex planning and thematic development that

Beethoven’s Cadenzas present."6 These critical approaches towards Rubinstein as a

composer shall be questioned and reevaluated in this chapter, at the same time providing

a broader outlook upon his cadenzas for Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto. These

cadenzas will also be seen in the context of other cadenzas written for the Beethoven

concertos and in the context of his own concerto writing.

Rubinstein wrote cadenzas for the four Beethoven’s Concertos in 1861,7 prior to

writing his Fourth Piano Concerto in D minor, op. 70, in 1864. Rubinstein’s Fourth Piano

Concerto has been the most successful and performed concerto among the five concertos

written by Rubinstein. It is the first concerto in which Rubinstein reaches a well-balanced

distribution of material between soloist and orchestra.8 It is also the first time Rubinstein

perceives the concerto genre as a more united form, using techniques of thematic unity

5 Ibid., pp. 22-34.

6 Kwan, p. 106.

7 The cadenzas bear no opus numbers. They were published by Mainz together with the cadenza for Mozart’s Concerto K. 466, yet the only cadenzas available in print nowadays are the cadenzas for Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58.

8 Norris, p. 31.

129 and thematic transformation; the second movement’s themes all derive from a single

thematic and rhythmic idiom, and the opening theme of the Concerto serves as the

principle theme of the Finale and its subsidiary material.9 From 1869 onwards,

Rubinstein abandoned the “Classical” three-movement concerto form and became more

engaged with the form of a piano-fantasia; a single-movement piece for piano and

orchestra. Liszt and Moscheles had probably served as a model for Rubinstein, basing

their own concertos on a single-movement form and thematic-unity devices.10 In 1869,

Rubinstein also wrote the Fantasy in C, op. 84, which is monothematic, as well as the

Russian Capriccio (1878) and the Concertstück (1889).

Rubinstein received his early education in Berlin and Vienna, where he adopted a more German tradition, influenced mainly by the music of Schumann and Mendelssohn.

He was also well acquainted with Beethoven’s compositions. He played Beethoven’s piano sonatas and concertos and also transcribed his Turkish March from Die Rviven von

Athens (1848) and the Egmont Overture (1868).

A thorough analysis of Rubinstein’s two cadenzas for Beethoven’s op. 58 reveals that contrary to the image of Rubinstein as a “spontaneous composer,” the cadenzas are

structured compositions which are not merely an improvisatory and bravura display;

rather, they reinforce Rubinstein’s personal interpretation of the Concerto and its

principles.

Both Rubinstein’s cadenzas for the first and third movements of Beethoven's op.

58 convey a new concept of drama and conflict which projects a sense of programmatic

9 For full details and examples refer to Norris, pp. 34 -38.

10 Rubinstein admitted that he was influenced by Liszt’s qualities as a performer but he never wanted to admit that he gained from him compositional inspiration. See Norris, The Russian Concertos. Vol. I, p. 25.

130 music. The use of recitative passages in the first-movement cadenza is certainly one of

Rubinstein's unique dramatic devices, one which has never been used by Beethoven or by any other composer writing cadenzas for his Fourth Piano Concerto. Moreover, the idea of conflict becomes both the means and the goal in Rubinstein’s cadenzas; the ambiguities raised in the first-movement cadenza are clarified in the third movement cadenza. Throughout the cadenzas, Rubinstein shows his familiarity with the text and the concerto genre, as well as his passion to deliver the hidden message of Beethoven’s

Fourth Piano Concerto, that is, the battle between forces. The cadenzas convey various conflicts. There is the conflict between the piano and orchestral roles, conflict of thematic material (the A theme opposed to B2 theme), conflict of textural elements (rhythmic against melodic elements), improvisation versus compositional parts, and intimacy versus virtuosity.

131 7.1.1 The Concept of the Romantic Cadenza through Rubinstein's

Fourth Piano Concerto

Rubinstein wrote his Fourth Piano Concerto right after completing the cadenzas for the Beethoven concertos. Therefore, it is interesting to examine the way he treats the cadenza to his own Concerto. A close look reveals that the idea of conflict and opposed forces is apparent here as well. The cadenza for the first movement11 begins with an improvisational section which lasts eighteen bars. This melodic opening, marked “senza tempo” has a "Chopinesque" texture; a left-hand accompaniment under a free, lyrical right-hand line in G flat major and 3/4 meter (example no. 7.1). An abrupt change to B flat minor in 4/4 occurs in the nineteenth-bar (marked Tempo I), together with enriched harmonic language and different thematic material; the tranquil melodic section, characterized by its pianistic texture, is replaced by a citation of the first orchestral, opening theme of the movement. The latter is written in thick texture of diminished chords, accompanied by ostinato bass in octaves (example no. 7.1). The sharp contrast between the two sections of the cadenza creates an opposition which is resolved when the piano part merges into the orchestral final tutti 12

11 Rubinstein’s cadenza for the first movement of his Fourth Piano Concerto lasts 76 bars. 12 As in the case of Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto, the piano in Rubinstein’s cadenza continues its part until the very end of the movement.

132 Example no. 7.1

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Concerto No. 4 in D minor, op. 70.

133

7.2 Rubinstein's Cadenza for the First Movement of Beethoven’s Op. 58

Before analyzing Rubinstein's first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's op. 58, it

is essential to question which “Beethoven” Rubinstein aims to identify with: the early one of the Concerto or the later one of the cadenzas? Throughout the cadenza, Rubinstein

borrows material from the movement itself, thus maintaining loyalty to the Concerto.

However, just like Beethoven in his cadenza for the first movement, Rubinstein chooses the C theme (the choral-like theme) to be the core part of his cadenza. A similarity to

Beethoven’s second cadenza could also be traced; Rubinstein uses the repetitive-note

motive of theme A as a central idea in all parts of the cadenza.13 It is therefore apparent

that Rubinstein had used both Beethoven's Concerto and his cadenzas as sources of

inspiration for his own cadenzas, to which he added his own interpretations.

Rubinstein's first-movement cadenza is one-hundred and seven bars long. It is

divided into five parts that are structured as a large-scale form of exposition, development

and recapitulation.14 Part I (bars 1-24) is fully dedicated to the repetitive-note motive

taken from the first half of theme A. The section begins with a nine-bar introduction of rich chordal texture, a prominent characteristic of Rubinstein’s musical language, and ends with a dominant 6/5 of B flat minor (the flat mediant key). This is followed by eleven bars (10-19) of the orchestral repetitive-note motive which is taken from the first exposition. However, the drama here is not created only by bravura elements, or by the forte dynamic sign. Rather it is formed by the use of low registers, bass-octaves, flat

13 It is assumed that Rubinstein was acquainted with Beethoven's cadenzas.

14 This should be seen mainly through the distinctive choice of thematic material.

134 version of the motive (minor seconds) and dissonances on the accented neighbor-notes in

the bass (example no. 7.2).

Example No. 7.2

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 1-19.

The concluding five bars of part I (bars 20-24) preserve the same rhythmic

figuration that was suggested earlier, yet they express an imitation of bars 68-73 from

Beethoven’s score, calling attention to the end of the orchestral exposition, only in G flat major, the flat vii, rather than G major (example no. 7.3 ). This smooth transition into a new harmonic color (including a change to a higher register) without having to change

the rhythmic pattern, is one of Rubinstein's distinctive features.

135 Example No. 7.3.1

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars 19-24.

Example No. 7.3.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 68-73.

136 The second part of the cadenza (bars 25-35) switches to a "soloist mode." It

begins with a four-bar variation on the Chopin-like theme (theme A3), presented here in a

reversed figuration of the melodic line, played in Phrygian mode by the right hand, while

a strong feel of D flat vii (Neapolitan of the following C major) is apparent. Indeed, this

is not a "pure" Neapolitan harmony, yet it is an exquisite "deceptive" moment that is to be

exposed (example no. 7.4).

Example No. 7.4

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 25-35.

The placement of this lyrical theme (A3) right after the repetitive-note orchestral

motive (A) which concluded the first part emphasizes both a sharp transition to an

opposed character, being more lyrical in nature, as well as a shift into an area where the solo thematic material is empowered. Whereas Beethoven presents this theme in a

137 fantasy-like character, played by the piano in a major key (B flat), marked pp15,

Rubinstein turns it into a new dramatic character; apart from reversing the melodic line and having it played in a Phrygian mode, the theme is first presented in an opposed dynamic sign of f and placed in the middle piano register, rather than in its familiar upper

part. By doing so, Rubinstein differentiates between soloist and orchestral roles in his

cadenza, yet merges their parts into a common dramatic character.

The following seven bars of Rubinstein's second cadenza part (bars 29-35)

express an entrance to a “second piano exposition.” What may seem a bravura

improvisational passage on the repetitive-note element (example no. 7.4), becomes a

citation of Beethoven's thematic figuration, taken from the beginning of the second

exposition, bars 74-81, only now played in C major (example no. 7.5).

Example No. 7.5

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 74-81.

15 Originally appears in Beethoven’s exposition, bars 105-110.

138 Rubinstein was fond of this specific rhythmic figuration and used it again in the

first movement of his Piano Concerto no. 5 (example no. 7.6).

Example No. 7.6

Rubinstein: Piano Concerto No. 5 in E flat major, op. 94, first-movement, bars 35-38.

The third part of the cadenza (bars 36-55) most strongly conveys the idea of

drama and conflict. Rubinstein introduces recitative-like passages, marked ad libitum in his cadenza, alternated by thematic citations of both B2 theme (B flat minor, bar 40) and

B1 theme (C flat minor, bar 46) respectively, all marked a tempo. Each time a recitative passage appears, it is presented in the lower piano register, in bass octaves under the dynamic mark of f. Each time the themes appear, they are presented in their orchestral version, maintaining the original harmonic scheme suggested by Beethoven, while preserving a consistent dynamic marking of p. The two contradictory textures (the cited themes and the free, improvisatory recitative-passages) reflect a battle between piano and orchestra roles, as well as a conflict between two composers of different generations and traditions. Rubinstein’s uniqueness is thus in creating drama through the use of extremes: merging two languages into one, turning contradictory textures into a new dictum

(example no. 7.7). At first listening, this fragmented part may create the illusion of a free, improvisatory section; yet attentive listening reveals a carefully planned section,

139 divided into five smaller segments of four-bars each.16 This symmetrical outline proves that Rubinstein’s seemingly improvisatory output is in fact arranged in a well-structured, thought-out format, thus refuting his reputation as a spontaneous composer.

Example No. 7.7

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 36-55.

The underlying idea of this section is a dialogue embedded in monologue: the piano talks with his own self, so to speak, in alternating contrasting voices. One of these voices comes as if from afar: it is gentle (piano), consonant, and in general Classical-

16 Bars 36-39: recitative ; bars 40-43 citation of B2 theme, B flat minor; bars 44-47: recitative; bars 48-51: citation of B1 theme, C flat minor ( B minor); bars 52-55: recitative.

140 sounding – the thematic references point to the main text of the Concerto. It sounds like

faint recall of fragmented images from some distant past, when someone tries to

remember. The other is a forceful voice, a unisono and forte recitative in the low register, which gives the impressions of a voice that is present. This is the main “actor”; it is the performer – perhaps Rubinstein – who struggles with the material of Beethoven.

It is as if the forceful recitative of this “main character” is searching passionately for

something. Its search is answered by a theme from the concerto as if it were coming

from afar, from a dream. The main character, however, is not satisfied. He rejects this

theme, and goes on searching.

This section of the cadenza is like a paraphrase of the dialogue that opens

Beethoven’s second movement. In Beethoven’s music, the cruel, masculine sound of the

orchestra (forte) is answered by the choral theme of the piano (piano dynamics). But

here, both characters are played out by the piano, so that the conflict is not between piano

and orchestra; rather it is an inner conflict played out as if the pianist’s monologue.

A similar device could be also found in Rubinstein’s cadenza for Beethoven’s

Concerto op. 37 (example no. 7.8).

141 Example No. 7.8

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 37, bars 38-58.

Followed by dark, diminished ostinato bass, Rubinstein places the exquisite second, lyrical theme in the core part of the cadenza. There he modulates it in a perfectly symmetrical plan, alternating between a four-bar thematic phrase (marked a tempo) and a one-bar dark, basso ostinato (marked ritardando). Here again we see a similar design: darkness giving place to light, minor to major, tremolo bass to choral-like texture – in a sense: Romanticism giving way to Classicism.

142 The fourth part of Rubinstein's cadenza (bars 56-79) contains extended use of

sequences, which is a more developmental approach. It opens with a citation of the

choral-like orchestral theme C (example no. 7.9).

Example No. 7.9

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 56-79.

After a four-bar citation of the chorale-like theme (C), appearing in the tonic key

of G major (as seen in Beethoven’s recapitulation), there is a shift to the mediant key, B

minor, hence recalling the G-B major tonal relation at the beginning of the Concerto.

Two thematic materials are played simultaneously, their roles reversed: the left hand

plays a melodic element, the orchestral repetitive-note motive (A) in diminished-chords, while the right hand plays an accompanying element, the same rhythmic figuration which

Beethoven places in the piano accompaniment above the C theme (example no. 7.10).

143 The effect is notable for its exquisite harmonic color and the clash between melodic and rhythmic elements.

Example No. 7.10

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 290-292.

Rubinstein repeats the same technique in the last eight bars of this cadenza’s section (example no. 7.9). The texture is definitely Beethoven’s; the right hand triplet- figuration is taken from the piano part in the second exposition, bars 97-98 (example no.

7.11), while the left hand continues to play the repetitive-note motive on the dominant note D. The pattern is repeated four times: twice in G major and twice in G minor

(example no. 7.9, bars 72-79). The last sequence leads to a deceptive cadence on E flat major (VI/ G).

144 Example No. 7.11

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 97-98 (right-hand triplet figuration).

The last section of the cadenza contains elements from the recapitulation. It uses the non-thematic triplet figuration which was only used in the recapitulation of the

Concerto; bars 258-261 (example no. 7.12).

Example No. 7.12

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 258-261.

145 By using this exclusive figuration Rubinstein achieves a dual effect: improvisation on the one hand versus strong affiliation with structure and form on the other hand.

Whereas Beethoven places the A theme, played by the strings, below the piano- triplets figuration (bars 258-261), Rubinstein inserts a citation of a different theme (bars

80-87); He begins with modulations on the piano-triplet figuration, transposing it to various keys (E flat major, F minor, C major, G minor and C minor) until a citation of the

B2 theme is heard in haste by the left hand, supplying the listener with a short fragment of its first-bar only (example no. 7.13). The use of the B2 theme is a natural choice as it is the theme which concludes the movement, but here it is fragmented and its tonal center is ambiguous. From that point onwards the cadenza's coda begins.

Example No. 7.13

Rubinstein: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven op. 58, bars 80-108.

146

The form of the coda (bars 88-108) is similar to the third part of Rubinstein’s

cadenza, where the recitative passages alternate with major thematic material. Similarly,

Rubinstein presents a four-bar phrase of the B2 theme, taken from the movement's coda

as appears in bars 347-350 (example no. 7.14).

Example No. 7.14

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, bars 347-350.

147 This is alternated with another four-bar phrase of the repetitive-note motive,

appearing in bass octaves in both the lower and upper piano registers, all played under

right-hand trills. The alternation takes place twice; first in F major and then in the upper

minor-second, F sharp major, functioning thus as a leading tone to tonic G (example no.

7.13).

Although Rubinstein was a virtuoso pianist, he does not conclude his first- movement cadenza with bravura passages. The cadenza does not end with a triumphant

tone. Instead, Rubinstein reiterates the repetitive-note motive in piano, first in F sharp

major and then in F sharp minor. The final citation of the two main themes of the

movement (A and B2 rotating between the two hands) leave an impression of an open- ended dialogue; the two motives are rambling, lacking continuity and appear as short

allusions through sequences of keys that are tied in half-tone relation, all of which

supports a feel of a lost and vague cadenza finale. The cadenza which began with an

individual harmonic language is concluded with Beethovenian elements; melodic lines

versus rhythmic-patterns, continuously changing registers, and a major/ minor

presentation of the "fate motive" in the last four bars of the cadenza.

148 7.3 Rubinstein's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Like Clara Schumann, Rubinstein ignores Beethoven’s sign for “cadenza sia corta” (a short cadenza) in the last movement of the Concerto. His cadenza is even longer than the one offered by Clara, lasting one hundred and eighty eight bars.

Consequently, the third movement changes in proportions, the cadenza adding about 25% to its overall length.17 The cadenza for the third movement, which is divided into five parts, is structured and well-planned, just like the cadenza for the first movement, with an overall form of exposition-development-recapitulation. However, in this cadenza,

Rubinstein prefers to preserve Beethoven's compositional language, both harmonically and rhythmically.

In this cadenza, the idea of conflict again plays a significant role. Yet, whereas the conflicts created in the first-movement cadenza were left unsettled with an open coda, the third movement cadenza supplies a new vision of optimism and resolution in its final part. This may explain why Rubinstein ignored Beethoven’s request for a short cadenza in this movement.

The first part (bars 1-48) begins with an eight-bar phrase that is an exact repetition of Beethoven’s thematic material in bars 546-553 (example no. 7.15).

17 The movement lasts 600 bars.

149 Example No. 7.15

Rubinstein: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 1-48.

This opening motive in pp (bars 1-8) appears only once in the movement, before the final presto of the coda, that is: after the cadenza. It is one of the most intimate

150 moments of the movement, played by the piano. The unison chords create a recitative

feel, with pizzicato accompaniment in the first violin (example no. 7.16).

Example No. 7.16

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, third-movement, bars 546-553.

This exclusive recitative-like thematic material which Rubinstein uses at the

beginning of the cadenza is immediately contrasted with the rhythmic, orchestral first

theme of the movement. The two themes alternate three times in a symmetrical form of

eight-bar groups, confirming their dramatic dissimilarity and contrasted character

(example no. 7.15).

One may question the cadenza’s omission of the second theme of the

movement.18 This theme could have been most adequate to stand in contrast with the

18 Refer to bars 80-92 in Beethoven’s score, or see list of themes.

151 first, orchestral theme, due to its lyrical character. Yet, Rubinstein does not include this theme in his cadenza. Rather he trades it with a rare moment in the piano-part which reflects both drama and intimacy at the same time. This choice of thematic material is not used by any other Romantic composer who copes with the cadenza for the third movement of Beethoven's op. 58.

The following eight-bar motive (bars 9-16), forms a quasi canonic dialogue between the two hands, played in diminished intervals in staccato. It is an elaboration on the third and fourth bar of the opening theme, while borrowing its rhythmic texture from the development part of the movement, bars 224-227 (example no. 7.17). This device strengthens the supposition that Rubinstein does not merely cite thematic material, but skillfully chooses distinctive textures from the movement which appear exclusively in particular parts, such as the development and the coda.

Example No. 7.17

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, third-movement, bars 224-227.

The second part of the cadenza (bars 49-72) continues with a symmetrical alternation of four-bar phrases, using two contrasting motives (example no. 7.18).

152 Example No. 7.18

Rubinstein: cadenza for Beethoven op. 58, 3rd movement, bars 48-72.

153 It begins on a dominant-seventh chord of E minor with the dotted-rhythm element

(taken from the first two bars of the opening theme), alternated with the lyrical piano-

triplets element, taken from Beethoven’s development part, bars 252-272 (example no.

7.19). It is the first time Rubinstein unifies between the two elements; the left hand plays

the expressive legato triplets, while the right hand plays the dotted-rhythm element in

staccato. The gradual crescendo in this part empowers the dramatic force, as often seen

in developmental parts. The tension between the elements grows, creating anticipation towards the resolution that follows.

Example No. 7.19

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, third-movement, bars 252-

272.

154 The beginning of the cadenza's third part (bars 72-116) provides a feel of

recapitulation. It begins with a full citation of the orchestral A theme in the tonic key (G

major), played triumphantly in thick chordal texture. This is the only time Rubinstein presents the main thematic material in full citation and in ff (example no. 7.20).

Example No. 7.20

Rubinstein: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 72-116.

155

Following the citation of the theme, Rubinstein continues to empower the dramatic feel, alternating between two conflicting thematic materials while preserving a strict symmetrical scheme; four bars of thick chords in f, followed by twelve bars of piano accompaniment in p. These twelve bars are borrowed from Beethoven’s score (bars

361-382), prior to the return of the third ritornello (example no. 7.21).

156 Example No. 7.21

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, third-movement, bars 361-382.

When the motive appears in the movement, it is played by the piano while the

violas and cellos simultaneously play the orchestral, A theme, in a transformed version

(in legato, dolce and pp). In his cadenza, however, Rubinstein only cites the piano-

accompaniment, eliminating the citation of the A theme below. The motive then becomes a sub-text, subconsciously recalling the previously explicit A theme.

The fourth part of the cadenza (bars 117-156) is an intensive stretto section,

building the harmonic tension towards the final coda.19 In contrast to the previous part,

which preserves Beethoven’s harmonic language and rhythmic figurations, this part

expresses an advanced, Post-Romantic language. The dark, mysterious atmosphere is

created by use of diminished chords and a gradual crescendo through syncopated bass

octaves. These are played in chromatic motion below the dotted-rhythm opening motive.

19 The coda part of Rubinstein’s cadenza begins in bar 157.

157 The section ends with the repeated diminished-seventh chords on D, strengthening the

dominant-tonic key relation that governs the following coda part (example no. 7.22).

Example No. 7.22

Rubinstein: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 117-156.

158 Similar approach20 could be also found in the first movement of Rubinstein’s

Concerto No. 4, where the orchestra anticipates the first dramatic entrance of the piano

(example no. 7.23).

Example No. 7.23

Rubinstein: Piano Concerto No. 4, op. 70 in D minor, first-movement, bars 16-24.

The most striking part of Rubinstein's cadenza is saved for its coda part (bars 157-

188). The dotted-rhythm element which governed the previous section continues to be

apparent in the coda, yet with a substantial change; while it is played by the right hand,

the left hand brings back the recitative-like motive that has started the cadenza (taken originally from Beethoven’s coda). These two forces, presented in opposition throughout the entire cadenza,21 are fully united here, played victoriously in the dominant major D,

while creating a well-built cyclic thematic motion (example no. 7.24).

20 As in Rubinstein's fourth part of the cadenza, here too he creates dramatic anticipation by a gradual crescendo through syncopated bass-octaves in chromatic motion, accompanied by a dotted-rhythm figuration.

21 The melodic, recitative-like motive of the coda contrasted with the dotted-rhythm orchestral thematic material.

159 Example No. 7.24

Rubinstein: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58, bars 157-188.

Rubinstein’s coda relieves the unrelenting tension that has been created

throughout the entire Concerto. Both Busoni and Rubinstein cope with similar dilemmas regarding their cadenzas to Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto. Yet each one chooses to conclude the third-movement cadenza differently. Busoni finalizes his cadenza with a striking dramatic statement of the opening theme. Rubinstein unites between the two contrasting themes of the movement, placing them simultaneously in his rather major, triumphant ending.

160 In sum, Rubinstein’s cadenzas convey the idea of drama and conflict, reflecting the nature of the Concerto itself; piano versus orchestra, melodic lines versus rhythmic figurations, intimacy versus virtuosity, composition versus improvisation, thematic material versus non-thematic material and fortissimo versus pianissimo. An added conflict is Rubinstein’s Romanticism versus Beethoven’s Classicism. Nevertheless, these

presented conflicts do not stand without connectivity to the original movements, as

throughout his cadenzas Rubinstein uses Beethoven’s texture, themes and rhythmic

patterns, all the while maintaining a well-planned, structural form of exposition,

development and recapitulation. The findings presented in this chapter refute the

criticism of Rubinstein as a composer who lacked pre-planned compositions.

161 Chapter VIII

The Cadenzas of the "Modernists": Tovey, Kempff, Medtner and Levin

Cadenza writing has been ingrained in the culture of composers who lived in the

Romantic era, usually due to their performing commitments. In the twentieth century,

however, due to various modifications the concerto genre had gone through, there had been a decline in the volume of cadenza writing. Nevertheless, some twentieth-century composers, such as Tovey, Kempff, Medtner and Levin, still regarded cadenza composition important, and their cadenzas are worth consideration. Tovey, Kempff,

Medtner and Levin were all performers and composers who were also engaged with

research, exploration of past traditions and improvisation. This chapter will show how

each composer dealt with the problem of inserting a cadenza into a text that had been

written over a century earlier and how this affected the concerto as a whole.

8.1 Donald Tovey

Sir Donald Tovey (1875-1940), the renowned English scholar, composer and pianist, published his cadenzas for Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto in 1937, together with the cadenzas to Beethoven’s and Brahms’ Violin Concertos.1 His detailed preface to

the cadenzas reveals significant information regarding his concept of improvisation in

1 These cadenzas were published by Oxford University Press, London. The Beethoven Fourth Piano Concerto was the only piano concerto for which Tovey wrote a cadenza.

162 general, and cadenza-writing in particular. Tovey had a fixed idea regarding what a

cadenza should project:

The ideal cadenza would be an actual extemporization by a player, capable of using the composer’s language and above the temptation to display anything as banal as a review of the progress of music since the composer’s date.2

Whether or not Tovey was following his rules when it came to his cadenzas shall be examined shortly, yet it is important to note that his affinity with improvisation was derived from the way he had originally perceived Beethoven.

Tovey was critical of Beethoven’s written cadenzas. He believed that Beethoven’s cadenzas, though quite improvisatory, were far less demanding than those played in live performances: “for the process of writing music is so slow that it tends, far more than the writing of words, to inhibit the virtues of extemporaneous style.” 3

Whereas he admired Beethoven’s long-version cadenza for Piano Concerto op.

15, he disliked his cadenza for op. 19. In his opinion, the cadenza did not fit in style to

the original work because the Concerto had been written almost twenty years prior its

cadenza.4 He also criticized Beethoven’s cadenzas for op. 375 and op. 58, first

movement6 for being “feebly extemporized.”

2 Donald Tovey. Preface to the Cadenzas to Beethoven’s Fourth Pianoforte Concerto. London: Oxford University Press, 1937.

3 Ibid.

4 Tovey. Essays in Musical Analysis. Vol. III. London: Oxford University Press, 1936, p. 67.

5 Tovey. Preface to the Cadenzas to Beethoven’s Fourth Pianoforte Concerto.

6 Tovey recalls that earlier in the century, an excellent player gave her premier performance in Berlin, playing the G major Concerto with that cadenza. A poor critic, who did not know whose cadenza it was, blamed her for composing a cadenza which was “downright unmusical.”

163 Tovey’s criticism gives an idea about what he felt a cadenza for the Classical

concerto should be like. Rather than using Beethoven’s own cadenzas as a model, Tovey

chose to be loyal to the actual text of the concerto. For him, a “good cadenza” was a

cadenza that seeks to be organic with the original concerto, as he clearly differentiated between “Beethoven of the concerto” and “Beethoven of the cadenzas.” Indeed, his cadenza for the first movement contains ideas from the movement itself, not from the three cadenzas left by the composer in 1809.

Tovey specifies in his Preface to the Cadenzas to Beethoven's Fourth Piano

Concerto what in his opinion a Classical concerto and cadenza should be like:7

1. Balance and proportions: the cadenza could exceed the technical limits of the

rest of the concerto, yet under no account should it make the rest of the work

sounds thin.

2. Modulations: There is no limit to the range of keys in Beethoven’s larger

symphonic cadenzas, but there are strict conditions for the direction and

distribution of the modulations. The further they are from the tonic, the more

convincing their convergence on to the home tonic should be.

3. Rubato: Players should refrain from excessive rubato. A "good"

extemporization should sound transcribed and reasonably strict time is one of

the first conditions for such an "illusion."

4. The Role of the Development: The development section of a Classical first-

movement concerto tends to have the character of an episode, and as such, its

features are predestined to reappear in the cadenza (this is an act of

compensation to the "neglected" parts of the movement).

7 Tovey. Preface to the Cadenzas to Beethoven’s Fourth Pianoforte Concerto.

164 8.1.1 Tovey's Cadenza for the First Movement

Tovey’s cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto is built in a format of a quasi-development section, followed by a concluding part that resembles the movement's recapitulation. The quasi-development section is fifty-one bars long, its first seventeen bars very similar to the actual development of the movement.

Although it starts on the dominant of A flat minor, the flat-mediant note,8 bars 9-17 in

Tovey’s cadenza are an exact imitation of bars 200-208 in Beethoven’s score (examples nos. 8.1.1. and 8.1.2).

Example No. 8.1.1

Tovey: First-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 1-20.

8 This is opposed to F minor in the original score.

165

Example No. 8.1.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, development section, bars 200-208.

166 In the fifty-second bar, a citation from Beethoven's opening of the piano

recapitulation (bars 252-257 in Beethoven's score) takes place, only it appears here the in

the flat submediant key, E flat major instead of the original tonic G (example no. 8.2).

Example No. 8.2

Tovey: first-movement cadenza of Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 50-56 (a return to a semi- recapitulation part).

The ensuing progression, a Bb major dominant chord leading to the tonic G is an inversion of the G major – B major progression which takes place at the beginning of the

movement, thus closing a circle and solving the tonal ambiguity which remained open

since the very beginning of the movement (example no. 8.3).9

9 For more details, refer to chapter III on Beethoven’ Cadenzas.

167 Example No. 8.3

Tovey: first-movement cadenza of Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58 bars 58-81.

The above example reflects Tovey's disciplined tonal plan which coincides with

his detailed preface to his cadenzas. However, there are several subject matters in Tovey's

cadenza that are somewhat inconsistent with his expressed intentions. For example, in his preface, Tovey asks to refrain from "excessive rubato" in improvised cadenzas for

Classical concertos,10 yet his cadenza for Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto is filled

with tempo changes and performance instructions that favor rubato. In addition, though

in general, Tovey does not express a personal voice in the cadenza,11 at the same time,

the cadenza shows harmonic and textural resemblance to Brahms. For example, in the

passages in bars 21-29 of the cadenza for the first movement (example no. 8.4), the

opening repeated-note motive appears in a typical Brahmsian texture, developing rapidly

10 Refer to Tovey's Preface to his cadenzas.

11 Ibid.

168 from unisono in the first two bars into full scheme of canon-like texture, characterized by rich chords, parallel thirds and shifts from one register to another.

Example No. 8.4

Tovey: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 21-29.

Tovey is puzzling the listener. On one hand he expresses quite rigid observations regarding how one should approach a cadenza for a Beethoven's concerto, keeping loyalty to the movement's text while refraining from considerable tonal and harmonic deviations as well as incompatible style of too-Romantic a performance. On the other hand, there are quite a few parts in his cadenza that unite dissimilar compositional languages as well as sections that articulate freer approach in tempo.

169 Certainly there is no "right" or "wrong" approach when viewing Romantic-style cadenzas, yet the effect of the cadenza in a larger context of a concerto performance is bound to be determined by the individual. Tovey failed where he wanted to succeed the most. He did not take into consideration that no matter how much he aimed to be closer to the Concerto's compositional language, the fact that he lived over one-hundred years apart from Beethoven, naturally prevented him from reaching that "objectivity" which he was trying to convey. He was unable to avoid influences from Romantic composers no matter how strongly he wished to be closer in concept and texture to Beethoven.

8.1.2 Tovey's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Tovey’s cadenza for the third movement of the Concerto is more similar to his uttered intents; Tovey maintains that cadenzas for Finales should never be long:

"Cadenzas for Finales need never be long and in the finale to the G major Concerto

Beethoven expressly says La Cadenza sia corta."12 Tovey then advises that "to modulate widely in it would be a crime since Beethoven had already provided his highest light of modulation in the F sharp major passage before the Cadenza."13 Indeed, Tovey's cadenza does not modulate widely.

He also refrains from “mere flourishing” passages, using instead material from the middle part of the movement (Beethoven's score, bars 402-415). Two main elements are present: the rhythmic four-note opening orchestral motive, and the piano triplets.14

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid.

170 Throughout the cadenza, these two elements rotate between the right and left hands

(example no. 8.5). It is Tovey's intention to include only fragmented motives, refraining from any full thematic citation in the course of the cadenza. In addition, his cadenza is rather modest both in length and choice of harmonic deviations and thus functions as a transition to the final refrain of the Rondo.

Example No. 8.5

Tovey: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58.

14 The piano triplets' element first appears in Beethoven's score, bars 68-79.

171

In sum, when combining Tovey’s specified guidelines with an analysis of his own written cadenzas, two conclusions emerge. First, that Tovey does not place the performer at the top of the pyramid. The movement determines the nature of the cadenza and not the other way around. Therefore, there is not much validity to the idea of a

“Romantic-Style” cadenza when it comes to Tovey, as he is not governed by fashion or by any kind of developed practice that has taken place since Beethoven’s times. That explains his criticism of Beethoven’s own written cadenzas. He felt that those cadenzas failed to maintain organic unity with the Concerto even though they were written by

Beethoven himself.

172 The second conclusion is that more than Tovey wished performers to be exposed to his given cadenzas, he wished that performers would be urged to improvise their own cadenzas: “My cadenzas will not have failed in their object if they stimulate players, who most dislike them, to develop the art of extemporizing.”15 This is Tovey in the capacity of an academic and teacher who gives a personal example and thus expresses his hope that the tradition of cadenza writing will not cease to exist.

8.2 William Kempff

William Kempff (1895-1991) was as an extraordinary German pianist, a representative of the early twentieth-century performance tradition and also an organist, composer and transcriber.16 He was engaged with Classical German music and was specifically known for his interpretation of Beethoven, Mozart, Bach and Brahms. The two composers for which Kempff wrote cadenzas were Mozart and Beethoven (published in Berlin by Bote & Bock in 1967).17

Kempff’s approach to Beethoven’s cadenzas is similar to Tovey’s. Both share the love for improvisation. Kempff, like Tovey, writes in his epilogue to Beethoven’s cadenzas that for decades he had been improvising cadenzas before deciding to put one

15 Refer to Tovey's Preface.

16 Kempff wrote 2 Symphonies, 4 Operas, a Piano Concerto, a Violin Concerto, Ballets, chamber music and transcribed Bach works.

17 Kempff wrote cadenzas for Beethoven op. 15 (third movement only), op. 19 and op. 37 (first movement only) and op. 58 (first and third movement).

173 version in writing.18 Like Tovey, he encourages performers to suggest their own cadenzas

with the explanation that Beethoven himself wrote a cadenza for Mozart’s D minor

Concerto, yet he firmly advises that the cadenza should organically fit in the particular

concerto.

Like Tovey, Kempff is also critical of Beethoven’s written cadenzas. He says the

cadenzas for the first movement of both Third and Fourth Piano Concertos19 are

"independent lengthy Fantasies" and thus do not agree with the perfectly balanced

Concertos.20 Kempff, like Tovey, sees the cadenza as a separate, relatively short unit

which nevertheless maintains an organic connection with the movement.

Almost nothing in Kempff’s cadenzas hints to the fact that they were written in

the second-half of the twentieth century. The two cadenzas he wrote for Beethoven's op.

58 are very similar to Beethoven’s style in terms of texture and harmonic language.

18 Wilhelm Kempff. Kadenzen zu Klavierkonzerten von Ludwig van Beethoven. Bote & Bock, Berlin, 1967.

19 Although Beethoven wrote three different cadenzas for the Fourth Piano Concerto, op. 58, Kempff most probably refers to the most familiar and played one: the long version marked as the first cadenza.

20 Whereas Tovey liked the lengthy cadenza for op. 15, Kempff preferred the short version Beethoven wrote for this Concerto.

174 8.2.1 Kempff's Cadenza for the First Movement

The cadenza for the first movement is conservative. It is short (forty-six bars), not exceptionally virtuosic, preserves Beethoven’s harmonic language, and uses only one theme, the first two bars of A theme, in various forms.

Kempff opens his cadenza with a ten-bar phrase, put together from Beethoven’s orchestral motive in bars 20-27 and 39-40 (example no 8.6). This creates a cyclic feel with the opening orchestral tutti and also turns the cadenza into a festive declaration where orchestral and soloist parts merge.

Example No. 8.6.1

Kempff: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto op. 58: opening bars.

175

Example No. 8.6.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, orchestral tutti, bars 20-29.

Whereas the first ten bars of Kempff’s cadenza resemble a quasi “orchestral introduction,” the core part of his cadenza centers on soloist material, the modulated,

sequenced arpeggios in bars 11-24. Kempff skillfully fuses the modulated arpeggios21

(taken from Beethoven’s development part, bars 204-215) together with the repeated-note motive, thus reinforcing both the main motive of the movement and the dark orchestral sound (example no. 8.7).

21 The modulations begin on dominant-seventh chords of B minor, D major, C sharp major and C sharp minor.

176 Example No. 8.7

Kempff: first-movement cadenza of Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58: bars 9-24.

Bars 25-32 of the cadenza project a transitional section, similar to the transition which Beethoven wrote prior to the recapitulation part.22 The harmonic base is the

177 dominant, D major. While the right-hand supplies an accompaniment background on the diminished-seventh chord of G major, the left hand quotes the repeated-note motive; It appears in a more humble pianistic context, where only a single note C (followed by C sharp) is present, strengthening the dominant center, while shifting from major to minor modes (example no. 8.8).

Example No. 8.8

Kempff: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58: bars 25-32.

Since Kempff presented an introduction section followed by a development-style section, he creates an expectation towards a “recapitulation section” on D major to conclude the cadenza. But instead, Kempff continues with an unexpected harmonic shift to A major, which later converts to C minor in the last part of the cadenza (example no.

8.9). At the same time, the fixated trill on high A in the right hand for over fourteen-bars

(bars 33-43) is an unmistakable sign of the beginning of a coda part, marked tempo

22 Refer to score, bars 243-252.

178 primo. Under the continuous trill, the left hand now plays a merged motive based on both the A theme and the military B1 theme, played in major and minor triad chords in the midpoint register (example no. 8.9).

Example No. 8.9

Kempff: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, final section, bars 33-46.

Unlike the opening of the cadenza, which is firmly grounded in G major, the coda is rather unstable, characterized by ambiguous harmonic shifts and thematic contemplations on major and minor modes. The general atmosphere created by this ending is that of a quest and search. In addition, the victorious and declamatory illusions created in the beginning dissipate towards the end. The listeners are left with questions

179 regarding the meaning of the A theme which appears in many transformations throughout

the cadenza.

The answer to these questions may be found in Beethoven’s short version cadenza

for this movement. Kempff’s approach to this cadenza is similar in design to Beethoven’s cadenza.23 Beethoven’s short-version cadenza focuses on the A theme, starts with a

vigorous version of the repeated-note motive and ends with the A theme in p,

accompanied above and below with surrealistic double trills placed in the upper piano

registers. It may very well be that by writing a similarly designed cadenza, Kempff

wanted to identify with Beethoven's second cadenza version, thus reinforcing the importance of staying loyal to Classical traditions.

23 The fifty-one bar version.

180 8.2.2 Kempff's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Kempff’s cadenza for the third movement is scherzo-like and short (forty-two

bars long). As in the beginning of the cadenza for the first movement, it begins with the orchestral four-note motive taken from the opening subject, appearing in abrupt dynamic

changes, shifting from p to Fz respectively (example no. 8.10). This opening two-bar

pattern is modulated in sequences over six times (shifting harmonically from dominant

chords of G, A flat, A and C).

Example No. 8.10

Kempff: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58: bars 1-16.

Whereas the first part of the cadenza makes use of orchestral elements, its second

part (bars 17-42) brings the piano triplets element, first appearing in the movement in

bars 68-79. While Beethoven merges the two elements (both the orchestral and soloist

materials) in the movement (bars 248-271), Kempff separates the two, thus highlighting

181 their diversity; Following the rhythmic, orchestral introduction played in staccato, the

second part of the cadenza begins with the typical piano triplets played in legato and

dolce24. Those are gradually developed through intense crescendo, empowering the three- note motive towards a vigorous declaration of a victorious, dramatic coda (example no.

8.11).

Example No. 8.11

Kempff: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58: bars 17-42.

Kempff's treatment of the triplet element is distinctive. The initial piano triplets

played in dolce and legato gradually turn into a powerful rhythmic statement, played over

five times both in major and minor modes. Instead of the traditional opposition between

24 Refer to the original score: third movement, bars 68-79.

182 piano and orchestral roles, here the piano takes over the orchestral goal of gradually

building a dramatic climax.

As listeners, we are left with the legacy of Kempff's recordings of Beethoven’s

Concerto played with his cadenzas. He was probably the only one to record these

published cadenzas. Kempff’s performance of Beethoven’s Concerto is Classical in style,

but his performance of the cadenzas is much freer. He frequently allows himself to apply

rubato effects, employing long fermatas and accelerando in the second half of the

cadenza.25 Whether or not Kempff succeeded in bringing a new voice to the Concerto

with his cadenzas is left for each performer and listener to decide. Yet, it is not difficult to notice the struggle which Kempff experiences by aiming to be as close as possible to the composer’s language, putting aside compositional twentieth-century influences.

25 Beethoven: Konzert fǜr Klavier und Orchester Nr. 4 & Nr. 5. Wilhelm Kempff: piano; Berliner Philharmoniker, Ferdinand Leitner. Deutche Gramophon, CD 447 402-2, 1962.

183

8.3 Nicholas Medtner

A completely opposite approach to Tovey and Kempff is seen in the cadenzas of

Nicholas Medtner (1880-1951). A Russian composer and pianist of German and Swedish

origins, Medtner was one of the very last Romantic composers, alongside his

contemporaries Scriabin and Rachmaninoff.26 Though he did not acquire the same prestige and success as his colleagues, his contribution to the Russian piano and song

repertoire was essential.27 Medtner's writing was often complex and technically

demanding, yet never virtuosic for its own sake. Being rooted firmly in the Classical

tradition and specifically aligned with the music of Beethoven, Medtner did not favor

“modern” aesthetics and usually did not exceed the Post-Romantic harmonic language;

frequent use of Classical structures such as sonata-form, as well as excessive contrapuntal

writing and polyphony were his strengths.28 In addition, he was known for his unique

treatment of rhythm, and particularly for his pervasive use of elaborate cross-rhythms.

Medtner considered himself Beethoven’s pupil and follower. He knew

Beethoven’s compositions very well and had a particularly close connection to the Fourth

Piano Concerto.29 This was unquestionably Medtner’s favorite concerto; it was the only

26 Barrie Martyn. "Nicholas Medtner." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980, Vol. 15, pp. 234-238.

27 Among his compositions are three piano concertos, fourteen sonatas and over a hundred songs.

28 Barrie Martyn. "Nicholas Medtner." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

29 Barrie Martyn. Nicholas Medtner. Hants: Scolar Press, 1995, p. 77.

184 concerto he performed in public other than his own three Piano Concertos.30 Medtner’s

first public performance of the Concerto took place in 1909 under the direction of

Koussevitzky. Later that year he wrote the cadenzas for the Concerto which he used in

his performances for over thirty years as a concert pianist.31

Medtner’s cadenzas are quite daring, revealing a compositional tendency that is later found in cadenzas written by other Russian composers-performers, such as

Godowsky and Michnowsky. Medtner treats the cadenza as a piece within a piece, where

the Concerto’s thematic material is paraphrased and developed into a short but self-

contained form. Medtner’s musical language is Post-Romantic bordering on

Impressionistic, yet he compensates for it by incorporating the whole range of thematic

material from the Concerto.

8.3.1 Medtner's Cadenza for the First Movement

Although Medtner’s choice of harmonic language for the first-movement cadenza

is far more progressive than Beethoven’s, he is not excessively virtuosic. On the contrary,

the cadenza begins with an eleven-bar introduction, played in pianissimo, creating a surreal, dreamlike atmosphere. The left hand plays a chordal citation of the A theme

(repeated-note motive) in the first seven bars while the right hand cites the orchestral, choral-like theme (theme C) in legato and cantabile. At the same time, the semi-quavers

30 Medtner played the Concerto in Russia, Germany and London over his creative concert-career.

31 It is known that Medtner was loyal to his perception of how the Concerto should be played. He went as far as canceling a performance under Willem Mengelberg due to a “brutal” rehearsal of the Concerto, where the two disagreed on the tempo of the outer movements. Medtner wanted the first movement to be played much slower and the Finale much faster. This was in complete contrast to Mengelberg’s baton. (For more information, refer to Barrie Martyn. Nicholas Medtner. pp. 77-80).

185 triplet accompaniment in the middle voice fills in the cross-thematic texture, thus highlighting the unique harmonic color of the major-seventh and diminished chords

(example no. 8.12).

Example No. 8.12

Medtner: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 1-7.

The choral-like theme (theme C) is cited in the soprano voice in bars 8-11. Two devices are now applied: harmonically, there is increased use of chromatics and dissonances through diminished fifths, augmented fourths and use of ninths, and rhythmically, there is a two-against-three pattern between the right and left hands. The middle voice is taken from Beethoven’s piano accompaniment to the same orchestral theme (C), as it appeared in the movement in bars 123-126 (example nos. 8.13.1 &

8.13.2).

186

Example No. 8.13.1

Medtner: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 8-11.

Example No. 8.13.2

Beethoven: Piano Concerto op. 58, first-movement, piano accompaniment for theme C, bars 123-126.

The next part of the cadenza (bars 12-29) is the longest and the most complex. It is Medtner’s platform for thematic quotations where citations of all the movement's themes occurs; However, despite its focus on thematic citation, this section is also

187 strongly characterized by development-type figurations, appearing both explicitly and implicitly throughout, with numerous harmonic shifts and deceptive cadences.32 The feel is of an inner-development section though no theme is “Classically” developed; it is more of an opportunity to contemplate fragmentally on thematic material with a touch of improvisation. The thick texture of cross-thematic and rhythmic figurations is maintained here as well; in bars 12-15 the left hand plays virtuosic arpeggios over the B2 theme in the tenor voice, while the right hand plays the familiar chromatic piano-scale figuration, taken from Beethoven’s development section as seen in bars 196-200

(example no. 8.14).

Example No. 8.14

Medtner: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 11-14.

32 Refer to Appendix 3 for the Cadenza's analysis.

188 An unexpected shift from V7 of D major to B minor suddenly occurs at bar 15

where the left hand now plays the B2 theme, while the right hand plays Beethoven’s

broken arpeggio figurations (taken from the piano part of the development section in bars

204-215). This is followed by a five-bar quotation of transitional, bridge material taken

yet again from the development part.33 This material reinforces the affiliation with a quasi-development section, maintaining loyalty to the composer’s texture, while at the same time acts as a transition from one theme to another through relative keys'

modulations34 (example no. 8.15), all of which enable the listener to maintain a close

contact with the movement.

Example No. 8.15

Medtner: first-movement cadenza of Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58 bars: 15-28.

33 Bars 18-19 and 20-23 in Medtner’s first-movement cadenza are parallel to bars 231-235 and 216-221 respectively in Beethoven’s development section.

34 Note the transition from B minor in bars 21 to G major in bar 22.

189

A major turn in style occurs at bar 30 (beginning of the cadenza's third section) where the B1 theme is played in a march-like rhythm, marked f risoluto. The semi- impressionistic ambiance is replaced by an imperial and majestic one, while the harmonic texture is better linked with that of the original composer. It is now through richer chords and increased orchestral-piano mode that the B1 theme modulates from B flat major to F major until it reaches its climax at bar 38; A full citation of Beethoven’s piano recapitulation entrance is placed in C major under ff, leaving little doubt of the composer’s intention to make this citation the climax point of the whole cadenza.35 It is

the only spot in which Medtner quotes a full theme from Beethoven’s movement and

places a fortissimo dynamic marking in his cadenza. This triumphant return to the piano

35 Notice the correlation with the recapitulation at bars 253-257 played in G major. In Medtner’s cadenza, the right hand’s semi-quavers are replaced by triplets in tremolo which elevates the dramatic feel.

190 reprise also supports Medtner’s concept of the cadenza as a piece within a piece, where the "composer in residence" and the "composer in performing action" finally meet in a mutual conclusion (example no. 8.16).

Example No. 8.16

Medtner: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 31-41.

191 The last section of the cadenza begins with an "orchestral reply" in B flat major to the former "piano reprise" in C major (bar 42). It is then followed by a coda part, with flourishing arpeggios and virtuosic scales on top of a cross-voicing A theme in C major

(example no. 8.17).

Example No. 8.17

Medtner: first-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, bars: 42-54.

192 8.3.2 Medtner's Cadenza for the Third Movement

Medtner’s cadenza for the Concerto’s third movement is the longest cadenza ever

written to this movement, being 178 bars long.36 However, Medtner divides the cadenza

into three parts and notes in the score that only the third part is mandatory. The first two

parts could stand alone and be played separately without being dependent on one another.

This structure allows the performer to choose the form of his cadenza.37

The first part of the cadenza (bars 1-96) is the longest among the three and concentrates mainly on contrapuntal treatment of the movement’s thematic material, with special attention to the second, lyrical theme. It contains many modulations with abrupt thematic shifts and a virtuosic coda which concludes with a forceful polytonal tremolo in fortissimo, a C sharp diminished- chord and a D sharp minor chord (example no. 8.18).

36 Beethoven explicitly specified a "cadenza sia corta."

37 See Appendix 3 for the analysis of Medtner's cadenza.

193 Example No. 8.18

Medtner: third-movement cadenza of Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, first section, bars: 1-96.

194

195 While the first part of the cadenza contains thematic material from the third

movement, the second part (bars 97-146) is dedicated to the second movement. It is a

variation on the opening, orchestral-theme with its distinctive dotted-rhythm figuration.

The notable feature of this section is the gradual, carefully-planned crescendo,

accompanied by a stretto part until it reaches its climax at the very end (example no.

8.19).

Example No. 8.19

Medtner: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, second section, bars: 97-146.

196

The last part of Medtner’s third movement cadenza is the shortest among the three, lasting only thirty-two bars (as opposed to the ninety-seven bars of the first section and the fifty bars of the second). This section functions as a "Classical" cadenza; it is built as a series of mordents over the dominant-seventh of G major, a dominant pedal prolongation towards the final coda of the Concerto, while quoting the repetitive-note pattern of the opening theme (example no. 8.20).

Devices such as inserting thematic material from foreign movements into a third- movement cadenza had already appeared in Clara Schumann’s cadenza, yet Medtner brings up a new dimension. He supplies the performer with three different options. While the third part of his cadenza is mandatory, the insertion of the first two is left to the performer’s decision; the cadenza could either be played in its full three parts form, part I

197 + part III, or part II + part III. By allowing this flexibility, Medtner captures both the past

and present. He respects Beethoven’s call for a short cadenza, yet leaves room for the

modern composer and the modern performer to make their choices of interpretation.

Example No. 8.20

Medtner: third-movement cadenza for Beethoven’s Concerto op. 58, third section, bars: 147-178.

Both Medtner's cadenzas cross the compositional boundaries of the Classical cadenza, yet they are skillfully integrated with Beethoven's text. In the first-movement cadenza, Medtner takes his listeners into new realms of progressive harmonic language and rhythmic complexity while balancing it with a well-planned structure and citations of all the movement's thematic material. In the third-movement cadenza, Medtner does the

198 opposite. Harmonically, he resorts to more traditional compositional language, yet structurally, he lets the modern performer choose his preferred form of the cadenza.

Medtner's idea of choice in the performance of the cadenza reflects his open- mindedness towards the role of the Romantic performer of Beethoven's concertos and his progressive attitude towards the art of the Romantic cadenza. There is no one, "right" way to write or play a cadenza. It is a vital, growing process that changes through time and is subject to individual considerations of the performer in action.

8.4 Robert Levin

8.4.1 The Cadenza as a Live Improvisation

The contemporary prolific pianist and scholar, Robert Levin, recorded the five

Beethoven Concertos and all Mozart’s Piano Concertos with his improvised cadenzas.

Unfortunately, there is no written account of these cadenzas and none of them has been published. The recordings of the Beethoven Concertos were made with the Orchestre

Révolutionnaire et Romantique under the direction of Sir John Eliot Gardiner in 1998.38

Levin’s viewpoint on the improvisation of cadenzas is given in an interview with Herbert

Glass for the Gramophone magazine:39

Improvising cadenzas has nothing to do with feeling that what Mozart (or Beethoven) wrote isn’t good enough. Everybody knows the composer’s own cadenzas, so there isn’t the element of surprise that is supposed to be part of the listening experience. I have decided that even though people will eventually know every note of what I have improvised in the recordings, it’s still like a snapshot of a live

38 Deutsche Gramophone CD 457 608-2 (1998).

39 “Robert Levin Talks Mozart.” The Gramophone Magazine. February, 2000.

199 performance. I improvise a different Cadenza at every take and leave the producer to decide which one he wants for the final CD.40

This approach is also stated in a booklet accompanying Levin’s recording of

Beethoven’s Concertos:41 "One needs to take the risk of spontaneous invention at these junctures" (the cadenzas). He describes his improvised cadenzas as inventions that "rely upon split-second reflexes that lie beyond logic but aspire to an ephemeral link between instinct and understanding."42

The element of surprise which Levin speaks about is already rooted in the early treatise of Quantz, which explains that “the object of the cadenza is simply to surprise the listener unexpectedly once more at the end of the piece and to leave behind a special impression in his heart."43 Robert Levin treats the cadenza as an opportunity to display a different improvisation at each performance and thus a different interpretation of the movement or the concerto. Levin’s improvised cadenzas turn the concerto into a dynamic, flexible form, an interactive platform for both the performer and his listener.

For Levin, the listener is extremely important. The absence of a prewritten score forces the listener to be part of the live performance, keeping him challenged and surprised. Even the performer becomes an active listener who listens to the piece differently each time, transferring his experience to the audience through the display of a live improvisation. According to Levin, writing down his "contemplations" will automatically turn the concerto genre into a static one, while in truth, it is the expectancy and suspense of the unknown which maintains the genre fresh and alive.

40 Ibid.

41 See booklet of CD 457 608-2 by Deutsche Gramophone, p. 5.

42 Ibid.

43 Johann Joachim Quantz. On Playing the Flute. Trans. E.R.Reilly. London: Faber & Faber, 1966, p. 24.

200 Hence when it comes to Levin it is less important what innovations are brought by each cadenza, but rather its actual existence. The creation of a new listening experience each time the concerto is played is what makes the piece most innovative by nature. It is a junction where tradition and modernism meet; where the old and new become one.

Levin is tolerant regarding the idea of inserting new material into a Classical text.

However, he preserves the "Classical" boundaries within a familiar Beethovenian framework. His cadenzas for the Fourth Piano Concerto are highly virtuosic, characterized by truly improvisatory nature, yet they do not exceed the harmonic language of late Beethoven.

The cadenza for the first movement is relatively long. There are two prominent thematic materials that are being used: the repeated-note motive, taken from the A theme, appearing here in various modulations and in demanding passages, and the choral-like

(C) theme, which is quoted here just like it is quoted in Beethoven’s major cadenza for this movement. Levin chooses this orchestral theme to be the turning point of the cadenza; he modulates it into a minor mode and then concludes the cadenza in a free- form fantasia-like manner.

Levin’s cadenza for the third-movement is also challenging. It presents both the first and second themes, emphasizing their opposed characters. Here Levin is cautious not to violate Beethoven’s clear call to keep the cadenza short (La Cadenza sia corta).

Levin is careful to always keep the composer-performer-listener triangle in mind.

He preserves Beethoven’s form, structure and thematic material, but at the same time inserts his individual voice as both a contemporary performer and an attentive listener who is in constant search for a new experience and innovation. This approach differs

201 from other early twentieth-century pianists. Tovey and Kempff focused on the composer,

remaining loyal to the composer’s style. Medtner focused on the performer; through his daring harmonic language, he showed his devotion to the passion stored in the performer’s heart, stepping away from the expectation of what a "Classical" concerto and cadenza should sound like.

All along this chapter a major question has emerged, namely how can one be true to one’s own era and style and at the same time be true to the piece? And how can one

create something integral, structural and still be improvisatory? These are real tensions

that cannot be entirely resolved, and so each performer must compromise. He should

emphasize the points which he feels are most essential to appear in the cadenza. Of

course, as we move on through the years of the twenty-first century, the challenge of the

composer-performer only increases, as the gap in style and compositional language

between the original concerto and the newly inserted text is wider. Nevertheless,

innovations of contemporary composers-performers are always noteworthy, since they

enrich and enhance the concerto genre and its performance tradition.

202 Chapter IX

Discussion and Summary

The evolution of the Romantic concerto since Beethoven's time has influenced the form, perception and treatment of the cadenza. Beethoven himself realized that the cadenzas for his concertos could no longer function as a dominant suspension towards the final tutti, nor as a place for solo virtuosic display. The freer form, the greater unity and the growing equality between orchestra and piano in the concerto had forced composers and improvisers to change the content and function of their cadenzas as well. Consequently, the cadenza became an integral part of the concerto, thematically, harmonically, structurally and dramatically.

Beethoven increased the importance of the cadenza in two ways. One way was by allowing the cadenza to function as an extra interpretation of the concerto. Another way was by using the cadenza to enhance the integrity of the concerto. The two ideas created numerous challenges when Romantic composers approached the writing of the cadenza. They had to face the question whether to be loyal to the style of

Beethoven and if so- to which style; the style of Beethoven's concerto, or the later style of his cadenzas. They also had to face the challenge of integrating their own interpretation in a way that did not fail to deliver the message of Beethoven's concerto. In other words, they needed to consider how "far" they would like to take their cadenzas (in terms of style, harmonic language, texture and length) so they could provide innovative thinking on the one hand and connectivity with the concerto's text on the other hand. They needed to question what makes a cadenza an integral part of the concerto; is it the material and style in which it is composed or perhaps the style in which it is performed? And finally they had to decide whether they should write a

203 cadenza that would make the listener understand Beethoven better or write a cadenza that would contribute to the development the concerto-genre.

We have seen that Beethoven himself was in favor of a cadenza that stretched the limits of style and even destroyed stylistic integrity, as was the case with his cadenzas to Mozart’s concertos. But it would be hasty to conclude that he regarded the clash between styles to be the only function of the cadenza.

Furthermore, in Beethoven’s time, the concept of “historical performance” had not yet existed, and in fact, the music of the preceding centuries was not played at all.

It would have been absurd for Beethoven’s audience to hear a piece from a much earlier period, let alone the performing style of another period. In our era, however, the concert-going public is used to making shifts between styles and positioning themselves in the aesthetic (or imagined aesthetic) of a long bygone era. Therefore, a cadenza in the style of Mozart may sound less strange to the concert going audience of our time than it might have sounded to the audience in Beethoven’s time.

Indeed, the question arises: in what sense should the musical material of the cadenza be modern when the essential idea of the cadenza (improvisatory virtuoso suspension in an otherwise fully composed piece) is alien to the compositional thinking of our time. Some may find the very thought of placing the soloist in the spotlight somewhat anachronistic. What is then the meaning of a pianist playing a cadenza in his or her early twenty-first-century style when the raison d’être of the totality of the performance – the piece itself, its performing context and audience - is precisely that it would present the music from another era.

How large could the stylistic gap be between concerto and cadenza so that the total effect would not be lost – and what should that total effect be? Beethoven could not have anticipated the following generations to deal with such issues. A twenty-first

204 century performer is trapped between the need to conserve cadenza performance practices from Beethoven's time and the need to be "innovative" by bringing something new into the concerto experience that is relevant to his/ her era.

The concerto genre is unique in that it is the only musical genre in Western musical culture that enables the shared activity of composition between two, three or four personas:

Two personas: the composer and the performer (who improvises/composes his/her own cadenzas).

Three personas: the composer and the performer who plays cadenzas written by another Romantic composer.

Four personas: the composer and the performer who chooses to play two different cadenzas for each movement, each written by a different composer.

The conflicts between the personas who share the experience of the concerto are what turn the concerto into a platform of constant change and modification. All composers/ performers who were discussed in this thesis found their unique way to deal with the desire for conceptual integrity on the one hand and stylistic eclecticism on the other hand, all the while attempting to integrate the cadenza into the dramatic narrative of the concerto.

The analysis of the various cadenzas that were written for Beethoven’s Fourth

Piano Concerto leads to six issues that are important to consider when composing a cadenza:

1. The cadenza as a place for a dialogue between performer and composer.

2. The cadenza as a fantasia-like composition and its contribution to the

concerto's dramatic narrative.

205 3. The structure of the Romantic cadenza: a second-development section or a

piece within a piece.

4. The dual potential of the third-movement cadenza: an episode or an

integrating factor for all three movements.

5. The third-movement cadenza as a response to the first-movement cadenza

6. The decisions with regard to "authenticity": what it means and to what extent

it is a relevant demand.

9.1 The Cadenza as a Place for a Dialogue between Performer and

Composer: Busoni and Levin

Both Busoni and Levin, though living in different generations, rejected the idea of the cadenza played by a "third party." They believed a performer should not play a Beethoven concerto with cadenzas that had been composed by someone other than the Beethoven or the performer. However, each had different motives which led him to believe in a performer-oriented cadenza.

Busoni claimed that the cadenza had to be played in the same character in which the concerto was played, thus integrating the cadenza not necessarily through similar compositional material, but through the performing experience.

While the main question in this thesis has been how a composer creates compositional and stylistic integrity between the concerto text and its given cadenza,

Busoni circumvented this problem altogether. He suggested a new concept of

"performance integrity," giving major force to the performer persona. This approach goes well with Busoni's philosophy and engagement with the art of transcription. Busoni never regarded composition as a sacred art. For Busoni, a

206 composition was a type of transcription in its very nature. So was a performance; a serious performer was in fact encouraged to use further transcription techniques in order to stamp his individuality upon the text.

Busoni's philosophy explains why he did not feel obligated to stay loyal to

Beethoven’s compositional style. For him both the original composition and its performance were acts of transcription. In accordance with Busoni's philosophy, the

Romantic concerto becomes a constantly evolving genre, dependent upon its performance. With every transcription, that is, with every performance, a different solution is given to each compositional and performing challenge.

Robert Levin was also aware of the two personas that crafted the concerto.

Robert Levin insisted on improvising his cadenzas without putting them in writing.

According to him, writing down his "contemplations" would automatically turn the piece (the concerto) into a static one, an act which he carefully refrained from. Under

Levin’s improvised cadenza, the concerto became a more dynamic, flexible and live form; an interactive platform for both the performer and his listener.

It may seem that Levin left the performer with the most substantial authority by letting him influence the concerto through the act of a live improvisation, yet in fact, it is the listener whom Levin placed as top priority; Levin's listener becomes an active "player" who is governed to respond through the process of expectancy and suspense. It is thus through improvisation that Levin actively shapes his cadenza in response to what happens during the live performance in the concert-hall.

Even though Busoni and Levin lived in different eras, they both visualized the concerto as an evolving genre through performance. Busoni regarded performance as the higher art of transcription, while Levin regarded performance as the means to preserve the experience of a live performance and pass it on to the listener.

207 9.2 The Cadenza as a Fantasia-like Composition and its Contribution to the

Concerto's Dramatic Narrative: Rubinstein and Levin

Writing in a fantasia style implies improvisational passages and citations of non-thematic material. Although it is naturally virtuosic oriented, it should not be confused with mere virtuosic display.

Until the Romantic era, the function of the cadenza was to display the technical skill of the soloist. In the Romantic era, where the concerto itself became a more virtuosic platform for both the soloist and the orchestra, the idea of the cadenza as an opportunity for flamboyant performance lost its place. Instead, the cadenza became a platform for additional contemplation upon the concerto and an additional dimension to the dramatic narrative of the concerto.

Among the cadenzas viewed in this work, the ones by Rubinstein and Levin have taken fantasia writing to the extreme. Levin uses virtuosic passages, embellishments, and chromatic scales. This Romantic style texture is placed in a context of "Classical" thematic citations from the movement, thus creating a contrast between the two compositional worlds. The compact size of the cadenza and the appearance of two textural mediums in such a short time, affects the dramatic narrative of the cadenza, emphasizing the idea of conflict which is prevalent throughout the Concerto.

Rubinstein’s fantasia-like writing is unique in that he is the only composer who inserted recitative elements into the first movement cadenza. By alternating between a free-style recitative passage and a contradictory phrase of the most lyrical theme of the movement, Rubinstein emphasizes the characteristics of fantasia-style writing.

208 9.3 The Structure of the Romantic Cadenza: a Second-Development Section

or a Piece within a Piece?

Both Brahms and Tovey saw their first-movement cadenzas as an opportunity to write a "second-development" section that is integrated within the first movement.

Both were more loyal to "Beethoven of the concerto" rather than to "Beethoven of the cadenzas," as their main ambition focused on creating a direct link between the

Concerto text and any inserted material. The idea of a second development was not at all new at the time. In his middle compositional period, Beethoven often used to consider the codas of his works as a podium for a second-development section.

Tovey stated that a "good cadenza" was a cadenza that seek to be organic with the original concerto, yet he also believed that a cadenza for a Classical concerto should compensate for the short development part that usually functions as an episode.

Therefore he built his cadenza in the form of a quasi-development and a recapitulation section.1 Unlike Brahms, Tovey did not only preserve the form and structure of

Beethoven's development section, but was determined to compose a cadenza that was closer to the compositional language of the Concerto, thus consciously neglecting the time and era which he grew in. The result carries a certain loss of a truly individual voice.

Brahms went further than Tovey. Though his first-movement cadenza begins with citations from Beethoven’s development section, the second half of the cadenza veers away from citations. Instead, Brahms inserts his own voice, using manipulations of themes, modulations, and rapid changes in the harmonic language. On one hand, he stays loyal to the master, respecting the spirit of the original work, while on the

1 Busoni and Medtner also follow a similar form in their first-movement cadenza, using material from the development section and a section that is similar to the recapitulation. However, their cadenzas do not copy or cite whole passages from Beethoven's movement as is apparent in Tovey's cadenza.

209 other hand, he goes on to renovate, interpret and insert a new voice into the Concerto, thus making it sound original with a new cadenza.

Both Tovey and Brahms conceptualized their cadenza as compositions with developmental qualities. Tovey wrote about this idea in the preface to his cadenzas, whereas Brahms wrote a cadenza to Mozart's Concerto K. 491 using the same developmental format. The developmental structure of the cadenzas instantaneously integrated them into the movement, turning them into dependent compositions. In this sense, they are different from other Romantic-style cadenzas which could be regarded and even performed as independent compositions, without necessarily considering the concerto for which they are written.

Unlike Tovey and Brahms, Clara Schumann, Medtner and Rubinstein built their cadenzas as independent compositions. Each cadenza has an introduction, a middle part and a coda, characterized by virtuosic elements and free-form writing.

Such cadenzas project the intention of putting forward an individual voice through the eyes of the performer, suggesting not only exuberate performing skills but compositional ones as well. All the above composers, being famous concert pianists, aimed to compose a piece within a piece, following their own compositional language and inner structure. The loyalty is therefore not directed to the composer, but rather to the performer who carries the responsibility to deliver the composition to the next generations. Unlike Rubinstein, who composed his cadenzas as semi "mini- movements," Clara Schumann and Medtner turned their third-movement cadenzas into "mini-concertos" where characteristics from all three movements appear in their cadenzas. The wholesome structure of the cadenzas and their wide use of thematic material turn the cadenzas into independent compositions, that is, a piece within a piece. This brings up the question as to what extent these "independent-style"

210 cadenzas may stand on their own. Would their message or compositional effect be projected in a performance that did not include the Concerto? These issues of performance and reception have yet to be examined through further research.

9.4 The Dual Potential of the Third-Movement Cadenza: an Episode

or an Integrating Factor for all Three Movements

Beethoven indicated that the cadenza for the third-movement should not be long. The placement of this cadenza is also quite distinctive as it does not appear before the final tutti of the movement, but rather before a major coda section. As seen in the second chapter, this considerable coda includes many developmental characteristics as well as new material. Placing the third-movement cadenza before such a substantive coda part explains why Beethoven requested a transitional, improvisational episode rather than a structured cadenza. Indeed, Beethoven's cadenza for this movement contained only thirty-five bars and is focused mainly on interpolations of the second lyrical theme of the movement.

Clara Schumann and Nicholas Medtner, however, ignored Beethoven’s request. They wrote extremely long third-movement cadenzas (100 and 178 bars long respectively) and included material that was not exclusive to the third-movement.

Clara Schumann composed a four-part cadenza based on thematic material from all three movements of the Concerto. The essence of the cadenza is the confrontation between soloist and orchestral thematic material, taken from all three movements. It is a means and an end to present these conflicts in a condense dialogue of oppositions that finally join together in the closing cadenza.

211 Clara Schumann’s cadenza is unique in its thematic unity. She did not only combine the themes of all three movements but also concluded the cadenza with a repetition of Beethoven's first-movement coda. Thus she created a cyclic feel of the

Concerto, as well as stylistic integrity with Beethoven's text.

Medtner's third-movement cadenza also ignores Beethoven's request for a short cadenza. It consists of three parts, altogether 178 measures long. Yet, Medtner brings about new possibilities for his cadenza to be played; whereas the third part of the cadenza is obligatory, the first two parts could be played together or separately.

There are therefore three performing possibilities for the cadenza: parts I + II + III or parts I + III or parts II + III.

Medtner's cadenza is innovative in the liberty it gives the performer to choose the cadenza's inner structure. Moreover, his cadenza follows Clara's idea of unification between movements, and contains recollections from the opening orchestral theme of the second movement (see part II). But unlike Clara, Medtner creates a cyclic cadenza that is based on unifying rhythmic patterns rather than thematic ones.

In contrast to Clara Schumann, Medtner and Rubinstein, who all wrote long cadenzas to Beethoven's third movement, Brahms, Kempff and Tovey remained true to Beethoven’s request and wrote episode-like cadenzas.

Tovey believed that cadenzas for Finales should never be long. He solved the problem of creating a short yet integrated cadenza by using transitional figurations that were not necessarily chief thematic material. His cadenza is modest both in length and choice of harmonic deviations, thus functioning as a transition before the return to the final refrain of the Rondo.

212 The use of transitional figurations that are not necessarily chief thematic material was also utilized by Brahms and Kempff. Kempff was fond of the solo piano triplets figurations, while Brahms used the bridge material. Both picked only one chief thematic material to be presented; Kempff based his cadenza on the first theme, whereas Brahms based his on the second, lyrical theme. The fact that they did not contrast between the two main themes (as Busoni and Rubinstein purposely did) but rather cited them in between bridge materials, fits well with the general design of their cadenza as an intermediary section in a rondo-sonata movement, taking Beethoven's own cadenza as their model. The compositional language in both instances remained

Classical in order to link their writing into the general style of the movement.

9.5 The Third-Movement Cadenza as a Response to the First-Movement

Cadenza

As seen in the second chapter, Beethoven Fourth Piano Concerto is dramatic due to the idea of opposed forces and constant contradictions. There are conflicts between Classicism and Romanticism, soloist and orchestra, rhythmic and lyrical passages, composed and improvisational material, intimacy and virtuosity, and diverse transformations of themes.

Rubinstein, Busoni and Medtner, each in his unique way, dealt with the

Concerto's conflicts. On one hand they supplemented their cadenzas with citations taken from Beethoven's Concerto, thus keeping in touch with elements of the

Classical concerto. On the other hand, they empowered the conflict by inserting their compositional style which clearly went beyond the compositional language of

Beethoven. It is therefore the attempt to fuse the two compositional styles that

213 increase the tension in the Concerto, since ultimately, the old and the new are not meant to blend into one.

Nevertheless, Rubinstein's third-movement cadenza attempts to resolve the tension that was created in the first-movement cadenza. Whereas the first-movement cadenza reinforces the idea of opposed forces, the third-movement cadenza supplies the listener with a sense of resolution; the last part of the third-movement cadenza unites all the presented materials. They are played in a single tonal center, one above another, in a majestic, triumphant, bravura ending. The close connection between the first-movement and the third-movement cadenzas suggests that the two cadenzas

Rubinstein wrote for Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto should be evaluated as one unit, as it is hard to assess the significance of each cadenza without considering one in the context of the other.

The idea of connectivity between the two cadenzas appears also in Busoni's case, where the two codas, those of the first-movement cadenza and the third- movement cadenza, connect rhetorically; Busoni's cadenzas use progressive harmonic language in abundance, such as tritons and chromatics. It is therefore quite a surprise that the first-movement cadenza concludes with a coda that is a reminiscence of the second piano exposition part, played dolce and espressivo. If the cadenza was to be examined solely, as has unfortunately been done in earlier research, one would perhaps suggest that Busoni yearned to conclude the cadenza with material that was closer in style to the composer, thus maintaining stylistic integrity within the composed cadenza. However, concluding in such an unpredictable, tranquil ending actually reflects a contradiction with the coda of the third-movement cadenza. The latter concludes in just the opposite line of attack, where the opening orchestral theme is cited in the most dramatic manner on the Neapolitan. By placing the two cadenzas

214 side by side and examining their effect as one unit, the larger scale scheme of

Busoni’s cadenzas comes to light.

Medtner's approach towards stylistic integrity is perhaps the most pioneering among all examined cadenzas. On the one hand, Medtner uses Post-Romantic language throughout his cadenzas. On the other hand, he takes care to present a full range of the movement’s thematic material.

Medtner's cadenzas are therefore engaged in a full fledged conflict. One musical element, that is, harmony, is exclusively Post-Romantic, while another musical element, that is, thematic material, is exclusively Classical. There are no cross-sections where Classical turns Romantic or vice versa. Medtner’s approach hints at the incompatibility of the two compositional styles. Try as we might, fusion of styles will never fully succeed. They may be put side by side, but they will not become one.

Rubinstein, Busoni and Medtner all share the idea of linking cadenzas of different movements, thus expecting the listener to reach a higher level of perception.

In all cases, the third-movement cadenzas complete or oppose first-movement cadenzas. In such circumstances, we should not be looking for stylistic integrity within the large context of the Concerto. We should be looking for enhanced oppositions rather than trying to find a forced unity of compositional styles.

215 9.6 The Decisions with regard to "Authenticity": What it means and to What

Extent it is a Relevant Demand

One would think that twentieth-century composers/performers, whom have been acquainted with various compositional, avant-garde styles, would be most daring in their approach to the Romantic cadenza, taking it into new extremes of structure and harmonic language. Yet the opposite is true. Most twentieth-century composers preferred to maintain a somewhat conservative attitude towards the cadenza, whereas nineteenth-century composers were the ones who dared to go far. The general objective in the twentieth century was to look for an "authentic cadenza," one that is similar to Beethoven’s style; either to his concerto's language or to his proposed cadenzas.

Both Tovey and Kempff approached Beethoven in this careful manner, trying to find the golden path between their need to project loyalty to the composer and their need to insert their individual voice into the cadenza.

There are not many contemporary composers or performers who have struggled with the challenge to improvise or compose original cadenzas. Most pianists play the cadenzas written by Beethoven. Perhaps it is due to the fact that nowadays improvisation is no longer a natural, integral part of a performer's career. Perhaps it is due to the false idealization one makes of the composer (Beethoven) and his concertos as entities that could not be touched or questioned, explaining the reason why most pianists play only the Beethoven cadenzas, not being aware of the vast amount of cadenzas written for Beethoven's concertos after his time. Perhaps the blame is to be found in our conventional and outdated belief that an "authentic performance" ought to include an imitation of the written text.

216 What's essential however is to realize that the so called "authentic cadenza" has no meaning or validity when approaching cadenza writing to a Classical text. An

"authentic cadenza" to any Classical concerto is bound to fail, as any attempt to do so would immediately violate the new essence of the cadenza; that is to offer an individual voice and interpretation upon the concerto text in particular and the genre as a whole. The two do not necessarily contradict one another, as one could be loyal to his own voice while applying various characteristics that resemble that of the

Master, yet it all depends on the intention and the initial purpose one sets for himself before approaching the task of cadenza writing.

Diverse as they are, the cadenzas analyzed in this work have in common an underlying idea: they are all designed to further explore the inner structure and message of the concerto in an integral manner. In the view of Beethoven and the later

Romantic and twentieth-century composers, the cadenza should interpret Beethoven’s text, and through this interpretation, connect past and present. Its role is to vitalize the

Classical form, to make it "alive" and relevant to the space and time where and when it is heard. It is difficult to speak of the future of the cadenza, since little could be said about the future of the concerto as a genre in general. I hope, nevertheless, that the analysis of the compositional approaches presented in this work will encourage performers and listeners to take a new and more creative approach to the art of cadenza writing.

217 Appendix 1:

Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 58 in G major

List of Themes:

First Movement:

Theme A

Theme B1

Theme B2

218 Theme B3

Theme A2 (in “Chopin-like character”)

Theme C: “Choral-like” theme

219

Second Movement:

Theme A:

Third Movement:

Theme A:

Theme B:

220 Appendix 2:

List of Cadenzas to Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major, Op. 581

1. Ignaz Moscheles (1794-1870). Leipzig: B. Senff, 1854. 2. Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894). Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1874. 3. Solomon Jadassohn (1831-1902). Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1874. 4. August Henrik Winding (1835-1899). Leipzig: Steingräber, 1875. 5. Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921). Paris: Schoenewerk et Cie., 1879. 6. Ignaz Brüll (1846-1907). Mainz: Schott, 1880. 7. Ferruccio Busoni (1866-1924). Leipzig: D. Rahter, circa 1890. 8. Natalie Janota (1856-1932). London: Chappell, 1890. 9. Joseph Labor (1842-1924). Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1890. 10. Albert Frederik Orth (1849- ). Copenhagen: Hansen, 1891. 11. Eugen d’Albert (1864-1932). Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1893. 12. Carl Henrich Reinecke (1824-1910). Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1895. 13. Max van der Sandt (1863-1934). Cöln am Rhein: Tischer & Jagenberg, 1895. 14. Julius Roentgen (1855-1932). Amsterdam: Alsbach & Co., 1896. 15. Max Schwarz (1856-1923). Offenbach am Main: J. André, circa 1896. 16. Wilhelm Stenhammer (1871-1927). Berlin: circa 1897. 17. Ernst von Dohn´nyi (1877-1960). Vienna: Doblinger, 1905. 18. Johannes Brahms ( 1833-1897). Berlin: Duetche Brahms Gesellschaft, 1907. 19. Leopold Godowsky (1870-1938). Berlin: Schlesinger, 1909. 20. Camillo Horn (1860-1941). Leipzig: C.F.Kahnt, 1909. 21. Nikolas Medtner (1880-1951). Berlin: Edition Russe de Musique, 1911. 22. Clara Schumann (1819-1896). Leipzig: Peters, 1918. 23. Georg Alfred Schumann (1866-1952). Leipzig: F.E.C. Leuckart, 1919. 24. Wilhelm Backhaus (1884-1925). Magdeburg: Heinrichchofen’s Verlag, 1920.

1 An original list was compiled in 1981 by Lydia Hailparn (Hailparn. "Exploring Cadenzas to Beethoven’s Piano Concertos." College Music Symposium, Spring, 1891). This list here is a revised and updated version. The cadenzas are listed chronologically, according to the year of publication.

221 25. York Bowen (1884-1961). London: RAM (unpublished), 1925. 26. Hans von Bülow (1830-1894). Leipzig: F.E.C. Leuckart, 1927. 27. Frederick Dawson (1868-1940). Dublin: C.E. Music Publishing, 1927. 28. Robert Casadesus (1899-1972). Paris: R. Deiss, 1932. 29. Ignaz Friedman (1882-1948). New York: Schirmer, 1936. 30. Donald Francis Tovey (1875-1940). London: Oxford University Press, 1937. 31. Julian Carrillo (1875-1965). Paris: Editions Jobert, 1947. 32. Leo Weiner (1885-1960). Milan: S. Zerboni, 1951. 33. Edwin Fischer (1886-1960). Mainz: Schotts Söhne, 1958. 34. Leonid Nikolaiev (1878-1942). Moscow: Staatsmusikverlag, 1963. 35. Samuil Feinberg (1890-1962). Moscow: Staatsmusikverlag, 1963. 36. I. Michnowsky (unknown). Moscow: Staatsmusikverlag, 1963. 37. Konstantin Sorokin (1909- ). Moscow: Staatsmusikverlag, 1963. 38. Wilhelm Kempff (1895-1991). Berlin: Bote & Boke, 1967. 39. Bart Berman (1947- ). Unpublished, 1981. 40. Robert Levin (1947- ). Deutsche Grammophon, CD 457 608-2, 1998.2

2 There is no printed score for Levin's Cadenzas, only an auditory account.

222 Appendix 3:

Cadenzas' Analysis3

1. Clara Schumann: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1846)

Part Introduction I II III IV

1. Bars (total: 76) 1-13 14-29 30-53 54-63 64-76

2. Themes *A (1-6), *A (orchestral *B1 (30-42) A2 *Bravura *Transitional version- full *A (43-46) passage (64- passages (7-13) citation from *Transitional 68), Beethoven's passage (47- *A (68-76) exposition) 53)

3. Character of Gradual The least Both themes Exact citation Dramatic coda themes and use of crescendo and dramatic part of (B1 and A) of A2 from played in ff, dramatic effects modulations on the cadenza. The preserve their Beethoven's commencing the A theme orchestral A original exposition, in diminished (repetitive-note motive is fully character appearing in E broken chords motive), played cited in p taken through the flat rather then and arpeggios, through from various B flat. followed by a chromatic bass Beethoven's modulations in vigorous line through exposition. this section. citation of the rapid harmonic repetitive-note movement of motive (A) dominant- under a seventh chords. chromatic descending bass line. 4. General There is a tendency to leave the themes in a most "objective" manner. They are rather cited thematic than quoted, appearing in their most explicit form and harmonic language taken from observation Beethoven's exposition part. 5. Tonal center and GM-Gm BM (14-21) F# m (30-42) E flat M Dominant harmonic (the first six bars F# M (22-29) GM (43-53) prolongation. progressions form a circle of Use of descending V2 dominant and chords on a diminished chromatic scale) seventh chords as well as

3 While it is impossible to fully capture the essence of the cadenzas throughout the format of a chart, this layout may still be valuable to distinguish between the various components of each cadenza.

223 chromatic bass pattern.

7. General structure Introduction- quasi "orchestral exposition"- Coda (the cadenza could also be perceived as a rondo sonata form, having the A repetitive-note motive as its refrain).

8. Beethoven/ Clara Clara Beethoven's Mainly Beethoven's Clara Schumann Schumann's orchestral Beethoven's A2 theme Schumann's compositional exposition orchestral (citation) (same language* exposition, with chromatic unique language and modulations. use of the A motive as in the introduction).

9. Soloist/ Soloist Orchestral Orchestral Soloist Soloist orchestral material

10. Improvisational Yes. bravura No. No, except the Yes. (bars Yes. Bravura material passages (7-13) final transitional 60-63). ending, passage, bars 50- characterized 53. by diminished broken chords. 11. Virtuosic/ non Generally not virtuosic except its outer sections; the introduction and the coda. virtuosic

12. Rhetoric Strong emphasis on the A theme as the main foundation of the cadenza, presented here in message, idioms the proportional structure and tonal design. cadenza aims to project 13. Sources of Aside from the original introduction and coda, Beethoven's orchestral exposition is highly inspiration apparent in Clara's cadenza. Clara was probably well acquainted with Beethoven's offered cadenzas. 14. Composer/ Performer oriented though there is a high fidelity to the concerto text. Performer/ Listener oriented

224 2. Clara Schumann: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1846)

Part I II III IV

1. Bars (Total: 100) 1-26 27-64 65-84 85-100

2. Themes Bridge material; see B (3rd mov.) A (3rd mov.) B2 (1st mov.) Beethoven's score, alternating with A (1st mov.) Coda: (1st mov.) bars 41-56 & 68-80. A (2nd mov.)

3. Character of themes and The most dramatic part of the cadenza is the second part (bars 27-64) where the lyrical use of dramatic effects second theme of the third movement alternates with the orchestral, dotted-rhythm theme of the second movement (appearing here in pp rather than ff). There is a change in registers between the two and an abrupt change of tonal centers ( see for example the transition from F # major in bars 27-40 to D major in bars 40-41).

4. Performance markings Poco piu presto - - - and use of rubato

5. Tonal centers and G-A-B-F# F#- D- b- II6/5 V 7 (D)- V 7 (d) V2 (G)- I 6/4 harmonic progressions (highly modulated (G) section)

6. General structure Four-part cadenza based on a cyclic format of thematic materials taken from all three movements.

225 7. Beethoven/ C. Schumann Less "Schumannesque" than the first-movement cadenza. Follows a more classical compositional language approach of harmonic progressions, similar to that of Beethoven.

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Confrontation between soloist and orchestral thematic material, taken from all three material movements. It is a means and an end to present these conflicts in a condense dialogue of oppositions that join together in the closing cadenza

9. Improvisational No. No. No. In the final part of material the cadenza, bars 93-100.

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Virtuosic, yet the main emphasis is on intellectual challenge and familiarity with the full range of thematic material offered by the Concerto.

11. Rhetoric message, This innovative cadenza functions as a means to apply thematic unity, exposing material idioms the cadenza aims to from all three movements. There is also a clear intention to create a cyclic feel of the project concerto as a whole by placing Beethoven's first-movement coda at the final part of the third-movement cadenza. The cadenza thus becomes an integral part of the concerto; not merely a solo virtuosic display.

12. Sources of inspiration Beethoven's score Beethoven's Beethoven's opening Beethoven's first- bars 41-56 & 68-80. second motive and first movement coda. movement movement's ( alternating with repetitive-note the second theme motive ( same ending of the third as Clara Schumann's movement) cadenza for first- movement),

13. Composer/ Performer/ Performer oriented. Listener oriented

226

3. Johannes Brahms: First-Movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1855)

Part Introduction I II III IV V (Coda)

1. Bars 1-7 8-24 25-36 37-64 64-82 83-100 ( total:100)

2. Themes B3 A A A2, B2 B2 A

3. Character of An orchestral Citation Expressing Lyrical part of B2 is Cadential themes and use secondary from dramatic the cadenza. presented in a double-trills of dramatic theme, opening Beethoven's force A2 & B2 rotate military-style effects the cadenza in development through respectively character, unisons. This is section thick every six bars. contrasted cited directly (192-215) chordal The themes are with the from the textures, presented in former movement's use their original lyrical B2 closure bars, of the harmonic theme in the before the motive's textures with third section. beginning of the triplet the addition of Rich development element in descending Brahmsian section (bars canonic chromatic line language 180-185). texture. of octaves in the soprano. * General * The first two parts of the cadenza (bars 1-36) for the most part are a citation of Beethoven's thematic development section. Therefore the themes are already presented in their transitional form rather observation than the way they appear in the exposition.

* In order to create transitions between the various parts of the cadenza, Brahms systematically places a single, intermediary bar that functions both as a means to create a harmonic shift (through a descending bass pattern) as well as a tool a break down the former rhythmic pattern. This could be seen in bars 7, 25, 36, 48, 64.

4. Performance - leggiero e - espressivo, ben marcato sostenuto, markings and piano dolce pesante, rit. use of rubato

227 5. Tonal center GM I6-V/FM V6/5 (FM) A2: D/D flat M Prolongation I 6/4 - V and harmonic B m (bar 20) (37-42) on I 6/4 progressions G7 (22) B2: D/ D M (GM) V2/C (24) (43-48) A2: V/ B M (49-54) B2: V7/ C M (55-64) 6. General A quasi second development section with added themes (B2 & A2). structure

7. Beethoven/ Beethoven's Beethoven's Brahms' Ibid. Brahms' Brahms' & Brahms (25-29) A3 (Brahms) Beethoven's compositional Beethoven's B2 language* (30-36) (Beethoven)

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Soloist Orchestral Soloist Orchestral Soloist orchestral material 9. The cadenza does not contain improvisational material except in the coda (bars 89-100) where Improvisational ascending and descending chromatic passages appear under double trills. material

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic non non non virtuosic virtuosic virtuosic non virtuosic virtuosic virtuosic

11. Rhetoric The cadenza is a tool to reinforce a second-development section. message, idioms the cadenza aims to project

12. Sources of Beethoven's first movement development section. inspiration

13. Composer/ Composer-oriented. Performer/ Listener oriented

228 4. Johannes Brahms: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1855)

Part I (introduction) II III

1. Bars ( total: 57) 1-11 11- 37 38-57

2. Themes Bridge material (see B No use of main thematic movement, bars 41-48). material. Contemplations Presented in inversion. on the string motive, (ascending motive appearing in bars 39-48, rather than a deceasing taken from the third one). movement (this motive is an imitation of the same rhythmic pattern as the opening two bars of the Concerto, i.e. the "fate motive" pattern). 3. Character of Dramatic rather than Bars 11-23 (theme B Fragmented parts of non- themes and use of humorous as presented is implied by thematic material played in dramatic effects originally in the score. rhythmic improvisational texture of (use of double octaves augmentation of the parallel octaves, broken in unisons, circled in descending scale chords, arpeggios, and modulations in rigid motive, played virtuosic scales. rhythmic pattern and above an ostinato use of diminished bass pattern of seventh chords) parallel octaves, creating a mysterious, dramatic atmosphere.

Bars 23-37: first four bars of theme B, cited in the upper register, in a surreal, fantasy-like character. 4. Performance poco accelerando- rit. a tempo, dolce marcato markings

5. Tonal center and Dm- Am- Em- V(DM)- Dominant centers of Prolongation on dominant harmonic V(GM)- V6/5 (Em). * BM- Bm- GM- Gm- centers progressions the transitions between Am ( Am- CM-DM) the first three modulations are done through diminished seventh chords 6. Use of rubato Refer to performance No indication No. markings

229 7. General structure Same structure and use of thematic material as Beethoven's third-movement cadenza ( 35 bars long version)

8. Beethoven/ Brahms Brahms Brahms Brahms compositional language

9. Soloist/ Orchestral First half (11-23): Soloist bravura cadential Orchestral material orchestral material Second half (23-37): Soloist 10. Improvisational No No Highly improvisational material

11. Virtuosic/ non No First half: virtuosic Virtuosic virtuosic Second half: non virtuosic

12. Rhetoric Fidelity to Beethoven’s cadenza structure (the 35 measure long version). message, idioms the Follows the composer's instruction for a short cadenza. For Brahms, the cadenza aims to cadenza is an integral part of the movement rather. project 13. Sources of Beethoven's cadenza inspiration

14. Composer/ Composer Performer/ Listener oriented

230 5. Ferruccio Busoni: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1890)

Part I II III IV

1. Bars ( total: 73) 1-32 33-46 47-58 59-73

2. Themes B1 *chief theme Non thematic B2 (fragmented A (repetitive-note motive) of this part. material: version) A ( repetitive- * piano Bars 69-73 a cite the note motive) accompaniment opening soloist exposition's Beethoven's of the orchestral bars (see Beethoven's score, piano part, bars B1 theme, as bars 82-85) 311-312 appears in (accompaniment Beethoven's of the orchestral score, bars 145- B1) cited in 151. Busoni's bars 8-9 &17-18. A (repetitive- * B1 appears as note motive) the main thematic material of this section, whereas the A motive is played vigorously in triplets underneath, as an accompaniment. 3. Character of Dramatic Unique choice of Canonic texture of Opens with a furious citation themes and use of presentation of A non thematic B2, majestic of the A theme (first-two dramatic effects and B1, material to presentation bars), played in piano alternated govern a whole played in staccato triplets, diminished-seventh symmetrically section in the and forte. unison chords in ff. Peak of with the piano cadenza. Use of Use of parallel the cadenza. It is accompaniment minor mode with octaves played in a followed by two citations of part as appears in added minor contrary chromatic the theme (repetitive-note Beethoven's seconds motion. pattern) in different score above the (chromatic characters. Bars 66-69: a B1 theme. approach) delicate form of the theme, Rapid motivic played in D major, p calmato transitions over upper register double contrasted in trills. texture and dynamics, tonal shifts, changes from major to minor modes, use of diminished and augmented chords.

231 4. Performance Moderato Non legato Piu moderato Appassionato, legato, markings and use energico Meter: 4/4 & 3/2 Stacc. Forte calmato, dolce, Tempo I- of rubato (accentato) espressivo. Meter: 2/4 5. Tonal center and Pattern of 6+4 Prolongation on Prolongation of B 59-64 (viio7/Bflat m), 65-66 harmonic phrases Gm. flat M (DM), 67 (Cm), 68-73 (DM) progressions 1-6 (GM), 7-10 ( highly (Dm), 11-16 (B chromatic) flat M), 17-20 (Am), 21-26 (FM), 27-28 (Em), 29-30 (E flat m), 31-32 (Dm). 6. General Orchestral introduction- developmental parts- piano second exposition (Beethoven's). structure The first part gives the impression of a well-composed cadenza, strictly shaped and balanced between motivic citations and contrasted compositional textures. The final bars express an improvisational, freer text, taken from Beethoven's opening bars of its piano exposition, played softly and espressivo. The conclusion with this unique material is an opposition to the prominent, dramatic beginning of Busoni’s Cadenza, maintaining a cyclic feel. 7. Beethoven/ Both. Alteration Both. Busoni's (stretto Both. Busoni between two Beethoven's part, canonic First half ( bars 59-65: compositional compositional texture, taken texture). Busoni's ) language* languages. from the piano 6 bars (Busoni), accompaniment's Second half: Beethoven's 4 bars material as texture as appear in the second (Beethoven, appears in bars piano exposition. taken from the 145-151, yet the * bars 69-73 express similarity bridge material chromatic to Brahms' First Piano of theme B1, see language and the Concerto, 2nd mov. bars 29-39). use of diminished intervals enhance characteristics of Busoni.

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Soloist Soloist Soloist orchestral material

9. Improvisational No No No Yes material

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic, reaching its climax at the beginning of the fourth part (bar 59). virtuosic

11. Rhetoric Busoni creates a new sense of musical unity between composer and performer A performer message, idioms the is and should be a composer in action. The two dimensions (i.e. the style of which the cadenza aims to concerto is played and the style of its composed/improvised cadenza) should be related in project the performer’s mind and played with similar temperament and characteristics. By concluding the cadenza with an exact repetition from the piano exposition, one could conceive the whole first movement as a more organic unit, having the piano at its center, with a more holistic approach of symmetry and balance. 12. Sources of Beethoven's first movement and specifically the piano exposition part. inspiration 13. Composer/ Performer oriented (considerate of the composer's intentions). Performer/ Listener oriented

232

6. Ferruccio Busoni: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1890)

Part Introduction I II Coda

1. Bars ( total: 74) 1-9 10-38 39-59 60-74

2. Themes A ( piano version) A ( piano version) B & A ( orchestral A (orchestral version) version)

3. Character of Fragmented use Improvisational, B theme: placed in Darkest character of the themes and use of of the four-note characterized by the lower register, theme, presented in a dramatic effects piano motive, various played in bass minor mode and strong taken from the modulations and octaves, creating a rhythmic pattern of the opening theme, hasty jumps from mysterious character. opening orchestral played in parallel one motive to A theme appears in a motive sixths through another. dotted-rhythm rapid sequences. fragmented version of the opening orchestral motive. 4. Performance Moderato (non Ben articolato Poco marcato, - markings and use of legato) espressivo rubato 5. Tonal center and V4/3 (A flat M) Bars 10-18: I6/4 (F # Bars 39-42: EM Bars 59-64: V 6/5 (Em), harmonic M) Bars 43-48: FM-Fm viio (Gm). progressions Bars 19-22: Gm Bars 49-52: F # M (D Bars 23-30 CM-GM flat-C# enharmonic (with deviations to change) Gm, B flat M) bars 53-58: gradual dominant prolongation to GM bar 59-deceptive cadenza to V6/5 (vi) 6. General structure Introduction- improvisation (development)- coda A theme- A & B themes- A theme 7. Beethoven/ Busoni's compositional language; advanced Post-Romantic texture (for more details see no. Busoni 12). compositional language* 8. Soloist/ orchestral Soloist Soloist Soloist Soloist, yet use of orchestral material motive 9. Improvisational No Yes Yes No material 10. Virtuosic/ non Virtuosic throughout the cadenza. virtuosic 11. Rhetoric The cadenza's concise length, abrupt tonal and motivic shifts, use of dissonances, message, idioms the chromaticism, diminished seventh chords and numerous enharmonic changes- all contribute cadenza aims to to the dramatic agenda it aims to communicate. Despite its improvisational nature, it has an project general form of introduction- improvisation- coda, where the A theme appears in all parts, concluding in its darkest character, thus providing Busoni's final interpretation of the movement in particular and the Concerto as a whole. 12. Sources of The cadenza has its own original texture, yet it is inspired by Beethoven's cadenza for this inspiration movement (the longer version), following its overall scheme and concise length. 13. Composer/ Performer oriented Performer/ Listener

233 7. Anton Rubinstein: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1861)

Part Introduction I II III IV V

1. Bars ( total: 1-9 1-24 25-35 36-55 56-79 80-108 108)

2. Themes Non thematic A A3, A B2, B1, C, A B2, A material alternated with recitative passages. 3. Character Extravagant, Dark, The melodic Each time a The C theme is Fragmented use of B2 of themes and full, choral dramatic line of the A3 recitative cited fully. It is theme (first part: bars 80- use of texture played citation of theme is passage taken from the 91) dramatic in half meter. the reversed and appears, it is recapitulation Alternation between the orchestral played in a presented in the part (GM). B2 theme as appears in effects repetitive- minor mode, lower piano The A motive Beethoven's coda and the note while placed in register, in bass appears in its A repetitive-note motive, motive the middle octaves under repetitive-note all played softly in p. played in piano register, the dynamic pattern in both p the lower rather than in its mark of f. Each and f, under the piano familiar upper time the themes piano triplet register. part. appear, they are figuration Excessive presented in which function use of The following their orchestral as the upper dissonance bravura version, accompaniment. s as well improvisational maintaining the as use of passage on the original minor repetitive-note harmonic seconds. element turns to scheme ( The last be a citation of suggested by five bars Beethoven's Beethoven, express a thematic while sharp turn figuration, preserving a into taken from the consistent Beethoven' beginning of dynamic s the second marking of p. exposition, exposition, bars bars 68-73 74-81.

4. strigendo- a tempo - ad-libitum a tempo - Performance ritard. (for the markings and recitative use of rubato passages) a tempo ( for the citation of themes B2 and B1 respectively. 5. Tonal I6/4, V7 (A flat V6/5 (B D flat vii D flat m, B flat Part I: bars 55- Part I: bars 80-91; E flat center and M), V6/5 (Fm), flat M), (Neapolitan of m, D flat m, C 71; GM (C M, Fm, GM, Cm (tonal harmonic Fm, 6/4 (Cm), V6/5 (G CM), C major flat M, V (G) theme), V6/5 ambiguity from bar 85-91) progressions viio6/5 (Gm), flat M), G * The use of D (Bm), V6/5 Part II: coda, bars 92-108; V6/5 (CM), flat M flat m (DM), Bm, V7 V2 (FM), F#M, F#m. V6/5 (D flat characterizes (GM). M) the recitative Part II: bars 72- passages. 79; GM, Gm, V4/3 (E flat M).

234 6. General A piece within a piece. Semi Sonata form of orchestral- soloist expositions, developmental part, structure recapitulation and coda.

7. Beethoven/ Rubinstein's Both. Both. Both. Both. Beethoven's Rubinstein Bars 10- A3 theme: Appearing in Bars 55-58: recapitulation and coda compositional 19: bars 25-28: major full citation of parts language* Rubinstein' Rubinstein's contrast. theme C. s A theme: bars Recitative Bars 56-79: Bars 20- 29-35: passages: Beethoven's' 24: Beethoven's Rubinstein's texture Beethoven' Citation of appearing in s thematic advanced material: musical Beethoven's language. * Rubinstein's compositional language is highly chromatic, where tritons and dissonances are favored. There is much use of diminished-chords and abrupt tonal shifts.

8. Soloist/ Grandiose, Orchestral Soloist Both Soloist Soloist orchestral bravura (although material soloist orchestral introduction material is apparent) 9. No No Bars 29-35 are Highly Yes, second Improvisational in Improvisation improvisation improvisation part: bars 72- nature, taken form al al in nature, al in the ad- 79. Beethoven's figuration material taken from libitum parts throughout the first Beethoven's movement. solo exposition, bars 74-80 10. Virtuosic/ Virtuosic Non Imitating Virtuosic Virtuosic Non-virtuosic. An open non virtuosic virtuosic thematic ending, concluding material from softly, as opposed to the the first bravura opening of the movement cadenza.

11. Rhetoric Rubinstein's cadenza conveys a conflict between piano and orchestral roles, thematic material (the A message, theme opposed to B2 theme), textural elements (rhythmic against melodic elements), improvisation idioms the against compositional parts, and intimacy against virtuosity. cadenza aims to project 12. Sources of Original Beethoven' Beethoven's New material, Beethoven's Beethoven's inspirations s orchestral second yet resembles exposition/ recapitulation and coda exposition, exposition a more recapitulation parts. bars 68-73. developmental as well as part Beethoven's long-version cadenza where the C theme appears in its full citation. 13. Composer/ Composer-performer attitude. "Beethoven" is apparent in this cadenza not less than "Rubinstein." It is not Performer/ a bravura, virtuosic cadenza that is created out of pure performing interests. On the contrary, it conveys a Listener strong affiliation with the Beethoven, citing most of the thematic material, following rhythmic figurations, oriented positioning soloist and orchestral material side by side and addressing the cadenza as a mini-movement form, considering its parts and proportions.

235 8. Anton Rubinstein: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1861)

Part I II III IV V

1. Bars ( total: 1-48 49-72 73-116 117-156 157-188 188)

2. Themes Use of non major *A Same as in A A & the exclusive soloist thematic material ( first-four bars) part II theme that appeared in the taken from beginning of the cadenza. Beethoven's *Piano triplet movement: figuration, taken 1. The exclusive from soloist theme, Beethoven's placed after the development cadenza and before part, bars 252- the final coda, as 272). appears in bars 545-553. 2. The orchestral rhythmic figuration of theme A, taken from the development part, bars 224-227. 3. Character of Symmetrical The dotted- Highly Dark, Preserved as in the original themes and use of alternation between rhythm element dramatic part mysterious score. The two contrasting dramatic effects two contrasted is alternated with due to sudden atmosphere themes are played one themes; the lyrical piano- shifts in created by above the other, integrated triplets element character, diminished harmonically. in a perfectly dynamic chords and a symmetrical marks and gradual format. textures. crescendo * Part II & III through are more syncopated developmental bass octaves. in nature. * General Except for one occasion (bars 73-82), Rubinstein does not cite the first theme in its original form during thematic the course of his first-movement cadenza. Rather he takes the various elements of the theme, such as the observation dotted rhythm figuration or broken triad chord and elaborates upon them in fragmented form. 4. Performance - - - - - markings and use of rubato

5. Tonal center and GM, vii4/3 (Am), V9 (Em), Em, BM, GM, V7(DM), Cm, Am, Em, V (GM), Bm, V7 (GM). harmonic Am, vii6/5 (Dm), Bm. F#M, Bm, G#m, viio (Dm), progressions Dm, Am. C#m. * mostly dominant * The choice of prolongation these two tonal *modulations centers is through circle of significant. Em is fifths. the relative minor key of tonic G. BM is the second most important tonal center,

236 appearing in the orchestra in bar 6 (1st mov).

6. General Semi sonata-form movement. structure Part I- exposition Part II & III- development & recapitulation Part IV- Stretto, preparation for coda Part V- coda

7. Beethoven/ Beethoven's 3rd Both. The texture Thematically and Rubinstein's Rubinstein's Rubinstein movement. is completely harmonically this Post compositional Beethoven's. section is closer to Romantic, language* However, there is a Beethoven's. advanced unique use of However, the thick texture. diminished texture, rich chords (Special use intervals and and abrupt shifts of syncopated chords, as well as from soloist to bass pattern rapid tonal shifts orchestral material under the from major to are clearly dotted-note minor modes Rubinstein's rhythmic which marks. figuration of characterized theme A). Rubinstein's compositional language.

8. Soloist/ Soloist versus The dotted- note Both. Orchestral Both (equally played). orchestral material orchestral. rhythmic There are shifts Alternation between figuration between orchestral two contrasted expresses an material (dotted- themes, each orchestral mode note motive) and expresses different while the triplet soloist material role. figuration imitates (legato triplets' the piano part. figuration). 9. Improvisational No No No. However, the No No material use of the piano triplets, taken from Beethoven's movement has innate improvisational essence. 10. Virtuosic/ non Non virtuosic Non virtuosic Virtuosic Virtuosic Non virtuosic virtuosic ( maestoso ending)

11. Rhetoric Whereas the first four parts of the cadenza conveyed drama by exposing contrasting textures, rhythmic figurations, message, idioms the thematic materials and tonal modes, the last part unites all the presented material in a new light of optimism. The cadenza aims to themes are played in a single tonal center, one above another, in a majestic, triumphant and bravura ending, explaining project open questions in Rubinstein's first-movement cadenza. 13. Sources of Beethoven's 3rd Beethoven's Beethoven's Beethoven's Beethoven's material in new inspirations movement: bars 545- movement movement material in texture. 553 & 224-227 new texture. respectively 14. Composer/ Composer- performer. Performer/ Listener

237 9. Donald Francis Tovey: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1937)

Part I II III

1. Bars (Total number: 81) 1-18 19-51 52-81

2. Themes A & Beethoven's piano A, B3 A, B3, Beethoven's development section piano recapitulation section

3. Character of themes and Exact repetition of Developmental; use of canonic Exact repetition of use of dramatic effects Beethoven's bars 192- texture, exchange of orchestral Beethoven's 215. The repetitive- and soloist material between recapitulation section, note motive (A) is the two hands and increased bars 253-266 with an modulated 5 times dramatic effect through additional dark coda, above piano-triplet Brahms' compositional played in the lower figuration. language as seen in bars 19- piano register under 29. diminished-seventh chords and chromatic scales. * the placement of a one-bar rest (56) between the piano and orchestral parts is also essential in creating a dramatic feel. 4. Performance markings sognando, quasi legato tranquillo, legato, rit. largamente, cantabile, and use of rubato tranquillo, rit., quasi a Espressivo, a tempo, strigendo, raddolcendo. tempo, ma tranquillo, sostenuto, a tempo, risoluto. Animato.

5. Tonal centers, V/A flat M (1-4), V7/ A flat M (deceptive E flat M (52-57), GM (58- harmonic progressions and A flat m (5-8), V7/Dm cadence, rather than Cm, 60), V/ CM (61-62), V7/ general writing (9-12), V7/ Bm (13- bars 19-24), V7/DM (25- BM (62), EM-Em (63), observations 14), Bm (15-16), 29), V6/5 / DM (30-34), V7/ CM ( (64), DM (dominant V7/Cm (17-18) GM (35-40), Gm (41-48), prolongation to GM, bars V7/E flat M (49-51). 65-71), GM (72-75), IIo7/ GM (76-77), V-V6/5; GM (78-81).

* This part is characterized by three deceptive cadences , either on VI or the minor tonic) 6. General structure A quasi-development section, followed by a recapitulation.

238 7. Beethoven/ Tovey Mainly Beethoven's texture from the Concerto, with the exception of Brahmsian compositional language* harmonic language and rich texture as appear in the second part of the cadenza, bars 21-29.

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Soloist's texture, though orchestral material is well apparent throughout the material cadenza.

9. Improvisational Improvisational material is apparent in the end of the second and third sections; material bars 50-51 & 74-81 respectively.

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Non virtuosic Virtuosic Virtuosic

11. Rhetoric message, Tovey believed that a cadenza for a Classical concerto should "compensate" for the idioms the cadenza aims to short development part that usually functions as an episode. Therefore he builds the project cadenza in the form of a quasi-development and recapitulation section. He explicitly preserved the compositional language of the composer and hopes that his cadenza would be a platform of inspiration for others to improvise their own cadenzas to Beethoven's Concertos.

12. Sources of inspiration Beethoven's development Beethoven's development Beethoven's section; bars 192-215. section; bars 239-251. recapitulation section; bars 253-256.

13. Composer/ Performer/ Composer oriented ("Beethoven of the Concerto") – loyalty to the original text. Listener oriented

239 10. Donald Francis Tovey: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1937)

Part Introduction I II + Coda

1. Bars (Total number: 47) 1-9 10-21 22-47

2. Themes A A (left hand) A ( left hand) Piano triplets ( taken from bars Piano bass figuration 68-79- right hand) taken from bars 45-48- right hand) 3. Character of themes and Vigorous & majestic The decisive A theme is Leggiero and tranquillo use of dramatic effects gradually softened by the right character. hand piano triplets. 4. Performance markings A tempo rit. (19-21) Leggiero, a tempo, and use of rubato tranquillo, legato, dolce, cantabile.

5. Tonal centers, I6/4 (G) VII7dim/ C m (10-13) G m (22-25) harmonic progressions and C m (14-17) A flat M (26-29) general writing C# m (18-19) VII7/ D M (30-31) observations I6/4-V7 / G m (20-21) I6/4/ G m (32-33) V7/ A flat M (34-37) V7/ G- dominant prolongation (38-47). 6. General structure Despite the "artificial" division into three parts, the cadenza is a one unit form. It is episodically written, and short. The second, lyrical theme of the movement is not used, only the opening orchestral motive. 7. Beethoven/ Tovey Mostly Beethoven's compositional language. compositional language*

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Both. Tovey uses both the opening repetitive-note orchestral motive and the piano material triplets or accompaniment piano figuration. All these motives appear in alternation between the two hands. 9.Improvisational No. material

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Non virtuosic in nature. 11. Rhetoric message, Tovey aims to convey a short cadenza that should not interfere with the general idioms the cadenza aims to flow of the movement or with its compositional language. Therefore the overall projects Classical style is preserved., Themes are presented in small motivic configurations. It is a dialogue between the orchestra and the soloist, not an opposition (the second theme is missing in Tovey's cadenza).

12. Sources of inspirations Beethoven's concerto text.

13. Composer/ Performer/ Composer oriented. Listener oriented

240 11. William Kempff: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1967)

Part Introduction I II III

1. Bars ( total: 46) 1-10 11-24 25-32 33-46

2. Themes A (taken from A (repetitive-note A (repetitive-note A (repetitive-note Beethoven's motive) & motive) motive) & B1 orchestral Tutti, development bars 20-27 & 39- arpeggios (taken 40 respectively) from Beethoven's development section, bars 204- 215). 3. Character of Orchestral chordal The repetitive- Transitional part, Coda part. The themes and use of introduction taken note motive taken from repetitive- note dramatic effects from Beethoven's appears in rich, Beethoven's motive appears in first exposition. low-registered V7 texture before the rich A major chords, alternated return to the chords with ascending recapitulation. The simultaneously modulated repetitive-note with theme B1 arpeggios in motive appears under right- hand crescendo. now more rigidly continuous trill. as a single note C and C # under major and minor modes. 4. Performance accel., a tempo, poco ritenuto nel vivo, meno presto, tempo primo, markings and use rit., espressivo, rit. tempo, stigendo, rit., allargando. zogernd, poco rit., of rubato accel., a tempo, rit., espressivo, rit. molto, adagio. 5. Tonal center and GM (1-8) V6/5 Bm (11-14) V4/3 DM & Dm AM (33-37) harmonic F#m (9-10) V7 DM (15-18) (25-32) Cm (38-46) progressions V6/5 C#M (19-22) * The section VII7 C#m (23-24) concludes with a * The Cm . dominant functions as a prolongation preparation to the anticipating a V2 / GM, sharing a return to GM, yet mutual bass note, a deceptive C. cadence takes place 6. General Introduction (orchestral)- "Development" section (improvisational)- Coda structure

241 7. Beethoven/ Beethoven's Kempff compositional language*

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Soloist Soloist Orchestral orchestral material

9. Improvisational No Yes. (The No No material texture chosen is taken from Beethoven's development section, where the modulated arpeggios naturally reflect improvisational flow). 10. Virtuosic/ non Non virtuosic virtuosic

11. Rhetoric The cadenza creates a direct line between Beethoven of the Concerto and the new message, idioms the given cadenza. Kempff's tendency is to keep close to Beethoven's harmonic cadenza aims to language as much as possible. There is also a cyclic feel when the cadenza opens project with a citation of the orchestral Tutti, merging the orchestral and soloist parts. 12. Sources of Beethoven's Beethoven's Beethoven's Kempff's coda inspiration orchestral Tutti, development transition part section prior the * The cadenza recapitulation. resembles also Beethoven's second cadenza version in its unique treatment of the A theme. 13. Composer/ Composer oriented. (Loyalty to Beethoven's text of the concerto- not the cadenzas). Performer/ Listener oriented

242 12. William Kempff: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1967)

Part I II Coda

1. Bars (Total number: 42) 1-16 17-32 33-42

2. Themes Contemplation on the Piano triplet element taken Piano triplet element opening two bars (5/3 from the movement's bars chord) 68-79

3. Character of themes and Scherzo character of The starting dolce piano presentation of the piano use of dramatic effects the opening motive, triplets (appearing in the triplets motive, played as played staccato with movement's bars 68-79) I6/3 chords through three abrupt dynamic gradually develop into a piano registers. changes. percussive rhythmic pattern. 4. Performance markings rit. (13-16) dolce a tempo (17-21) a tempo and use of rubato non legato, non accel. (22- rit (41-42) 24) vivace (25-32)

5. Tonal centers, V (G), V2 (A flat M), V9 & V7 (GM) V6/5 & V4/3 (DM) harmonic progressions and V2 (A M), VII7 (EM), general writing CM observations * Sequenced two-bar motive

6. General structure The cadenza does not have a strict form. It functions as a transitional part, following Beethoven's specific order for a short cadenza. 7. Beethoven/ Kempff Mostly Beethoven's compositional language with some exception at the beginning compositional language* of the cadenza where Romantic-style modulations take place.

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Orchestral Soloist Soloist texture- orchestral material character. 9. Improvisational No use of improvisational material. Instead, rhythmic patterns from the movement material are modulated and developed.

10. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Non virtuosic Non virtuosic Virtuosic 11. Rhetoric message, The cadenza begins with an orchestral motive followed by a dolce piano triplet idioms the cadenza aims to motive, but then merges the two so that there is no longer a distinction between project piano and orchestral roles, no more contrasting parts, but rather a shared goal of conveying a dramatic effect.

12. Sources of inspiration Orchestral and soloist rhythmic motives that governed the movement.

13. Composer/ Performer/ Composer's oriented. Loyal to Beethoven's order for a short cadenza. Listener oriented

243 13. Nicholas Medtner: First-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1909)

Part I II III IV

1. Bars (Total: 54) 1-11 12-29 30-42 42-54

2. Themes Chief thematic Chief material: Chief material: A orchestral version, material: B2, A, A2 B1, citation of C A (left hand) Beethoven's opening C ( right hand) Sub-themes: piano reprise (bars- *Sub theme: Figurations from 38-42) * General observation: Piano Beethoven's tendency for cross- accompaniment development Sub themes: thematic device. to theme C, section: (bars 12- Bridge bar 33 equals taken from 15 equal material from Beethoven's Beethoven's 196- Beethoven's bars 123-126. 203, bars 16-17; development section, 204, bars 18-19; bar 231) 231-234, bars 20- 22; 216-221) 3. Character of themes and Tender, soft, Romantic and free, Majestic, royal, Tender and soft use of dramatic effects dream-like with except the risoluto festive character. presentation of the the exception of transitional parts thematic material until the bars 8-11 which that are taken from final crescendo of the use advanced Beethoven's virtuosic passages. harmonic development language and section: ( see bars tritons. 20-22)

4. Dynamic markings pp, p, f (bars 12-18) f, ff p, pp, crescendo - ff pp (bar 19) f (bars 20-22) diminuendo-p (bars 23-28) crescendo-f (bar 29) 5. Performance markings Tranquillo, Risonante, tenuto, a tempo, risoluto, tranquillo, crescendo e and use of rubato cantabile, poco risoluto, molto leggierissimo. affrettando, allargando. ritenuto, cantabile, poco a carezzando, poco diminuendo, poco a poco tranquillo molto crescendo e con accelerando e moto. crescendo, ritenuto.

6. Tonal centers, G major (bars 1-7) modulatory Sequences in down- B flat M, CM, GM harmonic progressions and D major (bars 8-11) section with scale chromatic general writing three deceptive motion, from major observations * advanced Post- cadencas to minor: Romantic language: (bars 15-16, 22- B flat M- Am (bars *use of diminished 23, 29-30 30-33) and augmented respectively). FM- Em (bars 34-37) seventh-chords with addition of tritons AM, Bm, CM-full citation of and flat ninths. (CM-Em Beethoven's opening *Highly chromatic simultaneously- piano reprise

244 * contrapuntal in polytonality in nature, rhythmically bar 20), Bm, complex (use of GM, Bm. cross rhythms)

7. General structure A piece within a piece, a mini-movement structure where developmental parts and Recapitulation are well felt (themes are not "Classically" developed here but are cited fragmentally in improvisational manner).

8. Beethoven/ Medtner Medtner's Both. Mostly Beethoven's. Both. compositional language* Medtner's harmonic Bars 42-45: language Beethoven's texture of alternated with the orchestral version figurations from of theme A. Beethoven's development Bars 46-54: Medtner's section (for example, bars 20-22 are a full citation of Beethoven's bars 216-221 followed by a Post-Romantic citation of theme A2 (bars 23-27). 9. Soloist/ Orchestral Soloist type of Ibid. Bars 30-37: Bars 42-45: orchestral material writing, yet a choice orchestral both in Bars 46-54: soloist of both orchestral texture and thematic and soloist thematic material (B1) material (A and C) Bars 38-42: Soloist, taken from Beethoven's piano recapitulation 10. Improvisational No The last two bars No (except for the Yes (concluding material of the section piano recapitulation virtuosic passages and (28-29) are which is arpeggios). improvisational improvisational) in texture. The rest of the section is improvisational in its motivic jumps and rapid change of keys. 11. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Non virtuosic Non virtuosic Virtuosic Virtuosic

12. Rhetoric message, The Cadenza is a piece within a piece, while thematic materials are paraphrased within a idioms the cadenza aims to structure of a mini-movement form. Medtner succeeds in projecting Post-Romantic project language (somewhat even impressionistic) while presenting the full range of the movement’s thematic material as well as citing Beethoven throughout the cadenza.

13. Sources of inspiration Medtner Beethoven's Beethoven's Beethoven's development recapitulation recapitulation and coda section 14. Composer/ Performer/ Performer-composer oriented. Truly individual voice while having the text (the movement Listener oriented itself) as a source of guidance for both texture and form.

245

14. Nicholas Medtner: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1909)

Part I II III

1. Bars (Total: 178) 1-96 97-146 147-178

2. Themes A, B A (orchestral motive of A the second movement)

* General observation: tendency for cross- thematic device. 3. Character of themes This part could Dramatic, preserves Rhythmic and and use of dramatic stand on its own as the dotted-rhythm harmonic prolongation effects an independent part, element of the second- that characterizes coda containing elements movement theme up sections. Dramatic feel of introduction and until the final bars of is achieved by the inner coda. It is the section. gradual deviation from characterized by the lower piano motivic jumps, register upwards, as fragmented well as the continuous figurations and three-note rhythmic various typescripts figure of the opening of both the A and B orchestral motive. theme (with special attention to the latter). 4. Performance markings cantabile, riten., a meno mosso, poco a poco ritornando and use of rubato tempo, man non tranquillo, cantabile, al tempo vivace, subito, piu agitato, piu agitato, precipitato, sordamento, sempre trillo ad libitum, con moto, con strepito, accelerando e perdendosi allargando crescendo

5. Tonal centers, Gm (1-28), Cm (29- E flat M (97-108), DM Dominant harmonic progressions 36), D flat M (37- (109-111), Gm (112- prolongation of G and general writing 44), C#M (45-52), 122), Cm (123-126), B major. observations F#m (53-56), Bm flat M (127-129), E flat (57-62), Em (63- M (129-134), Gm 68), DM (69-73), (135-146) Em ( 74-82), DM (83-93), E flat M (94-96)

(highly modulated from bar 29 onwards)

246 6. General structure Subject to the performer choice. The third part of the cadenza is "mandatory", but the first two parts could be played together or separately ((Part I + II + III or Part I + III or Part II + III). Part II contains rhythmic patterns taken from the orchestral motive of the second movement. 7. Beethoven/ Medtner Both. Beethoven is Medtner's Both. compositional language* heard in bars 1-16, 25-28, 33-36.

8. Soloist/ Orchestral Both Both Both material

9. Improvisational Yes. See bars 83- Yes. See bars 139-146. Yes. Elaboration on material 96. the first bar of the opening theme (3rd movement). 10. Virtuosic/ non Virtuosic Virtuosic Virtuosic virtuosic

11. Rhetoric message, Innovative cadenza due to the liberty it supplies the performer to idioms the cadenza aims choose its inner structure (Part I + II + III or Part I + III or Part II + III). to project Moreover, the cadenza contains rhythmic patterns that recall motives from all three movements, thus creating a cyclic frame that is based on unifying rhythmic figurations rather than thematic ones.

12. Sources of inspiration Beethoven's third Beethoven's Beethoven's opening movement second motive of the third movement, movement ( first two opening bars, repetitive-note orchestral motive) motive( dotted- rhythm)

13. Composer/ Performer/ Performer oriented (choice of cadenza structure). Listener oriented

247 15. Robert Levin: First -movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1998*)

Part I II III IV+ Coda

1. Themes A Bridge part, non C A thematic material

2. Character of An orchestral Modulated arpeggios, A citation of the Use of the themes and use version, appearing copying Beethoven's orchestral C repetitive-note of dramatic in various development theme, followed motive from effects modulations, taken figuration, bars 204- by a series of the A theme. from Beethoven's 215. deceptive bars 14-22. cadenzas and improvisations. * General Use of "orchestral themes and highly improvised sections that create a balance thematic between orchestral and piano parts. The use of improvisation and virtuosic display observation: supplies the feel of fantasia-like writing. 3. General ABA form + coda structure 4. Beethoven/ Levin's cadenza is improvised in a "Romantic", more progressive style that favors Levin's "fantasia like" playing. However, Levin preserves the "Classical" boundaries compositional within a familiar Beethovenian framework. There is no intention to compose the language cadenza in a twentieth-century language.

5. Soloist/ Both. Most of the thematic material (except the one that appears in the second Orchestral cadenza part) is orchestral. However, the fantasia- like playing and the highly material improvisational sections balance between soloist and orchestral roles. 6. In all cadenza's parts. Improvisational material

7. Virtuosic/ non Extremely virtuosic virtuosic

8. Rhetoric Levin treats the Cadenza as an opportunity to display each time a different message, idioms improvisation and thus a different interpretation of the movement and the the cadenza aims Concerto. Through Levin’s improvised Cadenzas, the Concerto becomes a more to project dynamic, flexible. It becomes an interactive platform, for both the performer and his listener. 9. Sources of Original, though the unique use of the C theme reflects inspiration from inspiration Beethoven's first cadenza version.

10. Composer/ Listener oriented: the listener is forced to be part of the live performing Performer/ experience, anticipated to be challenged and surprised by an improvised cadenza. Listener oriented

* There is no written account for Levin's cadenza. The observations made here are based on an auditory experience (See Robert Levin and the Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique under the direction of Sir John Eliot Gardiner, Deutsche Gramophone CD 457 608-2, 1998).

248 16. Robert Levin: Third-movement Cadenza for Beethoven's Concerto Op. 58 (1998*)

Part Introduction I Coda

1. Themes Bravura opening ( bridge B A (orchestral) material)

2. Character of themes Grandiose, virtuosic opening An abrupt transition Vigorous, majestic. and use of dramatic effects played in broken octaves. into a "soloist" thematic material, modulated into major and minor modes with added improvisational passages. 3. General structure The cadenza is not to be divided into sections. It is improvised as a one-part composition with bravura introduction and coda.

4. Beethoven/ Levin's See notes on Levin's first-movement cadenza. compositional language

5. Soloist/ Orchestral Both. The use of fantasia-like writing naturally strengthens the soloist role in Levin's material cadenza. However the A theme appears in its orchestral version in the cadenza's coda thus crafting a smooth transition to the following orchestral Tutti. 6. Improvisational Highly apparent, specifically in the introduction part as well as in the core section of material the cadenza.

7. Virtuosic/ non virtuosic Highly virtuosic.

8. Rhetoric message, Aside from the idea that the cadenza should project a live, instant creation through the idioms the cadenza aims to act of improvisation, Levin was well aware of Beethoven's order to keep the cadenza project short. It is therefore an original creation within the composer's guidance of structure and inner-movement proportions. 9. Sources of inspiration Although Levin's improvised cadenza is certainly novel and innovative, it is inspired by the cadenza written by Beethoven; Both begin with a bravura introduction followed by the appearance of the B theme.

10. Composer/ Performer/ Listener's oriented (with special attention to the composer's intentions and guided Listener oriented lines).

* There is no written account for Levin's cadenza. The observations made in here are based on an auditory experience (See Robert Levin and the Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique under the direction of Sir John Eliot Gardiner, Deutsche Gramophone CD 457 608-2, 1998).

249 Appendix 4:

Cadenzas' Scores

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341

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Casadesus, Robert. Cadenzas for the Beethoven Piano Concertos. Philadelphia: Elkan- Vogel, 1945.

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343 תקציר

מטרת עבודה זו הינה לבחון כיצד מלחינים מהתקופה הרומנטית ואילך התייחסו לתפקידה של הקדנצה בכלל וכיצד התמודדו מלחינים שונים עם כתיבת קדנצות לקונצ'רטים של בטהובן בפרט (בדגש על הקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר). עד היום, מבצעים ומוזיקולוגים התייחסו

לקדנצה כיחידה נפרדת מהקונצ'רטו אשר לה חוקיות משלה. גם קדנצות רומנטיות שנכתבו אחרי תקופתו של בטהובן נותחו על פי אותם החוקים והכללים שהיו נהוגים מאז התקופה הקלאסית.

הללו מצויים בעיקרם בכתביהם של ק.פ.ע. באך ( C.P.E. Bach), טרק (Türk) וקוונץ (Quantz).

חוקים אלו תואמים את מרבית הקדנצות של מוצארט, אך נמצא שהם אינם תקפים לגבי הקונצ'רטים של בטהובן. עד לתקופתו של בטהובן הייתה הקדנצה בבחינת השהייה על אתנח דומיננטי לפני סיום הפרק הראשון או השלישי בקונצ'רטו. במהלכה, יכול היה הסולן להרהיב

בנגינתו בקטע סולני, וירטואוזי וקצר, מבלי לשנות או להשפיע על המבנה הכולל של היצירה. האפשרות להתייחס לקדנצה הרומנטית כיחידה הומוגנית ובלתי נפרדת מהקונצ'רטו- טרם הועלתה. יתרה מזאת, הרעיון כי קדנצה עשויה להשפיע על עיצובו מחדש של הקונצ'רטו

כג'אנר ולהשפיע בכך על מבנהו התמאטי, ההרמוני, הטונאלי והדרמטי, הינו חדשני למדי ועדיין אינו נפוץ בקרב חוקרים אקדמיים. במחקר זה ניסיתי להראות כיצד בטהובן עצמו שינה את מהותה של הקדנצה עד לכדי

שילובה כיחידה אינטגראלית ומשמעותית בקונצ'רטו וכיצד וסלל את הדרך למלחינים שבאו אחריו בהתמודדותם עם כתיבת קדנצות בכלל, ועם כתיבת קדנצות "רומנטיות" לקונצ'רטים הקלאסיים בפרט.

יש לציין כי בטהובן היה הראשון שייחס לקדנצה שני תפקידים חדשים: מצד אחד היא היוותה כלי לפרשנותי היצירה (רפלקציה על הקונצ'רטו עצמו), ומצד שני הייתה הקדנצה גם כלי חיוני ליצירת אינטגראליות עם הקונצ'רטו ופרקיו השונים. שני התפקידים החדשים הללו יצרו

אתגר חדש לרומנטיקנים. הללו התמודדו עם סוגיית ההבדלים הסגנוניים בכתיבת קדנצה רומנטית לטקסט קלאסי ואף אותגרו למצוא את האיזון הנכון בין כתיבת קדנצה המעבירה בתבונה את מסרי הקונצ'רטו מחד גיסא, ועם זאת להישאר נאמנים לסגנון הכתיבה האישי מאידך

גיסא. ראוי לזכור כי השינויים שעברה הקדנצה היו תלויים בהתפתחות הרדיקאלית של ג'אנר הקונצ'רטו בתקופה הרומנטית ובהדגשי הטכניקה שהיו נהוגים באותה תקופה. הטכניקה

א הוירטואוזית התפתחה במהירות ונתנה אותותיה בתפקידי הפסנתר והתזמורת כאחד. בהדרגה נמצא שהפסנתר, כמו גם הכינור, שימש ככלי הנגינה הסולני והווירטואוזי ביותר באותה תקופה.

אך יש לציין כי עבור מלחיני הרומנטיקה, וירטואוזיות הייתה הרבה מעבר לטכניקה מפוארת. מגישה הרואה את הוירטואוזיות כמטרה בפני עצמה, הפכה הטכניקה לכלי עזר לסולן ולתזמורת על מנת להביע באופן חופשי אקספרסיביות, אינטימיות ודרמה. את מקום הסימטריה והאיזון

ששלטו בתקופה הקלאסית תפסו בהדרגה אלמנטים של כתיבה רפסודית בעלת מאפיינים של פנטסיה, המדגישים את חשיבות הניגודים בין סגנונות ורגשות עמוקים. ההשפעות הללו הביאו לידי כך שההפרדה המסורתית בין תפקידי הסולן לתפקידי

התזמורת בקונצ'רטו איבדה את מקומה. השניים יכלו להביע באופן עצמאי קשת רחבה של מצבים ורגשות- מהלירי ועד הדרמטי ביותר, ולא נזקקו עוד להשלמה של האחד עם השני. כך קרה שמעמד הסולן והתזמורת השתוו והלכו. בנוסף, הקשיחות של מבנה הקונצ'רטו הקלאסי

בעל שלשת הפרקים, עם פרק ראשון בצורת סונטה ואקספוזיציה כפולה, החל עם הזמן להתערער. התזמורת לא הייתה מחויבת עוד לפתוח את היצירה בריטורנלו מקדים. הקונצ'רטים המאוחרים של בטהובן לפסנתר (אופוס 58 ואופוס 73) פותחים ישר עם תפקיד הפסנתר, כמו גם הקונצ'רטים

של מנדלסון, שומאן, גריג וצ'ייקובסקי. רעיון החיבור בין הפרקים באמצעות אטקה (attaca)

הופיע לראשונה אצל בטהובן בקונצ'רטו החמישי לפסנתר ( אופוס 73) ואומץ מאוחר יותר על ידי

מלחינים כגון ובר, מנדלסון ושומאן. יש לציין כי ליסט אף הרחיק לכת וכתב את הקונצ'רטו השני שלו לפסנתר במתכונת של סימפוניה פואמית בה היצירה כולה כתובה כפרק אחד. הקונצ'רטו בתקופה הרומנטית שינה אפוא כיוון והפך אינטגרטיבי יותר, בו הפרקים קשורים זה בזה על ידי

נושאים משותפים, אלמנטים ריתמיים, ונרטיבים השוזרים עצמם כחוט השני לאורך היצירה. התמורות שעבר הקונצ'רטו במאה התשע- עשרה והפיכתו ליחידה וירטואוזית בעלת מאפיינים של פנטסיה, השפיעו באופן ישיר על מהותה של הקדנצה ומיקומה ביצירה. המשמעות

של קדנצה וירטואוזית המופיעה לקראת תום הפרק הראשון הייתה דלה, ובהדרגה החלו מלחינים רבים להשמיטה כליל ( ראה קלרה שומאן, שופין, מנדלסון וליסט). אחרים מיקמו אותה בסוף היצירה (ברהמס), והיו שבחרו לכתוב את גרסתם שלהם לקדנצה בבחינת "קדנצת חובה"

(obbligato cadenza). באופן זה הם בטאו שליטה מלאה על יצירתם שלהם ומנעו ממבצעי

הקונצ'רטו לאלתר בחופשיות קדנצה שאינה מתאימה לדידם לאופי הקונצ'רטו וסגנונו.

פיליפ וויטמור (Whitmore, 1996) היטיב לתאר את בעיית הקדנצה הרומנטית בספרו

Unpremeditated Art: The Cadenza in the Classical Keyboard Concerto: "בקונצ'רטו, בו נהפכה

ב הוירטואוזיות לשם חובה, אין עוד הגיון להשאיר מקום לאתנחתא וירטואוזית לקראת תום פרקיו. אי לכך מחויבת הקדנצה הרומנטית להשתנות בהתאם ולהיתפס כיחידה בעלת מימדים

חדשים, שאם לא כן- תאבד את מקומה ויהא עליה להישמט לחלוטין מהקונצ'רטו" ( עמ' 59). נשאלת השאלה מהו אפוא הפתרון של הרומנטיקנים לקדנצה בבואם לגשת לטקסט הקלאסי של בטהובן? ללא ספק קיים כאן אתגר קשה ומכופל. מחד גיסא - הקדנצה כשלעצמה

מאפשרת כתיבה חופשית יותר, בעלת מאפייני פנטסיה, דבר שבא בכפיפה אחת עם הערכים הקומפוזיטורים של הרומנטיקנים במאה התשע-עשרה. מאידך גיסא - כתיבת קדנצה חופשית, שאינה תלויה באופן אימננטי בקונצ'רטו שלכבודו היא נכתבה, חוטאת למטרה ומאבדת את

משמעותה, שכן מטרת העל של הקדנצה הרומנטית היא יצירת קשר אינטגראלי עם היצירה עצמה, כמו גם פרשנותה. נמצא אפוא שהרומנטיקנים מתבקשים לגשר בין שני דחפים מקבילים בכתיבת הקדנצה:

הדחף לכתוב קדנצה המבטאת אחדות קונספטואלית עם הקונצ'רטו מול הדחף לכתוב קדנצה בעלת אמירה אישית אשר תשאיר אחריה חותם אישי ותשפיע באחת על היצירה עצמה ועל ג'אנר הקונצ'רטו ככלל. במילים אחרות, הרומנטיקנים נאלצו להתמודד עם השאלה עד כמה ניתן

להרחיק לכת בכתיבת הקדנצה מבחינה סגנונית, הרמונית וטקסטואלית כך שבכתיבה זו יבואו לידי ביטוי גם חדשנות וגם וחיבור אינטגרטיבי עם היצירה כולה. כאמור, נמצא שבטהובן עצמו היה בעד יציאה מגבולות הקונצ'רטו. הקדנצות שכתב

לקונצ'רטו K. 466 של מוצארט חרגו באופן משמעותי מהסגנון המקורי של המלחין. עם זאת,

בתקופתו של בטהובן המושג "ביצוע היסטורי" טרם נמצא, שכן ביצוע יצירות מתקופות מוקדמות

כמעט ולא היה בנמצא וההתמודדות עם הבדלים סגנונים חדים בין התקופות הייתה מזערית. מנגד, המבצע והמאזין בן זמננו נדרשים להתמודד עם בעיות שלא היו ידועות בזמנו של בטהובן. עליהם לבחון כמה רחב יהיה הפער הסגנוני בין הקונצ'רטו לקדנצה המודרנית, כך שהאפקט

הגלובלי על היצירה כולה לא יעלם. ראוי לציין כי מוסיקה במהותה, לעולם אינה יצירה של דמות אחת (המלחין). תהליך היצירה מתקיים לפחות על ידי שתי דמויות ( מלחין ומבצע) , ואף יותר ( מספר מבצעים, מאזינים

ומורים הטווים את מסורות הביצוע במהלך השנים). אי לכך, בבואנו היום לנתח את הרפרטואר הקלאסי, נמצא שקיימת בו לעיתים התנגשות בין שני עולמות שונים- זה של המלחין וזה של המבצע המודרני. זה האחרון צריך לגשר במעמד ביצוע היצירה על הבדלי תקופות, זמנים,

מסורות ביצוע, אידיאולוגיות ופערים תרבותיים משמעותיים. כמו כן נשאלת השאלה - האם אנו,

ג החוקרים המוזיקולוגיים, שוקלים פערים אלו בחשבון במעמד ניתוח היצירה? נדמה כי בכל הקשור לניתוח אנליטי של מוסיקה, עדיין קיימות פרדיגמות הקוראות לגשת לניתוח היצירה

מנקודת מבט בלעדית של המלחין ותו לא. מחקר זה, המתייחס לקדנצות הרומנטיות ובעיקר לקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן, מאלץ את הקהילה האקדמית לאמץ גישה חדשנית הפותחת צוהר לניתוח טקסט מנקודת מבט משותפת של קומפוזיציה רבת משתתפים, כמו גם רבת מבצעים.

השאיפה אפוא לגילוי "האותנטיות" של הקונצ'רטו אינה יכולה להתקיים עוד תחת ההנחה כי היצירה הינה נחלתו הבלעדית של דמות המלחין. מלבד שש הקדנצות שבטהובן עצמו כתב עבור הקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר, ישנם למעלה

מארבעים מלחינים שכתבו את גרסתם שלהם לקדנצות. אותם פורצי דרך שבחרתי לבחון בעבודה

זו הינם: קלרה שומאן (Schumann), יוהנס ברהמס (Brahms), פרוצ'יו בוזוני ( Busoni), אנטון

רובינשטיין ( Rubinstein), ניקולאס מדטנר ( Mednter), וויליאם קמפף (Kempff), פרנסיס טובי

(Tovey) ורוברט לוין ( Levin).

בעבודה זו כל קדנצה ( לפרק הראשון והשלישי כאחד) נבחנה בקונטקסט רחב וכללה

התבוננות בסגנון הכתיבה הכולל של המלחין, לרבות קונצ'רטים וקדנצות נוספות שכתב. יש לציין כי כל קדנצה נותחה על פי הקטגוריות הבאות ( ראה נספח מס' 3): אורך היצירה, בחירת הנושאים, אפיון תמאטי ושימוש באפקטים דרמטיים, ניתוח טונאלי והרמוני, ניתוח צורני, בחירת

הסולמות, שימוש בסימני דינאמיקה והוראות ביצוע, שימוש ברובטו ( rubato), שימוש באלתור,

שימוש בחומרים וירטואוזים, כתיבה פסנתרנית מול כתיבה תזמורתית, שימוש במסרים ואידיאות מתוך הקונצ'רטו, מקורות השראה קומפוזיטורים ואפיון זהות הכתיבה ( כתיבה

מכוונת מלחין/ מבצע/ מאזין). מתוך סקירת הייחודיות של הקדנצות המפורטות בעבודה, ניתן לברור ששה תחומים המאגדים את האבחנות העיקריות במחקר על מאפייני הקדנצות הרומנטיות, ולהלן אפרטם:

1. הקדנצה הרומנטית כנקודת מפגש ודיאלוג בין המלחין למבצע

מבצע היצירה עבור בוזוני ( Busoni) היה שותף מלא וראוי "בחיבור" היצירה ובהעברתה

האולטימטיבית למאזין. הוא החשיב את הקדנצה כתשתית עבור המבצע להציע את

הטרנסקריפציה (transcription) האישית שלו על היצירה. רק דרך הקדנצה, האמין בוזוני, עשוי

המבצע לייצר אחדות והומוגניות עם מכלול היצירה. הקדנצה אפוא לפי בוזוני היא נקודת מפגש

ד קריטית בין תפיסת המלחין לבין תפיסת המבצע בפועל, באמצעותה מובא פתרון חדש ולגיטימי לטקסט המוסיקאלי ולאתגרים הביצועים שהוא מציב. בנוסף, בוזוני התעקש שסגנון נגינת

הקדנצה ( ולא רק סגנון כתיבתה), יהיה בקנה אחד עם סגנון נגינת הקונצ'רטו. זו הסיבה כנראה שבוזוני התנגד מכל מרצו לאפשרות שהמבצע ינגן קדנצות שאינן שלו או של המלחין המקורי. האפשרות של קיום צד שלישי, דהיינו נגינת קדנצה שנכתבה על ידי מלחין אחר מלבד בטהובן או

המבצע עצמו, איננה לגיטימית לדידו של בוזוני.

לוין ( Levin) היה גם הוא בדעה שקונצ'רטו הינו חיבור מוסיקאלי המתקיים על ידי שתי

דמויות (פרסונות). הוא האמין (ועדין מאמין) כי המבצע חייב לקחת חלק אקטיבי בתהליך היצירה ולאלתר את הקדנצות באופן חפשי וספונטאני. לוין הוא היחיד מבין המלחינים שסרב להעלות על הכתב את הקדנצות המאולתרות, שופעות הוירטואוזיות שלו. זאת מתוך הכרה כי

אם אכן יתפתה לרשום את הקדנצה בתווים, הוא יפגע באופן משמעותי הן במאזין והן בג'אנר הקונצ'רטו עצמו. המאזין ייפגע עקב העובדה שחווית ההפתעה, המתח והציפייה, השמורים להאזנה לקונצ'רטו בעל קדנצות מאולתרות, תאבד. ג'אנר הקונצ'רטו ייפגע אף הוא עקב הפיכתו

כאחת למדיום סטאטי, חסר דינאמיות והתחדשות. לוין טוען אפוא כי רק על ידי שמירת זכות אלתור הקדנצות, יישמר ג'אנר זה לדורות ויצפון בחובו ערכי חדשנות ורעננות לאורך שנים. למרות שבוזוני ולוין חיו בתקופות שונות בתכלית, שניהם צלחו ביכולתם להציג את

הקונצ'רטו כג'אנר מוסיקאלי מתחדש- תלוי אמנות הביצוע. בעוד שבוזוני התייחס לאמנות הביצוע כדרגה עילאית של טרנסקריפציה, לוין החשיב את הביצוע כאמצעי לשימור חווית הרגע, כזו הצופנת בחובה הפתעה והתחדשות מתמדת עבור המאזין.

2. האלמנטים של הפנטזיה בקדנצות הרומנטיות ותרומתם לנרטיב הדרמה בקונצ'רטו הכתיבה בסגנון הפנטסיה מאופיינת בדרך כלל בשימוש מוגבר באלתור תוך ציטוט

מקורות מוסיקאליים משניים (non-thematic material). למרות נטייתה הטבעית של הפנטסיה

לכלול בתוכה אלמנטים וירטואוזים, ראוי להדגיש כי הוירטואוזית אינה בדרך כלל בבחינת מטרה בפני עצמה, אלא בבחינת כלי ליצירת דרמה, כמו גם כלי להמחשת הנרטיב המוסיקאלי ביצירה.

מבין המלחינים השונים שכתבו קדנצות לקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן, היו אלו

רובינשטיין ( Rubinstein) ולוין ( Levin) שנקטו בכתיבה הכוללת אלמנטים מוגברים של

ה פנטסיה. לוין ביטא זאת דרך כתיבה מרובת קישוטים, אלתור, כרומטיקה ופאסג'ים וירטואוזים, אותם הוא מיקם כהנגדה מכוונת בסמוך לציטוטים מקוריים של הנושאים הראשיים ביצירה.

חיבור חד זה בין שני עולמות תוכן מנוגדים באופיים ובסגנון כתיבתם, תרם באחת לחיזוק הנרטיב הדרמטי ביצירה והדגיש את רעיון הקונפליקט השזור בקונצ'רטו מראשיתו. רובינשטיין גם הוא, השתמש בחומרים שאינם תמטים כאמצעי להשגת דרמה

ואינטימיות כאחד. בקדנצה לפרק הראשון הוא הציב בכפיפה אחת פסוקים מוסיקאליים בעלי

תוכן דרמטי רצ'יטטיבי ( recitative) עם נושאים ליריים מרכזים מהפרק. הסימטריה בין

הפסוקים המנוגדים, כמו גם שינויי הדינאמיקה והפראזה התכופים, גרמו להחרפת הניגודים בקדנצה ולהדגשת אלמנט הדרמה וההפתעה. כל אלו תרמו להצגתו של רובינשטיין כאחד המלחינים המקוריים והחדשניים ביותר בין כותבי הקדנצות הרומנטיות.

3. המבנה של הקדנצה הרומנטית: יחידה שנייה של פיתוח (development) או יצירה בתוך

יצירה

פרנסיס טובי ויוהנס ברהמס ( Tovey & Brahms) התייחסו לקדנצה של הפרק הראשון

בקונצ'רטו כהזדמנות להכנסת "פיתוח שני" ( second development) ליצירה. הללו האמינו כי

ה"פיתוח" בפרקים הראשונים של בטהובן מתומצת מדי, וכי תפקידה של הקדנצה הוא להדגיש

ואף לפצות בשל אותו חלק תמציתי ומרוכז המוצג במהלך הפרק. אך בעוד שברהמס שקד להכניס את קולו האישי בקדנצה, תוך שימוש מחוכם ווירטואוזי בנושאי הפרק, והכנסת מודולציות ושינויים תכופים בשפה ההרמונית, טובי היה נאמן לסגנון הקלאסי ובחר בגישה שמרנית יותר

בהשוואה לקודמו. התפיסה הייחודית של הקדנצה על ידי ברהמס וטובי כ"פיתוח", אוצרת בחובה גם יתרון וגם חסרון: הקדנצה אמנם בנויה ביסודה כיחידה אינטגרטיבית והומוגנית המשתלבת עם שאר

היצירה, אך היא מנועה מלעמוד כיחידה מוסיקאלית עצמאית שאינה תלויה בהכרח בביצוע כולל של הקונצ'רטו (דבר שניתן לייחס לקדנצות רומנטיות אחרות, כגון אלו של קלרה שומאן, ניקולאס מדטנר ואנטון רובינשטיין). יש לציין כי הללו האחרונים כתבו קדנצות וירטואוזיות בעלות מבנה

הדומה ל"פרק בתוך פרק" עם מערך סגור של הקדמה- גוף וקודה ( coda). כתיבה מסוג זו,

מאופיינת ברובה בניסיון לשקף את נקודת ראותו של המבצע, והיא חושפת חוקיות פנימית ושפה ייחודית הטומנות אפשרות לביצוע הקדנצה כיחידה אוטונומית.

ו

4. הפוטנציאל הכפול של הקדנצה לפרק השלישי בקונצ'רטו: אפיזודה קצרה מול יחידה המאחדת בין כל הפרקים בטהובן הורה במפורש כי הקדנצה לפרק השלישי בקונצ'רטו הרביעי שכתב צריכה להיות

קצרה. אכן, מיקומה של הקדנצה בפרק זה אינו שגרתי כלל: במקום להציג את הקדנצה כנהוג

לפני הריטורנלו התזמורתי האחרון (ritornello), היא מופיעה לפני הקודה המרכזית של הפרק

(קודה ארוכה במיוחד בעלת חומרים תמטים חדשים). נמצא כי בטהובן עצמו כתב קדנצה קצרה ואפיזודית (35 תיבות), המאופיינת בדגש על הנושא השני והלירי בפרק.

לעומת מלחינים כברהמס, טובי וקמפף ( Kempff) שמילאו אחרי בקשתו של בטהובן, היו

מלחינים אחרים שמרדו בהוראתו. קלרה שומאן ( Schumann) וניקולאס מדטנר

( Medtner) התעלמו במופגן מהוראתו זו של המלחין וכתבו קדנצות ארוכות במיוחד ( 100 ו 178

תיבות בהתאמה). הללו הכלילו בקדנצה חומרים בלתי צפויים מפרקים נוספים ביצירה.

קלרה שומאן חיברה קדנצה האוצרת בחובה את כל הנושאים המרכזיים שהופיעו במהלך כל שלשת פרקי היצירה. נמצא שעבורה הקדנצה לפרק השלישי היוותה את ההזדמנות האחרונה ואולי אף הראויה ביותר להציג את רעיון הקונפליקט בקונצ'רטו, וזאת באמצעות דיאלוג מרוכז

של ניגודים תמטים- ניגודים אשר לראשונה היו שזורים זה בזה באופן מלא. החידוש המרכזי שלה היה אפוא רעיון האחדות התמטית. באמצעות רעיון מקורי זה, השיגה קלרה שומאן שני אפקטים מרכזיים: חשיבה סיקלית ( מעגלית) של הקונצ'רטו ואחדות סגנונית עם הטקסט

המקורי של בטהובן. ניקולאס מדטנר המשיך את הקו הייחודי של קודמתו בהפיכת הקדנצה לכלי חיוני ביצירת אחדות בין פרקי הקונצ'רטו, אך בניגוד לקלרה שומאן שיצרה אחדות תלוית-נושאים

(אחדות תמטית), מדטנר יצר אחדות ריתמית בקדנצה. הוא השתמש באלמנטים ריתמיים משותפים לכל הפרקים והפך את הקדנצה לאבן דרך על ידי יצירת הומוגנית המקשרת בין כל פרקי הקונצ'רטו באופן מקורי ואף תת-מודע.

חידוש נוסף שהביא מדטנר היה חלוקת הקדנצה של הפרק השלישי לקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן לשלש חטיבות הניתנות להפרדה. באופן מפורש הוא איפשר למבצע היצירה לבחור את הבניית החטיבות על פי רוחו האישית ועל פי העדפתו. כלומר, הוא השאיר למבצע את הבחירה

לנגן את כל שלשת חלקי הקדנצה ברצף (חלק I+ II+ III), או לחלופין שני חלקים בלבד (חלקים +I

ז III + או חלקים II+ III). הענקת חופש בחירה זה למבצע ושיתופו באופן יסודי בתהליך הרכבת

הקדנצה, הינו חדשני בכל קנה מידה וטרם הוצע לפניו.

5. הקשר בין הקדנצות לשני הפרקים ( פרק I & III ): ניתוחן כיחידה הומוגנית אחת

יש לציין כי הקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן הינו דרמטי ביסודו וזאת תודות לעצמת הקונפליקטים והניגודים השוררים בו: ניגודים בין קלאסי לרומנטי, בין סולן לתזמורת, בין

אלמנטים מלודיים לריתמיים, בין חלקים קומפוזיטורים לאימפרוביזטורים, בין וירטואוזיות לאינטימיות ובין תצורות שונות של נושאים מוסיקאליים. רובינשטיין ובוזוני התמודדו עם רעיון הקונפליקט בקונצ'רטו באמצעות שתי דרכים

ייחודיות: דרך אחת שלהם הייתה לשלב את הישן עם החדש: הצבת שני סגנונות מוסיקאליים מנוגדים זה לצד זה ( שילוב סגנונו של בטהובן מחד גיסא וסגנון רומנטי מתקדם מאידך גיסא). הדרך השנייה הייתה ייחודית עוד יותר והתבססה על יצירת איחוד וניגוד בין שתי הקדנצות עצמן

(לפרק הראשון והשלישי). שתי הקדנצות שכתב רובינשטיין עומדות כגוש אחד הבנוי מיחסי "שאלה- תשובה" או מגישת "קונפליקט – פתרון". בעוד שהקדנצה לפרק הראשון מסמלת את הקונפליקט המאפיין

את היצירה ככלל ואת הפרק הראשון בפרט, הרי שהקדנצה לפרק השלישי מסמלת את הפתרון. היא מסתיימת באיחוד תמטי בין הנושאים השונים באופן חגיגי והרואי, תחת מרכז טונאלי אחד. רעיון האחדות והקשר בין שתי הקדנצות מופיע גם אצל בוזוני אשר מחבר באופן רטורי

את שתי הקודות ( codas) מתוך הקדנצות לפרק הראשון והשלישי. לכל אורכן מתאפיינות

הקדנצות של בוזוני בשפה הרמונית מתקדמת ביותר, כזו הכוללת שימוש בדיסוננטיים,

כרומטיקה מוגברת וטריטונים (tritons). עובדה זו רק מגבירה את התמיהה באשר לדרך סיומה

הבלתי צפוי של הקדנצה לפרק הראשון. זו מסתיימת באופן שקט ולירי ומזכירה ניסיון להדמות לסגנונו של בטהובן. הסתכלות גלובלית בקדנצה של בוזוני לפרק השלישי של הקונצ'רטו, מגלה

אפוא ניגוד גמור, שכן זו מסתיימת באופן דרמטי ביותר תוך ציטוט הנושא הפותח של התזמורת. ללא ספק מופיעה כאן מגמה מובהקת של החצנת רעיון הקונפליקט, לא רק ביחס בין שתי הקדנצות, אלא גם בין פרקי הקונצ'רטו וחומריו התמטים בכלל.

ח 6. הבעייתיות בחיפוש אחר "קדנצה אותנטית" במאה ה- 21

סביר להניח כי מלחינים ומבצעים של המאה ה20-, אשר נחשפו למגוון רחב של סגנונות

כתיבה מוסיקאליים אוונגרדים, היו בהכרח הנועזים והמקוריים בגישתם לקדנצה הרומנטית. אך נמצא שבניגוד לרומנטיקנים של המאה ה- 19 אשר הביאו את הקדנצה למימדים חדשים, הרי רוב מלחיני המאה ה20- שהתנסו בכתיבת קדנצות לקונצ'רטים קלאסיים, בחרו לנקוט בגישה

קונסרבטיבית והפוכה. הנטייה הרווחת במהלך המאה ה20- הייתה לתור אחר כתיבת "קדנצה אותנטית": כזו אשר דומה בסגנונה לבטהובן, בין אם לסגנונו בקונצ'רטו ובין אם לסגנונו בקדנצות (שני סגנונות אלו לא היו דומים ואף לא נכתבו באותו פרק זמן). יש לציין כי גישתם של

טובי (Tovey) וקמפף (Kempff) לכתיבת הקדנצות תאמה קו חשיבה זה, שמאופיין במשנה

זהירות ושמרנות. השניים ניסו למצוא את שביל הזהב בין שמירת הנאמנות למלחין ובין הצורך הטבעי לטבוע חותם אישי בכתיבת הקדנצות.

חשוב להבין כי החיפוש אחר "קדנצה אותנטית" נהפך לחסר תוקף כאשר בוחנים קדנצות רומנטיות לטקסטים קלאסיים. לפיכך כל ניסיון לייצר "קדנצה אותנטית" לקונצ'רטו קלאסי, נידון לכישלון מראש, שכן הוא עומד בניגוד גמור לתפיסה החדשה של הקדנצה, הדוגלת בהצגת קו

פרשנות אישי לקונצ'רטו עצמו ולגא'נר בכללותו, וזאת מבלי לאבד את הקשר האינטגרטיבי עם היצירה. שתי המשימות הללו אינן אמורות לעמוד בסתירה זו מול זו, אך הצלחתן תלויה כאמור בבחירה המודעת שעושה המבצע והפרשן טרם בואו לכתוב קדנצה.

למרות השונות הגדולה בין הקדנצות שסוקרו לעיל בעבודה זו, ניתן בנקל לאתר קו משותף המאחד בין כולן. קו זה הוא הניסיון העקבי לייצר אחדות והומוגניות בין הקדנצה לקונצ'רטו. אותה אחדות יכולה להתבטא בשלשה אופנים: אחדות עם המלחין ( בטהובן), אחדות

עם המבצע, ואחדות עם המאזין. הראשונה באה לייצר אחדות על ידי ניסיון לכתוב את הקדנצה באותה שפה סגנונית המצויה אצל בטהובן. השנייה באה לייצר אחדות ביצועית בין אופי נגינת הקונצ'רטו עצמו לבין חיבור/ נגינת הקדנצה. השלישית שמה לה למטרה לטפח את המאזין

ולגרום לו לחוש הפתעה וחידוש בכל פעם שקדנצה מושמעת. על פי תפיסה ייחודית זו, החשיבות העליונה של הקדנצה היא יצירת חוויה אודיטורית חדשה של הקונצ'רטו המבוצע. מצער לחשוב שמתוך מאה עשרים הקדנצות הכתובות למכלול הקונצ'רטי לפסנתר של

בטהובן, מעטות הן הקדנצות המבוצעות או מאולתרות בידי נגנים בני זמננו. כמו כן עד היום לא פרסמה שום הוצאה אוגדן של כל הקדנצות הללו ורבים אף אינם מודעים כלל לקיומן. עבודה זו

ט באה לפיכך להדגיש לא רק את חשיבות שימור האלתור וכתיבת הקדנצות הרומנטיות, אלא באה להאיר ולהעריך את תרומתן של הקדנצות לתפיסת ג'אנר הקונצ'רטו בכללותו ולהשפעתן עליו.

נמצא כי התפיסה החדשה של הקדנצה בתקופה הרומנטית הופכת את הקונצ'רטו ליחידה דינאמית המאפשרת לריבוי סגנונות ותפיסות קומפוזיטוריות לדור יחדיו תחת השאיפה המתמדת לחדשנות ושינוי. גישה פוסט-מודרניסטית זו עשויה לאפשר למבצעים בני זמננו להמשיך בגאון

את המסורת האבודה של המאה התשע- עשרה ולהציע ללא מורא את פרשנותם לקונצ'רטו באמצעות הקדנצה. זו משמשת כאמצעי חי לפרשנות ומעניקה למבצעים שותפות מלאה בתהליך היצירה.

י

בטהובן בראי הרומנטיקנים: הקדנצות הרומנטיות שנכתבו לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר (אופוס 58) מאת בטהובן

חיבור לשם קבלת התואר "דוקטור לפילוסופיה"

מאת

אורית וולף

המחלקה למוסיקולוגיה

הוגש לסנט של אוניברסיטת בר-אילן

רמת-גן חשון, תשס''ו עבודה זו נעשתה בהדרכתה של

פרופסור יהודית פריגישי

מן המחלקה למוסיקולוגיה של אוניברסיטת בר-אילן תוכן העניינים

תקציר באנגלית i

פרק I מבוא 1

1.1 הקונצ'רטו במאה התשע-עשרה וסוגיית הקדנצה הרומנטית 5 1.2 סקירה ספרותית 9 1.3 שיטות המחקר 14

פרק II אידיאות סטרוקטוראליות חדשות בקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן 18

2.1 מקומו של הקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר במכלול יצירותיו של בטהובן 18 2.2 דרמה וניגודים בין תפקיד הפסנתר לתפקיד התזמורת בקונצ'רטו 20 2.3 ייחודיות הקודה ( coda) ומאפייניה האימפרוביזטורים 23 2.4 סוגיית האחדות בין שלשת פרקי הקונצ'רטו 29 2.5 "ששת האלמנטים" ככלי ליצירת אינטגרציה בין החומרים התמטים 33 2.6 המשמעות הדואלית של הפרק השני בקונצ'רטו 41

פרק III ניתוח הקדנצות של בטהובן 44

3.1 רקע היסטורי 44 3.2 עירוב סגנונות ואחדות קונספטואלית בקדנצות 47 3.3 הקדנצות של בטהובן לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר, אופוס 58 52 3.3.1 הקדנצות לפרק הראשון 52 3.3.2 הקדנצות לפרק השלישי 55

פרק IV הקדנצות של קלרה שומאן לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן, אופוס 58 58

4.1 רקע ומאפיינים 58 4.2 הקדנצה של קלרה שומאן לפרק הראשון 59 4.3 הקדנצה של קלרה שומאן לפרק השני 65

פרק V הקדנצות של יוהנס ברהמס לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן, אופוס 58 76

5.1 מקורות ההשראה לקדנצות של ברהמס 82 5.2 הקדנצה של ברהמס לפרק הראשון 82 5.3 תפיסתו של ברהמס את הקדנצות כיחידת "פיתוח" שנייה: 93 השוואה עם הקדנצות שכתב לקונצ'רטי של מוצארט 5.4 הקדנצה של ברהמס לפרק השלישי 95 5.5 סוגיית ההוצאה לאור של הקדנצות ובעיית "האותנטיות" 100

פרק VI הקדנצות של פרוצ'יו בוזוני לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן, אופוס 58 106

6.1 תפיסת הקדנצה הרומנטית כטרנסקריפציה (transcription) 106 6.2 משמעות הקדנצה ותפקידה אצל בוזוני 108 6.3 הקדנצות המקוריות שכתב בוזוני לקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן 113 6.3.1 הקדנצות של בוזוני לפרק הראשון 114 6.3.2 הקדנצות של בוזוני לפרק השלישי 124

פרק VII הקדנצות של אנטון רובינשטיין לקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן, 128 אופוס 58

7.1 רקע כללי והשפעות מרכזיות 128 7.1.1 תפיסת הקדנצה הרומנטית באמצעות הקונצ'רטו הרביעי 132 לפסנתר של רובינשטיין 7.2 הקדנצה של רובינשטיין לפרק הראשון של הקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן 134 7.3 הקדנצה של רובינשטיין לפרק השלישי 149

פרק VIII הקדנצות של "המודרניסטים": פרנסיס טובי, וילהלם קמפף, 162 ניקולאס מדטנר ורוברט לוין

8.1 דונלד טובי 162 8.1.1 הקדנצות של טובי לפרק הראשון 165 8.1.2 הקדנצות של טובי לפרק השלישי 170 8.2 ווילהלם קמפף 173 8.2.1 הקדנצות של קמפף לפרק הראשון 175 8.2.2 הקדנצות של קמפף לפרק השלישי 181 8.3 ניקולאס מדטנר 184 8.3.1 הקדנצות של מדטנר לפרק הראשון 185 8.3.2 הקדנצות של מדטנר לפרק השלישי 193 8.4 רוברט לוין 199 8.4.1 תפיסת הקדנצה כחוויה אודיטורית המונעת על ידי אלתור חי 199

פרק IX דיון ומסקנות 203

9.1 הקדנצה כדיאלוג בין המלחין למבצע (בוזוני ולוין) 206 9.2 הקדנצה בראי הפנטסיה ובחינת תרומתה ליצירת הנרטיב הדרמטי 208 בקונצ'רטו (רובינשטיין ולוין) 9.3 המבנה הסטרוקטוראלי של הקדנצה הרומנטית: יחידת "פיתוח" שנייה 209 או יצירה בתוך יצירה? 9.4 הפונקציה הכפולה של הקדנצה לפרק השלישי: אפיזודה קצרה 211 או כלי לאיחוד בין כל פרקי הקונצ'רטו? 9.5 הקשר הרטורי ביו שתי הקדנצות 213 9.6 סוגיית "הקדנצה האותנטית": משמעות ורלוונטיות היסטוריית 216

נספח 1: הקונצ'רטו הרביעי לפסנתר של בטהובן בסול מג'ור, אופוס -58 רשימת נושאים 218

נספח 2: רשימת הקדנצות שנכתבו לקונצ'רטו הרביעי של בטהובן 221

נספח 3: ניתוח הקדנצות של מלחיני המחקר ( 1-16) 223

נספח 4: תווי הקדנצות 250 הקדנצות של בטהובן 251 הקדנצות של קלרה שומאן 266 הקדנצות של יוהנס ברהמס 278 הקדנצות של פרוצ'יו בוזוני 286 הקדנצות של אנטון רובינשטיין 292 הקדנצות של פרנסיס טובי 305 הקדנצות של ווילהלם קמפף 314 הקדנצות של ניקולאס מדטנר 320

מקורות 332

ההוצאות לאור של הקדנצות 342

תקציר בעברית א