Salinisation Des Écosystèmes Lacustres Par Les Sels De Voirie: Perturbations Chimiques Et Réponses Des Communautés Microbiennes

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Salinisation Des Écosystèmes Lacustres Par Les Sels De Voirie: Perturbations Chimiques Et Réponses Des Communautés Microbiennes Salinisation des écosystèmes lacustres par les sels de voirie: perturbations chimiques et réponses des communautés microbiennes Thèse Isabelle Fournier Doctorat en biologie Philosophiæ doctor (Ph.D.) Québec, Canada © Isabelle Fournier, 2021 Salinisation des écosystèmes lacustres par les sels de voirie : perturbations chimiques et réponses des communautés microbiennes Thèse Isabelle Fournier Sous la direction de : Warwick F. Vincent, directeur de recherche Rosa Galvez-Cloutier, codirectrice de recherche Résumé La salinisation des eaux douces est un problème global qui, dans les régions tempérées nordiques, est lié à l’urbanisation. Les principaux ions responsables de cette salinisation sont les chlorures, le sodium et le calcium et leurs sources majeures sont les sels de déglaçage et l’usure de la chaussée. Durant l’hiver, ces ions s’accumulent dans la neige en bordure des routes et peuvent être transportés dans les eaux souterraines et de surface via l’eau de fonte et de ruissellement. Dans les dernières décennies, la salinité des lacs, et plus particulièrement leur concentration en chlorures, a augmenté de façon conséquente par rapport aux valeurs de référence. Par contre, pour la plupart des lacs, les niveaux atteints se situent en-deçà de la valeur seuil définie par le conseil canadien des ministres de l’environnement pour la protection de la vie aquatique qui est de 120 mg Cl L-1 pour une exposition chronique. Les impacts de la salinisation des écosystèmes d’eau douce sur les organismes aquatiques sont peu connus et le manque d’information est particulièrement marqué pour les communautés microbiennes. Les objectifs principaux de cette thèse étaient 1) d’identifier les voies qu’empruntent les ions pour se rendre dans les lacs, ainsi que les moments auxquels ces mouvements ont lieu et 2) de caractériser les changements que peuvent causer ces ions, particulièrement les chlorures, dans la composition taxonomique des communautés microbiennes. Un suivi saisonnier dans le bassin versant du lac Saint-Charles (Québec, Canada) a permis de comparer la concentration de différents ions dans la neige en bordure des routes, dans les rivières et dans le lac. Ce suivi s’est échelonné de l’hiver (saison d’accumulation des ions dans la neige) au printemps (principale période de fonte) et combinait des mesures ioniques aux deux semaines dans la neige et les rivières et des mesures de conductivité prises aux 10 minutes par un mouillage dans le lac. Les résultats de ce suivi indiquent que les ions chlorures et sodium se déplacent de la neige vers le lac à tous les épisodes de fonte et que ces derniers surviennent aussi durant l’hiver. Dans les rivières, on observait une relation positive entre la concentration des ions et l’urbanisation du bassin versant, et ce dès qu’elle dépassait ≈1%. Un suivi annuel de lacs présentant des variables limnologiques différentes a permis de mettre ces dernières en relation avec la composition des communautés microbiennes planctoniques. Les lacs Clair, Saint-Charles, Clément et Saint-Augustin, situés aux alentours ii de la Ville de Québec, diffèrent entre autres en fonction de leur salinité, de leur morphométrie, de leur état trophique, et du niveau d’urbanisation de leur bassin versant. Les résultats ont souligné l’importance de la saison pour la composition taxonomique des communautés microbiennes, plus particulièrement celle de l’hiver, ou du couvert de glace. Ils ont aussi suggéré l’importance de la salinité comme facteur structurant, et ce à une conductivité d’environ 1000 µS cm-1 et une concentration en chlorures de l’ordre de 100 mg L-1. La salinité était, entre autres, positivement corrélée avec l’abondance de cryptophytes et d’haptophytes. Une expérience de microcosme en laboratoire où une communauté microbienne du lac Saint-Charles a été exposée à des concentrations de chlorures de 50 mg L-1 (correspondant environ à une augmentation de la salinité par un facteur 2) a aussi été mise en place pour évaluer l’importance de ce facteur. Après deux semaines d’exposition aux chlorures, l’abondance de plusieurs taxons a augmenté, dont les cyanobactéries Synechococcus et Pseudanabaena et un cryptophyte du clade SA1-3C06. L’exposition aux chlorures, toujours à 50 mg Cl L-1, mais combinée à la neige urbaine n’a pas causé de changements aussi marqués dans la composition taxonomique. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’une composante de la neige urbaine a atténué les effets des chlorures et que l’exposition aux chlorures seuls ne représente pas correctement les effets attendus dans le milieu naturel. Cette thèse a permis de montrer que la salinité des lacs pouvait changer rapidement en réponse à des épisodes de fonte de neige, même en période hivernale et que l’augmentation de la salinité, tant en milieu naturel qu’en contexte expérimental, était corrélée avec des changements dans la composition taxonomique des communautés microbiennes. Ces résultats impliquent que l’augmentation de la salinité, même faible par rapport aux valeurs de référence, influence les écosystèmes d’eau douce, et que dans les régions froides, il devrait y avoir une gestion de l’eau de ruissellement des autoroutes afin de limiter la contamination des eaux par les sels de déglaçage. iii Abstract Freshwater salinization is an ongoing global concern that in north temperate regions is linked to urbanization. Chloride, sodium, and calcium are the primary ions responsible for this salinization, and their major sources are road salts and pavement weathering. In winter, these solutes accumulate in roadside snow, and may then be transported to ground and surface waters via melting and runoff. In the last decades, the salinity of lakes and their chloride concentrations have significantly increased compared to background values. However, in most lakes, the levels reached are still below the guidelines of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment for the protection of aquatic life, which is 120 mg Cl L-1 for chronic exposure. The impacts of salinization on freshwater biota are largely unknown, particularly for microbial communities. The main objectives of this thesis study were to 1) identify the flow pathways and timing of ion transport from roads to receiving waters; and 2) characterize the changes that major ions, particularly chloride, may have on the taxonomic composition of freshwater microbial communities. Seasonal monitoring of the Lake Saint-Charles (Quebec, Canada) watershed allowed comparison of major ion concentrations in roadside snow, rivers within the lake basin, and the lake itself. These observations took place from winter (the season of ion accumulation in snow) to spring (the main melting period), and combined ion measurements in rivers and roadside snow at two-week intervals with conductivity measurements in the lake at 10- minute intervals. The results indicated that chloride and sodium moved from roadside snow to the lake during all melting events, which were also recorded during winter. There was a positive relationship between the major ion concentrations in the river and the watershed urbanization level, beyond a threshold of 1% pavement coverage of the catchment. To asssess the effects of chemical as well as other limnological variables on microbial community structure, plankton and associated samples were taken throughout an entire year from four lakes in the Quebec City region: lakes Clair, Saint-Charles, Clément, and Saint- Augustin. These lakes varied in terms of salinity, morphometry, trophic state, and watershed urbanization level. The results showed a strong seasonal effect on prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic taxonomic composition, and underscored the importance of winter ice cover. Salinity was also identified as a structuring factor, even at conductivities around 1000 µS cm- iv 1 and chloride concentrations around 100 mg L-1. Among other taxa, cryptophyte and haptophyte abundance were positively correlated with salinity. In a laboratory microcosm experiment, the Lake Saint-Charles microbial community was exposed for two weeks to chloride at 50 mg L-1, corresponding to a two-fold increase of salinity, to test hypotheses concerning the importance of this factor. After two weeks of exposure, the abundance of many taxa increased, notably the cyanobacteria Synechococcus and Pseudanabaena and a cryptophyte of the SA1-3C06 clade. The exposure to chlorides, still at 50 mg Cl L-1 but combined with urban snow, did not cause such marked changes in the taxonomic composition. These results suggest that a component of the snow mitigated the impacts of chloride, and that the exposure to chloride alone may not accurately represent the effects in natural ecosystems. This thesis study has shown that lake salinity can change rapidly in response to roadside snowmelt events, even in winter. Increases in salinity, both in natural ecosystems and in the laboratory, were correlated with changes in taxonomic composition of the microbial communities. These results imply that increased salinities, even over a low range of values, can influence freshwater ecosystems, and that the environmental management of roads in cold regions should take measures to limit the contamination of waterways by road salts. v Table des matières Résumé ................................................................................................................................... ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................. iv Table des matières ................................................................................................................
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