Transit-Oriented Development Zoning Intensification Assessment in Malaysia: Case of Kuala Lumpur Monorail
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TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ZONING INTENSIFICATION ASSESSMENT IN MALAYSIA: CASE OF KUALA LUMPUR MONORAIL TEH BOR TSONG NA16501 DOCTORAL THESIS SHIBAURA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2019 Specially dedicated to my beloved father and mother, my dearest uncles and aunts Your patience, sacrifice, and encouragement… For making this day a reality. To my supervisor My friends and colleagues Because of you, I grow stronger and tougher… Will continue to challenge the uncertainty life of urban planning professions Bravery and fearlessly. To my Dharma master and venerable Your kindness, love, and friendliness in Buddhist teaching… Enlighten my life Cultivating good values and not to do any evil. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Many people have contributed greatly to the completion of this thesis, without them that would not have been possible. First of all, I would like to thank my doctoral program’s supervisor, Prof. Michihiko Shinozaki who deserve my particular gratitude here. I have been amazingly fortune to have a supervisor who gave me the freedom to explore my research interest as well as his generosity for sharing his valuable view and knowledge. I sincere appreciate his kindness, patience, on-going teaching, guidance, feedback, and encouragement. Special thanks to Prof. Nordin Yahaya, Prof. Muhamad Rafee Majid, Prof. Ho Chin Siong and Mr Chau Loon Wai from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for their recommendation they made on my behalf for my application on doctoral study program in Japan. Through this opportunity, I would like to thanks my colleagues from UTM- Low Carbon Asia Research Centre especially, Azilah Mohamed Akil, Nadzirah Jausus, Mohamad Zulikhram Zulibrahim, Muhammad Akmal Hakim Hishammuddin, Mlysha Nurshyla Abdul Rahim, Nur Syazwani Saari and Rohayu Abdullah who share their opinion and information, strengthen my understanding and build my confident during my research work. And very grateful to my international friends; Koichi Okabe, Emiko Hatanaka, Maiko Suda, Tetsuya Tazaki, Wangxiang, Shinryo Kurata and Hiroshi Nakamura for their inspiration. Unforgotten, I want to thanks to the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, Malaysia and Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Japan for their kind cooperation to share valuable information in support this research. I am indebted to the staff of Shibaura Institute of Technology from graduate school and international office, to name a few; Ms Reiko Kageyama, Mr Kenichi Sugimura and Mr Naoki Takeuchi for their kind assistance during my doctoral study program in Japan. I appreciate the financial support from the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Government of Japan (MEXT) that funded my study for these three years. Last but not least, I wish to express my special thanks to my Malaysian friends particularly, Mohamad Sabri Sinal, Ahmad Miizan Ahmad Kamal, Nadhirah Nordin, Muhamad Solehin Fitri Rosley, Tan Sie Ting, Teoh Mei Yee, Khu Say Yen, Choo Hui Hong, Wan Chu Xian, Teh Leong Ping, and Lim Chen Jiang. Many friends have helped me to overcome setbacks and I could stay focused on my study. Thanks for their kind support and encouragement during my completion of the doctoral program. ii ABSTRACT ABSTRACT To promote greater urban sustainability, transit-oriented development (TOD) has been widely promoted as an urban policy in Malaysia. By recognising density as an important factor for TOD promotion, major Malaysian cities such as Kuala Lumpur has begun to incorporate such idea into its statutory zoning plan where the land parcels around the transit station are being intensify by allowing the market to deliver higher density development. However, how dense should it be? Many research has been largely focused on the minimal density or transit supportive density for cost-effective transit investment. Despite the fact that minimal density is essential for the economic feasibility of the transit investment particularly for TOD promotion in the low density suburban or new greenfield development setting, it may not sufficient to encourage most of the people to use transit. To address this concern, this research is aimed to examine the extent to what level of zoning intensification is appropriately dense for TOD using Kuala Lumpur monorail as a case study. Here, the study analyses a series of Kuala Lumpur monorail zoning intensification scenarios with the monorail capacity to identify the level of zoning intensification that could promote TOD significantly. The zoning intensification scenarios include the present early zoning intensification plan proposed by the draft Kuala Lumpur City Plan 2020 as well as the upzoning scenarios where this study suggest for transfer of development rights to address the weakness of the existing early zoning plan to restraint the future growth on the geographic space of weak transit influence. From the predicted potential monorail ridership results of Kuala Lumpur monorail zoning intensification scenarios, this study found that 60% upzoning is the preferable zoning intensification scenario for TOD promotion as the result show that it could fully capitalise the monorail capacity at various expected transit using rate by promoting most of the future growth to take transit. Drawing from the case study of Kuala Lumpur monorail, this research learned that an appropriate TOD station area density must strike a balance to benefit most of the future population and employment to take transit while compromise with the given transit capacity to ensure a fine quality of transit service for the community. It is hoped that the basic notion of this idea remains relevant to other Malaysian cities for TOD promotion in various context of the city that supported by diverse type of public transit services. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Research Background 2 1.2 Problem Statement 13 1.3 Research Aim and Objectives 18 1.4 Research Framework 19 2 UNDERSTADING TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT 21 2.1 The Relationship Between Station Area Density and Ridership 21 2.2 Transit Catchment Area 39 2.3 Conclusion 45 3 USING BUILDING FLOOR SPACE FOR STATION AREA POPULATION AND EMPLOYMENT ESTIMATION 46 3.1 Background 46 3.2 Methodology 49 iv 3.3 Study Area and Data 53 3.4 Results and Discussion 59 3.5 Conclusion 64 4 TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ZONING INTENSIFICATION ASSESSMENT OF KUALA LUMPUR MONORAIL 65 4.1 Background 65 4.2 Zoning and Transit-Oriented Development in Kuala Lumpur 68 4.3 Kuala Lumpur Monorail Station Areas 75 4.4 Methodology and Data 95 4.5 Results and Discussion 105 4.6 Conclusion 139 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 140 5.1 Summary of Findings 140 5.2 Limitation and Suggestion for Future Research 145 REFERENCES 149 APPENDICES 168 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 2.1: Summary of the existing direct ridership empirical model 23-24 Table 2.2: Summary of the relationship between station area density and ridership from the eligible empirical studies 31 Table 3.1: Different combination of variables used for the experimentation of building floor space in station area population and employment estimations 49 Table 3.2: Summary of modelling approaches and present population and employment forecasting studies using building floor space 52 Table 3.3: Population and employment of Toyosu, Etchujima, Tsukishima, Kachidoki, and Kiba station areas 53 Table 3.4: Estimated total gross floor space of Toyosu, Etchujima, Tsukishima, Kachidoki, and Kiba station areas 55 Table 3.5: Data input for the population and employment estimation of five station areas in Tokyo in 2015 58 Table 3.6: Tokyo’s five station areas’ population and employment estimation accuracy assessment results 59 Table 4.1: Summary of land use zoning and intensity control of Kuala Lumpur 69 Table 4.2: Zoning intensification assessment scenarios for Kuala Lumpur monorail case study 94 Table 4.3: Estimated gross floor space around the Kuala Lumpur monorail station in 2012 and early zoning plan 100 Table 4.4: Data input for the population and employment estimation of Kuala Lumpur monorail station areas in 2012 and zoning setting 101 vi Table 4.5: The estimated population and employment around the Kuala Lumpur monorail station implied from the zoning intensification scenarios 107 Table 4.6: The growth around the Kuala Lumpur monorail station suggested from the zoning intensification scenarios 108 Table 4.7: The proportion of total growth to take transit implied from the zoning intensification scenarios and its target percentage of transit user 132 Table 4.8: A summary of the zoning intensification assessment results of the Kuala Lumpur monorail 135 vii LIST OF FIGURES Table Page Figure 1.1 The Position of Kuala Lumpur public transport modal shares in Asian cities, 2011 2 Figure 1.2 The growth of built-up area of Greater Kuala Lumpur exceeded population growth 2 Figure 1.3 A visualisation of a regional TOD approach to structure low density automobile dependent city into high density transit oriented city 4 Figure 1.4 Density is one of the core principles of TOD 5 Figure 1.5 The early zoning regulation was initiated to address the overcrowding issues of rapid urbanisation in major western cities during the Industrial Revolution in 19th century 9 Figure 1.6 An aerial view on the typical low density suburban neighbourhood in the urban landscape of Malaysian cities 10 Figure 1.7 An overview of the research framework 20 Figure 2.1 The literature review protocol of this research on the