ISSUE V Localising De-institutionalisation Localising Filial Piety and Heteronormative Obligations in in Heteronormative Obligations and Piety Filial “What do my emotions matter if Combining Remote Sensing Observations and Pastoralist Pastoralist and Observations Remote Sensing Combining Rights of the Child in the Context of Rajasthan, India of Context Rajasthan, the in of Child the Rights The Potentials of Article 20 of Convention the 20 on the of Article Potentials The Perspectives on Pastoral the The Hukou Divide -APassé Perceptions in Southern Tamil Nadu, India Nadu, Tamil Southern in Perceptions mother is sad?” is mother THERESE BOJE MORTENSEN THERESE BIRGITTE EGESKOV JENSEN BIRGITTE Construct? Landscape PATRICK WENNSTRÖM JONA BARABAS JONA – – – –

Beijing Story Beijing SPRING 2018 SPRING ASIA IN FOCUS Editorial Committee Journal WebsiteJournal Graphic Design Graphic Copyright Publisher Contact ISSN Australia andNewZealand. the Asian countries from Central Asia to Oceania excluding social science and the humanities. The geographical focus is Asianis modern societiesviewed from thestandpoints ofthe forum to publishtheirfindings. The focal point ofthejournal a Nordic institutionawidelyaccessible andtransnational to provide Master students andPh.D. students affiliated to transformations.modern Asia inFocus was initiated by NIAS is aNordic research institute focusing andservice onAsia’s ayeartwice by NIAS-Nordic ofAsian Institute Studies. NIAS Asia in Focus is a peer-reviewed published online journal Dennis Müller Dennis NIAS -Nordic ofAsian Institute Studies with the authors. solely rest in articles published of the facts andthe accuracy the opinions for expressed in Focus, the responsibility of contentAsia isfor the final responsible the editorial for selection While committee of Bergen -University Kenneth Nielsen Bo of Jyväskylä -University Juego Bonn Emilija of Copenhagen Zabiliute -University Mai Corlin - Aarhus University Nis Grünberg - Copenhagen Business and School Center Sino-Danish Institute –Nordic Studies of Asian -NIAS Blomkvist Inga-Lill Nicol Foulkes (Managing Savinetti Editor), Institute –Nordic NIAS Studies of Asian [email protected] Denmark DK-1353 Copenhagen K Øster Farimagsgade 5 NIAS -Nordic ofAsian Institute Studies 2446-0001 www.asiainfocus.dk fromwithout thewritten permission theauthors. ofthispublicationAuthors may bereproduced &NIAS.All rightsreserved. Nopart ISSUE 5·2018 2 ISSUE 5 Beijing Story 1 JONA BARABAS “What emotions do matter my if mother is sad?” Filial Piety and Obligations Heteronormative in – BIRGITTE JENSEN EGESKOV NICOL FOULKES SAVINETTI FOULKES NICOL The Hukou Divid Construct? The - Hukou A Passé – Letter from the Editor – PATRICK WENNSTRÖM PATRICK – Perspectives Landscape on the Pastoral Combining Remote Sensing Observations and Pastoralist Perceptions in Southern Tamil Nadu, India THERESE MORTENSEN BOJE Localising De-institutionalisation – The Potentials Article of the on Rights 20 the Convention of the Childof in the Rajasthan, Context of India Contents 15 42 29 04 02 ASIA IN FOCUS a leading European journal for early career scholars. career early for journal European leading a cross section of authors and we are truly look forward to Asia in Focus becoming institutes Europe-wide! We are excited to receive submissions from abroader to submissions are attending higher scholars who early education career from eu), and after some great talks with the Alliance, we decided to open the journal has for many years of been apart the European Alliance (see www.asiascholars. Studies Asian of Institute Nordic – NIAS countries. European other and Asian in enquiries researchers early career from attending institutes higher of education Finland and Sweden. Recently we are receiving more from Norway, as well as pands the views on the potential of the submissions we receive. how journal the about progresses, ex and broadens collective our perspective endowed with such diversity in the team only strengthens the committee: it to leading academic environments in Europe and Asia. Itruly believe that being and now have editors in Sweden, Norway and Finland who all have strong ties into Issue 6, we have transgressed the borders of Copenhagen and Denmark responsibility that our editorial team does not take lightly. you have please do!), read not it, a and privilege shaping is a careers academic for a small journal like ours! you As will have read in the intro to Issue 4 (and if ance and feedback to nearly 100 early career academics –quite an achievement researchers, has given constructive detailed guid expert external and mittee accessible. and ible vis increasingly becoming is journal the and expanding; are papers submit who countries origin residence of of and Editorial the both of Team authors the and cycle: we are reaching an ever-growing number of early career researchers; the no doubt that we are witnessing agrowth in every aspect with each publication sues of Asia in Focus and at the statistics surrounding the submissions …there is evolve! Itook alook back over the previous four introductions to the regular Is 2018 has arrived and we are happy to share that Asia in Focus continues to Dear Readers, Editor the from Letter Finally, this year we are joining the Danish open source journal management management journal source open Danish Finally, the joining are we year this With the first few issues, the submissions came primarily from Denmark, The team started out being entirely Copenhagen-based. we As transition So far our team of reviewers, which includes members of our Editorial Com 2 - - - - - ISSUE 5 - - - system hukou uses concepts from from concepts uses 3 Jona Barabas Jona necessarily putting international human rights then takes us to China for a crucial discussion of social social of discussion a crucial for China to us takes then then reminds us, importantly, of the value of combining combining of value the of importantly, us, reminds then Therese Boje Mortensen Boje Therese I now leave you to enjoy the excellent contributions to Issue 5. We start start We 5. Issue to contributions excellent the enjoy to you leave I now Patrick Wenström Patrick Managing Editor of Asia in Focus in Asia of Editor Managing Nicol Foulkes SavinettiNicol Foulkes both inside and outside of academia! Year! New Happy belated a somewhat and best the All ter’s approachter’s to the relationships in his life. peers networks and with your the journal share thedo read, and Enjoy ing’. In the final article, we turn to literature – literature to turn we article, final the In ing’. charac main the examine succinctly to philosophy Confucian theory and queer Birgitte Egeskov Jensen Birgitte Egeskov the by determined be strongly to continues it how and citizenship ‘undeserv as self-image rural people’s further she argues, which, consolidates dia, qualitative and methods quantitative in the field ofchangeland cover studies. with of acceptance a local thenormative context, into andquestioning conventions In in Staying India. rural in children to comes resort’ it when a last as ‘institutions in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). (DOAJ). Journals Access Open of Directory the in step for Asia in Focus as well as the contributing authors as it will increase the the increase will it as authors contributing the as well as Focus in Asia for step individual own its have will article each that and greatly journal the of visibility registered being towards step further a also is development This (DOI). identifier and publishing system Tidsskrift.dk (see www.tidsskrift.dk). This is an exciting exciting an is This www.tidsskrift.dk). (see Tidsskrift.dk system publishing and ASIA IN FOCUS rights, localisation rights, Keywords: developingwhen rights-based de-institutionalisation strategies. social functions of existing institutions should betaken into account community of people living with HIV/AIDS. The article argues that poverty, and asupportive and de-stigmatised environment for the education, ameans for parents to rescue their children from extreme question played arange of social functions other than childcare such as for HIV-infected/affected children in Rajasthan, India. The institution in presenting findings from an ethnographic case study of an institution contributes to abody of scholarship on ‘localising children’s rights’ by international NGOs, has potential to change such practices. The study among especially discourses, rights human in de-institutionalisation in India. This article asks to what extent the clear impetus towards of alternative care solutions for children from impoverished families a last resort’. However, ‘care homes’ or ‘hostels’ are still common forms environment, and sets the ground for the paradigm of ‘institutions as recognises the vulnerability of children growing up outside afamily Article 20 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child India than, the Child in the Context of Rajas the Convention on the Rights of The Potentials of Article 20 of tion De-institutionalis Localising THERESE BOJE MORTENSEN BOJE THERESE De-institutionalisation, human rights, India, child India, rights, human De-institutionalisation, 4 - - ISSUE 5 ------De-institutionalisation has been connect been has De-institutionalisation McArthur, 2011); however, there remains a gap a gap remains there however, 2011); McArthur, when it comes to analysing de-institutional child ‘localising of approach the from isation of a branch is which 2007), Feyter, (De rights’ interna how asks that studies rights human legalcan norms tional be effectivefor prob obstacles to de-institutionalisation in India? India? in de-institutionalisation to obstacles obstacle, particular one to points article This child than (other functions social the namely ensure they play: institutions existing that care) an education that rural, impoverished families of a network part of are they provide; cannot NGO-workers who address motivated socially not address is the government that problems HIV-infected/affected of case the in and ing; a de-stigmatised provide and they children, for Pointing patients. supportive environment ar of equivalent the not is functions these out Instead, de-institutionalisation. against guing insti from away move slow current India’s in tutions, family-based alternative care options acknowledgeshould and try the replicate to functions importantly, by that institutions play, means other than institutionalisation. (e.g. literature previous in rights child edwith Dunn, Jareg and 2003; Webb, Cantwell, 2015; dia, 2016), which translates many of the norms norms the of many translates which 2016), dia, (Office 1992 in India by ratified CRC, the from Rights, Human for Commissioner High the of how But system. legal national the into 2017), do these international standards and national affectlegal changes the long-time practiceof orphanages run What by are NGOs? the social 5 ------rowing up in childcare institutions such asorphanages most often implies rigid routines anda professional than (rather

a de-institutionalisation process with the up the with process a de-institutionalisation In of (Government Act Justice Juvenile dated al care (Greenberg & Williamson, 2010, p. 12). 12). p. 2010, & Williamson, (Greenberg care al ‘de-institutionali as known is a transition Such begun tentatively has India of state The sation’. 10). More recently, many post-Soviet countries countries post-Soviet many recently, More 10). institution from away ‘transitioned’ also have common than the use of institutions (Mulheir, (Mulheir, institutions of use the than common Besozzi, Bulic, An Zelderloo, Simonin, Parent, p. 2008, Remoortel, van & Freyhoff dersen, foster care or adoption) has in Western Eu Western in has adoption) or care foster more much been States United the and rope wards family-based care of children deprived deprived family-based wards of care children Since environment. family biological their of (e.g. care alternative family-based 1960’s, the of the Child (CRC), there is a global trend of of trend a global is there (CRC), Child the of to and care institutional from away moving as the most beneficial for children (Conven children for beneficial most the as pream 1989, Child, the of Rights the on tion Rights the on Convention the with line In ble). van Remoortel, 2008), findings that are also re also are that findings 2008), Remoortel, van the of rights the on law international in flected a ‘family prioritises environment’ which child, 1995; Doherty, 1996; Mulheir, Parent, Simonin, Simonin, Parent, Mulheir, 1996; Doherty, 1995; & Besozzi, Bulic, Andersen,Zelderloo, Freyhoff harmful for children’s development (e.g. Chap (e.g. development forharmful children’s William & Greenberg 2011; McArthur, 1926; in, Tolfree, 2003; & Webb, Jareg Dunn, 2010; son, carers. For decades, scholars have recognised recognised have scholars decades, For carers. that such institutional culture is potentially parental) relationship between children and G ASIA IN FOCUS states, well & Holzscheiter, 2007, pp. 10-11). The article are protected by Article 20 of the CRC (Cant law and rights human international in group vulnerable particularly a considered are ment environ family a in living not are who Children Child the of Rights 20 ConventionArticle of the on the wider (Dunn, society’ Jareg &Webb, 2003, p. 1). the within carers traditional as regarded be not provided by remunerated would who adults arrangementing children for whichin care is be used synonymously to denote ‘a group liv age’, ‘institution’, ‘care home’ and ‘hostel’ will HIV/AIDS. poverty, lack of education, and the stigma of solution as to a other problems, suchseen as level, community the at is, institutionalisation a significant problem by local actors. Instead, tionalisation childcare of is considered not – issue at the international level –the institu thatnomenon is perceived human as a rights rights literature, by demonstrating phe how a study will contribute to this dimension of child ally accepted in agiven context. The present proach is whether the idea of ‘rights’ is cultur 80), one of the central dimensions of this ap 2015).Sikka, According to Vandenhole (2012, p. Merry, 2006) female and genital mutilation (e.g. la of human rights such as women’s rights (e.g. used to analyse other topics under the umbrel lems of alocal nature. This approach has been 2. States2. Parties shall in accordance with their State. the by vided pro assistance and protection special to tled to remain in that environment, shall enti be whose own interests best cannot allowed be prived of his or her family environment, or in 1. child A temporarily permanently or de clarification, ‘orphan terminological For ------6 have already failed to, or are unable to, ensure unable are to, or failed have already for situations in which the state and parents termsIn application, of is this intended article the child (ibid., p. 13). The drafters of the CRC implicit ranking of what is most beneficial for an arguably is 20, there Article of wording nal other forms of alternative care, but in the fi and family-based between differentiate not did delegation 30). Indian p. (ibid., The tutions’ ment in community and State childcare insti Article 20 and proposed the inclusion of ‘place introduced alist of alternative care options to in 1982, it was the delegation from India that institutions. In the drafting process of the CRC care such as residentialto non-family-based placements, care family-like of forms other and tive care’ ranges from kinship care, foster care ‘alterna article, According 3. the to paragraph and lists options for such care in Article 20, parties to ensure alternative care for the child er, 2007, pp. 38-39). Article 20 requires state placement by parents (Cantwell &Holzscheit of parentsty (such as illness), and voluntary incapaci temporary parents, permanent or inter alia, death parents, abandonment of by Assembly,General 2010, 29), para. including, ‘whateverparents for reason’ (United Nations have the overnight care of at least one of their er, 2007, p. 9), namely to children who do not a family environment (Cantwell and Holzscheit the Rights of the Child, 1989, 20). art. al and linguistic background’ (Convention on ing and to the child’s ethnic, religious, cultur desirability of continuity in child’s a upbring ing solutions, due regard shall paid be to the tions the for care of children. consider When or if placement necessary in suitable institu law, Islamic of adoption kafalah placement, 3. Such care could include, inter alia, foster child. a such for laws ensure alternative care national ------ISSUE 5 ------Respondents were divided in six groups dividedRespondents were in six groups My approach to this case study is similar similar is study case this to approach My those infected with HIV/AIDS (children, par (children, HIV/AIDS with infected those infect not those staff), the of most and ents, HIV (staff, former the to sympathetic ed but and the authorities and lastly, professionals), as HIV/AIDS saw context, this in experts who, de-insti- for many amongst obstacle one only terviews. partic by These complemented are observation ipant six weeks, carried out over routines daily the part in active an I took where con and preparation the in as such Aashray at sumption ofmeals, homework, and laundry, playinggames. Such participation brought to get befrom knowledge would difficult that status social the instance for interviews, formal insti the in atmosphere the informants, the of between and the interactions tution different informants. groups respondent three first The 1). Table (see home) care the at staff level manager (except themselves, HIV with infected either all were As members. family through it by affected or de HIV/AIDS to attached stigma the of a result scribed by virtually all informants, the status people these in resulted positive HIV being of socially marginalised. The six informant groups can therefore be divided in three sub-groups: nity to visit relatives twice a year. Even though though Even a year. twice relatives visit nity to managers, caregivers, of staff a core is there immediately not are roles fixed the etc., cooks the home, care at life everyday during visible a collab of impression the gives rather which among of a people group oration – including place. the of running the – in children older the Merry as such anthropologists legal of that to law how analyse who (1993), Das and (2000) is type approach of This life. everyday meets when exploringvaluable to obstacles how the improve to created are which norms, global a certain in live inevitably who people of lives The level. local the at materialising are locality, in semi-structured of consists data the of bulk 7 ------One of the situations in which institu which in situations the of One on the occasional outing financed most often often most financed outing occasional the on the opportu donors. individual Theyby have school in the area, and spend the rest of their their of rest the spend and area, the in school homework, doing meals, playing, eating day and going cleaning, TV, watching yoga, doing currently home to 37 children (25 boys and 12 12 and boys (25 children 37 to home currently 6-8to with go beds, rooms in live They girls). from private individuals and foundations. The and foundations. individuals from private Wel theChild through children home receives is and District, Jaipur of (CWC) Committee fare home for children infected with or affected by by affected or with infected children for home donations It funded by is primarily HIV/AIDS. This study is a case study of Aashray Care Home Home Care Aashray of study a case is study This part residential urban, an in located (Aashray) a care is Aashray India. Rajasthan, Jaipur, of Methods stitutions should always be a last resort and and resort be a last always should stitutions HIV-affect of case the in even non-permanent, 34-35). paras (ibid., ed children not a possibility’ (United Nations Committee Committee Nations (United a possibility’ not The 35). para. 2003, Child, the of Rights the on in that underline does,Committee however, dren orphaned because of HIV/AIDS when fam when HIV/AIDS of because orphaned dren is communities own their within care ily-based mental effects on child development, States States effectsmental development, child on they that determine nonetheless, parties may, chil for caring in play to role interim an have Committee has thus acknowledged that, ‘Al though institutionalised detri care have may tions are deemed by the UN Committee on on Committee UN the by deemed are tions in is inevitable, be to Child the of Rights the The HIV/AIDS. by affected children to relation and be suited to the individual child’s needs needs child’s individual the to be suited and 260-62). pp. 2015, (Cantwell, tutions therefore need to be ‘suitable’, that is, is, that ‘suitable’, be to need therefore tutions some up to general criteria live to have they alisation. However, accepting that institutions institutions that accepting However, alisation. inevi the implies still resort, be a last should insti existing The existence. their of tability chose to place institutions at the bottom of the the of bottom the at institutions place to chose de-institution a promotion to hints which list, ASIA IN FOCUS Table 1: of Interviews Overview and Interviewees closely withpeoplelivingHIV/AIDSinRajasthan. anorganisationIndia, that promotes de-institutionalisation. Foundation whichfocuses onchildprotection anddevelopment, andonefrom Foster Care and a Program Department). pur District, ChildRights oftheRajasthan Manager HIV/AIDS-infected care takersfrom rural areas. GROUP CHILDREN HIV PROFESSIONALS EXPERTS AUTHORITIES STAFF PARENTS : staff at thecare educated home, managerlevel ranging staff from to middle-class, : : two academically educated experts onchildrights, two academicallyeducated onefrom experts theNGOAntakshari parents andrelatives ofgroup 1,livingmainlyinrural areas ofRajasthan. : maleandfemale residents ofAashray Care Home. : views Type ofinter views group inter individual and Unstructured al interviews tured individu Semi-struc al interviews tured individu Semi-struc al interviews tured individu Semi-struc interviews ual andgroup tured individ Semi-struc al interviews tured individu Semi-struc two representatives from ofJai (anex-member theauthorities oftheCWC : HIV professionals ranging from nursesto outreach officers who work ------3/18 2/2 2/2 8/8 5/7 26/26 in group ofpersons number views ingroup/ ofinterNumber 8 - March, 2017 March, 2017 year Month and March, 2017 March, 2017 March, 2017 March, 2017 G2P1-G2P5 G1C1-G1C26 codesInterview G6H1-G6H3 G5E1-G5E2 G4A1-G4A2 G3S1-G3S8 - ISSUE 5 ------For some informants, the institution had had institution the informants, some For Another social function fulfilled by by fulfilled function social Another lies who lies did end not go homes care would to with associated ‘get or work labour doing up a cor to hints that a statement (G6H1), crime’ view This crime. poverty and between relation chil the of some to through seeped also had boy a 13-year-old as such themselves, dren Aashray was financial support, as it had be had it as support, financial was Aashray chil their rescue to parents for a means come was institution The poverty. extreme from dren to school’ ‘boarding a as parents some by seen during send children their could they which inter the in reflected was This year. school the ‘hostel’ term the using children many by views A 23 institution. the about talked they when insti the at up grown had who man year-old already ‘was he how described (G1C2) tution 12 a Similarly, before’. hostel another at living that said (G1C6) Aashray at living boy year-old ‘Hostel’ hostel’. another ‘in living was sister his and non-permanency education implies in In by used was – which home’ ‘care even and dia, institu the denote to respondents adult most than it to ring positive more a much – has tion ‘institution’. a disciplinarian function. consultant Aashray’s fami poor from children the that said nurse (G2P2). In addition, informal talks with the par the with talks informal addition, In (G2P2). was village the that clear it made staff and ents a ‘backward’ study without considered place opportunities, thehome urban care while pro vided opportunities these for children. their The home care furthermore helped the older become providing by to independent children them to rooms out renting and courses, skills a for looked they while or studies their during when the home care decided for instance, job; out building a new to children the all move to two given instead older were boys Jaipur, side they so school their near a room rent to money gradeand 12th in become more finish could dependent (G1C3). 9 ------One such function is education. Most par Most education. is function such One his children in the care home because, ‘I only ‘I only because, home care the in children his better’ gets life their and study they that want often in addition to speaking a local dialect. dialect. a local speaking to addition in often study’ I cannot village the ‘in said, child As one put he that said a father Similarly, (G1C13). children were studying were secondary in children school English, and Hindi both wrote and spoke and tion as the main reason for living at the insti the at living for reason main the as tion the of Many G1C18). G1C17; G1C5; (G2P2; tution their while illiterate, were themselves parents ents and children saw access to proper to educa access saw ents and children taking the point of departure at the local level, level, local the at departure of point the taking social the recognise to is here, on I focus which institutions. of functions a ‘translation’ between the local and the glob the and local the between a ‘translation’ of way One 2006). (Merry, directions both in al proach’ is necessary, as it questions the law’s law’s the questions it as necessary, is proach’ (Van local to people relevance and situations for argues This approach 80). p. 2012, denhole, ed and fed, and they also serve as a platform a platform as serve also they and fed, ed and im assist can community NGO local the where ap a ‘localisation Instead, people. poverished where children’s development is at risk, at is they development wherechildren’s educat get children where places also are ful de-institutionalisation is not as simple as as simple as not is de-institutionalisation ful be obligation rights a human implementing causeinstitutions are not only harmful places 2015, pp. 38-39). However, it became clear clear became it However, 38-39). pp. 2015, success that ethnography the present during that is, to assume that the law is ‘right’, and if if and ‘right’, is law the that assume to is, that there are between mismatches and law reality, (Vandenhole, the problem implementation is One way to go about studying the relationship relationship the studying about go to way One betweeninternational and law local realities is to apply an ‘implementation gap approach’; Localisation of child rights in Aashray Localisation of child in rights Aashray HomeCare mined the preference for the institution versus versus institution the for preference the mined family-based care. -tutionalisation. As is clear from the analy the from clear As is -tutionalisation. deter disease the to closeness the below, sis ASIA IN FOCUS 2017). several days in advance (Field notes, 10 March with excitement about seeing their families joyous day for those children, who had talked their children and it was clear that this was a a major holiday, some families came to pick up care home. In spite of this, the day before Holi, mal interviews that they preferred living in the ety. Most of the children also expressed in for erished, but rather anorm in the broader soci preference a only impov uneducated the of or of which imply that institutional care was not in agap in seeing your parents’ (G6H2), both and a nurse said that there was ‘nothing bad ‘better care’ in the care home than in avillage, Centre that also expressed children would get pharmacists from an HIV Care and Support potential donor. nurses and the Nonetheless, life project –to which I, as aforeigner, was a since it was their livelihood, and for some, their had an interest in ‘promoting’ the care home the institution. Similarly, the care home staff needed to convince of the good conditions at saw me, the interviewer, as someone they However, this could be because the parents ly positive statements about the care home. ents and care home staffexpressed exclusive care in India (Foster Care India, 2014, p. 6). Par of system predominant the is care stitutional not willing or able to take care of achild, in family is extended the rearing When norms. institution is also deeply rooted in local child their toproblem children send to live an in (G5E2). education’ and meal proper a to get go can as babysitting places, as places where children that, ‘childcare institutions […] are thought of founder of the NGO Foster Care India who said tel’ (G1C23). This finding was confirmed by the the morning, therefore they sent me to ahos couldn’t‘I go to school, Icouldn’t wake up in who, when asked why he came to Aashray, said The fact thatThe fact parents did not see it as a

------10 institutionalisation according many to infor institutionalisation HIV/AIDS and tween stigma and discrimination earning living. a environment to liveher comfortable a in while nowand childless, way was a for care home the HIV/AIDS (G3S5). Ousted from her own family, er had had adaughter who passed away from in the care home. For example, one care tak at deprived of home they been had ronment’ patients, and they had found the ‘family envi the care home staff themselves were HIV/AIDS ofnity people living with HIV/AIDS. Many of commu stigmatised otherwise the uniting of function important the played also Aashray Stigma HIV/AIDS of From the viewpoint of the child protection professionals). HIV and the stigma (parents, low-level care home staff that lived close experienced had and to HIV informants of groups the all among prevalent nurse asked rhetorically (G6H2). This view was (G6H2).ment’ ‘What would better care be?’ one environ medication, better they get better get childrenthe education, they ‘better would get practicetory in the villages. In the institution, of the child to live apart from such discrimina AIDS patients, it would bein the best interest would not eat it, but throw it away (G3S8). that when she made food in her village, people er at Aashray who herself was HIV-positive said is happy, so Iam also happy’ (G2P2). Acare giv stay away! So she would begin to cry, here she ‘then all the other children would say: Disease, the care home. If the daughter lived at home, was the main reason that the daughter lived at cause they would not touch her, and that this daughter could play not with other children be disease’. Another that mother expressed her throws you because out’ of the ‘untouchable home (G2P1) said that in the village, ‘everyone mants. Amother of three children at the care There was a direct causal relationship be relationship causal direct a was There According to nurses working with HIV/ ------ISSUE 5 ------useful as overall guidelines; for example, Arti example, for guidelines; overall as useful living children that acknowledgment 20’s cle vulnerable, are outside a environment family and local both at departure of be a point can if not contextualised, However, global levels. It be effective. cannot de-institutionalisation effects ofinstitutional upbringing,this study contextualisa a for need the for argued has tion of the dominant paradigm among child a as ‘institutions is which advocates, rights demon Aashray of study case The resort’. last in children vulnerable most the for that strates alternative a without comprehensive countries re only the become institutions system, care sort pre is upbringing because an institutional stigmatisation. poverty and of a life to ferred local in rooted deeply is a preference Such norms, and for achild-rearing de-institutional Indian the in successful be to process isation acceptance social for a need is there context, currently which options, care alternative the of Act. Justice exist under theJuvenile primarily call’ end to a practice a while ‘global Therefore, it powerful, sounds institutionalisation as such a glob as succeed expect to it to unrealistic is al solution. rights Children’s as enshrined in are Child the of Rights the on Convention the their development. However, if they grew up in upin grew if they However, development. their be sur would they Aashray, like institution an does HIV that knew who people by rounded everydaynot transmit activities, in children’s child other any as treated be would they and 2017). 4 March notes, (Field remarksConcluding This article has argued that the classic ‘imple rights children’s to approach’ gap mentation a ‘local by be complemented to needs studies isationapproach’ that emphasises contextuali be relevant to rights human for order in sation contexts.in diverse the acknowledging While decades of undisputed psychological studies developmental the harmful demonstrating 11 ------Aashray’s consultant,Aashray’s a trained social to do more work, they did not get to play with with play to get not did they work, more do to harm would that things – all kids other the been diagnosed they were marginal with HIV, separate with family extended the within ised made were They etc. utensils eating bed, room, fected children in rural Rajasthan, he argued, it had the exactwas the children once opposite: emotional, mental and physical development development and physical mental emotional, gotten have would they which institutions, in HIV-in of case the In environment. a family in tioned how they could assume that these these that assume could they how tioned necessary the get not would children specific international norms emphasised a family en people the view, his in because vironment, ques He India. know not did this wrote who worker, said that he found it interesting how how he foundsaidit interesting that worker, tential harmful social development, and if told and if told development, social harmful tential immediate the prioritise to chose they it, of health and education of their children. HIV/AIDS stigma as the main problem, and and problem, main the as stigma HIV/AIDS lat The solution. the as institutions childcare po supposed the of aware not were group ter parents) and also the educated HIV profes HIV educated the also and parents) saw patients with closely worked who sionals importance of a family environment, and HIV/ importance of a environment, family the obstacles; many of one simply was AIDS and staff home (care informants uneducated and experts) agreed with international norms the and underlined on de-institutionalisation informants’ priorities were different depend different were priorities informants’ and HIV/AIDS to lived they closely how on ing poverty: (authorities informants the educated the child should be established in the fami the in established be should child the than institution better no is there Because ly. the that see thus can We (G4A1). family’ the Foundation (G5E1). Similarly, an ex-member Similarly, of Foundation (G5E1). then family, a has child] [the ‘if said, CWC the rious care in institutions [...], but from a child child a from but [...], institutions in care rious have to very necessary is it perspective, rights said thea representative family,’ of Antakshari experts were the priorities and authorities, getluxu children that think ‘People different. ASIA IN FOCUS Email: University. Human Rights and Democratisation and Lund from the European Inter-University Centre for an MA in Human Rights and Democratisation Asian Studies Copenhagen from and University Boje Mortensen Therese strategies. tion up and beacentral of part de-institutionalisa by existing institutions need to betranslated down to the ‘local’, the social functions played translated be to needs ‘global’ something as dren at the local levels, but at the same time harmful effects of institutionalisation on chil is true that there is aneed to beaware of the [email protected] holds aBA in South - - 12 ISSUE 5 - (pp. (pp. Toronto: Toronto: (pp. 67-92). (pp. 67-92). . Better Care Nepal: Terre des des Terre Nepal: Calcutta: Anthropo New York: The United United The York: New Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Martinus Nijhoff Leiden: 23, pp. 127-133. doi: 10.1525/ doi: 127-133. pp. 23, A Commentary on the United United the on A Commentary , 55, 485-488. , 55, 13 Survey Families, Not Orphanages Families, ALast Resort. The Growing about Concern London: International Save the Children Alliance. the Children Save International London: National Consultation on: Promoting Non-Institutional Non-Institutional Promoting on: Consultation National Economic Globalisation and Globalisation Human Economic Rights Child Protection and Children Affected by AIDS: A Companion Companion A byAIDS: Affected and Children Protection Child The Long-Term Effects of Non-Parental Childcare. Effects of Non-Parental The Long-Term 10 Steps Forward to Deinstitutionalisation. Forwardto Steps 10 Kinship, Politics and Law in Naga Society. Naga in Law and Politics Kinship, Political and Review, Anthropology Legal Political Routledge International Handbook of Children’s Rights Studies Rights Handbook ofChildren’s International Routledge . Retrieved at: http://fostercareindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ . Retrieved

hommes Foundation & Hope for Himalayan Kids. & Hope forhommes Foundation Himalayan Century. pol.2000.23.2.127. Network Working Paper. Retrieved at: https://www.thinkchildsafe.org/ Retrieved Network Paper. Working thinkbeforevisiting/resources/Families_Not_Orphanages_J_Williamson. on 31.01.2018. Retrieved pdf. Act, 2015. Ministry of Law and Justice, New Delhi. New Justice, and Law of Ministry 2015. Act, and Orphans of Support and Care Protection, the for Framework the to Paper AIDS. and HIV with a World in Living Children Vulnerable Fund. Children’s Nations Children in Residential Care. Care. in Residential Children Care Foster Udaipur: A Report. Rajasthan: in Children for (NIAC) Care Alternatice India Foster-Care-India-Consultation-Report.pdf. and F. Marella (Eds.), (Eds.), Marella F. and University Cambridge Press. Cambridge: University of Toronto. Treaty Series 3 (CRC). Series Treaty logical Survey of India. family environment. In A. Alen, J. Vande Lanotte, E. Verhellen, F. Ang, E. Ang, F. In Lanotte, A. E. Vande Verhellen, J. Alen, environment. family (Eds.), Abramson & B. M. Verheyde Berghmans, of Child. the on Rights the Convention Nations Publishers. alternative care. In W. Vandenhole, E. Desmet, D. Reynaert & S. Lembrechts Lembrechts S. & Reynaert D. E. Desmet, Vandenhole, W. In care. alternative (Eds.), Routledge. New York: London; 257-275).

Merry, S. E. (2000). Crossing Boundaries: Ethnography in the Twenty-First Twenty-First the in Ethnography Boundaries: Crossing E. S. (2000). Merry, McArthur, D. (2011). (2011). D. McArthur, Greenberg, A. & Williamson, J. (2010). (2010). J. A. & Williamson, Greenberg, Greenberg, A. (2007). Government of India. (2016). The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Children) of Protection and (Care Justice Juvenile The (2016). India. of Government Dunn, A., Jareg, E. & Webb, D. (2003). (2003). D. E. & Webb, A., Jareg, Dunn, (2014). India. Care Foster Doherty, G. (1996). G. (1996). Doherty, De Feyter, K. (2007). Localising Human Rights. In W. Benedek, K. De Feyter K. Benedek, De Feyter W. In Rights. Human Localising K. (2007). De Feyter, Das, N.K. (1993). N.K. Das, (1993). Chapin, H.D. (1926). Family vs. institution. institution. vs. Family (1926). H.D. Chapin, Nations United 1577 1989, November 20 Child, the of Rights the on Convention Cantwell, N. and Holzscheiter A. (2007). Article 20: Children deprived of their their of deprived Children 20: Article A. (2007). Holzscheiter N. and Cantwell,

Cantwell, N. (2015). The human rights of children in the context of formal formal of context the in children of rights human The N. (2015). Cantwell, References ASIA IN FOCUS Vandenhole, W. (2012). Localizing the Human Rights of Children. In Liebel, M. Vandenhole, W. (2015). Children’s Children’s perspective. legal a rights from United Nations General Assembly (2010). Res 64/142. UN DocA/Res/64/142. 24 United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2003). General Comment Tolfree, D. (1995). Sikka, S. (2015). Rights and Relativity. In J. & P. Drydyk Ashwani (Eds.), Mulheir Parent, G., A.-S., Simonin, Zelderloo, C., Bulic, L., Besozzi, I., Andersen, C., Merry, (2006). S. E. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillian. Hampshire: Children’s Cross-Cultural Below: Rights from Perspectives London; York: New Routledge. Routledge International Children’s of Handbook Rights Studies rights law. In W. Vandenhole, Desmet, E. D. Reynaert &S. Lembrechts (Eds.), 2010.February No. 3. UN DocCRC/GC/2003/3. 17 March 2003. World. Rights. India and the West Opportunities. Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal on the transition from institutional to community-based care Freyhoff,A., G. & van Remoortel, J. (2008). into Justice Local Law UK: Save UK: the Children Fund. Roofs and Roots. The Care of Separated Children in the Developing Human Rights and Gender Violence: Gender Rights Translating and Human International . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (pp. 19-48). Oxford: University Oxford Press. Report of the Ad Group Hoc Expert 14 (pp. 80-93). (pp. (pp. 27-42). (pp. . European European . Human ISSUE 5 - - 15 Land cover change, pastoralism, India, mixed methods, methods, mixed India, pastoralism, change, cover Land

PATRICK WENNSTRÖM PATRICK Keywords: Keywords: remote sensing RS would most likely fail. This risk could be minimized by integrating integrating by minimized be could risk This fail. likely most would RS qualitative data to the RS analysis. of relatively small but significant grazing lands.Such changes are that indicates which changes, detectable of domain the within not on based entirely conditions pastoralist policy improve to intended challenges. Combining the two data types and analysing the gaps loss the to referring are pastoralists that indicates them between The qualitative data generated a deeper understanding of land land of understanding deeper a generated data qualitative The change cover dynamics andrevealed the complexity of pastoralist many of one as perceived is pastures shrinking where livelihoods source of livestock feed, have decreased while agricultural land land agricultural while decreased have feed, livestock of source 2014. and 1992 years the between increased has land built-up and interviews and participatory mapping. RS results provide valuable insights about large-scale changes in the landscape, which could not beenhave captured through interviews. Grasslands, an important through a case study in southern Tamil Nadu, India where changes changes where India Nadu, Tamil southern in study case a through perspectives: two from investigated are landscape pastoral the in through ground the from and images satellite through space from advanced through a methodology that integrates remote sensing sensing remote integrates that a methodology through advanced done is This from ground. the perceptions andobservations (RS) This article explores how land cover change studies could be be could studies change cover land how explores article This

ceptions in southern Nadu, Tamil India servations and pastoralist per Combining remote sensing ob sensing remote Combining landscape: Perspectives on the pastoral ASIA IN FOCUS A rial image analysis (Gardin et al., 2011), al., (Gardin et analysis image rial they edge the importance of human factors in ae and other RS practitioners today acknowl nent within RS. Although many geographers compointerpretation is often-underrated an human and (Nightingale, 2003). Subjectivity logical traditions these methods come from and also because of the different epistemo 2003), (Jiang, cover land change about story tive interviews tell different of parts the same Sall, &Sy, 2014). This is because RS and qualita perceptionsand ground the (Herrmann, from tencies may occur between RS observations cover changes. However, significant inconsis useful and well-known tool for studying land ists. livelihood and for the well-being of pastoral this of therefore age-old critical survival the for preventing ing and loss the grazing lands of is economies (IUCN, modern in 2017). Monitor place their finding with difficulties major and laws that do not attend to pastoralists’ needs of pastoralism have resulted in policies and marginalisation political and 2003). social The 2016; Sharma, Köhler-Rollefson, Morton, & on these natural resources (Ghotge &Kishore, traditional livelihoods are largely dependent consequences Indian for pastoralists whose 2014). Buytaert, & Moulds, This has serious had 2011; Choudhary, & Bohra, Tsarouchi, Mijic, Remote sensing (RS) is arguably the most

observed in parts of India (Chaudhry, India of parts in observed grazinglands have been property mon drastic decline of grasslands and com ------16 as impossible and non-desirable (Aitkenas impossible non-desirable and & creation knowledge objective rather see who the worldview of most qualitative researchers This is an approach that does not align with interpret land the coverly” (Nightingale, 2003). researcher’s task has been seen as to “correct have historically often been neglected as the es (Lu, Mausel, Brondizio, & Moran, 2004). RS found to beoptimal and applicable to all cas data, however, single no approach has been remotely on forming sensed change detection have per methods and for es developed been Numerous technological approach earth. the of surface the shape that processes cial-natural ical for understanding the dynamics of so analysis. cover Land is crit change detection RS provides important sources of data for GIS GIS to qualitativeA approach ralist have roamed for many generations. pasto sheep semi-nomadic where area tural agricul populated Tamilern densely a Nadu, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of south this through amixed methods case study in is better suited to informing policy. Iillustrate derstanding of the pastoral landscape, which cover change un could generate deeper a land about data qualitative quantitative and comparing and Integrating dynamics. scape land studying improvedan for methodology aimthe to contribute to development the of toralist perceptions land cover of change with Kwan, 2010). In this article, Icombine RS data with pas ------ISSUE 5 ------Indian pastoralists belong to a caste that that caste a to belong pastoralists Indian mobile pastoral castes, for instance the Yadavs Yadavs the instance for castes, pastoral mobile who are dominating politics in large areas of pas However, northern2003). (Jaffrelot, India negative face undoubtedly livelihoods toral often which attitudes and misconceptions, & (Ghotge exclusion political and social to lead the shrinking and degradation of grasslands is a problem in the arid of zones northern India Tsarou 1985; Jodha, 2011; al., et Chaudhry (e.g. given been has attention Less 2014). al., et chi agricul and the densely complex populated to tural landscapes of the south of the In country. India southern in pastoralism on fact, literature is remarkably scarce. specialises in animal husbandry, often within a society people alongside and castes of other pasto to contrast stark in is This occupations. asso frequently more areas in communities ral Africa in e.g. livelihoods, pastoral with ciated pastoralists the where East, Middle the and practically often territories vast remote inhabit pas Indian 2003). al., et (Sharma themselves by so the of bottom the at not are groups toral cial and hierarchy generally more have assets groups. social poorest the than livestock) (i.e. very socially of examples rare even are There toralism (Herrmann et al., 2014). In addition to to addition In 2014). al., et (Herrmann toralism pos to tend pastoralists scale, in large being about their and detailed rich sess information (Ji and its conditions ecological environment ang, 2003). A look in pastoralism India at threats livelihood critical most the of One dwin the is today pastoralists Indian by faced has This development lands. pastoral dling been factors by non-supportive driven like agri expanding policies, irrigated government cultural land, the enclosure of forests and pro pasture of deterioration the and areas, tected et (Sharma species invasive of because lands Several studiesal., confirmed have 2003). that 17 ------Combining RS with qualitative data has has data qualitative with RS Combining their familiarity with large geographical areas pas transhumance of scale spatial the to due each other (Mialhe et al., 2015). A particularly each other et (Mialhe al., 2015). on studies in involve to group social suitable of because pastoralists is change cover land namics, and qualitative and meth quantitative validate and complement to be used can ods limitations of the chosen methodologies. Local Local methodologies. chosen the of limitations for improving knowledge source a is valuable dy change our understanding of cover land us understand new dimensions of the research research the of dimensions new understand us the highlighting time same the at while topic mains an undervalued component et (Gardin Analysing the discrepancies between al., 2011). help can methods different the of results the tion and interpretation has only quite recently recently only quite has and interpretation tion re and results RS affect to acknowledged been to RS data, however, discussions on situated situated on discussions however, data, RS to knowledge and partiality more be even might percep human since field this within relevant highlightedand the incom ‘situatedness’ (Nightingale, own its on data RS of pleteness unique means no by is partiality This 2003). and analysing geographical data. ty integrated GIS (Dunn, 2007). This field works works field This 2007). (Dunn, GIS ty integrated where GIS integrated socially a more towards people are involved in the process of obtaining field has developed, sometimes referred to as as referredtofield developed,has sometimes qualitative GIS, participatory GIS orcommuni Conventional GIS have been for be criticised GIS have Conventional incom and for producing exclusive ing socially a new critique this of out and analyses plete cover change (e.g. Bakr, Weindorf, Bahnassy, Bahnassy, Weindorf, Bakr, (e.g. change cover & Yomralıoğlu, Güler, Marei, & El-Badawi, 2010; 2017). al., et Young 2004; al., et Lu 2007; Reis, are and quantitative focused on technological the detection offor land improving solutions ment in recent years, and further progress can can progress further and years, recent in ment on studies Most future. near the in be assumed changeland in common cover have that they is a relatively new and evolving scientific field, field, scientific evolving and new a relatively is improve technological much seen has which ASIA IN FOCUS and one Landsat image 8OLI/TIRS from 2014. 1992, one Landsat 7ETM+ image from 2000, for the analysis; one Landsat 5TM image from ArcGIS 10.2. Three Landsat images were used steps were performed in the software program RS All detection. change post-classification 4) and assessment, accuracy 3) classification, process that involved 1) pre-processing, 2) The RS methodology followed a four-step data and methods sensing Remote 2001). ika, stock contributes to (Ramdas, Yakshi, &Deep live their that soils of fertilization the through India in activities agricultural of sustainability Furthermore, pastoralists play akey role in the Gahey, Davies, Hagelberg, &Ouedraogo, 2014). contributing conservation (Mc to biodiversity water, quality, regulating and soil maintaining by providesment, but ecosystem services system which does not degrade the environ pastoralism as asustainable food production of arather newfound international interest in proved government result could a attitudes be ment of Tamil Nadu, 2016). Nevertheless, im cultivable existing of (Govern lands fodder for is rather increasing on capacity production the seem to bean incentive for this change; focus er, grazing lands not existing protecting does (Government of Tamil Nadu, 2016). Howev livelihoods and for the economy of the state rural for husbandry animal of role vital the es Government of Tamil Nadu officiallyrecognis grounds (Ghotge & Kishore, 2016). Today the grazing traditional their be to used that areas protected and tothem enter forests certain ease their restrictions on pastoralists and allow only recently that some states have decided to titudes and policies (Sharma et al., 2003). It is which has resulted in hostile government at overgrazing through environment the grading 2016).Kishore, Pastoralists are frequently blamed for de ------18 grazing. for areas ant help of local pastoralists as particularly import the with Peikulam) and identified were tam Srivaikun Tirunelveli, (Ambasamudram, sites area of 576 (Figure km² 1). These four study four 12 x 12 kilometre study sites with a total al., 2017). The study area was delimited into cover change (Tsarouchi et al., 2014; Young et land monitoring for useful particularly it makes cord of the earth’s surface since the early 1970s The Landsat program’s near continuous re calculated; overall, user,calculated; producer, kappa and & Chipman, 2004). Four of accuracy types were images into these five classes (Lillesand,Kiefer, sification algorithm all pixels to classify in the training samples were then used by the clas The grassland. and scrubland land, ricultural five classes were used; water, built-up land, ag study, this For classified. manually were classes cover land predetermined of samples’ ‘training fication was thenperformed which means that classi 2010). Williams, & (Abdi supervised A ison toin order facilitate interpretation compar and through principal a component analysis (PCA) formation in the images were also removed hancement (Young 2017). al., et Excessive in image and through en correction geometric First, the satellite images were pre-processed 2017). (Wennström, Nadu Figure 1: Map of the study area in southern Tamil ------ISSUE 5 ------stantial strength of agreement’ (Landis & Koch, Koch, & (Landis agreement’ of strength stantial 1977). that the most noteworthy changes that have have that changes noteworthy most the that are 2014 and 1992 years the between occurred and a an increase in agricultural land (+7.3%) The remaining decrease in grassland (-7.1%). classesland had cover not changed signifi andwater (+1%) cantly; built-up land (+0.9%) had increased marginallywhile there had been of Most (-2.1%). scrubland in decrease a slight be occurred have to appear changes these of results The 2000. and 1992 years the tween Table in showed are assessments accuracy the which 2014, and 1992 from two images The 1. were used for the change detection analysis, bench suggested the commonly above scored (Tsarouchi accuracy overall for 85% of mark 1992 the for statistics kappa The 2014). al., et classified image was0.83, which accordingto be should considered (1977) Landis and Koch the of classifications the while perfect’, ‘almost re 0.77 and 0.73 scored images 2014 and 2000 ‘sub category the into falls which spectively, the participants were found, approached, and this of purpose the For field. the in interviewed partici sample the that important was it study herd of experience of years several had pants information that so Nadu Tamil southern in ing about the environmental and social change sort purposeful of This be generated. could when suitable infor is sampling convenience with be from generated could anyone mation 2012). (Tracy, network social particular the in the interviewsFinally, were transcribed, coded and analysed. Remote sensing observations 2000 1992, years the from images classified The 3 shows Figure 2. Figure in shown are 2014 and 19 ------Separate personal interviews with pasto with interviews personal Separate ment affects their livelihoods. A total of 17 pas 17 of total A livelihoods. their affects ment and study this for interviewed were toralists ralists were conducted to further conducted to ralists were explore and analyse in what way the changing environ key locations for grazing and diminished pas diminished and grazing for locations key tures. used both as a tool for stimulating discussion discussion stimulating for a tool as both used and changes, and livelihood on environmental and identifying migratory routes for drawing ing social networks and marginalised popula were maps reference The 2012). (Tracy, tions ages of 32 and 55 were present at the work the at present were 55 and 32 of ages selected were they snowball shop; through reach for method a useful is which sampling of Peikulam, was chosen in consultation with with consultation in chosen was Peikulam, of the between herders Twelve informant. a key features directly on a printed map or an aeri an or map a printed on directly features for venue The 2006). al., et (Corbett image al village the in temple a small workshop, PM the mapping was used which is a method that that a method is which used was mapping a into integrated easily is that data generates GIS because the participants draw landscape sources and social arrangements in particular scale study this For 1994). (Chambers, locations been established as part of Participatory Rural Rural Participatory part of as established been in rural develop techniques (PRA) Appraisal re existing understanding of a way as ment and separate personal semi-structured inter long have of forms mapping views.Various Qualitative methods and data par collected were data through Qualitative pastoralists local with (PM) mapping ticipatory were compared on a pixel-to-pixel basis (Güler on a compared pixel-to-pixelwere (Güler basis et al., 2007). were calculated using a post-classification where the detection images change technique ground truth points field truth collectedground through data. reference high-resolution as well as work changes land cover betweenFinally, the years statistics. 260 reference points were used per per used were points reference 260 statistics. 126 to compared were which image, classified ASIA IN FOCUS

Figure 3: Area of land cover classes in the classified imagesfrom 1992, and 2014.2000 2017).(Wennström, Figure 2: Classified images of the fourstudy sites for the years 1992, and 20142000 20 ISSUE 5 - - - cation. The accuracy assessment (Table 1) is to to is 1) (Table assessment accuracy The cation. since some extent supporting assumption this somegrassland has been incorrectly classified as agricultural land and vice versa. Although ana and neutral as seen often are images RS the objectively, changes lystsinterpret to aim which accounted for 27.56% of the changes. changes. the of 27.56% for accounted which This could indicate that grassland and agricul tural land been have mixed up in the classifi 21 - Table 1: Results of the accuracy assessment of the classified images from 1992, 20002014. and 1992, from images classified the of assessment accuracy the of Results 1: Table change that can be observed through RS was was RS through be observed can that change agricultural land that has become grassland has become agricultural land, which stands for 66.78% of the changes. land cover Surprisingly the second largest contradictorily, and rather significantchange that has occurred between that grassland was 2014 and 1992 years the The post-classificationchange detectionanal most the far by that showed 4) (Figure ysis ASIA IN FOCUS near villages towns. and Disappearing com land built-up extent, lesser a to and, land tural into agricul grasslands of transformation a be ceive the main changes that have occurred to which have more indirect on effects land use. ing the landscape or through social processes dynamics in the area, either by directly alter perceived land as problems thatcover affect tions, and stigmatisation of pastoralism. All are deterioration patterns, use village of institu land changing routes, migratory the on stacles ob physical diseases, animal species, invasive are (in order) random These a proliferation of pastoralist livelihoods in southern Tamil Nadu. sues that were perceived as impediments to Interactions with pastoralists revealed six is Pastoralist perceptions appear at first. might they than complex more are dynamics cover land change that indicate also could It need to beresults from a“failed” classification. lands and cultivated areas does not necessarily pastoral expanding and diminishing taneously simul of result contradictory ally, seemingly a Addition deepened. that provides be RS can cover land change of understanding shallow combined with qualitative data, the somewhat itative (Jiang, alone interviews 2003). When qual through revealed be cannot that mation changes in the landscape as RS generates infor providing valuable information large-scale on However, it does not reduce its usefulness for cussed also within atechnical field such as RS. subjectivity needs to behighlighted and dis This results. the influence which terpretations ples of where analysts makes choices and in exam cover are land classes and points trol training of ground samples, con selection The 2011). al., (Gardin et interpretations individual and variability performance human by fected results of RS image analyses are inevitably af Pastoralists in southern Tamil Nadu per ------22 influenced participants’ perceptions of land land of perceptions participants’ influenced (Burke, 2015). have might subconsciously This which resulted in the 2015 South Indian floods ter exceptionally an monsoon wet northeast study was done in early 2016, immediately af (Jiang, 2003).knowledge for this field work The where climatic fluctuations may impact local also need beunderstood in awider context Perceptionsments. environmental of change reduced dueor to agriculturallots encroach have and/or sold been converted to housing Village commons them. for worse the for landscape the have that transformed changes commons the to protect are other perceived used that institutions village the of terioration mons due to privatization the land de and of which forces pastoralists to choose alternate cles like fences are fragmenting the landscape, mean direct danger to the livestock and obsta changes that are increasing. Congested roads ment fencing and as critical are also seen cal obstacles due to infrastructural develop year (Robbins, 2001; Sharma et al., 2003). Physi causing thousands of livestock deaths every demic literature and the latter is believed to be Lantena camera has some support in the aca Prosopis juliflora its constituentand species believed to poison their sheep. The toxicity of problem with animal diseases as its fruits are tree is seen as a key cause for the aggravating es for pastoral livelihoods. This is because the nificant change,which severehas consequenc tree Prosopis juliflora is alsoperceived as a sig grasslands. on encroachment agricultural of issue the of well, which might have led to exaggerations as cropped lands non-irrigated and are often escalate, to reported are diseases animal years, frequently problem; as a during unusually wet rains the wererain. Indeed, mentioned rather sizing issues related to floods andexcessive cover change, with possibly them overempha Proliferation of the fast growing invasive ------ISSUE 5 - - - extensive than they are according to RS obser RS to according are they than extensive on study RS a conventional However, vations. the pastoral landscape Nadu of southern Tamil missedwouldhave importantperspectives on landscape dynamicsand obstacles faced by from the ground because of the different sto different the of because ground the from aboutriesmethods these environmental tell Local knowledgechange. about the environ very is ment on a landscape-scale limited since changesland cover often occur slowlyand largeover geographical areas which makes understandto fromthemground difficult a to RS of contribution unique The perspective. its in lies thus change cover land on studies large (temporal and spatial) scale perspective A purely(Jiang, qualitative study 2003). might loss theexaggerated extent of grassland have more as be perceived might changes such since 23 ------The red circles marks locations where pastoralists perceive grazing lands have disappeared disappeared have lands grazing perceive pastoralists where marks locations The circles red and the green circles represents particularly important grazing lands (Wennström, 2017). Figure 4: Remote sensing observations of land cover change within the four study sites sites study four the within change cover land of observations sensing Remote 4: Figure shown. are ‘grassland’ class the involves that changes Only 2014. and 1992 between years the tative parts of this study illustrate the value of of value the illustrate study parts this of tative RS observationsperceptions with combining Comparative analysis of analysis observed Comparative changes perceived and quali and quantitative the from findings The no longer viewed pastoralism as a as viable liveli no longer viewed pastoralism their hood that determined and were option children should not follow in their footsteps. createda feeling of hopelessness regarding ma absolute The profession. their of future the study this for interviewed herders the of jority local villagers’ hostility towards herders. Nega herders. towards hostility villagers’ local have to seem harassment and stereotypes tive routes is the enduring problemof the stigmati the enduring is routes import previously Some pastoralists. of sation ant grazing grounds are avoided because of routes, often along roads. Another issue that is is oftenthat routes, issue along roads. Another migratory their the herders change to forcing ASIA IN FOCUS been lost which might partly explain why they have pastures traditional their pastoralists, the land cover has to changed. not Nevertheless, not bedetected through RS since the actual sible to the pastoralists. Such changes could inacces grounds grazing and routes certain scape, such as fences and roads, are making revealed that physical obstacles on the land interviews The land. built-up and agricultural mainly caused by conversion of grasslands into the perceived decrease of pastoral lands is not tions pastoralist and perceptions could that be observa RS discrepancies the tion for between (Nightingale, 2003). explana possible Another than it is because of the location’s significance land cover certain a change extensive as more imagery. Resource users may in perceive fact by the RS analysis of coarse resolution satellite detected be cannot grasslands of patches small of disappearance The pastures. important but es that were in restricted fact to relatively small the pastoralists talked about land cover chang that be could discrepancy this for explanation changes have occurred (figure 4). Onepossible these that location exact the regarding sources information two the correlationvious between However, ob land. no is into agricultural there transformed have grasslands that been cated ralists’ perceptions land the cover about indi 2003). Both the RS observations and the pasto (Nightingale, landscape changing the about tween the results can also provide useful clues 2014). al., et (Herrmann landscape the in processes social-natural understanding for important and valuable are perspectives cover change studies (Mialhe et al., 2015). Both land to dimension additional an brings which provided through knowledge be can local ronment that cannot beobserved from space anotherone since information envi the about duces data that complement authenticate and pastoralists. Mixing methods in this way pro Any discrepancies that might appear be appear might that Any discrepancies ------24 landscape in southern Tamil mix southern Thus, in Nadu. landscape completely differentpastoralstories the about aspects of land cover change, but also to tell worked to only not emphasize different the quantitative methods and qualitative The have been capable of achieving on their own. would method each than dynamics change er land cov of understanding tive deeper a and perceptions perspec gain wider a has helped Combining pastoralist and observations RS Conclusion at the same location using RS. detected cover be land could in changes cant during although PM the signifi no workshop pastures diminishing as areas some marked but significantbut perception locations and the stood to berefering to the loss of rather small inaccessible. Hence, pastoralists the are under pastures important making landscape the ing stacles such as fences and roads are fragment ob physical that indicated Interviews analysis. cline of grasslands was not detected by the RS and qualitative data; the perceived drastic de quantitative the between gap the highlighted results the Comparing impediments. livelihood this was just one out of a series of perceived jor threat to their livelihood, however, to them ma a were into grasslands expansion cultural the ground. Pastoralists confirmed that agri insights to this by providing perceptions from to interpret. The qualitative data gave further difficult were that coverpatterns land change However, also it showed complex obscure and land had occurred between 1992 and 2014. built-up and land agricultural in increase and grassland in decrease a that indicated which observations, RS through captured were scape ent epistemological traditions. methodology that integrates data from differ er change studies can beadvanced through a has methods ing demonstrated how land cov Large-scale changes in the pastoral land pastoral the in changes Large-scale ------ISSUE 5 25 - - - holds a MSc in Rural De Rural in a MSc holds [email protected] Email: Email: from the University Swedish of Agricultural working research as He currently is Sciences. assistant at SLU. Patrick Wennström Patrick Management Resource and Natural velopment cles that were found through this study are not not are study this through found were that cles of detectablein the domain changes. This result indicates that a policy to improve improve to a policy that indicates result This based on RS observation conditions pastoralist obsta most since fail likely most would alone of shrinking grasslands mightbe further rein landscape. the of fragmentation the by forced ASIA IN FOCUS IUCN. (2017). What is WISP? Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/theme/ecosys Herrmann, Sall, S. M., &Sy, I., O. (2014). People and pixels in the Sahel: astudy Güler, Yomralıoğlu, M., T., &Reis, S. (2007). Using landsat data to determine land Government of Tamil Nadu. (2016). Animal husbandry. Ghotge, S., N. &Kishore, (2016). K. Gardin, S., van Laere, J., S. M. van Coillie, F. B., Anseel, M. F., Duyck, W., de Wulf, R. Dunn, (2007). E. C. Participatory GIS —apeople’s GIS? (2006). al. et Change: Mapping for emergence new a R. of The Overview: Corbett, Chaudhry, P., Bohra, &Choudhary, K., N. (2011). R. K. Conserving biodiversity of Chambers, (1994). R. Burke, J. (2015, 3December 2015). South India floods leave three million cut off Bakr, Weindorf, N., D. Bahnassy, C., Marei, H., M. &El-Badawi, S. M., (2010). M. M. Aitken, and S. C., Kwan, M.-P. (2010). Abdi, and H., Williams, J. L. (2010). Principal component analysis. Wiley interdisci References 19(3). doi:10.5751/ES-06710-190329 19(3). perceptions their of changing environment Senegal. in remotelinking coarse-resolution sensing to land observations users’ Assessment Turkey. Samsun, in cover changes use/land Chinnayyam. T.K.M. Chennai: research-papers/pastoralism-india-warp-weft/ [Accessed 20 August 2017] http://www.anthra.org/publications/ from paper. Retrieved Discussion doi:10.1080/01431161.2010.516280 assessment. operatorfor performance &Verbeke,R., P. L. (2011). C. Remote sensing meets psychology: aconcept Geography, practice. Policy community forests and rangelands of ahot arid region of India. development. flood-death-toll-nears-270 [Accessed 20 August 2017] com/world/2015/dec/03/india-army-struggles-to-rescue-survivors-as- from basic services. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.10.008 data. Landsat multi-temporal Monitoring land cover changes in anewly reclaimed area of Egypt using London: SAGE Publications Ltd. plinary reviews: computational statistics, 2(4), 433-459. , 28(3),, 506-513. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.10.005 Participatory Learning and Action, Learning and Participatory , 127(1), 155-167. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9270-1 155-167. 127(1), , 31(5), 616-637. doi:10.1177/0309132507081493 IDS working paper no. 2. Brighton: no. 2. IDS paper working IDS. Paradigm shifts and the practice of participatory researchParadigm practice the and and participatory of shifts The GuardianThe Applied Geography Applied The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Geography Pastoralism India: Warp in the Weft. the and . Retrieved from https://www.theguardian. from Retrieved . Remote Sensing Letters Sensing Remote 54, 13-19. 54, 26 Environmental Monitoring and , 30(4), 592-605. doi:http:// Policy Note Policy Ecology and Society,Ecology and Progress Human in , 2(3),, 251-257. 2015-16. 2015-16. Land Use Use Land - - .

ISSUE 5 , . - , 11(2), Ecology, International Journal International Pastoralism in a India: Pastoralism An International Journal AnInternational Remote sensing and image sensing Remote 27 nternational Journal ofnternational Applied Earth , 25(12), 2365-2401. , 69-82.36, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Population and Review Development Population Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Wiley John Hoboken: , 31(2), 215-232. doi:10.1023/a:1023980713048 215-232. , 31(2), , 33(1), 159-174. doi:10.2307/2529310 159-174. , 33(1), nnals of the Association of American Geographers American of Association the of nnals (Centre for Women’s Development Studies), 8(2), 8(2), Studies), Development for Women’s (Centre , 2(1), 77-90. 77-90. , 2(1), Bulletin Biometrics , 35(9), 3150-3176. doi:10.1080/01431161.2014.903352 3150-3176. , 35(9), Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting crafting evidence, Collecting methods: research Qualitative New York: John Wiley & Sons . & Sons Wiley John York: New India’s silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India North in castes lower the of rise the revolution: silent India’s Ahmedabad: Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad. Human Ecology of Remote Sensing preprocessing. Landsat to guide A survival H. (2017). P. Evangelista, 98(4), 920-932. scoping study. impact. communicating analysis, in the of Upper India. Ganges basin changes land-cover and Maharashtra. doi:10.1177/097152150100800202 175-194. Been Never Modern.Have A doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00263 637-659. 91(4), methods in natural resource management. ACME: for Critical Geographies Pradesh Andhra in Claim their Stake Women Systems: Knowledge Local Monitoring land-use change by combining participatory land-use land-use combining by Monitoring change maps forest a remote from Showcase techniques: sensing remote standard with catchment on Mindanao, Philippines. I Observation and Geoinformation jag.2014.11.007 International Journal ofInternational Sensing Remote 58p. x+ UNEP. and IUCN Nairobi: nexus. natural Economy–a Green the 247-264. doi:10.2307/1973488 Data. Categorical interpretation. Sensing Analysiswith Ethnographic Research in the Study of Cultural Landscapes. Resourcesin Rajasthan,India. tem-management/our-work/global-drylands-initiative/iucns-work-dry lands/world-initiative-sustainable-pastoralism-wisp/what-wisp [Accessed 2017] August 20 Blackswan. Orient Delhi: Young, N. E., Anderson, R. S., Chignell, S. M., Vorster, A. G., Lawrence, R., & A. G., Lawrence, M., S. Vorster, R. Chignell, S., N. E., Anderson, Young, Tsarouchi, G. M., Mijic, A., Moulds, S., & Buytaert, W. (2014). Historical and future future and Historical (2014). & Buytaert, S., W. A., Moulds, G. M., Mijic, Tsarouchi, Tracy, S. J. (2012). (2012). J. S. Tracy, Sharma, V. P., Köhler-Rollefson, I., & Morton, J. (2003). (2003). J. I., & Morton, Köhler-Rollefson, P., V. Sharma, Robbins, P. (2001). Tracking Invasive Land Covers in India, or Why Our Landscapes Landscapes Our Why or India, in Covers Land Invasive Tracking (2001). P. Robbins, Ramdas, S. R., Yakshi, & Deepika, G. (2001). Changing Livelihoods, Livestock and and Livestock Livelihoods, Changing G. (2001). & Deepika, R., S. Yakshi, Ramdas, Nightingale, A. (2003). A feminist in the forest: Situated knowledges and mixing mixing and knowledges Situated forest: the in A feminist A. (2003). Nightingale, Mialhe, F., Gunnell, Y., Ignacio, J. A. F., Delbart, N., Ogania, J. L., & Henry, S. (2015). (2015). S. L., & Henry, J. N., Ogania, Delbart, A. J. F., Ignacio, Y., Gunnell, F., Mialhe, McGahey, D., Davies, J., Hagelberg, N., & Ouedraogo, R. (2014). Pastoralism and and Pastoralism R. (2014). N., & Ouedraogo, Hagelberg, J., Davies, D., McGahey, Lu, D., Mausel, P., Brondizio, E., & Moran, E. (2004). Change detection techniques. techniques. detection Change E. (2004). E., & Moran, Brondizio, P., Mausel, D., Lu, Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The Measurement of Observer Agreement for for Agreement Observer of Measurement The G. G. (1977). R., J. & Koch, Landis, (2004). W. J. & Chipman, R. W., M., Kiefer, T. Lillesand, Jodha, N. S. (1985). Population Growth and the Decline of Common Property Property Common of Decline the and Growth Population (1985). N. S. Jodha, Jaffrelot, C. (2003). (2003). C. Jaffrelot, Remote Integrating Tell: Can Images Sensing Remote Stories H. (2003). Jiang, ASIA IN FOCUS Keywords: people’s self-image as adistinct undeserving group. of rural people as lesser citizens, the hukou system consolidates rural stratification of social citizenship. Through thepersistent depiction widespread institutional diversity of social security and sustained the determinant of social citizenship. The hukou system has created become irrelevant in some respects, continues to bean important developments, this paper shows that the hukou divide, despite having system through multiple data sources and exploring recent policy Oorschot. By examining the current state of the Chinese hukou in China to the works of amongst others T.H. Marshall and W. van citizenship perspective, by relating recent social policy developments the reigning perception of the hukou divide is discussed from asocial tangible inequalities between urban and rural residents. In this paper, Previous research on the hukou divide has primarily focused on the Construct? Passé a – Hukou Divide The BIRGITTE EGESKOV JENSEN EGESKOV BIRGITTE China, hukou, welfare, segregation, exclusion, citizenship exclusion, segregation, welfare, hukou, China, 28 ISSUE 5 ------Social citizenship is a core concept concept a is core citizenship Social concept of social citizenship focusing on indi on focusing citizenship social of concept viduals’ worth’ ‘social and economic and social focus by society, in participate fully to ability of duties and rights welfare-related the on sing hukou the of presence The citizenship. social social equal such no is there that means system to the concept of social citizenship. Finally, it it Finally, citizenship. social of concept the to drawing system, the of resilience the discusses theoryon van Oorschot’s (2000) of ‘deserving way a long still is there that argued is It ness’. that and reforms institutional of terms in go to impact an made have may system hukou the Chinese the of heuristics deservingness the on population. The subject of social paper. this throughout citizenship and migration and their changing manifestations in China today’s distinguishes society of members full are who those between hukou the of a result as not, are who those and a from understood often is Citizenship system. one’s civil/legal perspective, emphasising thus How system. electoral the in engage to ability participa meaningful China, of case the in ever, negligible still is system political the within tion 2017). Saich, 2012; & Saich, Hu 2003; (Solinger, Marshall’s others, amongst I follow Instead, Firstly, it assesses the development of inequal of development the assesses it Firstly, in bringing divide, ity the rural/urban across inequality. economic beyond dimensions other divide the hukou discusses it critically Secondly, relat by view, of point citizenship a social from policy social in China ing recent developments 29 ------

This paper contributes to the current dis current the to contributes paper This The hukou system is not simply a manifes simply not is system hukou The

t has often been argued that the decisive decisive the that argued been often t has policymaking social for Chinese challenge is segre which system hukou the abandon to cussion of the hukou system in three ways. ways. three in system hukou the of cussion fied on several occasions, most significantly in a in significantly most occasions, several on fied been adopted since have series of that reforms 2014 (Chen, 2017). ognised by the leadership of the Chinese Com Chinese the of leadership the by ognised modi been has system the and Party, munist that “they appear unable to reverse the ongo the reverse to unable appear “they that (2012, protection” of social ing decentralization rec increasingly been also has This 806). p. regions. Although some attempts have been some attempts Although regions. have made at rural-urban harmonization, Shi argues distributes resources and opportunities (Fei- resources distributes TheLing,2005). rural-urban divide has creat between and within both disparities, ed social tation of citizenship: it permeates all aspects of of aspects all permeates it citizenship: of tation daily life, stratifiesindividuals and regions, and rural-urban divide (Zeuthen, 2012; Gaorural-urban et al., divide (Zeuthen, 2012; 2013). cial proof of residency, determines one’s social social one’s determines proof of residency, cial on a deeper de it also level, rights. However, the sustaining by society in roles citizens’ fines With access to social welfare being determined determined being welfare social to access With offi one’s is which hukou, one’s residency, by 2006; Saich, 2008; Chan & Buckingham, 2008; 2008; & Buckingham, Chan 2008; Saich, 2006; Li, Yang, Gao, 2012; Shi, 2010b; 2010a; Frazier, 2016). & Zhang, Xu Liu, Li, 2016; & Li, Long 2013; gates the population’s social rights according to to according rights social population’s the gates 2003; 1999; Solinger, born are where they (e.g. I ASIA IN FOCUS increases in trade, foreign investment and con mies China in expansion, rapid and experience economicthe Moreover, reforms. urban econo less, has poverty decreased agreat deal since Nonethe agriculture. traditional on based and economy,rural which is shrouded poverty in is often simplified by a dual classification - a several throughout levels China society but of The economic system is highly fragmented on economiesdistinct (Fei-Ling, 2005; Suda, 2017). this day, China is made up of dual societies with (Atinc, areas 1997). rural and urban Totween thised to the spatial inequality that exists be continued World to rise. The has Bank attribut ic growth since the late 1970’s, inequality has rural citizens (Gao et al., 2012). while was meagre it for hukou-holders, urban was relatively welfarethe system generous for and mutual (Wong, relief” 1998, p. 94). such, As generation through mutual production, help on the masses, rely[ing] on the collective, re “rely[ing] by hardship overcome to were izens were taken care of by the government, rural cit to death (Zeuthen, 2012). While citizens urban starved hukou-holders agricultural of millions non-agricultural of whilevival hukou-holders, rationing was put in place to guarantee the sur population. the of needs welfare the for responsibility assumed care etc. The paternalistic Chinese government cess to housing, food, land, education, medical eryone. The hukou was used to standardize ac in 1958-59, where a hukou was assigned to ev system dates back to the Great Leap Forward tration record’. In its current version, the hukou omy, translates loosely into ‘household regis nese socialist ideology and the planned econ The hukou system, deeply embedded in Chi trajectory path-dependent A time. this at worth Despite the phenomenon of econom of Despite phenomenon the When the system was first introduced, a ------30 (Solinger, 2006; Shi, 2012; Chen, 2017). Below, I determined by hukou the system security persistent institutional segregation of social through particularly the barriers, policy and successful integration as aresult of structural segregation un to prone more or experience are migrants rural-to-urban that have shown p. 71; Zhao, Jia &Zhao, 2017, p. 107). Studies welfare urban schemes (Kongshøj,from 2015b, rural hukou, are to avarying degree excluded workers, who are living in urban areas with a migrant million 200 than creates: more it lation’ tem has mainly focused on the ‘floatingpopu world.the tain some of the most advanced industries in higher in urban areas than in rural areas, com areas, rural in than areas urban in higher time, average times disposable income was 3.3 ratio peaked in the period 2006-2009: at that since 1978, we see that the urban-rural income incomecapita households rural and urban of toing residency. the 1990’s, the hukou is still registered accord since abolished been has occupations cultural agri and non-agricultural between distinction of the current hukou system: even though the misconception discourseing a on is founded Kongshøj, 2017). The rationale is that the reign (e.g. Chan &Buckingham, 2008; Zeuthen, 2012; has been called into question in several studies that the hukou system has been abandoned, media, and account academia in standard The inequality of Dimensions heuristics. servingness how such divisions may reproduced as de be a social citizenship perspective and discuss I assess the (remains the hukou of) system from with aspecific focus on hukou reforms. Finally, ondly, consider I developments, recent policy several on divide dimensions inequality. of Sec first assess the development of the rural-urban In recent times, interest in the hukou sys If we compareIf development the per of ------ISSUE 5 - - - -

China Statistical Yearbook Database Statistical China Yearbook

3 rural income ratio income rural -

- Despite improvements in the financing in the financing improvements Despite 2,7 >3 <2,7

rban Legend U ■ ■ ■ Figure 1: Urban-rural household income ratios, by by ratios, income household Urban-rural 1: Figure province, 2015 Source: gap are compared in Figure 1. Firstly, it should should it Firstly, 1. Figure in compared are gap ur of average national the that be mentioned from spans and 2.7 is ratio income ban-rural signifies which Gansu, in 3.4 to Tianjin in 1.8 great regional differences.as shown Secondly, an have provinces 31 the of twelve 1, Figure in ratiobetween expenditure in rural and urban 2000to from significantly declined have areas ex 2014, By remains. gap a considerable 2014, areas urban in higher 2.5 times was penditure (CSYD). Regional differencesin the rural-urbanincome stood at 47%, with more than half the cost cost the half than more with 47%, at stood fami their or patients the by covered being varies rates compensation Furthermore, lies. thecountry; in 2007-2010 across considerably yuan/ 400-1852 approximately from ranged it (2012) al. et Tang p.451). 2015, (Huang, person expenditure after a in private decline note national policies began to replace the old dis start the at system welfare public ease-ridden the in step important – an millennium the of of importance the given universalism of pursuit schemes. welfare universal in tax financing system, aof sizable the healthcare difference inper expenditurebetween capita healthcare the Though persist. does areas urban and rural 31 ------China’s efforts at achieving a universal wel universal a achieving at efforts China’s The 2000 and 2010 censuses (CSYD) do do (CSYD) censuses 2010 and 2000 The Several studies have established that ed that established have studies Several In 2015, 8.6% of the rural population re population rural the of 8.6% 2015, In borne by citizens themselves. In 2011, the av the 2011, In themselves. citizens by borne care for inpatient rate eragereimbursement were covered by a health insurance scheme scheme insurance a health by covered were however, 2012), & Bekedam, Tao (Tang, 2011 in still is expenditure the of share a substantial fare system is above all evident within the field field the within evident all above is system fare population the of 95% almost healthcare: of still a small gap of 2% between rural and urban urban and rural between 2% of gap a small still illiteracy rates in 2010. indicates that the educational system has im has system educational the that indicates was there though scale, on a national proved illiteracy rates between rural and urban areas 2.8by per diminished has gap the that find we This (CSYD). 2010 to 2000 from points centage both rural and urban areas between 2000 and the average when comparing Moreover, 2010. 2017). in decreased have rates illiteracy that show in terms of, among others, expenditure, quali expenditure, others, among of, terms in 2012; Wu, and job prospectsoutcome, (e.g. ty, Suda, 2017; OECD, 2016; China, UNDP 2012; Li, ed, though several studies have established established have studies several though ed, the existence of a rural-urban educational gap income levels (Yue, Sicular, Shi & Gustafsson, & Gustafsson, Shi Sicular, (Yue, levels income in differences rural-urban on data The 2008). educational attainments are highly fragment ucational attainment and allocation of edu and attainment allocation ucational cational resources are highly correlated with in 2007 compared to 102 yuan/person/month yuan/person/month 102 to compared 2007 in 2012). amongst urban counterparts (CDRF, it should be mentioned that the MSLS is con is MSLS the that be mentioned should it aver the areas: rural many in lower siderably 37 yuan/person/month age benefit paidwas compared toonly 2.4% ofthe urban popula Furthermore, 156). p. 2016, China, (UNDP tion by (CSYD). 2015 (MSLS), allowance living the minimum ceived pared to 2.6 in 1978. However, since then, in then, since However, 1978. in 2.6 to pared 2.7 of a ratio to decreased steadily has equality ASIA IN FOCUS (Kongshøj, 2015a; Saich, 2017). This was accom and illness, as well as to reduce inequalities of social risks such as poverty, unemployment this reflects an aim to lessen the consequences nebulousness these terms, of is evident it that basic public services” (Ngok, 2013). Despite the as “putting peopleand first” “equalization of This led to social policy-making being framed goal. official an became society’ ‘harmonious Chinese government, constructing where a The 2000s witnessed adiscursive turn in the developmentsRecent policy cial exclusion (Zeuthen, 2012; Gao et al., 2013). trenchment of social strata as it facilitates so while hukou the continues divide en the to be significant, less becoming is divide rural-urban affluent than some urban areas in the west, the has made some rural areas on the coast more coastal and development out washed being slowly is urban and rural between distinction ‘hukou the and divide’ divide’.ral-urban the As important to distinguish between the ‘ru have prominent. more become is therefore It other divides; instance, regional for divides, relevant termsin economic of principles, than less have might become divide rural-urban the ing. Furthermore, it appears from Figure 1, that shrink slowly is fields these in gap rural-urban the that and China across healthcare and ment vances income in levels, educational attain 1978. market the from since up reforms opening and thermore, these regions are the last to benefit ‘development’. of stages theirand varying Fur the rural areas in proportion to the urban areas gaps in this area could bethe relative size of income urban-rural higher the for planation the western economic zone. One possible ex national average and are almost all located in the above or to equal gap income urban-rural It appears that there have been great ad ------32 ment of the rural economy by retaining and promote ensure and sustainable the develop political discourse” (Gow, 2017, p.102). common-sense meanings western in liberal “most contentious when compared with their conceptualisationthe these principles of is 2017). However, we should keep in mind that equality, freedom and the rule of law (Gow, principles such democracy, to reflect as posed 2017).detz, This new realm of policies is sup populations (Saich, 2017; Carillo, Hood &Ka migrant and rural as such society in groups ble work in China; one that is focused on vulnera comprehensive inclusive and frame policy panied by the formulation of amore coherent, hukou. The proposal distinguishes between urban an for apply can migrants ral-to-urban conditions the which ru upon tions specify plans to relax the hukou system. The sugges Registration System’ in July 2014 and laid out Advancing Household the for of Reform the Statethe Council presented ‘Suggestions the policy strategy on urbanisation. Subsequently, Plan (2014-2020)’, which was the first national Urbanisation National ‘New the is programmes ingham, 2008; Chen, 2017). The largest of these (Chan Buck & migrants rural-to-urban against discrimination reduce to designed initiatives opment, there have been anumber of policy 2002). to order in ensure continued progress (Hongyi, the Western Development Programme in l999 regionalout development by implementing coastal development, China sought to even pursuing of decades two Furthermore, after 2017). Chen, 2009; Schubert, & (Ahlers ture ture and the improvement of rural infrastruc (NRCMS),Scheme promotion the agricul of included the New Rural Cooperative Medical force; initiatives labour rural young a attracting The aim of several policy initiatives was to Along withAlong policies promoting devel rural ------ISSUE 5 ------However, despite the numerous poli the numerous despite However, From the viewpoint of Marshall, indi Marshall, of viewpoint the From cen rather of this the thoughts Following land in their home villages has become unten become has villages home their in land remains population The 2012). & Saich, (Hu able socio-economic different vastly into locked goods public to access of terms in structures and services the system though has and even is citizenship social permeable, more become solution to economic and political inequalities rights social uniform create be to may China in and secure that citizens are granted equal so worth.cial ideology The dominant adopted might 2000s the in leadership central the by a more inclusive towards asuggest movement cit equal of a notion on based system welfare the People’s within living those for all izenship the offer to seem could and China of Republic citizen on built system a welfare for potential oth amongst Marshall by envisioned as ship, ers. cy programmes been that have enacted, we the actual not exaggerate should impact of the system The divide. hukou onreforms the hukou barrier for the primary in remains institutional integrationclusive of rural-to-urban migrants urban progressive more somewhat the into do migrants that notion The system. welfare not need support, welfare them owning to due 2008, pp. 5-6). 5-6). pp. 2008, viduals are equal ifthey areall governed by economic possess and rights social same the definition the in point a key however, equality; also citizenship social that is Taylor-Gooby by capa one’s enhancing of possibility the entails and resources between distinction The bilities. this in make to one important an is capabilities (1985), Sen of thoughts the by Inspired regard. ac can you that feasibility the is capabilities – valu pursue to freedom the have or – cess being as able and functionings, educated such amenities. basic to access having or healthy, tral paradigm within social the citizenship, 33 ------

Others, such as Taylor-Gooby (2008) also also (2008) Taylor-Gooby as such Others, The new policies enacted in 2014-15 guar 2014-15 in enacted policies new The capabilities, and also to guarantee the resourc (Taylor-Gooby, them” finance to necessary es izenship concerns the rights and duties associ duties and rights the concerns izenship services and benefits of provision the with ated designed to meet social needs and enhance emphasize the rights and duties components components and duties the rights emphasize cit “Social it, frames As he citizenship. social of tion, health and quality of life – and thereby, thereby, – and life of quality and health tion, these. attain to right the as citizenship social zenship’. He defines welfare in a rather broad broad rather in a welfare defines He zenship’. work, as such educa things include sense to equality of membership status and ability to to ability and status membership of equality on builds (1992) Roche society. in participate Citi ‘Rethinking book his in work Marshall’s ritory, creating a uniform collective. For Mar For a collective. uniform creating ritory, shall, social in citizenship, general, an involves non-citizens as a prerequisite for inclusive for inclusive non-citizens a as prerequisite be are duties and rights legal as citizenship, ter a state within inhabitants all upon stowed tion citizenship, of sociology the of founder The of exclusion the emphasises (1964), Marshall Social citizenship and civic stratifica civic and citizenship Social tween residents with rural and urban origin. tweenand rural urbanorigin. with residents to a probably longhas Nevertheless,way this go. policies is to further inclusive urbanisation and and urbanisation inclusive further to is policies remove theeventually welfare disparity be tegrating the growing rural-to-urban migrant community urban into welfare structures. It these of purpose the that assumed be only can antee a decent standard of living for China’s China’s for living of standard a decent antee in in step solid a form and population rural little for those residing in the largest cities in in cities largest the in residing those for little China. megacities where access to urban hukous re hukous urban to access where megacities foresee the in Thus, controlled. strictly main do will framework policy new the future, able small cities, where migrants can apply for an and restrictions, no almost with hukou urban ASIA IN FOCUS genuine membership” (Solinger, 1999, p.7). “denied are migrants rural-to-urban while fare, cial citizenship based on their access to wel results citizens urban in enjoying inclusive so wage, welfare, housing” and (2003, p.7). This rank, social opportunities, one’scluding work continues to determine one’s life chances, in ern society would do –to large avery extent muchvery as abadge of citizenship in aWest regions. In the words of Solinger “the hukou – within security social of fragmentation tutional because of the inability to overcome the insti barrier for inclusive social citizenship to evolve tion through the hukou system. This creates a differentia persistent of a reproduction been – quite to the contrary, there has until now does not have access to uniform social rights to citizens” (2016, p. 343). welfare rights “relative the and value accorded distinctions, each contributing to variations in ral/urban distinction is just one of anumber of even more granulated form in China, as the ru man suggests that citizenship has taken an gions and cities (Shi, 2012). Meanwhile, Wood re in citizenship social of form spatial a created aries of social citizenship to localities and thus social protection, this has shifted the bound Coupled with the process of regionalisation of stratification within the Chinese welfare state. differencesou have created tremendoussocial off (ibid.).far entitlementsUnequal along huk remains decisions policy welfare for basis the notion the citizenship and strong of forming remains bias urban the years, recent in ership in the discourse of the Chinese political lead rural areas. Despite the rhetoric of universalism and urban between inequalities creates vast by the hukou system favours urban areas and into the Chinese welfare state and facilitated (Saich, 2017; Woodman &Guo, 2017). still rarely granted to migrants in major cities In other words, the Chinese population The system of resource allocation built ------34 ingness criteria’: control, identity, need, atti 2006).en, Van identifies Oorschot five ‘deserv social benefits (vanOorschot, 2000; 2005;Lars entitledals should should to be not or certain to order in evaluate individu certain whether ness heuristic, which guides opinion formation, describes how individuals consult deserving a 2006; Slothuus, 2007). Deservingness theory gime (e.g. Titmuss, 1974; Pierson, 1994; Larsen, the institutional arrangement of the welfare re for welfareport policies is deeply affected by sup public that have shown studies Several because it results in dual social citizenship. ‘otherization’ Chinese the among population and perceptions negative for explanation al sions. Rural citizens do to some degree, have housing, pen education, care and medical broad range of welfare goods, jobs, subsidized al attainment. Urban citizens have access to a terms of health, and also in terms of education opment and social citizenship status, both in aged from furthering their capability devel 2016,Li, p.1695). discour thus are people Rural as “peasantsfy unworthy of state care” (Long & ceiving themselves as ‘sick citizens’ they identi and internalize this stigma. Rather than per to perceive themselves care as ‘undeserving’ of come subjects rural Many stigmatized. highly also is ‘rural’ being but equality, economic reinforce institutional the division. ingness perceptions that tend to maintain and may thus berecognized as facilitating deserv (Kongshøj, 2017). The hukou system, by nature, as having contributed to common the good as ‘others’ and because they are not perceived ness is low, mainly because they are perceived different as a divide group deserving whose perceives other hukou the the those side of on population urban Chinese The hukou-divide. reciprocity are important in the context of the tude and reciprocity (2000, p. 36); identity and The hukou system is apossible institution Not only does the hukou system impede ------ISSUE 5 ------The last aspect in particular is of great great of is particular in aspect last The Nonetheless, the hukou systemcontin Nonetheless, the hukou ship created have a breeding ground for pro tectionism against outsiders, urban or rural, social local to access from ‘others’ excluding citizen them genuine benefits, denying thus depiction the persistent Through of rural ship. is system hukou the citizens, lesser as people ues to be relevant for how social citizenship is is citizenship social how for relevant be to ues to only not serves it Firstly, China. in granted the stratify to also but population, the register population. it population controls Secondly, under conditional is migration as movements, exclu social to lead often will and system the sion, as rural-to-urban migrant workers are left urban an with those as rights same the without undeserv a distinct as treated are and hukou the divides it definition by Lastly, group. ing populationby creating a dual social citizenship of deservingness perceptions and imposing divisions. the bolster that fragment The paper. this for importance China’s segregates which system, ed welfare and exclusion inclusion through population of certain groups from particular social rights, per The citizenship. social define to continues security social of diversity institutional vasive citizen social of stratification sustained and inforced by perceptions of deservingness that of deservingness that perceptions by inforced re highly divide hukou the make to likely are silient. discussionConcluding carry great to continues system hukou The in status people’s importancefor determining to misleading become has it however, society, not today, China in divide hukou the to refer develop of levels varying the of because least some in result which country, the across ment pros more becoming coast the on areas rural western the in areas urban some than perous rural/ the dilute effectively and China partof urban divide. 35 ------In short, even though the hukou divide divide In short, the hukou though even There are immense barriers to inclusive barriersThere inclusive immense to are Needless rural-to-urban to say, migrants dium-sized cities, it remains a divisive force as as force a divisive remains it cities, dium-sized be re to likely is it and cities, big the regards Li, 2016, p. 1696). 1696). p. 2016, Li, me and small to regards as modified been has terparts are but justify such differences “by re “by differences such justify but are terparts superiority” urban residents’ ferring to & (Long lation similar to that between national citizens and immigrants. Rural citizens are aware that coun urban their than less receiving are they institutional diversity of social security, which which security, social of diversity institutional popu Chinese the in a divide create to tends cause of the lack of trust in people on the other other the on people in trust of lack the of cause logic institutional The wall. hukou the of side widespread system promotes of the hukou overcome the institutional fragmentation of of fragmentation institutional the overcome be and divide, hukou the across security social man, 2016; Chen, 2017; Woodman & Guo, 2017). 2017). & Guo, Woodman 2017; Chen, 2016; man, to inability the of because citizenship social marginalcitizenship status in urban areas, mi grants from rural areas are generally hesitant to (Wood identify urban citizens as themselves care facilities, not to mention their exposure exposure their mention to not facilities, care their of aware Fully system. educational the to high risk of becoming ill or disabled, have lit have disabled, or ill becoming of risk high tle knowledge of and experience medical with care, and limited to urban access have health tional hierarchy, as they carrytional hierarchy, out precarious, dangerous and work. unhealthy They are at age (Cai et al., 2012). 2012). al., et (Cai age occupa the of bottom the at placed often are prospects for moving up the social ladder and and ladder social the up moving for prospects wealth, whichaccumulating especially places old poverty in of risk a greater at elders rural course, rural citizens do not enjoy the same op same the enjoy not do citizens rural course, fewer have they – citizens urban as portunities they do not have access to quality education education quality to access have not do they benefits pension with or employment formal life their During 2016). al., et Li 2012; al., et (Cai access to these community resources, how resources, community these to access their opportunitiesever, are highly limited, as ASIA IN FOCUS Email: inter est is welfare state development in China. research main Her Sciences. of Academy nese stipend from Aalborg University and the Chi Egeskov Birgitte Jensen continues to live on. as aconstruct that controls social citizenship, entitlements. now, for Thus, hukou the divide, citizenship their from disconnected are people is a citizen somewhere, growing numbers of embraceand integration. everyone Though shed its reputation as aforce of segregation fare institutions, the hukou system just might sustained focus on inclusive and holistic wel services. With continued reform impetus and a proach in assessing access to public goods and er shown faint indications of arights-based ap group.themselves undeserving distinctly as a constraining of idea an in hukou-holders rural Recent policy developments haveRecent policy howev [email protected] is currently on aPhD - - - - 36 ISSUE 5

- - (4), The ,449- In P. H. (pp. 258- (4), 85-124. [Data file]. [Data file]. Cambridge: Cambridge: Washington, D.C.: Modern China, 28 Constructing a social Handbook of Welfare in in Handbook of Welfare Annual Data (4), 35–62. The China Quarterly, 222 Asian Perspective, 29 Handbook of welfare in China. in welfare of Handbook The elderly and old age support in in support age old and elderly The 37 (1), 92-116. 743-762. Oxfordshire: Routledge. Routledge. Oxfordshire: The three worlds of welfare capitalism. of welfare The worlds three Chinese Politics: State, Society and the Market Market the and Society State, Politics: Chinese . Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Digital ProQuest from . Retrieved , 582–606. Popular responses to Chinas emerging welfare state. welfare emerging Chinas to responses Popular Socialist insecurity: Pensions and the politics of devel uneven Pensions insecurity: Socialist Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 38 Affairs, Chinese Journal of Current New York, NY: Cornell University Press. Press. University Cornell NY: York, New Critical Asian Studies, 49 Asian Studies, Critical Sharing rising incomes: disparities in China. disparities incomes: rising Sharing In B. Carillo, J. Hood & P. Kadetz, (Eds.), Kadetz, (Eds.), & P. Hood J. Carillo, B. In Dialectics of control: The household registration (hukou) system in in system (hukou) The registration household Dialectics of control: Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. DC: World Washington, Rural-to-urban migrants: Access to welfare services and integration services and integration welfare to Access Rural-to-urban migrants: (pp. 203-223). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. (pp. 203-223). Journal of Social Policy, 42, Policy, Social of Journal 432-466. insurance. health social Chinese in variation 474. 2007. integral state. of the hukou system in contemporary China. China. contemporary in system hukou the of (Eds.), Rosen & S. Gries Routledge. London: 275). opment in China. Retrieved from http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/AnnualDa 2017] July 08 [Accessed ta/. Polity press. contemporary China contemporary China. in all for system welfare China Quarterly, 195 urbaninto life. China The Bank. World China. rural Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. political slogan? Huang, X. (2015). Four worlds of welfare in China: Understanding the subnational subnational the Understanding China: in welfare of worlds Four X. (2015). Huang, Gao, Q. & Yang, S. & Li, S. (2013). The Chinese welfare state in transition: 1988- transition: in state welfare Chinese The (2013). S. & Li, S. & Yang, Q. Gao, a Chinese towards dream: Chinese the of values socialist core The M.(2017). Gow, program. development western China’s Hongyi, H.L. (2002). Frazier, M.W. (2010a). (2010a). M.W. Frazier, (2010b). M.W. Frazier, Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). BrewingFei-Ling, tensions while (2005). maintaining W. stabilities: The dual role Cheng, T. (1991). (1991). T. Cheng, (2012). (CDRF) Foundation Research Development China (2000-2016). (CSYD). Database Yearbook Statistical China Chan, K.W. & Buckingham W. (2008). Is China abolishing the hukou system?*. system?*. hukou the abolishing China Is (2008). W. Buckingham & K.W. Chan, (2017). J. Chen, Cai, F., Giles, J., O’Keefe, P & Wang, D. (2012). (2012). D. P & Wang, O’Keefe, J., Giles, F., Cai, (2017). (Eds.) & Kadetz, P. J. Hood, B., Carillo, Ahlers, A.L. & Schubert, G. (2009). “Building a new socialist countryside”: Only a a Only countryside”: socialist a new “Building A.L. G. (2009). Ahlers, & Schubert, (1997). T.M. Atinc, References ASIA IN FOCUS Saich, T. (2008). Pierson, P. (1994). (2013). K. Ngok, Marshall, T.H. (1964). Marshall, (1950). TH. Long, Y. &Li L.W. (2016). “How would we deserve better”: Rural-urban dichotomy W.Li, (2012). integrated towards an inequality: education and exclusion Social Li, L.W. &Liu, J. &Xu, &Zhang, H. (2016). Z. Understanding rural-urban differenc (2017). B. Li, (2006).Larsen, A. C. Lam, K-C & Liu, P-W (2014). Socio-Economic inequalities in happiness in China Kongshøj, (2017). K. The undeserving poor in China: The institutional logic of the Kongshøj, (2015b). K. ‘Moderate universalism’ in China and the Nordic countries: Kongshøj, (2015a). K. The Chinese dream of amore progressive welfare state: Shi, S-JShi, (2012). China’s Towards se citizenship? social Rethinking social inclusive Saich, T. (2017). OECD (2017). icy, 41 icy, harmonisation. towards urban-rural trend the in curity Publishing. Elgar Edward MA: Northampton, illo, J. Hood &P. (Eds.), Kadetz, grave Macmillan. retrenchment. of Publishing. gar Handbook on East Asian Social Policy Press. Greenwood Press. University bridge 26 China. in elderly ill chronically health-seeking in Education, of 33Sociology China. in divide urban–rural the for framework analytical Health, 28and depressive in es China. in adults symptoms older among Publishing. Elgar Edward (Eds.),detz, influencepublic support. and U.S. Policy,Public 10 hukou system and the minimum standard of living scheme. nal of Social Research, 6 Reviewing major the challenges unemployment in protection. Progress challenges. and (12), 1689-1704. 1689-1704. (12), (4), 789-810. 789-810. (4), Housing welfare policies in urban China Housing urban welfare in policies Soc Indic Res, 116, Economic Surveys: China 2017. The politics of welfare policy: Towards social citizenship?. Shaping social policy in the reform era reform China the in policy social Shaping Providing public goods in transitional in Providing goods China. public Handbook of Welfare in China Dismantling welfare the state?: Thatcher politics the Reagan, and (2), 341-362. 341-362. (2), The institutional welfare welfare of How The attitudes: regimes logic (2), 1-15. (2), Cambridge: Press. Cambridge University Citizenship and social class: And other essays other And class: social and Citizenship Class, citizenship social development. and , 68-85. , Aldershot: Ashgate. (3), 409-430. (3), Fundan JHum. Soc. Sci., 8 509-533. 509-533. Handbook of Welfare in China (pp. 105-129).(pp. El Edward Cheltenham: Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD Paris: (pp. 123-144). (pp. MA: Northampton, 38 . In B. Carillo, J. Hood & P. Ka Qualitative health research, , 571-583. 571-583. , Journal of Social Pol Social of Journal . In M. Izuhara (ed.), Izuhara M. In . New York, NY: Pal Journal of Ageing Ageing of Journal British Journal of of Journal British Westport, CO: Westport, Journal of Asian of Journal . London:. Cam Nordic Jour (pp. 81-98).(pp. In B. Car B. In ------ISSUE 5 ------(2), 31–51. (CSD Working Working (CSD Policy & politics, BMC Public Health, Inequality and public In B. Carillo, J. Hood Hood J. Carillo, B. In [Data Retrieved file]. London: Routledge. Routledge. London: Oxford: Oxford Univer (pp. 223-252). Northampton, (pp. 223-252). London: Allen and Unwin. and Unwin. Allen London: (3), 323-344. Explaining and incomes inequal 39 Beijing: China PublishingGroup , 342-362. (1), 177–93. 177–93. (1), Chinese sociological Review, 44 sociological Review, Chinese (7), 737-754. Berkeley, CA: Press. University of California Berkeley, China Quarterly, 226 (CCWS Working Paper no. 34). Retrieved from Aalborg from Aalborg Retrieved 34). no. Paper Working (CCWS Immigrants, Welfare and Deservingness: OpinionsWelfare in Immigrants, Eu World Bank Indicators Development World Social citizenship under pressure. Handbook of Welfare in China in Welfare of Handbook China national human development report 2016: Social in China national human developmentreport 2016: Social policy: An introduction. Contesting citizenship in urban China: Peasant migrants, the the migrants, Peasant China: urban in citizenship Contesting State transitions and transitions citizenship shiftsState in China New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. University Cambridge Press. NY: New York, Scandinavian Political Studies, 30 Studies, Political Scandinavian Marginalization and Social Welfare in China. and Social Welfare Marginalization Citizenship Studies, 21 . In B.A. Gustafsson, L. Shi & T. Sicular, (Eds.), (Eds.), Sicular, & T. L. Shi B.A.. In Gustafsson, Urban welfare and social justice: Individual perspectives of ed highly and justice: social Urbanwelfare Environment and Urbanization, 18 and Urbanization, Environment (1), 33-48. (1). ity in China policy in China. from http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-de 08 July 2017] [Accessed velopment-indicators. inequality in contemporary China. 67b).html. [Accessed 02 August 2017] August 02 [Accessed 67b).html. rary China. contemporary China. 28 States ropean Welfare UniversityResearch Portal http://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/im website: migrants-welfare-and-deservingness(f4cf4500-9c2c-11db-8ed6-000ea68e9 novation for inclusive humandevelopment. for inclusive novation Corporation. of solidarity and the conditionality amongteria the public. Making universal health coverage sustainable in China. China. in sustainable coverage health universal Making 12 sity Press ucated rural-to-urban migrants in thecity rural-to-urbanucated migrants of Guangzhou. Kadetz, (Eds.), & P. MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. j015bz#author. [Accessed 12 February 2018] February 12 [Accessed j015bz#author. tions. market. the of logic the and state, trenchment. trenchment. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8v eScholarship: from Retrieved Papers). Zeuthen, J. (2012). Rule through urban-rural difference onChina’s boundary. Zeuthen, J. (2012). Wu, X. (2012). The household registration system and rural-urban educational educational rural-urban and system registration household The X. (2012). Wu, (2008). B. L. & Gustafsson, Shi, T., X., Sicular, Yue, Woodman, S. (2016). Local politics, local citizenship? Socialized government in in government Socialized citizenship? local politics, Local (2016). S. Woodman, (2017). (WB). Bank World Woodman, S. & Guo, Z. (2017). Introduction: practising citizenship in contempo in citizenship practising Introduction: Z. (2017). & Guo, S. Woodman, Wong, L. (1998). L. (1998). Wong, Van Oorschot, W. (2005). (2005). W. Oorschot, Van Van Oorschot, W. (2000). ‘Who should get what, and why?’ On deservingness cri deservingness On why?’ and what, get ‘Who should (2000). W. Oorschot, Van Titmuss, R. M. (1974). R. M. (1974). Titmuss, (2016). China UNDP Taylor-Gooby, P. (2008). (2008). P. Taylor-Gooby, Tang, S., Tao, J. & Bekedam, H. (2012). Controlling cost escalation of healthcare: healthcare: of escalation cost Controlling H. (2012). & Bekedam, J. Tao, S., Tang, Solinger, D.J. (1999). (1999). D.J. Solinger, K. (2017). Suda, Solinger, D. (2006). The creation of a new underclass in China and its implica its and China in underclass a new of creation The (2006). D. Solinger, Solinger, D. (2003). (2003). D. Solinger, Slothuus, R. (2007). Framing deservingness to win support for welfare state re state welfare for support win to deservingness Framing R. (2007). Slothuus, ASIA IN FOCUS Zhao, Jia, Z., &Zhao, H. J. (2017). Welfare China in assistance financial ical 33 Quarterly, World Third (pp. 98-123). (pp. Publishing. Elgar Edward MA: Northampton, . In B. Carillo, J. Hood &P. (Eds.), Kadetz, (4), 685-700. 685-700. (4), Health inequalities,Health medical insurances med and 40 Handbook of Handbook - ISSUE 5 Beijing Beijing ) was one of the first first the of one ) was 41 北京故事

Beijing Story Beijing Gushi . In my analysis, I use concepts from queer theory and theory and queer from concepts use I analysis, my In . Beijing Story, China, queer, filial piety, literary analysis literary piety, filial queer, China, Story, Beijing

in 2016 made the novel available to a worldwide audience. This This audience. a worldwide to available novel the made 2016 in (original Chinese(original title:

JONA BARABAS social obligations related to heteronormativity and filial piety. filial and heteronormativity to related obligations social Keywords: attitude towards his own non-heterosexuality goes from complete non-heterosexuality own his goes from complete attitude towards novel, the of course the over self-acceptance relative to rejection perceived on based determined ultimately are choices life major his Confucian philosophy to examine the main character’s approach to to approach character’s main the examine to philosophy Confucian therelationships in his life. I argue that while the main character’s seemingly different from their Euro-Americancounterparts. their from seemingly different of reading close a on based is paper this in presented analysis The Story Beijing heteronormativity that is portrayed in the novel – a relationship that that – a relationship novel the in portrayed is that heteronormativity often queer experiences in makes East spheres Asian Sinophone modern time. The publication of the first English translation of translation English first the of publication The time. modern Story and piety filial between relationship the on light some sheds paper Story in openly to portray relationships homosexual novels Sinophone A classic among queer works of literature written in Chinese, Chinese, in written literature of works queer among A classic Obligations in Filial Piety and Heteronormative PietyFilial and Heteronormative if mother is sad?” is mother if “What emotions do my matter ASIA IN FOCUS R queer and heterosexual readers for its candid heterosexual and its for queer readers er in 1998, it gained popularity among both lished as an e-novel by an anonymous writ to openly portray same-sex relationships. Pub literature of Chinese in works written modern to life in the novel other individuals Sinophone queer are brought Zhu, 2017, p. 2). preferencespersonal (Bie Tang, & 2016, p. 363; heterosexualin marriages despite their own leads many individuals homosexual to engage ples to beopen about their relationships and family line, makes it difficult for same-sex cou the of continuation and piety filial emphasizes which thinking, Confucian of influence strong family. towards their The obligations their and desire own their accommodating taneously munities often face great difficulty in simul com Sinophone Asian East in relationships however, individuals same-sex engagein who 137-145; Hinsch, 1992, p. 16). In the modern era, periods up until the 1900s (Dikötter, 1995, pp. tively accepted during many historical time ties, and male same-sex intimacy was rela commonersand alike throughout dynas the court-dwellers about recorded texts in been heterosexual the of outside marriage have relationships homosexual China, call now we history. In the historical records of the region Many of the issues faced by Chinese and and has existed since the dawn of human world, the of all in parts exists gender omance between people of the same Beijing Story Story Beijing – one of the first ------42 queer people in China articulate their subterra their articulate China in people queer […]ature” that ways the altered fundamentally the words of Petrus Liu, ‘the rise of “cyber liter Lan Borrowing boyfriend Yu. term on-and-off businessman his and Chen Handong long- portrayal of the relationship between the rich men and by others. In other words, these films gay […] is imagined both by self-identified gay expressing some of the ways in which being in Asian film,‘these films [are]registering and gay on describes his in identity it article Berry realitiesqueer Chris Sinophone in As societies. contemporary of understanding and edge hand, to but also contribute knowl to deeper to provide an analysis of the literary work at mation. Thus, the aim of this study is not only for subject queer in traditions cultural of ience trayed in the novel in order to explore the resil por relationships interpersonal the on light 2017; Ho, 2011; Rofel, 1999). The essay sheds Berry, 2001; Chou, 2001; Engebretsen, 2014, ies over the last decades two (see for example homosexuality and kinship in East Asian stud search that has emerged at the intersection of well as acontribution to the greater body of re ang, 2014; Eng, 2010; Liu, 2016; Myers, 2016), as search on contribution to the small body of existing re (2016, 373). p. cultures’ queer global understanding for task critical a Story] [Beijing of analysis the makes nean desires and organize their lives. All of this Inspired by Liu’s statement, this study is a Beijing StoryBeijing (see Chang, 2010; Chi ------ISSUE 5 ------), ), and ‘[to] huangtang kexiao ) when he con , ‘ridiculous’ ( , ‘ridiculous’ , declares his taste for casual sex sex casual for taste his , declares huangtangdao lipu) I was more and more starting to feel that that feel to starting more and more I was absurd, getting was Yu Lan with thing this to started I even abnormal. downright I wouldn’t ‘love.’ word: of a ridiculous think a with love in fall to as far so degenerate I just normal. I was I knew I? would guy, liked to play around in somewhat extreme 6) n.d., chapter Tongzhi, (Beijing ways. Even though Handong’s feelings for Lan feelings Handong’s though Even Beijing Story the use of words such as ‘absurd’ ( ‘absurd’ as such words of use the ‘abnormal’ ( ( degenerate’ clearly for Lan feelings Yu potential siders his be love towards attitude negative a indicates is it that sex, and same the of people tween Yu grow stronger over time, the struggle over the struggle over time, stronger over grow Yu something is ‘normalcy’ and sexuality own his the in Early years. for Handong haunts that Lan up with when broken Handong has novel, iden own his considers he time, first the for Yu feelings: his of meaning the and tity grow Lan Yu toward feelings When Handong’s a trigger sense of they insecurity in intensity, he While a has identity. own his concerning be sex mere towards attitude very relaxed 1), n.d., chapter tween Tongzhi, men (Beijing lesbian community on the grounds that she is a In 70-71). pp. (2014, lesbian a not i.e. ‘normal,’ Handong,similar manner, the main character in first the in already women and men both with but maintains that he ischapter, heterosexual obvious his despite narrative, the of most for Lan with relationship His attraction. same-sex for pays he whom student migrant a male Yu, Rofel, and 2012, Kong, (see company a night’s boys,’ ‘money called so on discussions for 2010, roll a off sets China), in sex-workers, male or ques himself where Handong finds ercoaster tioning the boundaries between sexuality, and true intimacy emotions. physical identity, 43 ------, Engebretsen ,Engebretsen from Confucian xiao are realistic or not; my my not; or realistic are Beijing Story In this essay, I make use of concepts from from concepts of use make I essay, this In Queer in Urban Women China who is engaged in a same-sex relationship, relationship, a same-sex in engaged is who the with butrefuses identification who clearly underscores the difference between the difference underscores homo sexual acts and homosexual identity in her portrayal of a heterosexually married woman Identity and self-acceptance In tions of quotes from the novel are my own. my are novel the from quotes of tions societies. The analysis is based on the original original the on based is analysis The societies. transla English novel. the of e-version Chinese to reality, and reveal the way in which Beijing Beijing which in way the reveal and reality, to of lives the about something us tell can Story in contemporary Sinophone queer individuals events in in events events fictional the link to rather is intention resign himself to a life that fits into the main the into fits that a life to himself resign The aim modelstream of heteronormativity. the whether determine to not is essay this of novel, perceived social obligations related to to related obligations social perceived novel, pietyheteronormativity and filial ultimately and desires personal his aside put to him lead erosexuality rejection goes from to complete the of course the over self-acceptance relative ical, real-lifeical, observations from the Sinophone main the while that I argue sphere. queer character’s attitude his towards own non-het the maincharacter’s balancing act between of empir in light and obligations emotions his ular to Sinophone culture. By juxtaposing my in scholars other of those with findings own discuss I studies, Asian East queer of field the queertheory sexuality describe to and iden of concept the and tity, philosophy to describe family traditions partic has beenhas carried out. but they do tell us something of what it means means it what of something us tell do they but 211- pp. (2001, cultures’ Asian East in gay be to study this that mindset a similar with is It 212). do not necessarily tell us about the empirical empirical the about us tell necessarily not do communities, Asian East in lives gay of realities ASIA IN FOCUS chapter 6), this quote that suggests Handong Tongzhi, (Beijing novel n.d., the of beginning Yu the Lan ‘absurd’ in as (huangtang) for ings Compared to when he describes his own feel experiences: homosexual vious relationship to Lan Yu is different from his pre with another man when he describes how his romantically being of with idea the engaged appears to, at least partly, have come to terms identities. than rather actions, of set and sexuality is instead largely conveyed as a sparingly, used are ‘heterosexual’ or mosexual’ in the case of aspect of [Beijing Story]’ (2016, p. 379). Indeed, tity politics is perhaps the most remarkable cording to Petrus Liu, ‘[t]he resistance to iden identities in urban China’ (2011, p. 125), and ac of elusively modern forms of gay and lesbian huge amounta influence of over formation the Western-style politics of identity does not have see also Chou, 2001). According to Ho, ‘this ‘“authentic” Chinese values’ (Ho, 2011, p. 125; and politicized to compatible be with so called is seen by many as much too confrontational sociated with queer movements in ‘the West’) ‘coming and politics’ (concepts out’ largely as to the that fact the focus on ‘queer identity related be also can sexuality his on labels put Handong’serosexual norm, unwillingness to stage in the narrative. something he is unable to identify with at this jing Tongzhi, 18) chapter jing n.d., stronger. and stronger him became (Bei when Isaw him less often, my longing for into whirlwindbled a emotions, of and Yu. When Iwas with him, Ihelplessly tum Lan with maintain to impossible was guys other have could with I relationship ual’ I had realized that the kind of strictly ‘sex Apart from plain fear of breaking the het As the novel the moves HandongAs forward, Beijing Story,Beijing labels such as ‘ho ------44 escapes the death penalty for major financial major for penalty death the escapes jail in ends up Handong narrowly and when It is not until towards the end of the novel, constant break-ups with Lan Yu (2016, p. 375). is also of part the reason behind Handong’s Liu argues, this ‘internalized homophobia’ jing Tongzhi, n.d., chapter 15 &18). Petrus As even in private conversation with Lan Yu (Bei desire same-sex his articulate verbally to ability anxiety, consistent self-questioning a and in however, slowed of down by recurring bouts his than of er partner. gender the connection between him and his partner, rath ue of his relationship based on the emotional val the estimate to beginning increasingly is tion for queer individuals queer tion for within callswhat he over, situa Wah-Shan, the according Chou to a heteronormative society (2003, p. 674). More individualsthey may as minority in experience cause of the ‘hostile and stressful environment’ health problems be than heterosexual people viduals are likely more mental to experience ing to Meyer, lesbian, gay and bisexual indi tion (Meyer, 2003, p. 674). For example, accord discrimina and prejudice of targets become which in turn may cause these individuals to individual, any to non-heterosexual status ty living loving and results assigning in minori a wayof standard a as heterosexuality Branding Family matters tions world. to outside the to verbally or physically display his own emo self-acceptance does not equate to the ability zhi, n.d., chapter 27). Even so, the capacity for into insignificance (Beijingaltogether’ Tong any longer. In the face of death, the issue faded waswhether I homosexual heterosexual or about think didn’t ‘I sexuality: his about tance appears to have gained asense of self-accep company, his within he that committed crimes The processThe towards self-acceptance is, ------ISSUE 5 ------) in this situation indicates , Handong’s mother is the the is mother , Handong’s maoxian Beijing Story Over the couple of years following their their following years of couple the Over In risk, but I really did empathize with him’ (Bei him’ with empathize did I really but risk, the of use The 4). chapter n.d., Tongzhi, jing ( ‘risk’ word between intimacy the that firstly, two things: Handong that so is great Handong and Lan Yu become may members family his expects that ily for himself (Beijing Tongzhi, n.d., chapter 6, 6, n.d., chapter Tongzhi, (Beijing ily for himself words own Handong’s fact The that & 20). 15 he pietywhen filial to related values echo also discusses family values with (‘Men Lan have Yu blood family carry the on to responsibility the further 15) chapter n.d., Tongzhi, Beijing line!’, psychological major mother’s his that indicates ontointernal ledhas Handong him influence ize parts of the very denounces that mindset of life choice an independent to the right him partner. an Yu develop first andmeeting, Handong Lan to Handong forces that on-and-off relationship need his against Yu Lan for feelings his balance to keep up an appearance of heterosexuality nov the in point one At family. his of front in Year’s New the to Yu Lan invites Handong el, ‘After home: family Handong’s at celebration came Yu] part, [Lan my from demands insistent a huge was It Eve. Year’s New on me with home In Hu and Scott’s study about the influence of of influence the about study Scott’s and Hu In traditional values on contemporary Chinese in dividuals, they beliefs found that ‘[p]atrilineal being ques gender [are] roles and traditional nor education urban tioned’ ‘neither but that filial to] adherence [the ization undermining is mindset This 1288). p. 2016, & Scott, piety’ (Hu for problems individ create ais factor may that a to correspond not does lifestyle whose uals traditional family life with children. It is also the for Handong in deal of distress source major ing with his relationship to Lan Yu. Confu of the traditional representative main constantly that voice the is she as mindset, cian get Handong to marriedurges a and build fam 45 ------The concept of xiao (filial piety) is often often is piety) (filial xiao of concept The society […] In this construct, the family is is family the construct, this In […] society pro and basic most be the to perceived pi (filial xiao and institution, social found pp. 2001, (Chou, value. central ety) given is 33-34) individual with unalienable rights, the traditional Chinese culture simply refus classifyes to people homo or hetero into fore and first are […] individuals because wider and family the of members most While the basic tenet of Western [lesbi Western of tenet basic the While discourses isan/bisexual/gay] to regard subjectthe [lesbian/bisexual/gay] as an fucian family values are still relevant in the the in relevant still are values family fucian society. of members respectable of forming point in history when the idea of what consti what of idea the when history in point changes, veritable a undergoing is family tutes Con whether traditional arises the question and stresses the importance of carrying on the the on carrying of importance the stresses and a at However, 35). p. 2011, (Goldin, line family within Confucian philosophy that stipulates to gratitude of demonstrating necessity the the world, into you for parents bringing your (Canon of Filial Piety). The Xiaojing is one of of one is Xiaojing The Piety). Filial of (Canon works relations on influential family the major iety (En in the queer individual Sinophone and 1999), Rofel, 2013; Kam, 2014; gebretsen, Xiaojing document the to back be traced can named as one of the main contributors to anx to contributors main the of one as named groups, or work discrimination, but in the rela 2001, Berry, also (see family one’s with tionship 10). p. 2011, Ho, and 219, p. Thus, Chou argues that for queer individuals for queer individuals that argues Thus, Chou not lies anxiety of source primary the China, in religious from the government, in oppression which the communities classify their members members their classify communities the which fam the with or individual separate the – with unit: core the as ily the ‘traditional Chinese culture’ differs mainly in way the by West’ ‘the in those of that from ASIA IN FOCUS him: profound pain from seeing her disappointed in that is mistaken; she however, experiences he Yu,to Lan successfully Handong convinces her relationship his about him confronts mother multitude of aspects. The first time Handong’s his mother results in personal suffering in a reassurance; disappointing thus, and support to his mother is his main source of emotional BeijingIn Story, Handong’s close relationship pp. 33-34. See also Engebretsen 2014, 2017). face’ is the last thing achild wants to do (2001, one’shurting ‘lose them parents making and ciety where filial piety is given key importance, to function. life double his allows that balance the breaking Yu and the life with his family, Handong risks Lan with life his between boundaries talized’ (2014, p. 78). By breaking the ‘compartmen an exclusive identity that traverses these fields’ [queer]” arises “being problem when becomes harmony. family The and stability social uphold heart of tacit queer strategies, as ameans to ly members: ‘compartmentalization is at the fami to relationship their in desires personal and compliance’ ‘surface balance to dividuals partmentalization’ as a strategy for queer in mind Engebretsen’s discussion com ‘tacit on lationship to the family. The event brings to entail regarding Handong problems for his re to notice his close relation to Lan Yu, it would er. Secondly, it indicates that if his family were suspicious if they see him and Lan Yu togeth get hurt, but letting your mother see oth you have apet, you can’t bear to witness it could you look them in the eye? Huh? If how – out found people If such lowly acts. so happy. But then you go and commit and berespected by others –it made [me] Commerce, City even of director become [Mother:] ‘Seeing you study, do business, pointedAs out by Chou Wah-Shan, in aso ------46 when he sees his mother in pain, but that he the above quote shows that he not only suffers Handong’s renouncing his of own emotions in marily out of negativity towards homosexual towards homosexual negativity of out marily Sinophone in communitiesality may arise pri homosexu towards attitude negative the that ly’s survival (2010, p. 69). Thus, Chang indicates were literallyreproduction crucial to fami the and marriage where society, agricultural an ing temporary China to the country’s history of be in homosexualopenly being con of difficulty on able Yu. Lan with ly aware of the true nature of his relationship sociate, but his mother has also become firm short-lived marriagea female to business a as only failed to on the carry family name through towards the end of the novel, when he has not to his perform filial obligations manifests itself Handong’s man. Nevertheless, er fear failing of to acceptance of his own ability to love anoth complete his Yu of emotions Lan rejection for from changes sexuality own towards his titude Over the course of the narrative, Handong’s at What most matters desires to order in make happy. her and is ready to relinquish any of his personal also puts his mother’s feelings before his own then! (Beijing Tongzhi, 27) chapter (Beijing then! n.d., emotions –what did these things matter ful eyes –Lan Yu, his love, and my own endure. When Isaw my mother’s red, tear for her own death was more than Icould wishing and pain such in my mother ing punched me. Iwas agrown man, but see tears well up too. It felt like someone had completely heartbroken. felt I my own than death […]’ itself? My mother cried, him aside –isn’t that worse for amother er people look down on her son [and] cast In one of the rare scholarly articles avail Beijing StoryBeijing , Chang Wenxiao links the the links Wenxiao Chang , ------ISSUE 5 - - - Three years [after Lan Yu’s death], I moved I moved death], Yu’s Lan [after years Three West in a house bought and Canada to I I have married don’t again. Vancouver. my face to Yu, Lan as courage same the I feel identity a as homosexual. Moreover, long shut closed already was heart my like my loving really of incapable I am ago. be to I can everything I do but wife, young her. of care good take to and her, to kind n.d., epilogue) Tongzhi, (Beijing Handong’s struggle for relative happiness happiness struggle for relative Handong’s ideally contained in and experienced an contained by ideally of definition the dominant Rather, individual. preexisting norms for to alludes happiness socio-familial harmony and collective equi librium. In this context, emerging possibilities must be negotiated lifeways for alternative remarry and have a child at the end of the nov the of end the at a child have and remarry marriedel. Handong has again In the epilogue, and wife new his mother, his with lives and Canada: daughter in Vancouver, act between balancing the on a discussion In the and wishes own one’s accommodating in subject queer a as parents one’s of wishes ‘It Engebretsen writes: sphere, the Sinophone most a quality is happiness that a given not is immediate source of suffering for his mother formother his of suffering source immediate her Handong son go jail, to watch to having is satisfy to unable being himself to refers also While request.’ fundamental ‘most mother’s his not is ‘request’ the of meaning precise the as interpreted be text,may it the in specified a woman to a marriage maintain to ability the grandchildren. with mother his provide and to compartmental ‘tacit of strategy the through 2014, (Engebretsen, above mentioned ization’ is Yu Lan when end abrupt an to comes 78) p. tragically killed in a traffictowardsaccident the dead love true only his With novel. the of end proof of Handong’s theand ultimate gone, to decision his is mother his to commitment 47 ------, where because of his moth his of because , where Tongzhi, n.d., chapter 27) Tongzhi, to the single, most fundamental thing she she thing fundamental most single, the to fact that the and me, from requested had Now that. just her give to unable been I’d her son going made her witness I also had to jail. The shame was unbearable. (Beijing During that time, theonly people time, IDuringthat could Es Yu. Lan and mother my were of think went thoughts My […] mother. my pecially Similar feelings of guilt are also noticeable Beijing Story Although at this stage in the novel, the most most the novel, the in stage this at Although is also a way for Handong to minimize his own own his minimize to Handong for a way also is personal When upin suffering. Handongends mother: his to go primarily thoughts his jail, of hurting her. Thus, acting according to his his to according acting Thus, her. hurting of not hurting her, and thereby wishes, mother’s in me’ (Beijing Tongzhi, n.d., chapter 26). Han 26). chapter n.d., Tongzhi, (Beijing me’ in to up living at failure own his interprets dong act indirect an as expectations mother’s his ‘I seldom went home. I was too afraid to face face to afraid too I was home. went ‘I seldom Shemy mother. rarely smiled those [during hope all lost already had she I suppose days]. his relationship with Lan Yu, Handong starts Handong Yu, Lan with relationship his her: confronting of fear in mother his avoid to in marryand to failure his with discontent er’s ents’ expectations (Engebretsen, 2014, p. 107; 107; p. expectationsents’ 2014, (Engebretsen, 77). p. 2013, Kam, viduals, failure or reluctance to enter into mar into enter to reluctance or failure viduals, feelings oftenriage about considerable brings par to up live to a failure indicates it as guilt, of ry on the family name’ regardless of their own chancesof happiness insuch an arrangement indi queer many For 364). p. 2016, Tang, & (Bie uality, and that they see their primary filial duty filial primary their see they that and uality, ‘toas and offspring get car married, produce aboutattitudes Chinese gay men’s their toward extreme mention respondents sexuality, own homosex own their to related guilt of feelings couples’ inability to produce children, rather rather children, produce inability to couples’ study Tang’s and Bie In causes. other from than ASIA IN FOCUS individual, causes many non-heterosexual in many non-heterosexual causes individual, the family as the core unit as opposed to the tradition Sinophone in societies viewing of ChouSinophone has sphere. argued, the As individuals queer tion of contemporary the in same-sex desire can berelated to the situa phy that prevent fulfilling from Handong his gations associated with Confucian philoso piety. filial and social obligations related to heteronormativity are ultimately perceived on determined based tance towards his end, the major life choices beginning of the novel to relative self-accep sexuality goes from complete rejection in the character’s towards attitude his non-hetero of romance. Ihave argued that while the main moral values and his personal desire in terms accommodate traditional simultaneously to attempts character main the how analyzing by ships and filial piety in the novel relation same-sex between connection the 2016, p. 737). In this essay, Ihave examined ‘queer the of standing (Liu, struggle’ global under and knowledge our that deepen can artifacts’ cultural ‘important as works literary This essay is inspired by the notion of queer Conclusion to. attached riage to awife he will never feel emotionally er, even if it means living in aloveless mar moth his with relationship good a maintain to Handong values most is to beagood son and proves preferencespersonal that further what fulfilment of his filial obligations over his own heterosexuality. that The fact he prioritizes the chooses to maintain alifestyle that resembles he is not willing to display it openly, but rather desire, his acknowledges same-sex Handong p. 78). shows epilogue that The even though (2014, improper and behavior’ proper for its lim dominant within contained and carefully The traditional family values and obli and values family traditional The Beijing StoryBeijing ------

48 Jona BarabasJona model. mainstream and to resign himself to alife that fits into the er causes him to put aside his personal desire, wish to fulfil his filial duties towards his moth he has come to terms with his own sexuality, a family life. Even though at the end of the novel, it as astrategy to separate his love life from his also discernible novel, the in uses as Handong of ‘tacit compartmentalization’ (2014, p. 78) is 33-34). Furthermore, Engebretsen’s concept (2001, according tradition to line family pp. to save the family’s ‘face’ and to on the carry dividuals to their hide emotions true order in Email: studies. gender search interests are identity, human rights and Studies at Uppsala University. His primary re [email protected] is an MA student of Chinese - - ISSUE 5

- - (9), New (3–4), Trans 37

40 , (pp. 163–181). (pp. 163–181). Queer Sinophone (2), 459–487. DOI: DOI: 459–487. (2), Critical Asian Studies, Asian Critical . London: Routledge. . London: . Hong Kong: Hong Kong Hong. Hong Kong Kong: (3–4), 27–46. DOI: 10.1300/ DOI: 27–46. (3–4), 49 Journal Issues, of Family Journal and of Inter International Journal of Homosexuality [Beijing Story]. Retrieved December 9, 2017, 2017, 9, December Retrieved Story]. [Beijing Berkeley: University of California Press. University of California Berkeley: , 69. Retrieved December 9, 2017, from: cnki.com. from: 2017, 9, December Retrieved , 69. (4), 351–367. DOI: 10.1080/17513057.2016.1142602. DOI: 351–367. (4), 12 , Queer women in urban China: an ethnography. an China: urban in women Queer Journal of Homosexuality, 40Journal of Homosexuality, Beijing Gushi Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique, 18 18 Critique, Cultures Asia East Positions: Shanghai lalas: Female tongzhi communities and politics in communities tongzhi Female lalas: Shanghai Confucianism. Sex, culture and modernity in China in modernity and culture Sex, Gay and lesbian subculture in urbanGay China and subculture lesbian Passions of the cut sleeve: The male homosexual tradition in China. in tradition homosexual male The sleeve: cut the of Passions . Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press. Hong. Univ. Hong Kong Kong: (pp. 19–51). New York: Routledge. New York: 19–51). (pp. Dazhong Wenyi

(2), 283–308. DOI: 10.1080/14672715.2012.672829. DOI: 283–308. (2), 44 1267–1293. DOI: 10.1177/0192513X14528710. urban China Geographic, and Gender Differences. forming Chinese patriarchy: families in the twenty-firstcentury Seattle: University of Press. Washington Press. University of California Berkeley: Kwan’s Lan Yu. Yu. Lan Kwan’s 10.1215/10679847-2010-010. Routledge. York: Chinese Societies. Societies. Chinese J082v40n03_03. Press. Univ. cn/Article/CJFDTotal-DZLU201012060.htm. (Eds.), & A. L. Heinrich H. Chiang In Critique. Postcolonial Cultures social relationshipto co-culturaltheory. 9 Communication, cultural Story]. from: shuku.net/novels/beijing/beijing.html. from: 10.1300/J082v40n03_11. DOI: 211–231.

Liu, P. (2016). From Identity to Social Protest: The Cultural Politics of Beijing Beijing of Politics Cultural The Protest: Social to Identity From (2016). P. Liu, Kam, L. Y. L. (2013). L. (2013). L. Y. Kam, Socialism. Under Self the Reinventing K. S. (2012). T. Kong, Ho, L. W. W. (2011). (2011). W. L. W. Ho, Generational, China: in Values Gender and Family (2016). J. & Scott, Y., Hu, Goldin, P. R. (2011). R. (2011). P. Goldin, (1992). B. Hinsch, Engebretsen, E. L. (2017). Under Pressure. In G. D. Santos & S. Harrell (Eds.), (Eds.), Harrell & S. Santos G. In D. Pressure. Under E. L. (2017). Engebretsen, Engebretsen, E. L. (2014). E.Engebretsen, L. (2014). Eng, D. L. (2010). The Queer Space of China: Expressive Desire in Stanley Stanley in Desire Expressive China: of Space Queer The L. (2010). D. Eng, Dikötter, F. (1995). (1995). F. Dikötter, Chou, W.-S. (2001). Homosexuality and the Cultural Politics of Tongzhi in in Tongzhi of Politics Cultural the and Homosexuality (2001). W.-S. Chou, Chiang, H. (2014). (De)Provincialisng China: Queer Historicism and Sinophone and Sinophone Queer Historicism China: (De)Provincialisng H. (2014). Chiang, Chang, W. (2010). Women zenyang du Beijing Gushi [How do we read Beijing Beijing read we do [How Gushi Beijing du zenyang Women (2010). W. Chang, Bie, B., & Tang, L. (2016). Chinese gay men’s coming out narratives: Connecting Connecting narratives: out coming men’s gay Chinese L. (2016). & Tang, B., Bie, Berry, C. (2001). Asian Values, Family Values. Values. Family Values, Asian C. (2001). Berry, Beijing Tongzhi. (n.d.). Tongzhi. Beijing References ASIA IN FOCUS Zhu, J. (2017). “Unqueer” kinship? Critical reflections on “marriage fraud” in Rofel, (2010). L. The Traffic in Money Boys. Rofel, (1999). L. Qualities of desire: imagining gay identities in China. Myers, (2016). S. E. Translator’s Note. In B. Tong, Meyer, (2003). H. I. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and mainland China. China. mainland (2), Studies, Lesbian 5 of Gay Journal and York:New FemNY. The Bulletin logical populations:bisexual Conceptual issues research and evidence. Press CUNY. at Comrades. Tong, B. In 425–458. DOI: 10.1215/10679847-2010-009. DOI: 425–458. , 129 129 Sexualities (5), 674–697. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674. Beijing Comrades . DOI: 10.1177/1363460717719240. (4), 451–474. (4), Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique, Cultures Positions: Asia East (pp. 372–381). New York: The Feminist 50 Beijing Comrades (pp. vii–xviii). vii–xviii). (pp. Psycho GLQ: A A GLQ:

18 18 - ISSUE 5 ------carefully. Thecarefully. geographical/cultural focus be introduced articleof your always should the reader. to Do not include any endnotes or footnotes. endnotes Do any not include be should submission the whether state Please an academic article or an essay. considered words 200 than more no of abstract A concise is required upon submission. Citing references be avoided. should abstract the in read The keywords. six of a maximum Provide of the main er get should a strong impression short this from piece your in discussed ideas list. includ a short include Please biography, inginformation about your affiliated insti academic degree primarytution, and your research interests. publish may we not or whether state Please contact or information. other address email your when journal the of scope the about Think is Focus in Asia paper. your write you differ from readers with multi-disciplinary Thus, theoreti academicbackgrounds. ent cal stances and arguments should be used tion, it must have been proofread by a na by proofread been have must it tion, tive speaker of English. ex words), 350 (+/- words 3500 length: Text and references. graphs photos, cluding in submitted and be prepared should paper The software compatible MS-Word style use APA should you references For • • • • • • • • • • 51 ------

The language of the journal is English. When submitting your article for publica such in a public open access journal. access open a public in such at us email please enquiries, other any For [email protected] Submissions are warmly received all year round to [email protected] confirmation submission in your Include quote to right the obtained have you that interviewees, publish pictures, maps and • • Asia in Focus Style Guide which can be found be found can which Guide Style Focus in Asia at www.asiainfocus.dk. is summarized below. Please be sure to read read to sure be Please below. summarized is the of rules theand to comprehensive adhere Preparing your paper your Preparing con must it be published can a paper Before which style guide, Focus in Asia the to form • • Submissions • We publish academic essays, academic articles, articles, academic essays, academic publish We reviews. book and es and humanities. We aim at a high academic academic a high at aim We humanities. and es form. readable and focused a concise, in level modern Asian societies, from Central Asia to to Asia Central from societies, Asian modern Zea New and Australia excluding but Oceania scienc social the of perspective the from land, their findings in a widely accessible, transna accessible, widely in a findings their is journal the of point focal The forum. tional Asia in Focus is a biannual journal where Mas where journal a biannual is Focus in Asia Europe to a affiliated students Ph.D. and ter’s publish to possibility the have institution an Aims and scope Aims earlycareer researchers A Nordic journal on Asia by Asia on journal A Nordic Asia in Focus ASIA IN FOCUS WWW.ASIAINFOCUS.DK 52