Globalization and Cultural Identity

Thesis By Danel Nurlybekova

Submitted in Partial fulfillment Of the Requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts In Communication and Mass Media

State University of New York Empire State College 2018

Reader: Todd Nesbitt Statutory Declaration / Čestné prohlášení

I, Danel Nurlybekova, declare that the paper entitled: Globalization and Cultural Identity was written by myself independently, using the sources and information listed in the list of references. I am aware that my work will be published in accordance with § 47b of Act No. 111/1998 Coll., On Higher Education Institutions, as amended, and in accordance with the valid publication guidelines for university graduate theses.

Prohlašuji, že jsem tuto práci vypracoval/a samostatně s použitím uvedené literatury a zdrojů informací. Jsem vědom/a, že moje práce bude zveřejněna v souladu s § 47b zákona č. 111/1998 Sb., o vysokých školách ve znění pozdějších předpisů, a v souladu s platnou Směrnicí o zveřejňování vysokoškolských závěrečných prací.

In Prague, 28.11.2018 Danel Nurlybekova

Table of Contents

1 Introduction ...... 6 2 The Nature of Globalization ...... 9 2.1 Defining Globalization ...... 9 2.2 Globalization Trends ...... 12 2.3 Globalization as Post-colonial Imperialism ...... 16 2.4 Neo-Liberalism and Globalization ...... 18 2.5 Territorial States and Globalization ...... 22 2.6 The Side Effects of the Globalization Process ...... 24 3 The Nature of Culture and Cultural Identity...... 26 3.1 Defining Culture ...... 27 3.2 Cultural Identity ...... 29 3.2.1 The Emergence of Cosmopolitanism ...... 32 3.2.2 Hybridization ...... 35 4 The Influence of Globalization on Culture ...... 37 5 Preserving Cultural Diversity ...... 40 5.1 Cultural Products, Trade & Americanization ...... 41 5.2 “L'exception culturelle” – the case of France ...... 45 5.3 The Movie Industry as a Reflection of Globalization ...... 49 5.3.1 Development of the Author’s Cinema in France ...... 50 6 Conclusion ...... 57

Acknowledgments

This thesis would not have been possible without the support of my family. I cannot be more grateful for having loving and caring parents, and both my sister and my brother.

I am tremendously thankful to my mentor, Todd Nesbitt, who has been greatly supportive, and whose encouragements, comments and suggestions have been invaluable. His enormous contribution to the thesis “Globalization and Cultural Identity” was manifested not only during the thesis writing but also through the interest and passion he expressed to the topic while teaching his classes.

Abstract

This thesis assesses the impact of globalization on cultural identity. It contends that globalization poses threats to cultural identity and the cultural diversity of nation-states. It examines the effects of globalization on cultural identity, and how globalization forces contribute to the transformation of cultures. The main conclusions of this paper are that globalization indeed poses threats to cultural identity through the eradication of cultural diversity caused by the disappearance of physical, cultural and economic borders between nation-states, as well as by the dissemination of the views of highly developed countries on international politics and other domains. Furthermore, the paper uses a case study of France to explore attempts by nation-states to preserve their cultural identity and diversity.

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1 Introduction

The structure of the modern world is that of a complex and continuous symbiosis of cultures, languages, economic systems, and political hierarchies. Various stages of social development, have taken place, which have had the power to influence lives and create events, and which have resulted in global consequences. It is accepted to use the term

“globalization” when mentioning this structure. However, not that long time ago, one could not imagine, starting from the primitive, the perspective of understanding a foreign language without first learning it. Whereas now by clicking a “translate” button, or something more complex, the perspective of creating new global commercial realities can be achieved far more easily.

Globalization has brought everything mentioned above by erasing borders, including the physical, cultural, and mental. The borderless world might be a key to a peaceful future, which would be based on mutual empathy, lack of misunderstanding and conflicts.

Accessibility to all needed items and products from all around the world, in a harmonious diffusion of nations’ historical experience, including technological progress. In other words, globalization hypothetically could lead societies to a utopian model of the world, where the arrangement of life excludes diversity. It means that the true meaning of the terms as “nationality,” “country,” “bilingual,” and “traditions” would be lost in the faceless and “monotonous” world.

In the Communication and the Globalization of Culture: Beyond Tradition and Borders, the author starts his discussion of globalization and culture by mentioning utopian and anti- utopian novels of by 20th century authors Aldous Huxley and George Orwell (Mohammed,

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2011). “Huxley ([1932] 1998) and Orwell (1949) both envisioned the death of culture at the hands of technology and politics, respectively…. George Orwell’s (1949) masterpiece

Nineteen Eighty-Four envisioned the world where all aspects of culture, including the production of newspapers, books, magazines, and films, were part of the process of political domination being imposed on the population. Common to both Huxley and

Orwell’s visions was the notion of a powerful central authority imposing structural and social changes necessary for the death of culture” (Mohammed, 2011). In reality, globalization could take on the role of a “powerful central authority” and with the help of the natural flow of its tendencies cause cultural identities and treasures to vanish.

Globalization, as an essential tendency of the twenty-first century, is a controversial and influential subject matter that thrusts the world towards radical and crucial alterations. The consequences of globalization reflect many aspects of our lives, including social structures, economy, the politics of nation-states, and the culture, as one of the most prominent domains (Ritzer, 2011).

Hence, this paper examines concepts of cultural identity and globalization and explores whether globalization facilitates the eradication of cultural identity. The paper analyzes the effects of globalization on various levels, how global integration influences cultural and national identity, what mechanics are resulting in erasing cultural borders, and what these borders mean.

To achieve this, the thesis discusses the connection between globalization and cultural identity in detail. It examines the concept from various angles and proposes a more in-depth explanation of the core idea of globalization, and perspectives of viewing globalization, by

8 providing information and analysis of such subtopics as globalization and the economy, and globalization and its relationships with politics and social reforms. Furthermore, it will explore theories indicating that global integration is a part of post-colonial imperialist tendencies used by the North, spreading their views through new technologies that are the triggers of globalization. Besides this, liberalism, which it directly connects with the perception of globalization products, will be assessed.

Later the paper examines culture and notions of national identity. Globalization and its relatively short history has altered our perception of ourselves, as representatives of our nationalities, and has been the foundation for the emergence of new phenomena such as cosmopolitanism and cultural imperialism. The shift of the traditional cultural perception to the most recent concept of cosmopolitanism is a demonstration of globalization’s effects.

The authenticity of culture is a subject for alterations by the constant pressure of the events’ dynamics. Therefore, it is essential to examine the core of cultural identity and its importance. In the final part of the thesis, the case of France is examined. France is one of several countries that raised the problem of “cultural exception,” and thus an analysis of the

French case will help to understand resistance measures.

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2 The Nature of Globalization

The chapter discusses the multilateral notion of globalization that performs ambiguous results in various spheres of life, including politics, economy, and ecology. Furthermore, it examines globalization’s role as a feature of post-colonial imperialism and its effects on nation states. Exploring the nature of globalization contributes to the further understanding of the threat posed by globalization to cultural identity.

2.1 Defining Globalization

“Globalization is clearly a very important change; it can even be argued that it is the most important change in human history” (Ritzer, 2011). The phenomenon of globalization started to gain weight in academic research, especially in the empirical and theoretical literature, since the late 1980s (Axford, 2014). However, the true roots of the globalization could be traced back much earlier than the age of hair metal and the fall of the Berlin Wall

(Axford, 2014). Early references to the theory of globality were introduced by Karl Marx, who famously argued that because of the nature of capitalism as an economic system

‘everything solid melts into air’” (Ritzer, 2011). Ritzer’s use of the word "solid" meant that information, the mentality of the population, places, and things tended to be metaphorically hard. This figurative expression designated the attachment of a person, for instance, to the neighborhood, where he or she was born, and attachment to the self-produced food that excluded any variety. The solidity of information was expressed in hard ways in its transmission (Ritzer, 2011). Moreover, likewise, Karl Marx was only one pioneer of the global studies, Immanuel Kant mentioned this in his writings by saying we are

“unavoidably side by side” (Barnett et al., 2013). Heslam (2004) explains Kant’s thought

10 as the tendency of powerful governments making decisions not only for their states but also for the others, which creates the borderless world.

If one had mentioned globalization as the most significant change for modernity, one could not omit the fact that it is still one of the most controversial and discussed subject matters nowadays. Therefore, controversies and debates over the existence of "globality" tend to divide researchers and scholars into supporters and ones, who refuse to accept the idea of globalization, and its influence on how people communicate, how they take part in politics, and how economic markets work. The "skeptics" hold a strong opinion that the term "globalists" and hence globalization is a continuation of the trail that started in the period of European colonial expansion with a culmination between 1870- 1914. In other words, globalization for the "skeptics" is "principally ideological, present more in the discourse than in reality” (Schirato, 2003). Moreover, there is a third party that holds its own opinion towards globalization - the `moderately optimistic.' This group admits the existence of the globalization process and its consequences but does not endue them with a value (Schirato, 2003).

The “globalist” outlook on globalization obligates to investigate its concept and nature.

Previous research proposed numerous explanations of what globalization is, exploiting various verbalization tools and methods. Ritzer (2011), the author, who adheres to the concept of liquidity and solidity in explaining global trends states: “Globalization is a transplanetary process or set of processes involving increasing liquidity and the growing multi-directional flows of people, objects, places, and information as well as the structures they encounter and create that are barriers to, or expedite, those flows …” When defining the term, Ritzer (2011) engages further addition by commenting on his concerns over other

11 definitions of globalization. Ritzer (2011) states: [In contrast to many other definitions of globalization, this one does not assume that greater integration is an inevitable component of globalization. That is, globalization can bring with it greater integration (especially when things flow easily), but it can also serve to reduce the level of integration (when structures are erected that successfully block flows).] Therefore, defining globalization is a huge concern of modern scholars, expressed not only in the application of the assumption that globalization carries solely greater integration, but the issue is also presented in “curiously elliptical treatment of the concept” (Axford, 2014). By elliptical treatment, the author means the imprecise interpretation of the term in empirical researches. A reasonable example of elliptical treatment of the definition of globalization could be provided by

Armand Mattelart, a Belgian sociologist and scholar: "one of those tricky words, one of those instrumental notions that, under the effect of market logic and without citizens being aware of it, have been naturalized to the point of becoming indispensable for establishing communication between …different cultures” (Schirato, 2003). The explanation of globalization as “a tricky word” and “instrumental notion” does not serve as an apprehendable and fully explanatory, descriptive characterization.

The author of Theories of Globalization argues that characterization of the discussed notion as ‘space-time compression’ is more than eligible, but the issues with the formulated above definition are hidden in its application where globalization is equal to interconnectivity (Axford, 2014). The ideas of the resemblance of globalization to interconnectivity and integration are analogous and identical for the following reasons.

Primarily, the stated above issues overstress the integration and interconnectivity, when globalization enables opposite processes that will be described in further chapters of the

12 paper. Secondly, the definitions that follow the model of highlighting integration, for instance, and undermining the reduction of integration levels should be treated as false definitions. Hence, in order to fully unpack the meaning of globalization, it is necessary to inspect it from all possible and interconnected globalization in the phenomena of humanistic approaches. According to Globalization and Humanities, globalization in the economic sphere is represented as “worldwide domination of free-market capitalism with its local accommodations and resistances” (Li, 2003). Furthermore, the main features of the globalized economy are privatization and liberalization (Rao, 2000). In the political framework, “it speaks to the changing nature of the nation-state, the emergence of non- governmental organizations and electronic public spheres as these new entities negotiate with border-transcending capital for the governance of peoples and the sustenance of their interests” (Li, 2003). Globalization influences on nation states’ role in international politics.

“In cultural terms, globalization signals an individual's inevitable mediation with the regime of commodification and consumption that both universalizes desires and particularized traditions” (Li, 2003). Li (2003) continues by saying that globalization contributes to the dissemination of mechanisms that transform the time and space perception.

2.2 Globalization Trends

“While it took time for the Internet to develop into its present form, the revolution was that the Internet decentralized information. Decentralized information was the spark that lit the furnace for organizations like Google and Wikipedia” (Ritzer, 2011). Some of the results of recent globalization lay on the surface, and this phenomenon dictates its rules for most of the spheres of our lives. However, in order to have a big picture of the influence of

13 globalization on cultural identity, it is essential to examine the actual trends of globalization and to analyze the reciprocal effects that globalization has on economies and governments.

The American currency, the US dollar, was admitted as a standard, which means it became a “global currency” for establishing stable international exchange rates (Ritzer, 2011). The author of Globalization: The Essentials states that after World War II, the Bretton Woods system was one of the turning points in the economic history that was the primary prerequisite to the development of global economy (Ritzer, 2011). Today, globalization goes further, it transforms the economy and introduces us to an alternative type of money that reinforces globalization by erasing boundaries of national currencies and replacing them with cryptocurrency. Cryptocurrency economy, particularly Bitcoin economy, is a growing sector in economic integration times that has a perspective of becoming a solution to synchronization of monetary policy (Kelly, 2014). Brian Kelly (2014) writes that the economy alters its character from centralized to a decentralized one.

Not only does the evolvement of cryptocurrency blur the boundaries between economies and cultures, but also we have to pay homage to the global tendencies that allow us to see commodities from all over the world on the shelves of the nearest store. The role of globalization as the modern Silk Road became practically feasible by virtue of “global division of labor, which creates and presents this cornucopia to consumers all over the world,” which is a social foundation for the individualism (Robotham, 2005). Furthermore,

Don Robotham (2005) draws a line connecting the rapidly spreading individualism concept, brought from the western world, as an “unrelenting focus on the individual personality” and global economy. The author explains his concept by applying the individualism and the essential feature of individualism “the extension of sociality as the

14 foundation for individuality” to the case of the global market (Robotham, 2005). Here, the author states: "This interdependent system of global finance, production, distribution, and exchange represents when looked at as a whole, a complex and contradictory system of sociality" (Robotham, 2005).

Furthermore, the parallel drawn here is illustrated in the following that consumers and manufacturers as individuals depend on those consumers and manufacturers, who are located at a distance more than ever (Robotham, 2005). Moreover, producers and consumers are interrelated and bonded with a mutual need of consumption. Production’s integral part is consumption; and the global producer consumes globally for global scale production (Robotham, 2005). Global demand poses challenges for the manufacturer and stimulates it to be creative and innovative (Robotham, 2005).

Modern global economy expects from a person to develop his individuality into sociality and that, in its turn, forces a person to blend the cultures from all over the world in himself and accelerate the process of globalization as an individual. "In other words, if one is what one consumes and produces, one could say that persons living in the United States may already be about 10 percent ‘Chinese' by the substantial consumption of goods imported from China into the United States" (Robotham, 2005).

Furthermore, not only the economy acquired a decentralized character by utilizing the global division of labor and innovative currency, but also the nation-states had been transforming their structures in order to conform to the trends of globalization. “One important feature of the post-WWII design of global cooperation for development was its decentralized character.” (Ocampo, 2010). Nation-states have faced a challenge to rebuild the governance principles based on the national level to the type of governance that would

15 be suitable in the interconnected international framework (Ocampo, 2010). Moreover, the globalization as a sophisticated process generates certain intricacies on the way to a truly global economic and social governance mechanism. The main concern of the subject consists in the imbalance of globalization flows amid the developed and developing countries, as well as in resistance of the greater part of states to share their “economic sovereignty in international organizations” (Ocampo, 2010). Therefore, the author of

Rethinking Global Economic and Social Governance states that the “equitable participation of developing countries in global governance” has crucial significance in creating complacent global governance. In order to accomplish this goal, it is required to contend with such factors as underrepresentation of developing countries and to make international economic decision-making processes inclusive for both developing and small countries

(Ocampo, 2010).

The lack of voice for small and developing countries would eventually end up in them forfeiting their significance on the global economic and cultural arenas and be considered as a natural subsequence of globalization; the deprivation of national and cultural diversity.

Therefore, Jose Antonio Ocampo (2010) proposes the further results of his reconsideration of globalization’s influence on the governmental systems’ functioning. He says that smaller countries have to make an effort in order to organize themselves by creating regional and subregional institutions. Furthermore, the significant factors to the small countries would be the proper representation, voice, and fundamental rights guaranteed by international governance institutions. Institutionalizing accountability and strengthening auditing functions of institutions with countries would be necessary (Ocampo, 2010). Moreover, the developing and small countries would require having an opportunity to report the cases of

16 extrinsic abuses from both international institutions and developed, powerful countries.

Besides, the situation could be rectified by restraining the power of the authoritative states influencing the international institutions (Ocampo, 2010).

The recent trends of globalization, which involve the economies of the countries and their governing methods, demonstrate that globalization unintentionally becomes a tool in the hands of powerful countries. The repercussion of the usage of globalization by the developed countries lays in the proliferation of their authorities, and as a consequence, of their culture. The overwhelming majority of world economies tend to be dependent on the

US economic system, as well as on the uneven flow of information, which has its origins in the developed countries. It suppresses the information, ideas, and innovations that emerge in at least favorable countries of the world arena. Another factor that weakens the position of the underrepresented countries is technical progress, which is highly concentrated in the developed countries, but slow and has uneven dissemination throughout the rest of the world (Ocampo, 2010). In other words, the domination of the western economies, which is responsible for expanding the ideas of individualism and the global division of labor, is the foundation for the further attenuation of the cultural identity. The idea stated above directly leads the paper to a necessity to explore the subject of viewing globalization in the theoretical frameworks of imperialism and liberalism.

2.3 Globalization as Post-colonial Imperialism

In the book Globalization : The Essentials, George Ritzer discusses the term imperialism by providing a definition: "Imperialism is a broad concept that describes various methods employed by one country to gain control of another country and then to exercise control,

17 especially political, economic, and territorial, over that country, and perhaps many other countries." However, as it was mentioned previously in this chapter, one of the major features of the globalization flow is blurring geographical, cultural, and economic boundaries. Therefore, the term "imperialism" conveys an impression of being controversial in the context of globalization, as the imperialism, despite the fact it intends to break political, geographical, and cultural boundaries, in reality, it breaks boundaries in order to build up the new ones, and spread the culture, the political and economic principles within the new enlarged territory (Ritzer, 2011). On the one hand, the process of globalization implicates opening the gates for the circulation of the flow of communication and trade without barriers that would provide the peaceful symbiosis of cultures, economies, and politics, and will not inhibit the diversity of cultures. On the other hand,

(especially for the theorists of the imperialistic approach) globalization could be seen as a process that represses distinctiveness of nations, and states, and inflates the authority of the most powerful state. In other words, the natures of globalization and imperialism presumably have cognate features, and the main difference lays in the pivots of these terms.

According to Ritzer (2011), imperialism as a notion was a process that was based on the nation-state, but taking into account the declining importance of nation-state, the modernity undermines a different approach of global control. From this, one can deduce an inference that the term of globalization incorporates decentralization.

The clear understanding of imperialism in the context of globalization contributes to the broader disclosure of the subject matter that will examine colonialism as an extension of the imperialistic theory. As it is stated in Globalization: The Essentials, colonialism has a more specific meaning than imperialism. Gaining political control over territories,

18 accompanied by creating settlements is what distinguishes colonialism over imperialism when imperialism is considered to be an economic term (Ritzer, 2011). It is important to mention that colonialism carries extensive after effects, and issues of national identity are one of them. Ritzer (2011) refers to Edward Said and his work Orientalism, where the author describes the difficulties of previously colonized nations, such as India, to gain the positive national identity, and fight the negative labels that were used by the western nations to portray Indians in the cinematographic and literature works (Ritzer, 2011).

Moreover, when examining globalization as post-colonial imperialism, it distinctively manifests that globalization is a much more indirect way (using media communications, education, production of commodities) to expand the influence of the North. However, as the example of previous centuries shows us, the cultural and national identities could be forfeited. The paper will examine national and cultural identities and its interconnection with globalization in the following chapter.

2.4 Neo-Liberalism and Globalization

Toussaint said: “I would define globalization as the freedom for my group of companies to invest where it wants when it wants, to produce what it wants, to buy and sell where it wants, and support the fewest restrictions possible coming from labor laws and social conventions" (Soborski, 2013). The quote proposed by Rafal Soborski (2013) reflects the ideal concept of liberalism of globalization. However, oddly enough, liberalism or so-called neo-liberalism, led by most economists, has acquired innumerable skeptics and critics

(Ritzer, 2011). Neo-liberalism can be traced to neo-classical economists and politicians in

North America and Western Europe, specifically in the United States and Great Britain

(Berger, 2003).

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According to Axford (2014), the central tenets of neo-liberalism are “individual liberty with the ideals of free market philosophy and economics.” The free market principles or so- called "laissez-faire" economy was introduced by the Maquis d’Argenson (Berend, 2006).

He said: “To govern better, one must govern less” (Berend, 2006). Furthermore, the modern history of laissez-faire began in the 1980s, by the Thatcher's and Reagan's conservative administrations employing open markets, deregulation of economic activity and faith in the self-regulating market (Axford, 2014).

Ivan Berend (2006) writes about the image of laissez-faire ideology, that was treated in an almost religious manner: [… free market system that is almighty and is the ultimate key of economic success, as well as the fact that it had indeed worked in some of the “core” countries and proved to embody an impressive potential for flexibility and an ability to react, influenced policy-makers, governments and international institutions to a great degree, creating an atmosphere of an almost dogmatic or religious belief in a single valid, uniform and universal model of an idealized laissez-faire system.] The results, performed by a laissez-faire economy in developed countries, were impressive and based on these results, the countries adopted an idealized view of the free market economy.

How has the liberal economy adjusted to the recent globalization? Laissez-faire contributed to the birth of multinational corporations in the late nineteenth century and the twentieth century and was responsible for its rapid development and growth (Berend, 2006).

Furthermore, the modern economy proposed a new approach to the system of a single business firm, which should integrate mass production with mass distribution (Berend,

2006). This integration led to the merges of companies, which in turn have changed the initial size of an average company (Berend, 2006). To illustrate, the Ericsson Group in the

20 first part of the 1990s was the world’s fourth-largest multinational telecommunication corporation and had over 13,000 employees in Norway, Denmark, Holland, France, and

Italy, but only 4,500 workers in Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, and Columbia

(Berend, 2006). In comparison, to the recent statistics, the Ericsson group has 94,499 employees worldwide ("Company facts," 2018).

Dissemination of free trade all around the world, the evolvement of multinational companies were the cause of the emergence of a need to decide whether a society (nations of developing countries specifically) is willing to accept globalization fully or only beneficial parts of it; and how to react to cultural diffusion and erosion. The liberal internationalist project, adopted by the western countries and led by the US, promotes the ideology that the developing countries have to catch up with the powerful countries (Kiely,

2005). Today, the world is contingently divided into “liberal societies – those that had made the most progress” and the “rest” (Kiely, 2005). The first category expects the less developed countries to follow its steps, economically and politically, in order to achieve the same results. In other words, “adoption of western values,” including individualist entrepreneurship, is what the liberal internationalists proposed to the Third World (Kiely,

2005). However, liberalism, in this context, contradicts its essence as using globalization as a means of spreading the western outlook leaves liberalism devoid of choice and freedom to decide which way of development is the most suitable for a country. Gandhi said: “God forbid that India should ever take to industrialization after the manner of the

West. The economic imperialism of a single tiny island kingdom is today keeping the world in chains. If an entire nation of 300 million took to similar economic exploitation, it would strip the world bare like locusts” (Kiely, 2005). India is not the only country which was

21 adversely affected by the imposed liberal economy.

Mark Berger (2003) in his work The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization discusses the US-led globalization project and its consequences for the countries of Asia and Latin America that were grouped into the Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs).

The US has announced the USAID program based on neo-liberal views of the economy, whose primary goals were determined as encouraging LDCs to transform their economies and rely more on competitive markets and private enterprise, which would contribute to meeting the basic human needs through stable economic growth (Berger, 2003).

The market-oriented reform was directed toward fostering the growth of production, the creation of jobs in private enterprises, and self-supporting incomes. However, at the same time, the US-led globalization project and USAID were oriented towards their strategic interests (Berger, 2003). USAID’s focus was concentrated on the developing countries of

Latin America, and the overwhelming part of the budget, allotted for the liberalization of

Latin economies, subsidized the reform in El Salvador (Berger, 2003). “For example, between 1981 and 1984 the El Salvadoran government received US$758 million in economic aid and US$396 million in military aid (compared to only US$6 million in military aid in 1980)” (Berger, 2003).

Notwithstanding the funds, received by El Salvador, the neo-liberalistic reform brought unsatisfactory results in El Salvador and other Latin countries. Pressure on the governments of Newly Industrializing Countries to adopt neo-liberal economy achieved its culmination in the 1980s when it led to the extermination of national institutions that had sustained

Costa Rican social democracy, and for El Salvador, it erased the political and economic

22 gains, achieved in 1980s (Berger, 2003). The attempt to adjust the economies of the developing countries ended up deplorably for the Third World that faced [the rising levels of social inequality and privatized violence in the region in the 1990s that have continued since the electoral defeat of the Sandinistas in 1990 and the finalization of peace agreements in El Salvador in 1992 and in Guatemala in 1996] (Berger, 2003).

In conclusion, it is critical to determine whether the neo-liberalistic approach can peacefully exist in the context of modern globalization, preserving its true principles and fundamentals of freedom, or it becomes an altered version of modern imperialism. The answer to this question would be unspecified. The free market economy is the main tent of the neo-liberalism, and theoretically, it answers to the freedom principles of neo-liberalism.

However, the distribution of this idea and practical execution obviously tends to lean towards an imperialistic approach.

2.5 Territorial States and Globalization

Globalization has fundamentally changed the economy, politics, and culture of nations.

Moreover, consumer behavior, production of commodities, and social constitutions of nations were also altered employing globalization (Keping, 2012). All the stated above spheres of the vital activity of an individual establish the foundation of nation-states.

Therefore, it is essential to discuss the challenges that nation-states have to overcome due to the expansion of globalization.

According to Yu Keping (2012), the three elements that nation-states are founded on are namely territory, sovereignty, and people. The author further provides explanations to the three principles of the nation-states, referring to German scholar Ulrich Beck, who says that

23 the first principle lays in states' territory, which regulates their ruling scale (Keping, 2012).

The states within their territories have a right to create and enforce laws (Keping, 2012).

The territory concept of the state in modernity acquired different interpretations. The political and economic influence of one particular state is no longer captured in physical borders of the nation-state — the territory of influence and the territory for establishing the laws expanded due to the interconnectivity of nations. Furthermore, the duties and responsibilities of the nation-states increased significantly, because the results of the adopted decisions reflect societies globally.

The second prop of the nation-states is sovereignty. Ulrich Beck explains, sovereignty allowed the states and their representatives to make decisions, and regulate, and use the forces of monopoly for tax collection (Keping, 2012). States did not accept any authority or power above them; they considered to be the absolute source of political power (Keping,

2012). Also, other states had no rights to interfere (Keping, 2012). Moreover, globalization transformed the sovereignty principle of the states. Yu Keping (2012) writes that the territory and sovereignty of states are interrelated, and he refers to the book Altered States, where the author makes a statement about the reshaping process of the “traditional concepts of sovereignty and autonomy.” Human rights and democratic governance undergo standardization that expands beyond the borders, and it is the cause of the reevaluation of the sovereignty concept (Keping, 2012). Besides standardization of human rights, sovereignty weakens due to an inability of the state to strive for peace, for the health of the population, and promising future solitarily. The third principle of a nation-state is international relationships (Keping, 2012).

As the role of the nation-state weakens, many scholars tend to promote the "non-nation-

24 state tendency" (Keping, 2012). According to the British scholar Martin Albrow:

"Globalized transformation will inevitably lead to the reconstruction of state theories”

(Keping, 2012). He continues by stating that the development of the public's activities was taken to the multinational, multicultural level” (Keping, 2012). Their main point of view is reflected in the removal of the identity of economic and political space, and as globalization continues to disseminate its doctrines, the nation-states' rule becomes more and more inefficient (Keping, 2012). The removal of a nation-state, as a preserver of political, economic, and cultural identities, means the removal of all identities.

Furthermore, diminution of the nation-state’s power and vanishing of the national identities have to be replaced by a new governing system. The modern scholars show their approbatory views regarding the “World Government” concept (Keping, 2012). To illustrate, Herbert Russell, the British philosopher, proposed establishing the World

Government in order to demolish the influence of state sovereignty (Keping, 2012). The tendency amid scholars manifestly implies a threat to cultural diversity and identity of the nations that will be discussed in the following chapter of the paper.

2.6 The Side Effects of the Globalization Process

Excluding the colossal consequences of globalization that were discussed previously in this chapter, there are further consequences of globalization that require further and more detailed attention. It is hardly possible to evade the discussion on the side effects of globalization.

As it was mentioned earlier, the nation-states are losing their power and authority, which is simultaneously happening with the vanishing of territorial, cultural, political and economic

25 boundaries. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that every issue that occludes a path of one country automatically becomes an issue of a global scale. Interconnectivity and interrelation of nations contribute not only to positive aspects, such as technologies that improve the quality of life but also they are the reasons for rapidly spreading terrorism and environmental concerns.

Climate change, the decline of fish and freshwater have recently become a widely discussed topic, and it is an optimistic opinion that the information flow through media would be able to make a change to this. However, we must admit that the environmental issues are, in fact, the offspring of the globalization process. “The free trade that is so central to economic globalization today from a neoliberal perspective is generally seen as the enemy of the environment” (Ritzer, 2011).

Ritzer (2011) explains the connection between free-trade and the global environmental crisis. He states: "a free-trade policy leads to the expansion of manufacturing and the wide range of pollutants produced by it” (Ritzer, 2011). Moreover, the same author writes that in the context of globalization, economic issues are dominant, and the environmental crisis is underrepresented. (Ritzer, 2011).

The environment affects our social, political, economic and cultural activities. In addition, the environment has created a diversity of cultures, and in order to preserve our cultural identities, the global society has to take care of such problems as rising sea levels, electronic waste, and the pollution of the atmosphere. To illustrate, due to increased flooding, severe storms have caused a massive death toll in Myanmar (Ritzer, 2011).

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3 The Nature of Culture and Cultural Identity

This chapter aims to explore the notion of culture and cultural identities, and their importance for the nation-states, societies, and individuals. Furthermore, the discussion of culture and cultural identity is followed by the analysis of the transformation they undergo in the age of globalization. This transformation connects with the annihilation of cultures’ authenticities, and their substitution with global culture, and brings up the issue of preserving culture.

As features of globalization, the increased speed of traveling time and human interaction, are principle reasons for the drastic alterations in our social lives. Urbanites in the twenty- first century have possibilities to fling themselves whole-heartedly into a variety of cultures, whilst not spending the time to reallocate. Infamous Chinatown in California and

Little Italy in the New York City are the vivid examples of globalization processes.

“Whether we like it or not, we live in a fast-moving global community that regularly impacts our daily lives and binds us to people living in different hemispheres" (Messitte,

Grillot, 2007).

The one definition of the globalization is a process of accelerating, called

“connectivity” (Tomlinson, 2006). This side of the globalization process was discussed in the previous chapter of the paper, regarding politics, economy, geographical and ideological aspects. However, it is essential to discuss how “connectivity,” as the main feature of the globalization process, affects the cultural aspects of modern societies.

Furthermore, the application of the “connectivity” phenomenon to the cultural aspects would mean the creation of a unified cultural space that could be called global culture

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(Tomlinson, 2006). Hereafter, it is fundamental to examine the process of symbiosis of cultures, to discuss how even the process is or perhaps is not a modernized analog of cultural imperialism. Globalization creates new ways for cultural expressions by eradicating already established cultural traditions.

Moreover, globalization alters the cultural and national identities of nations. Unified global culture alludes the dissipation of diversity of cultures, and becomes an obstruction for preserving the authenticity of nations’ cultures. Despite the consequences of globalization that could be seen already, the question of importance and the actual necessity to preserve cultural identity remains open.

3.1 Defining Culture

Culture is one of the most complex words in the English language (Jenks, 1993). The word

“culture” represents a complex meaning that includes divine concepts, for instance, art, nutritional behavior, architecture, economy, linguistics, religion, and philosophy. “Culture” is a multi-dimensional concept, and in different time and setting contexts acquires different interpretations. Therefore, examining the culture and cultural identity, while investigating the globalization research, it is fundamental to define culture, in the suitable way for the context of the paper.

Spencer- Oatley (2012) writes that the American anthropologists, Kroeber and Kluckhohn, in 1952 analyzed and explored the concept and definitions of cultures, and their work reached a conclusion that there are 164 definitions of culture in existence. Apparently, today, culture has acquired more meanings than it had back in the twentieth century.

Indeed, the term “culture” revives numerous associations that all fall well into the category

28 of cultural aspects. According to Mohammed (2011), the infamous academic in globalization issues, traditional dishes, languages and dialects, our attitudes towards religious issues, moral canons, and social behavior patterns are what we mean by “culture.”

Thompson describes the culture of a society as “the array of beliefs, customs, ideas, and values, as well as the material artifacts, objects, and instruments, which are acquired by individuals as members of the group or society.” In other words, culture is the foundation and the glue that holds individuals together as the group members, and culture is what distinguishes societies from each other. Moreover, the integral feature of culture, as a basis for society or nation creation, is the quality allowing to integrate the new individuals into the formed and established entity of a particular culture (Battani et al., 2003).

Furthermore, Battani et al. (2003), extend the statement above by adding that culture also serves as a system for social control that benefits both individuals and society. It means that forms of law and social hierarchy fall into the definition of culture.

When it comes to giving a specific and a concrete definition of culture, the scholars of past decades, as well as the modern academics, tend to split into two parties that follow one specific idea of defining the subject. According to Battani et al. (2003), there are “material” and “symbolic” cultures. On the one hand, the supporters of the “material” culture approach adhere to the creed that “material” culture has more importance for the society, rather than

“symbolic” harvests of culture, due to its fragile and perishable character that cannot resist the flow of time (Battani et al., 2003). On the other hand, the “symbolic” culture admirers that describe a culture in a more romanticized way, believe that “symbolic” culture is more important, because “symbols and ideas are the theoretically important aspects of culture”

(Battani et al., 2003). In Globalization and Identity the authors mention the quote by

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Clifford Geertz, who sees culture in the “symbolic” context and writes: “a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Tehranian, 2007). However, in order to understand in depth the behavior of culture in the context of the globalization processes, it is fundamental to approach the topic considering both “symbolic” and

“material” aspects of culture, inasmuch as both aspects were significantly altered by means of globalization, and affected the state of cultural identities of nations.

To finalize this part of the chapter, it is necessary to formulate the one definition of culture that would be firm support for the further discussion of cultural identity, culture, and globalization. Despite the statement that says, “the general ferment around the concept of culture today makes it impossible to pin down an ironclad definition,” one would adhere to a definition stated by Thompson, adding necessary details to his view of culture (Battani et al., 2003). Thompson’s description of culture is a system of beliefs, morals, and ethics, ideas and material artifacts that are acquired by individuals and societies that could be passed through generations and become a distinctive and an authentic feature of society from the others (Battani et al., 2003).

3.2 Cultural Identity

“Are you genuine? Or merely an actor? A representative? Or that which is represented? In the end, perhaps you are merely a copy of an actor ...”- Nietzsche (Chan, 2012).

The current globalization process, as it was discussed in the second chapter of the paper, is an economic and political force that is driven by means of continually developing

30 technologies. The technologies enforce and accelerate the creation of global society, by giving us an opportunity to communicate, to travel, to create a multinational business or implement a career in it without any loss of time and expenses. Furthermore, the opportunities given by information and communication technologies allow the world economy to process on a different and a faster level of production and consumption cycle that, in its turn, constitutes the triggers for the cultural exchange (Atay, 2015). Cultural exchange has reached its large-scale expansion due to the progress of communicational technologies which are not only responsible for the exchange of beliefs, values, knowledge, and views about art, but also for the distribution of material goods, which are included in the definition of culture. Ahmet Atay (2015) refers to Barker, an Australian researcher, who states that globalization is a part of capitalistic ideology used for increasing efficiency of economic exchange that uses technological development as a tool for speeding the production process, and dissemination of mass-produced cultural goods. Consumers from all over the world have (more or less) equal access to the market and the proposed products.

However, one should keep in mind that the products on the market do not equally represent the diversity of cultures. People from Asia read the same literature that a North American enjoy reading, Australian teenagers may listen to the same music their Russian peers listen to. It all means that technologies and globalization, as a consequence, allow cultures to migrate bypassing the physical borders of the nation-states. However, it is important to mention that cultures from all over the world do not diffuse evenly, and nevertheless, western cultures are dominant. The dominance of cultures from the developed countries would be a neat reference to the previously discussed imperialism ideology.

The cultural identity of an individual, as a notion, is a hugely debated topic, and sociology

31 academics tend to avoid this term since cultural identity could not be used as a fixed and stabilized notion (McMahon, 2013). Correspondingly, the term “cultural” is considered to be vague and broad due to its relation to the term “culture,” and this has, as mentioned earlier, more than 150 definitions. Moreover, cultural identity is a concept that could be described as “the generic concept, referring to the attribution of a set of qualities to a given population, we can say that cultural identity that is experienced as carried by the individual, in the blood…” (Friedman, 1994). Further, Friedman (1994) mentions that the proposed definition could also be successfully used for defining ethnicity.

The stated definition reflects the core of the cultural identity but requires clarification. For this purpose, it is recommended to pay close attention to the explanation of the notion proposed by Paul Gilbert (2010); the author states that there are two different meanings that one could find interrelated. The first one addresses the individual’s identity in its cultural aspect, which identifies one regarding the linguistic background, religious views, and social attitudes, (Gilbert, 2010). The second one addresses the individual’s cultural identity and would be a unique feature of an individual that associates personal, cultural experience, cultural background, and characteristics and also presents the cultural identity notion as

“membership of a cultural group,” as Gilbert (2010) writes. In other words, it is referred to

“collective cultural identity,” when the cultural characteristics are shared among the society members. Furthermore, McMahon (2013) indicates the importance of collective identity as a fundament for the nation states: “Collective identity, the emotionally powerful sense of belonging to a group, is a crucial source of popular legitimacy for nations.”

From this point, cultural identity, used either concerning the individual identity or regarding the collective identity should not be confused with the notion of ethnicity, as

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Dougherty describes in Direction of Cognitive Anthropology, “culture is learned and represented individually” (Baldwin, 2005).

3.2.1 The Emergence of Cosmopolitanism

Culture’s presence in our lives adopts digitalized character (Axford, 2014). Digital age alters the community cultures of nations by transforming individual culture significantly through the dissemination of cultural products. Ahmet Atay (2004) writes that exchange of products and commodities across the boundaries of nation-states extends to the exchange of cultural ideas, customs and movements; and when the cultural product as a form of capital conquering a new state, the culture, lifestyle, and mentality of the state undergo a transformation. Hence, the history of globalization processes could be tracked back in decades, and since then the population of the world has faced some of the modification of the culture in practice and was introduced to the new phenomenon of globalization.

Today we cannot imagine our lives without a cup of latte from Starbucks in the morning, behind an Apple laptop checking an email with Nike shoes on. These are the most common examples of the transformation of the routine of the middle-class individuals living in cities in the majority of continents, and these examples allow these people to call themselves by a quite infamous term as “cosmopolite.” However, as it was stated earlier, culture alters through the exchange of cultural goods, one can suggest that the cosmopolitanism is a risk of erosion, as the authenticity of culture exposes itself to it. Hence, it is necessary to distinguish the line between cosmopolitanism and cultural erosion.

Cosmopolitanism has become a highlight of social sciences’ researches, and for this reason, it has gained numerous definitions. However, the core of the notion “cosmopolite” that

33 derives from Ancient Greece has one meaning- “citizen of the world.” (Heater, 2004).

Kendal, Gavin et al. (2009) explain cosmopolitanism as “a transcultural phenomenon, where the production and consumption of particular goods across cultures is the major process by which the other is experienced.” However, in subjective opinion, the concept would not be described enough without mentioning that cosmopolitanism is “a cultural disposition involving an intellectual and aesthetic appreciation and open-mindedness toward peoples, places, and experiences from cultures different from one’s own lend itself to two interpretations” (Prince, 2012).

Furthermore, when studying globalization and cosmopolitanism, it becomes discernible that the two processes march in step, and even cosmopolitanism is considered to be understood as a beneficial part of globalization regarding creating a new democratic platform (Kendall,

Gavin et al., 2009). However, cosmopolitanism has gained a number of supporters, and equal to it, a number of oppositionists, who see it as the politics of neo-liberal elite, who endorse the westernization course of global development (Theodossopoulos, 2009).

Also, cosmopolitanism could revive nebulous thoughts, from one point of view, as cosmopolitanism represents the diversity of cultures that are open for being explored by the members of other cultural spaces. From the other point of view, it symbolizes the campaign of the North countries that use it as a tool for dissemination of political, cultural and economic views.

According to United in Discontent: Local Responses to Cosmopolitanism and

Globalization, cosmopolitanism is a Janus-faced phenomenon that has a consumerist side, which mainly does not raise problematic questions, and the other side which has a political dimension (Theodossopoulos, 2009). The political side brings up discontent of peripheral

34 or less developed countries regarding the relationship of cosmopolitanism and neo-liberal course of international politics (Theodossopoulos, 2009).

Hence, it is worth analyzing the effect of cosmopolitanism on cultural identity, and it is appropriate to compare and contrast cosmopolitanism and cultural erosion.

Cosmopolitanism is a notion that is built on the presence of a diversity of cultures in one particular society that could be represented as a city. Therefore, it is clear that migration is the process that procures cultural diversity and existence of multicultural cities.

Multicultural cities, as a spawn of cosmopolitanism, is an embodiment of a geographical space in which a process of cultural blending takes place. In other words, it is impossible to give multicultural status to a city if the representatives of different cultures live in enclosed cultural spaces and do not transfer traditions, linguistic patterns, and other specifics of culture to each other. The issue is presented in a question: “Does cosmopolitanism contribute to the creation of a new cosmopolite or global culture, without preservation of authenticity of cultures?” The question could not be answered in a one-sided way since it requires peculiarities of all existing cultures to be taken into account. However, if one contemplates the cosmopolitan processes as the roots of the creation of global culture, it would be appropriate to say that global culture is one culture emerging and embracing all other cultures (Axford, 2014). It is replacing the cultural diversity, and it could be the beginning of cultural erosion, and, as a consequence, of erosion of cultural identity in the form we know it today (Axford, 2014).

Furthermore, to illustrate, the impact of globalization on culture, one should address to the music industry and its role in the formation of cultural identity. In Cultures and / of

Globalization, the author argues that music, specifically folk genre music, is affected by

35 global culture (Axford, 2011). “De-nationalisation of music in the form of pop rock music in the 1950s and then 1960s led to a deterritorialization of music from place…”(Axford,

2011). Substitute of folk music, or music with national motives, by current top charts’ hits, reinforces the formation of global culture.

3.2.2 Hybridization

Another theory that explains the relationship between globalization and culture is

“hybridization” or “hybridity.” In the subjective opinion, the notion shares some features with cosmopolitanism, but it has its distinctive characteristics that have to be covered in the discussion of globalization.

According to Ritzer (2011), hybridization takes place when “external flows interact with internal flows producing a unique cultural hybrid that combines elements of the two.” The hybridization notion is often opposed to the uniformity of cultures (Ritzer, 2011). The topic of hybridization, as a potential threat to the cultural authenticity, could have polar outcomes, to illustrate, the animated movie Mulan produced by Disney represents the symbiosis of two cultures (Chinese and American), hence hybridity. The authors of East- west Identities: Globalization, Localization, and Hybridization (2007) write that hybridization and globalization cause the loss of distinctiveness of culture through cultural products that combine characteristics of numerous cultures.

Hybridity, as a product of globalization, is an emphatically multi-faceted phenomenon that requires analysis of its advantages and negative sides. On the one hand, as a community, we acquire knowledge, technology, lifestyle originated in the different tradition from ours.

On the other hand, authenticity gets replaced by the way we perceive the tradition and

36 culture that come from abroad (it is important to mention that an individual adopts a culture through the gates of his/her perception). However, is there a less harmful way of building a postmodernist future, which includes globalization with all its peculiarities?

Chan Kwok-Bun (2017) argues for preserving the cultural heritage of nations, including history, traditions, territorial boundaries in the age of globalization, by proposing a post- postmodern perspective on culture and history. The author describes the post-postmodern model for future global development as “one that is able to carry forward and go beyond postmodernism without adhering to a postmodernist language of excess and infinitely deconstructive reflexivity on culture and identity” (Chan, 2017).

World development, in a frame of a post-post modernistic perspective, relinquishes hope for the future, where culture and cultural heritage of nations would be protected and would be accessible for the next generations. Nevertheless, the research presents the post-post modernistic perspective in a not quite renowned way, and in order to see the significant changes happen, nation-states have to undertake measures that will peacefully preserve cultural identity. Regarding the issue, it is worth examining the challenges and the obstacles modern nation-states face. One of the most active defenders of the nation’s cultural heritage is France that openly fights with Americanization regarding the lifestyle and culture of its population.

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4 The Influence of Globalization on Culture

This chapter proposes a discussion of the globalization’s influence on culture. The main subject of the chapter is communication technologies that alter our lifestyle profoundly, and, therefore, they change our culture. A clear understanding of the reflections of globalization on culture contributes to the main idea of the thesis that globalization is a threat to cultural diversity and identity.

The transformation of culture that is performed by globalization processes affects not only the traits and traditions of nations but also the use of linguistics, social behavior and our representation on social media platforms. Communication technologies, as an essential part of globalization, have been the triggers of the global cultural development, and as a result of the social media’s evolvement, which is a part of global media space, they have been regulating the state of culture in relation to fashion, creation of role models for youths, literature tendencies, technological innovations, and consumer behavior.

Today, most of the decisions we take in life are profoundly based on communication technologies. To illustrate, we read reviews online before ordering a meal we desire; we consider traveling to the place that captured our attention on Instagram or

Facebook feed; we alter our opinion on social issues relying on posts, blogs and comments we read on the internet. Culture acquired its digitalized form and its social factor, which plays the role of the cement that holds the members of society together, and it had also been transformed into the virtual media space form. An event of attending a premiere of a movie no longer carries an obligation to socialize. Watching a newly released movie engages a person and a gadget connected to the web. In other words, personal communication has

38 also been digitalized. Our speech is no longer oral, it eventually reformed into comments,

“likes” and rates. Margaret Yard said: “There is no longer an impersonal world, but a post personal world, where life has turned us into a database” (Langmia, 2018).

Communication technologies, as a new form of social interaction, have made alterations in the cultures of nations, as well as in our day-to-day aspects of culture. Ahmet Atay (2015) argues that the expansion of the television and movie industry market supported the globalization expansion by creating transnational flows of cultural texts. The mobility of the cultural material and its perception are compulsory for the creation of new flows of culture, assimilating into the habitualness of the authentic culture. Ahmet Atay (2015) in his book refers to Croteau and Hoynes, who state that digital media makes a variety of cultures available for the individuals from the outside of culture, and Atay continues the idea by saying that digital media is advantageous “for people who reside outside of their home culture.” One can agree with the author, considering the focus subject of his book

(queer diasporic males), but the paper should expand the perspective of viewing the effects performed by digital media on cultures.

Technologies indeed influence cultural identity formations (Atay, 2015). However, it is necessary to define more precisely what cultural identity is being formed: the one that adheres to the authentic culture of ancestors, or the one that represents the hybridity of stereotypes proposed by the North countries. “The Internet has become a locus for the adaptation of traditional cultural practices as well as the production and emergence of new ones” (Lindgren, 2013). In this context, an adaptation of traditional cultural practices could not undermine the preservation of authenticity of cultures, and, therefore, one can conclude that the adaptation refers to alteration. Moreover, new media infrastructures have become a

39 place where popular culture exists and acquires its’ importance for the shaping of everyday lives (Beer, 2013). Therefore popular culture has a direct influence on our lifestyle, which is a part of a nation’s culture.

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5 Preserving Cultural Diversity

This chapter aims to point out the importance of cultural diversity of nations, by explaining the core of the notion and exploring the threats posed to it. The potential threats, discussed in this chapter, are the cultural products that have their origins in the U.S. The global dissemination of American cultural products are the essence of the Americanization process, which became an issue for France, the leading advocate of cultural diversity in the world. The process of the preservation of the French cultural identity and diversity is examined in this chapter. Moreover, the case of French cinematography shows that it is possible to sustain its inimitable style in the world of US-led globalization.

Preserving cultural diversity in the modernity of globalization is one of the most prominent issues and concerns of the main actors in the world arena. Globalization is perceived in two extreme ways. The first one highlights globalization’s threat to cultures of the nations and to the forms of identity that were established as traditional ones (Kozymka, 2014). In other words, a “cultural Chernobyl,” as this phenomenon was called by a French government official (Berger, 2002). The second way of viewing globalization and its effects on culture could be described as a creation of cultural uniformity (Kozymka, 2014).

At the beginning of the discussion, it is essential to provide a theoretical aspect of cultural diversity. Kozymka Irena (2014) in her book states: “Cultural diversity is the observation of the existence of different cultures, as contrary to cultural uniformity.” Furthermore, the necessary part of the discussion would be answering the question: “Does the society need to preserve cultural diversity and why?” In order to answer affirmatively, one should investigate the opinions of authoritative organizations that execute the issue of cultural

41 diversity and globalization on the international scale. The fundamental part of UNESCO

(the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) activity focuses on cultural flows. Therefore, the organization devotes its attention to the issue of preserving cultural diversity in the age of globalization, and it holds an opinion that “the processes of globalization and social transformation give rise to great threats of deterioration, disappearance, and destruction of the intangible cultural heritage, in particular, owing to a lack of resources for safeguarding such heritage” (Kozymka, 2014).

The central idea of globalization, as a threat to cultural diversity, is founded on the massive expansion of American cultural products and the creation of global culture. In Many

Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World the author (2002) states that the challenge originated due to the emergence of global culture, and penetration of

American cultural products on less developed countries, including both elite and popular levels. In other words, globalization, as previously discussed, erases cultural and physical borders, creates a new notion of global culture that disseminates the culture of dominating countries and substitutes the traditional cultures with the popular trends from the West.

However, the reactions of countries, whose cultures transform, differ from each other. For some actors on the international arena, the global culture seems to be appealing, and the nation tends to dissolve its culture in Americanized flows of global culture entirely, whereas others, such as France, continue to fight for preserving the authenticity of their culture (Kozymka, 2014).

5.1 Cultural Products, Trade & Americanization

In continuation of cultural globalization discussion, it is fundamental to examine the

42 aspects that serve as tools for further dissemination of global culture and eradication of cultural authenticity. The book Many Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the

Contemporary World focuses on the effects of globalization on Chinese culture, the author

(2002) writes that the six-episode documentary River Elegy has “discredited” Chinese culture and was the reason for the embrace of the western culture by the Chinese audience.

The Chinese intellectual elite grasped the idea of universality of the Western modernization model and this resulted in the Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989 (Berger & Huntington,

2002). According to Sommerlad (2018), the tragic incident happened in Beijing, when one million young Chinese men and women had occupied the square, calling for the extermination of corruption, civil liberty, and greater transparency.

As history shows, cultural product in the form of a documentary could carry immense and even tragic repercussions for the future of the nation. Therefore, returning to the questions posed earlier, it is evident that cultural diversity should be preserved, inasmuch as the obtrusion of the western views of culture, and the way they assimilate into a different culture, could be an aspect that will lead to ambiguous or perhaps even negative consequences.

Moreover, as it was stated in the paper, the cultural product is the circulator of global culture, which is profoundly based on Western views regarding lifestyle, economy, politics, and art. It is significant in this context to apprehend the notion of the “cultural product,” which could mean various things. According to Aiello (2014), cultural products could be defined as “goods and services that include the arts (performing arts, visual arts, architecture), heritage conservation (museums, galleries, libraries), the cultural industries

(written media, broadcasting, film, recording), and festivals,” and the author states that

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UNESCO has declared cultural products as not being “like other forms of merchandise.”

Furthermore, cultural products have gained a status of trade actors that actively participate in the global market.

Cultural products of nation-states represent the creative expressions, which are the most visible symbols for understanding cultural and overall human identities (Singh, 2010).

Therefore, equal representation of cultural products of various races, nations, and cultures plays a crucial role in preserving cultural diversity. Singh (2010) writes, if creative expressions are represented, “they can be shared, inherited, and left behind as legacies.”

Moreover, keeping in mind the information from the previous chapters, one can conclude that the underrepresentation of cultural diversity, in the form of globally market is driven by cultural products, by means of globalization, is the main threat to the sustainability of cultural diversity and the cultural identity of nations.

In Globalized Arts: The Entertainment Economy and Cultural Identity Singh (2010) describes the status of identity in the framework of the global market: “The existing literature describes global identity politics as a clash of civilizations, as a battle between market forces and recessive ethnic identity ( Jihad vs. McWorld ), or as commodified and packaged through commercial means in a global consumer culture.” Furthermore, global market cultural identities are presented in forms of cultural products, and as the market is seen as a battlefield for countries to express their power, it is obvious that the cultural products of economically and politically weak countries fail to get the required results to keep their identities safe from a state of recession. Globalization and its features made it possible for the cultural products to circulate the world more freely than before, but the nation-states still regulate the amount, character, and quality of the goods imported and

44 exported (Atay, 2015). However, it is essential to highlight that regulations of countries differ from each other, and in this respect the Western countries track the cultural commodities more strictly, meaning they have more regulations, rather than the South has

(Atay, 2015). This, in turn, creates inequality, since the products that come from the developed countries have much fewer issues to face when entering a country. In sharp contrast, the commodities that carry the cultural expression of less developed countries cannot be easily allowed and therefore fail to make further dissemination in the U.S. or the

U.K. (Atay, 2015).

Ideologically, global culture accounts for the diffusion of different cultures in equal proportions, whereas in reality, it represents the dominance of the American cultural flows.

Berger (2002) writes that the most explicit expression of global culture is in the popular culture, which disseminates and propagates through large corporations, for instance,

Disney, Nike, Apple. Here, the discussion leads to the subject of Americanization, as an essential process of globalization that directly influences culture identities of nation states.

In work Globalization: The Essentials Ritzer (2011) proposes a definition of

Americanization written by Richard Kuisel: “the import by non-Americans of products, images, technologies, practices and behavior that are closely associated with America/

Americans.” Furthermore, along with Americanization, the theorists of globalization contrived such notions as “Coca-Colonization,” “McDonaldization,” “Disneyization,” and

“WalMartization” that express the concerns regarding the dissemination of products associated with American lifestyle (Ritzer, 2011).

The influence of Hollywood, as the leading actor of the Americanization process, along with fast food chains such as McDonald’s, and KFC, Sznaider (2004) writes, refers to

45 global processes of production, circulation, and reception of cultural products, of which

America is an absolute leader. Therefore, Americanization, as a phenomenon, handles the cultural ramification of globalization (Sznaider, 2004). Americanization is viewed as a threat, and, as a result, nation-states that have a concern in preserving cultural identity and diversity, started to fight for the protection of their cultural heritage. One of the most prominent examples of countries advocating the preservation of culture in its authentic state would be France, which will be examined in the following part of the chapter.

5.2 “L'exception culturelle” – the case of France

The case of France fighting for the idea of preserving its authentic culture became predominant in the literature on globalization and culture. Ahmet Atay (2015) writes:

“France is a good example for observing how local nationalistic movements and agendas can challenge the influence of Hollywood products and U.S.-American based consumer products in their nation-state.” Furthermore, the UNESCO organization likewise gave voice to the subject (Kozymka, 2014). In this part of the chapter, the paper examines the French ideology behind the fight for its cultural identity, the actions taken by the French government, and the results of the decisions made.

Globalization had become a challenge to France due to its “statist political tradition, commitment to social equality, the special attachment to language, culture and identity, and long-standing desire to provide an alternative model to that of the United States” (Gordon,

Philip H.,& Meunier-Aitsahalia, 2004). The French government works on preserving the cultural identity, but it is necessary to understand that the countries of the world can not close their doors and cannot leave globalization unexperienced. The authors of The French

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Challenge: Adapting to Globalization (2004) write that one of the significant moments of the French fight for their culture was the conference “France in Europe, Europe in France” at Harvard University in late 1999. There Gordon, the director of Brookings Center on the

United States and France (CUSF), made a statement on France’s “extraordinary adaptation of French business to economic globalization.” At the same event, Meunier, a French scholar, presented a paper on the significance of anti-globalization movements taking place in France (Gordon, Philip H.,& Meunier-Aitsahalia, 2004). Both these papers by Meunier and Gordon have respectively shown that France resists the globalization processes, but at the same time in some aspects, it adapts to the flows of the Americanized economy, political views, and culture (Gordon, Philip H.,& Meunier-Aitsahalia, 2004). This shows that France chose a different path, which is based on active resistance, but the process of globalization even by these means could not be avoided.

In order to apprehend the ideology of the French people and the government regarding culture matters, one needs to turn to the history of the nation. Irena Kozymka (2014) explains the tied connection between culture and government as an old tradition, which tells that the state produces the nation; nation and culture are inseparable notions, which makes the government responsible for the creation and development of culture. “Culture remains the main safeguard of the French nation, which in its turn is the key guarantee of the state” (Kozymka, 2014). This mentality maintains the feeling of tender sentiment that the French people have towards their culture, history, and art. Furthermore, it continues the rights of the French government to pass laws and rules that limit the invasion of cultural products from the U.S. (Atay, 2015). As a further matter, the French have a notion incorporated into their mentality, something that they believe in and guard: “exception

47 française” (Kozymka, 2014). “Exception française” is the exceptional assets of France; culture is included to these assets, and it attained its own term “l'exception culturelle” or cultural exception. (Kozymka, 2014) However, “l'exception culturelle” carries not only a romanticized image of the French people “adoring” their traditions, art, and language, but it is also an expression that represents an “aim to legitimize the regulatory and financial intervention of public authorities in correcting international distortions resulting from a market economy” (Frau-Meigs, 2002). The term is mainly applicable to the films and audiovisual works in order to support the production of the European cultural product and to preserve cultural diversity (Frau-Meigs, 2002). The notion, however, received an ambiguous appraisal by the political actors. To illustrate, on the one hand, Canada, a partially francophone country, spoke favorably of “cultural exception” and became one of the advocates of cultural diversity along with France (Singh, 2010). On the other hand,

“cultural exception” is viewed as a confrontation of European culture defenders and supporters of dissemination of American lifestyle (Frau-Meigs, 2002). “Cultural exception” should be perceived as a “strategy of contained resistance, less against a roughshod

America than against a seductive America, the country of HHMMS, the ‘Harvard and

Hollywood, McDonald's and Microsoft Syndrome’” (Frau-Meigs, 2002).

“Cultural exception” as a notion in international law had acquired its significance in the political arena in May 1993, during the negotiations of the Uruguay Round within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (Kozymka, 2014). The central subject of the discussion was the extension of the principles of free trade to services, together with films and television (Kozymka, 2014). As a result of the negotiations, Irena

Kozymka (2014) states, France was able to defend the ideology of “l'exception culturelle”:

48

“cultural goods are unlike other goods because they are carriers of identity, values, and meaning.” The 46 participants of the Uruguay Round adopted a cultural exception clause to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (Kozymka, 2014).

From this moment, when the concept of “cultural exception” was announced and defended by France, the country had to build a strategy for further actions. In The Diplomacy of

Culture: The Role of UNESCO in Sustaining Cultural Diversity the author (2014) writes that the appropriate concept was the priority of the France’s strategy, which would assist in bringing more actors to the coalition. Later in 2001, Canada (which previously failed to protect its cultural identity) and France, as the forerunners of the francophone world, led an international coalition to “switch the cultural identity issue over to UNESCO by drafting a

Declaration on Cultural Diversity in 2001 and the Convention on the Protection and

Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, sometimes known as the Universal

Convention on Cultural Diversity in 2005” (Singh, 2010). The coalition during the early

2000s ,according to Kozymka (2014), was sending its representatives to Latin America, non-francophone countries to lobby the governments to support the cultural diversity ideology (with focus on Anti-Hollywood rhetoric), and its development, as a legal instrument in the international political arena. The activity of the coalition led to the adoption of the Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural

Expressions in 2005, which became a turning point in international cultural policy ("The

Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions,"

2018). The agreement states the formal recognition of the dual nature, cultural and economic, of cultural expressions ("The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the

Diversity of Cultural Expressions," 2018). Furthermore, the agreement recognizes : “the

49 sovereign right of States to maintain, adopt and implement policies to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expression, both nationally and internationally”, and “the 2005

Convention supports governments and civil society in finding policy solutions for emerging challenges” ("The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural

Expressions", 2018).

France and its allies were able to formulate and legalize the framework for governing culture and cultural product in the age of globalization.

5.3 The Movie Industry as a Reflection of Globalization

Hollywood’s domination on the cultural market, as it was discussed earlier, seems to be an impersonation of American politics of imperialism on a cultural level. A simple observation of the movie schedule in a regular cinema theater sells the majority of its tickets for the people to watch a movie of American production. Cable TV providers include more and more channels with American content and producers of the TV channels are determined to use Hollywood blockbusters as a warrant of increase in ratings. It is an open secret that audience all over the world enjoys the movies produced by the famous cinematographic corporations. Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, and Paramount pictures create high- quality entertainment content that is seen as tools of “soft power” by the supporters of cultural diversity ideology. Singh (2010) writes that the US government promotes

“persuasive and positive appeal of being ‘American’” through the American cultural products. Widespread products of Hollywood threaten the European movie market.

According to Cowen (2001), American movies accounted for 80-90% of box-office revenues in Europe back in the beginning of the 2000s. In this context, France is a good

50 example to illustrate how French cinema and its own unique style of creating cultural content and the organizational aspects still face the influence of Hollywood.

5.3.1 Development of the Author’s Cinema in France

Perceiving the world of cinematography as the reflection of cultural globalization, where the U.S. and France remain the central actors, makes the confrontation between Hollywood and French cinema pellucid. The French side advocates for sustainability of its national cinematography, as part of its cultural identity, with its fundamental concept being the

“auteur” or author’s cinema. In this part of the chapter, the paper examines the core of the notion “author’s cinema,” its development through history, and the threats seen by the government of France in Hollywoods big-budget motion pictures.

Throughout the history of cinema, France holds the status of the most prestigious and authoritative exporter of films to other countries. However, the French film industry releases the production in a smaller quantity than Hollywood, British companies or

Bollywood in India does (Armstrong, 2005). Therefore, the French anxiety over the deprivation of the infamous character of their film industry is cogent. The writer and an

Associate Tutor affiliated to the British Film Institute, Richard Armstrong (2005) states that

French cinema has the exquisite philosophy, which implies “experience over consciousness,” and this custom is making the industry notable and in demand by both the

French themselves and the international public. Also in France, cinema production plays a tremendous role in the social life of the nation. “The French believe that they invented moving picture, so the cinema has always been an essential part of the national patrimony”

(Armstrong, 2005). Culture, traditions, love, the life of the cities, and history are the basic

51 topics of the films, but besides that French filmmakers believe in the true sense of the cinema – expression of art (Shipman, 1993). French authors are led by the idea of bringing art without mixing the film industry with business and commerce into the world, and they do not forget to sustain the national values of aesthetics in the time of dynamic globalization processes. Interesting enough, the education and training in the film schools of America and France profoundly differ in a sense. Cowen (2001) describes the American film schools like the ones that have a business incline, and “European film schools have become more like humanities programs, emphasizing semiotics, critical theory, and contemporary left-wing philosophies.”

The day of December 28, 1895, is notable for the first motion picture of a train, shown in

Lyon by two brothers Louis and Auguste Lumiere (Armstrong, 2005). A simple scene of routine life at the station made a revolution in the world of art. Before World War I, only a few artists were interested in the new field (Rhode, 1976). In 1894 Charles Pathe started a company with a budget of 1000 francs that turned into 45 million francs by 1923 (Rhode,

1976). “Pathe” financially supported some studious in France and bought a patent for using the equipment invented by Lumiere brothers (Rhode, 1976). Charles Pathe was a real capitalist by his character, according to historian George Sadoul, but the founder of “Pathe” saw the “value of the film itself” (Rhode, 1976). The fundament of the author’s cinema in

France was set up; it differed from the budget movies of Hollywood in the United States of

America. However, the crucial moment for the French industry, as well as for the rest of the filmmaking countries was the beginning of the Great War (Rhode, 1976). Cinema production in France started losing a crucial number of workers, and Charles Pathe closed most of the studios (Rhode, 1934). Leon Moussinac wrote that in 1914 ninety percent of the

52 world films were the French ones and by 1928 America took eighty-five percent of it

(Rhode, 1976). The movies of American production were the best-sellers amid the cinematography products (Shipman, 1993). The collapsed French cinema could not recover following the period of the World War I, and the French films “for bourgeoisie” had difficulties reaching a foreign audience. The war compelled the directors, authors, owners of studios in France to make a decision: either to start making films in Hollywood style and re-establish its affairs; or to stay with the immortal French taste and elitism (Sklar, 2002). A resolution of the dispute was proposed by the founder of the “Cinema and Aesthete” magazine Louis Delluc, who said: “The French cinema must be cinema; the French cinema must be French” (Shipman, 1993). His enthusiasm urged the French film industry to stay traditional (Shipman, 1993).

Delluc acceded the industry with already formed ideas and thoughts about the French cinema (Rhode, 1976). In 1910 he started his work at the “Comoedia Illustre” magazine, which was a part of a unique tendency in France. The release of cinema magazines and journals, participation in cine-clubs, debates that were created in order “to stimulate vitality in the cinema” were not practiced in the United States of America (Sklar, 2002). Then led by enthusiasm and passion Delluc started to participate in filmmaking processes and was the establisher of the film noir, despite the complicated postwar situation and lack of money

(Rhode, 1976). Some of his scripts and the scripts of his followers carried an idea that their

“working-class-films” should be separate from Americanized ones (Shipman, 1993). Due to financial difficulties after the Great War big cinema companies, such as Pathe and

Gaumont, supposed that the industry of the filmmaking should be monopolized (Shipman,

1993). However, it never came to life, and the silent period of cinema in France had a

53 culmination in the L’Homme du Large (1920), Eldorado (1921) and more, with its signature “images of expressing emotions,” with music and editing (Shipman, 1993).

Hard times met France during the 1920s, and the French film market lost its competitiveness, but the contemporary surrealist authors turned the industry into the

“leader in the noncommercial avant-garde film” (Martin, 1987). Rene Clair, Marcel

L’Herbier and Jacques Feyder that brought innovations of comedy, visual language, and shot breathtaking landscapes of Paris, created outstanding projects (Martin, 1987). “Films of individual importance” were the priority of the movie industry in France during the

1920s (Martin, 1987). Rene Clair and other authors of the ’20s were devoted to an idea of creating new styles, by applying other types of art into a motion picture (Martin, 1987).

His film “Le Million” distinguished by its use of musical elements, as the main sounds in the picture, brought Diaghilev’s Ballet Russe and Ballet Suedois to the set (Martin, 1987).

The artistic triumph of the French authors’ was a sequence of their many-sided works, in visual, sound and artistic fields. Despite the lack of commercial investments in the French cinema industry, the hard financial situation contributed to the creation of the signature style of France.

The 1930s were notable for author’s French film industry development. John W. Martin

(1987) writes about this decade in his book The Golden Age of French Cinema 1929-1939:

“…as the decade progressed. The grip of establishment norms gradually loosened. As the large production companies- Paramount, Gaumont and Pathe – fell upon hard financial times. Smaller producers, either through negligence or design, generated an atmosphere of greater creative freedom for filmmakers” (Martin, 1987). French films more and more were recovering after the war and even were winning international awards. Moreover, as Richard

54

Armstrong (2005) states, the French cinema was no longer dying or having significant troubles, and instead had “profound influence on American film noir and post-war realism in Italy and Britain.”

The decades of the flourishing French cinema had passed, and the development of the industry without producers or investors made France the capital of the author’s cinema.

There were merely ideas of making art and were considered as such by the creators of the films; furthermore, the directors were stubborn and did not want to compromise with economic situations. Therefore in the 1950’s- 1980’s the authentic culture of French filmmaking remained, but Hollywood was taking the market over, and it brought more obstacles for keeping the inner core of the French soul that was actively fighting with obtrusive standards of the American film industry. Furthermore, the late ’50s and ’60s were proclaimed as the time of “French New Wave,” and during this time the principles of

“auteur” cinema flourished. Marie Michele formulates the ideology of the author cinematography that the director is an author and a scenarist; the director does not follow the pre-established shooting script in a strict manner; improvisation in the shooting process is welcomed; the director avoids artificial setting and prefers natural locations; usually the director works in a small crew; the director employs non-professionals as actors (Reeder,

2012).

In the documentary Cherchez la France, directed by Craus (2010), the journalist Vadim

Glusker states that the modern French film industry faces the imitation of production of typical Hollywood movies. The audience receives ephemeral pictures with low-quality acting, soundtracks, and scenarios. Competition with Hollywood became unbearable for

France, taking into account the will of the French moviemakers to preserve the cultural

55 peculiarities. Would Hollywood swallow up the French cinematography or would the

French remain with their unique features? Despite the pressure coming from the United

States of America, in the documentary Cherchez la France the author and journalist Vadim

Glusker shows that the cultural features of the French cinematography are preserved. The good example to prove the Glusker’s point is the touching comedy of 2000’s Le Fabuleux

Destin d’Amelie Poulain, whose director, screenwriter and operator Jean-Pierre Jeunet makes the audience see the truly fascinating French humor and delicacy through every scene. The film tells a story about a young lady Amelie Poulain that is so attractive for her bright imagination and extraordinary life. The idea of the movie lays in the significance of insignificant events, to illustrate, an insect’s flight might cause a hurricane on the other part of the planet, or how a short appearance of Amelie in lives of surrounding her people might change their future. Moreover, gorgeous landscapes of Paris, the signature French attitude towards women, music with notes of a barrel organ, and splendid play of Audrey Tautou made everyone to fall in love with French culture and get to know its spirit. Movies like this remain the French author’s alive.

From the beginning, the development of French filmmaking industry established its borders and rules that made the cinema of France one of the most magnificent art phenomena in the history. Essentially, the founders of the French filmmaking created a culture that dictates only one term to make movies: French films have to serve the art purposes, and this term throughout the history of France could not compromise with business principles.

“Author’s” customs of directing films is the priority of the French filmmaking ideology, and different periods from the end of the nineteen’s century till modern days prove the fact that French cinema is based on author’s enthusiasm, and the influence of Hollywood did

56 not alter it.

Although the belief that French films are vanishing from the schedules in the cinema theaters takes its place in society, the explanation could be a demand of the society for

Hollywood’s type of movies and lack of appreciation of the historically developed style of

French movies. Therefore, directors in France produce some films that match the expectations of the people abroad for export, but it is not the reason to say that charming authors’ films are dead. Furthermore, the French government using tools like international film festival tries to support young and talented artists and make the authors’ filmmaking culture develop. Moreover, they show the discoveries to the rest of the world and teach the audience to appreciate the art of motion pictures; and keep art as the inner idea of a film.

57

6 Conclusion

Globalization has a profound effect on the economy, politics, and culture, and this effect directly connects with the alteration of perception of cultural and national identities of nations and individuals. The paper argued that globalization’s influence on main domains modifies and becomes a threat to the cultural identity, as an identification, in other words, sense of belonging to a certain group that refers itself to a cultural category, nationality, race, ethnicity, and religion (Hsueh-Hua Chen, 2014). The research showed that the effect of globalization on cultural identity could be described as the eradication of presence of the sense of belonging to a certain culture, which leads to the erasing of cultures of less powerful countries.

The reasons for the annihilation of cultural identity have its origins in the effects of globalization on economy and politics. Globalization affected the characters of nation- states’ economies. It switched the views of economic politics from centralized to decentralized, meaning that the world economies are interconnected and interdependent.

The reformation of the economic structures stimulated the eradication of the economic borders of countries. Economic borders were also undergone transformation due to the evolvement of new currency type and global division of labor.

Furthermore, the flows of globalization perform as the tools of imperialistic politics of the dominating nation-states, whose influence also facilitates the alteration of cultural identity.

In the framework of post-colonial imperialistic theory, the scholars discuss globalization as the US-led notion. Massive dissemination of views on politics, economy, and culture coming from the powerful country represses the cultural identity of underrepresented

58 countries, which contributes to the evolvement of cultural uniformity. Cultural uniformity in this context appears to be a polar notion of cultural diversity that occurs to be a warrant of cultural identity existence.

Globalization, as a threat to cultural identity and cultures in its authentic state, not only devotes to eradication, but it alters the culture by means of hybridization, the evolvement of multicultural cities and cosmopolitan psychology of individuals. These notions became a foundation for the creation of global culture. Global culture, as it stated in the paper, could not be seen as a blend of existing cultures in equal proportions. In opposite, global culture mainly represents the domination of Western cultures and American culture.

France appeared to be the leader of the countries’ movement fighting with American domination in the market of cultural products. The French-speaking countries intended to limit the penetration of the American cultural goods, by proposing the subject matter as a discussion to the international forum. This attempt of defending the idea of “l'exception culturelle” succeeded and numerous countries at GATT admitted the regulations.

The paper’s argument that preserving the culture and cultural identity in the modern world led by means of globalization is an essential mission of all countries was shown through the prism of the fact that the notion of culture (both material and symbolic) plays a vital role in sustaining cultural diversity. The presence of cultural diversity, in its turn, is a warrant of preservation of the heritage of our ancestors.

59

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Beer, D. (2013). Popular culture and new media : the politics of circulation.

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Berend, I. T. (2006). An economic history of twentieth-century europe : economic regimes from laissez-faire to globalization. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/detail.action?docID=256616

Berger, M. T. (2003). The battle for asia : from decolonization to globalization.

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Berger, P. L., & Huntington, S. P. (Eds.). (2002). Many globalizations : cultural diversity in the contemporary world. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/reader.action?docID=3051848

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Gordon, P. H., & Meunier-Aitsahalia, S. (2004). The french challenge : adapting to globalization. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/reader.action?docID=3004359

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Kagarlitsky, B. (1999). The twilight of globalization : property, state and capitalism. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/reader.action?docID=3386064

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Kendall, G., Skrbis, Z., & Woodward, I. (2009). The sociology of cosmopolitanism : globalization, identity, culture and government. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/detail.action?docID=485295

Kiely, R. (2005). Empire in the age of globalisation : us hegemony and neo-liberal disorder. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=3386610

Kozymka, I. (2014). The diplomacy of culture : the role of unesco in sustaining cultural diversity. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=1699325&query=kozymka#

Langmia, K. (2018). 9781498548571 - Social Media: Culture and Identity (Studies in New Media) - BooksPrice. Retrieved from https://www.booksprice.com/9781498548571

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Lindgren, S. (Ed.). (2013). Hybrid media culture : sensing place in a world of flows.

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Martin, J. (1983). The Golden age of French cinema, 1929-1939. Boston: Twayne.

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Messitte, Z. P., & Grillot, S. R. (Eds.). (2007). Understanding the global

71 community. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=3571356&query=Understanding+the+global+community

Mohammed, S. N. (2011). Communication and the globalization of culture : beyond tradition and borders. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=753242

Narayanan, M. P., & Nanda, V. K. (2004). Finance for strategic decision-making : what non-financial managers need to know. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/reader.action?docID=469013

Prince, M. (2012). Consumer cosmopolitanism in the age of globalization.

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Rao, C. P. (Ed.). (2000). Globalization & its managerial implications. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=3000594&query=Globalization+%26+its+managerial+implica tions

Reeder, J. (2012). The Signature of the French New Wave (Godard's Le

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Rhoads, R., & Szelényi, K. (2011). Global citizenship and the university

: advancing social life and relations in an interdependent world. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/reader.action?docID=730190

Robotham, D. (2005). Culture, society, economy : globalization and its alternatives.

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Rovisco, M. (2009). Cosmopolitanism in practice. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire-ebooks/reader.action?docID=438473

Schirato, T., & Webb, J. (2003). Understanding globalization. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=254626&query=Understanding+globalization

Shipman, D. (1993). Cinema. New York: St. Martin's Press.

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Sommerland, J. (2018). Who was the Tiananmen Square Tank Man and how is he being remembered today?. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/tiananmen-square-massacre-anniversary-

73 beijing-tank-man-china-protests-facts-death-toll-a8382111.html

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Sznaider, N. (2004). Global america? : the cultural consequences of globalization.

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Thrift, N., Tickell, A., & Woolgar, S. (Eds.). (2014). Globalization in practice.

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Tomlinson, J. (2006). Globalization and Culture [Ebook]. Retrieved from http://libertyparkusafd.org/Hancock/Failure%20of%20Globalism/Globalization%20and%2

0Culture.pdf

Walls, J., & Hayward, D. (2007). East-west identities : globalization, localization, and hybridization. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/empire- ebooks/detail.action?docID=468210