Index

Abortion, placenta and, 81 of Heidelbergs, 294 Adduction, of hallux, 148 Absolute dates at Olduvai Gorge, 265–266 Adductor muscles, Neandertal, 380 of African fossil sites, 161, 191–192 Swanscombe skull and, 306 Adolescence, among early hominins, 267 African rift and, 160 Ad hoc explanation, of hominin origins, “Adolescent growth spurt,” among early for fossil record, 9 215–217 hominins, 267 Acanthostega, 21 , 90, 115 Adornment, 415 Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), in Eosimias versus, 120 Adult male , 101 carbon-14 dating, 10 Adapiforms, 90 Aegyptopithecus, 121, 123, 128 Accessory cavity, of Fayum anthropoids, 117 Adapinae, skull of, 116 Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 118, 119 Accommodation, in reptiles, birds, and Adapis, 111 Aerobic respiration, origins of life and, 16 , 73 Adapoidea, 90 Afar Depression Accretion Model, of Neandertal origins, 334 Amphipithecidae versus, 118 dating Erectines from, 240 Acetabulum COPYRIGHTEDas euprimates, 113, 115 MATERIALin early African Erectine radiations, 271 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174 Adaptation Africa. See also East Africa; North Africa; of Australopithecus , 158, 159 extinction and, 35 South Africa in dating South African fossil hominins, phylogenetic error and, 58 absolute and relative dating of hominin 193, 194 phylogenetic inertia and, 114 fossil sites in, 161 Acheulian culture in synthetic theory of evolution, 51–52 evolution in, 127–128 in dating South African fossil hominins, in theory of evolution, 33–35 of, 101–103 191 Adaptive complex, in evolution, 113 appearance and evolution of in, at Olduvai Gorge, 160 Adaptive plateau, in evolution, 52 217–223, 233 Acheulian tool assemblages, 277 Adaptive shifts Australopithecus afarensis from, 170 in early African Erectine radiations, 271, evolutionary systematics and, 60 Australopithecus anamensis from, 272, 273–274 in primate evolution, 113 168–170 geographical distribution of, 274 Adaptive signals, phylogenetic error and, 58 Australopithecus boisei from, 187

The Human Lineage, By Matt Cartmill and Fred H. Smith. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

565 566 | Index

baboons from, 96 Algeria Amniote egg, evolution of, 23–24 cercopithecoid from, 95 in early African Erectine radiations, Amphipithecidae, 90, 118 climate change in and Pliocene, 271–272 Eosimias versus, 120 206–207 Erectines from, 239, 242 Amphipithecus, 118 dating Homo sites and specimens from, Propliopithecidae form, 118 Amud 1 Neandertal cranium, 404 289–290 Algeripithecus, 118 Amudian industry, 429 dryopithecids from, 126 Algorithms, in cladistics, 61 Anaerobic bacteria early hominin sites in, 132 Alisphenoids, 56 in food chains, 25 early hominins limited to, 233 Allantois origins of life and, 16 early mammals from, 63 evolution of tetrapod, 24 Anagenesis (anagenetic change) Erectine stone tools from, 265–266 vestigial human, 33 evolution via, 39, 40, 41 Ergasters from, 257, 258 Alleles internodal species concept and, 47, 48 fossil hominids from, 102 Darwinian evolution and, 52 microevolution and macroevolution and, gene fl ow in from, 444–447 in Mendelian genetics, 37 50 Heidelbergs from, 304, 316–320 in speciation, 39 in morphological species concept, 49, 50 hominin evolution in, 206 microevolution and macroevolution and, Anapsids, 25 Homo erectus discoveries in, 238–240, 50 lineage of, 24 242, 243 Allen’s Rule, 259 Anaptomorphinae, 11 Homo erectus radiations out of, 272–275 Neandertals and, 374 skull of, 116–1175 Homo erectus radiations within, 268–272 Allenopithecus, 96 Anatomical differences human origins in, 333–334 Allia Bay, Australopithecus anamensis from, as isolating mechanisms, 43 human “races” and, 44 168–169 in morphological species concept, 48 Late Pleistocene fossil human sites in, 423 Allometry, 71–73 Ancestors Louis Leakey in, 158–160 in Erectines, 262 in cladistics, 62 macaques from, 96–97 motherhood and, 74–77 morphological species concept and, 49 Miocene apes from, 136 of Australopithecus afarensis, 175, 180 in species concepts, 39, 47, 48 during Miocene epoch, 121 Allopatric speciation, 40, 31 Angiosperm-products theory, of primate modern human origins in, 415 Australopithecus boisei and, 188 origins, 110–111 monkeys of, 94 semispecies, hybrids, and isolation Angiosperms Morotopithecus bishopi from, 123–124 mechanisms in, 43–44 early mammals and, 82–83 notharctids from, 115 Allotaxa, Homo species as, 290 fi rst appearance of, 82 omomyids from, 115 Alouatta multituberculates and, 83–84 origins of recent humans in, 297–299 Aegyptopithecus zeuxis versus, 118 in primate origins, 110–111 as part of Pangaea, 14 intermembral index of, 100 Anglaspis, 20 pluvial periods in, 13 Alpha taxonomy, in Australopithecus Angular, of early mammals, 66, 67–69 Proconsul from, 121–123 phylogeny, 199 Angular torus spread of Homo out of, 233–234, 240–243 Altamura, Italy, Neandertals from, 345 of Erectines, 245, 248 strepsirrhine primates of, 89–91 Altiatlasius koulchii, as earliest known of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, Taung skull from, 130–131 euprimate, 113 256 transition of humans out of, 422–425, Altricial infants, 75 bones, associated wth stone tools, 425–427, 427–428, 428–429 of Ergasters, 261 266 victoriapithecids from, 12 of mammals, 88–89 African rift, 160 Aluminum-26 (26Al), in dating South African adaptations of, 33 African Transitional Group (ATG), of modern fossil hominins, 191–192 armored, 18–19 humans, 422–423, 425, 426, 443 Alveolar plane, Erectine, 251, 254 as Australopithecus food, 203 Africans, skull of, 57 Alveolar prognathism biogeography of, 31–32 Africanthropus helmei, taxonomy of, 423 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 in carbon-14 dating, 9–10 Afro-European Sapiens model, Neandertals of Australopithecus robustus, 153 chromosome recombination among, 40–41 and, 345 of Erectines, 251 earliest multicellular, 18 Afropithecus turkanensis, skull of, 122 Alveoli, of Australopithecus africanus, 151 in food chains, 24–25 Afrotarsius Amateur scientists, early geology and, 3–4 in geological column, 8 as tarsiid, 117 America, monkeys of, 94–95 hominin origins and, 216 from Fayum, 117 Amino acid racemization (AAR) dating homologies among, 32 Age of Mammals, 27. See also Cenozoic era technique, 11 humans as, 129 Age of Reptiles, 27. See also Mesozoic era Amino acids humans versus, 291 Aggression, among bonobos, 103, 104 as evidence of asteroid impact, hybridization among, 43 Ahern, J., 356, 407–408, 411, 422, 438 27 Pangaea and, 14 Ahmarian industries, 415 left-handed and right-handed, 11 in mass extinction, 26 Aiello, L., 204, 376, 470 origins of life and, 15 sexual dimorphism among, 37–38 Air, in sedimentology, 5 Amnion, evolution of tetrapod, 24 speciation among, 41 “Air-mattress” creatures, Ediacaran, 18 Amniota, evolutionary systematics and, 60 Ankarapithecus, 124 Index | 567

Antarctica dentition of, 108 of Platyrrhini, 94–95 ice sheets of, 5 Dryopithecus versus, 125–126 of Tarsius, 93–94 during Miocene epoch, 121 Erectines versus, 251 Arago, France Antecessors, Gran Dolina hominins as, 287 Ergasters versus, 261 Heidelberg material from, 315 Antediluvian artifacts, 2 evolution of, 127–128 Heidelberg skull from, 314, 315 Antemolar dentition, of Tarsius, 93 evolution of Pithecanthropus from, 236 Arambourg, C., 185, 239, 271 Anterior accessory cavity, of anthropoids, 91, foot bones of, 149 Aramis, Ardipithecus ramidus from, 167 92 fossil, 97 Arboreal theories, of primate origins, 109, Anterior inferior iliac spine, 139 in geological column, 8 110–111 Anterior inferior spine, of Australopithecus Heidelbergs and, 330 Arboreality species, 157 humans as symbolic, 413–414 of adapoids, 115 Anterior marginal tubercles, modern human, humans versus, 104–109, 129–130 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 118 418 knee joint of, 144 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173–174, Anterior mastoid tubercle, Neandertal, 359 living, 97–101 175–176, 179, 180, 182 Anterior pillars, of Australopithecus lumbar vertebrae of, 99, 177 Australopithecus phylogeny and, africanus, 151–152 morphological species concept and fossil, 198–199 Anthropoidea (anthropoids), 89, 90 49 of cercopithecids, 96 adapoids and, 115 Neandertals as talking, 337–412 compliant walking and, 142–143 apomorphies of, 91–93 Oreopithecus versus, 126 of early marsupials, 84 body heat control in, 264 Orrorin and Ardipithecus versus, 168 of , 101 braincase of, 95 Orrorin tugenensis versus, 166 hominid evolution and, 127 Cenozoic radiations of, 121–128 pedal phalanges of, 149 hominoid adaptations for, 97–98, 98–99, climate change and, 121 pelvis of, 139 99–100 dimorphism index among, 209 pronation and supination of hands of, in hominin origins, 216 Eosimias versus, 120 99–100 of multituberculates, 84 earliest, 117–120 versus, 165 of notharctids, 115 ears of, 91, 92 shoulder girdle of, 97–98 of omomyoids, 115 evolution of, 128 Sivapithecus versus, 124 of orangutans, 101 from Fayum, 117–118, 119 Taung skull among, 131 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Heidelbergs versus, 331 Apical abcesses, of Kabwe skull, 318 in primate evolution, 109 omomyoids versus, 115 Apical tufts, of Australopithecus afarensis, of primates, 84 Oreopithecus versus, 126 174 of Proconsul, 122–123 placenta of, 80, 94 Apical wear facets, of Sahelanthropus teeth, of Tarsius, 93 sexual dimorphism among, 93 165 Archaeolemuridae, 90 skull of, 91–93 Apices, of early teeth, 78, 79 Archaeology, of hominin technologies, subgroups of, 94 Apidima, Greece, Heidelberg skull from, 265–267 Tarsius and, 93, 94 314 Archosaurs, cladistics of, 62 Taung child among, 130, 131 Apidium, Oreopithecus versus, 126 Arctocebus, intermembral index of, 100 teeth and diet of, 202 Apocrine sweat glands, 264 Ardipithecus, 165, 167–168 Anti-Darwinism, microevolution and Apomorphic character states (apomorphies). Australopithecus anamensis versus, 169 macroevolution and, 51 See also Derived character states restricted distribution of, 233 Antibiotics, bacterial resistance to, 40 of anthropoids, 91–93 Ardipithecus kadabba, 167–168 Antón, S., 243, 275, 278, 290, 324, 372 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 ecology of, 207 Anubis baboon, 45 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172 Ardipithecus ramidus, 167–168 Aotus, 94–95 of Australopithecus africanus skull, Australopithecus boisei versus, 190 intermembral index of, 100 151–152 ecology of, 207 Apes of Australopithecus boisei, 189, 190 secretiveness of research on, 185 of Africa, 101–103 Australopithecus diet and, 201 Argon-39 (39Ar), in radiometric dating, 10 arboreality of, 101, 109, 127 in Australopithecus phylogeny, Argon-40 (40Ar), in radiometric dating, 10 australopithecines as, 157 196–201 Argon–argon dating techniques, 10 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 171, of Erectine skull, 238 Arid environments, hominin body size 173–174, 174–175, 176, 182 of Gran Dolina hominins, 286–287 increase and, 261–262 Australopithecus africanus versus, 151 of Heidelbergs, 332–333, 335 Arizona, geological column in, 7 Australopithecus anamensis versus, in hominin origins, 217 Arm-swingers 169–170 of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, ancestral gibbons as, 126 Australopithecus versus, 177, 178, 180, 256–257 dryopithecids as, 125–126 181, 182 of human feet, 147–150 evolution of, 125 Australopithecus versus, 201 of human skin, 264 gibbons as, 101 Australopithecus versus, 203 Neandertal cranial, 351 and as, 102 average brain/body weights of, 133, 134 phylogenetic error and, 55 Miocene Old World monkeys as, 121 bipedal, 129–232 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 Morotopithecus bishopi as, 124 568 | Index

Oreopithecus as, 126 Assimilation Model (AM) estimated body sizes and sexual Sivapithecus sivalensis as, 124, 125 Neandertals and, 345 dimorphism in, 210–211 Armored animals, fi rst appearance of, 18–19 of recent , 470, 473–476 evolution of, 128 Arms, of hominoids and monkeys, 97–98. See Asteroid, in Cretaceous mass extinction, Habilines versus, 224–227, 228 also Forearm; Forelimb(s) 26–27 Heidelbergs versus, 331, 332 Arsuaga, J.-L., 285–287, 309, 312–314 Atapuerca, Spain hip joint of, 181–182 Arthropods Erectines from, 240 Homo as advanced, 217–223 colonization of land by, 22 hominin fossils from, 284–287 Homo erectus brain versus, 248–249, 250 fi rst appearance of, 18 Homo heidelbergensis from, 309–314 Homo ergaster versus, 256 Articular ATD6 specimens, 285–286 Homo habilis versus, 164, 227, 229–230 of diapsids, 69 ATE9-1 mandible, 284 Homo rudolfensis versus, 230 of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 Ateles Homo species versus, 232 Articular eminence, Neandertal, 359–360 human evolution and, 95 human migrations and, 272, 273 Articular eminence/tubercle, of intermembral index of, 100 hunting and gathering by, 201, 205, Australopithecus africanus, 151 lumbar vertebra of, 123 209–214 Articular tubercle, of Erectines, 247 Atelidae, 90 Indonesian Erectines and, 276 Artifacts, European hominin, 284 human evolution and, 95 intermembral index of, 100 Artifi cial selection, 30 Aterian industry, 438 KNM-ER 3228 versus, 260 Artiodactyls, cladistics of, 61 Atlanthropus mauritanicus, 239 KNM-WT 15000 and, 257 Arvicola, 283 Atmosphere KNM-WT 15000 versus, 258–259 Ash layers, at Zhoukoudian, 279 climatic changes and, 12–13 Liang Bua hominins versus, 327, 328, 329 Asia earliest land plants and, 22–23 “Lucy” as, 172 ancestral gibbons from, 126 origins of life and, 15, 16 Mauer mandible versus, 308 ancestral orangutans from, 124 in radiocarbon dating, 9–10 Neandertals versus, 381 ape evolution in, 127, 128 Auditory bulla ontogeny and development of, 268 cercopithecoid primates from, 95 of Eosimias, 120 Orrorin tugenensis versus, 166 cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 of omomyoid primates, 115 phylogenetic inertia of, 114 earliest from, 19 in primate origins, 109 phylogeny of, 195–201, 231–232 early African Erectine radiations to, of primates, 85–87 Piltdown affair and, 296. 297 270–271 Aurignacian culture, 414–415 Ramapithecus and, 136 early fossil euprimates from, 113 Australasia restricted distribution of, 233 Eosimias from, 120 cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 Sahelanthropus versus, 165 Erectine postcranial remains from, Heidelberg specimens from, 323–324, sexual dimorphism of, 207–209, 209–214, 252–253 333 214–215 Erectine stone tools in, 274 modern human skulls from, 417 single-species hypothesis and, 188 Erectines from, 239–240, 250, 251 modern humans from, 450–458 skull of, 171 Ergasters versus Erectines from, 254–255, Australia from South Africa, 190–193, 193–195, 256–257 early multicellular fossils from, 18 230–231 evolution of Homo sapiens in, 206 geographic isolation of, 39 stone tools of, 265 Heidelbergs from, 304, 320–330 human “races” and, 44 systematics of, 101–102, 164 Homo species from, 217 as part of Pangaea, 14 water consumption by, 262 human origins in, 235, 237 Australian chert, origins of life and, 15 Zinjanthropus boisei versus, 163 human “races” and, 44 Australopithecina, systematics of, 102 Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185–187 ice sheets of, 5 Australopithecus, xiii, 216 Australopithecus boisei versus, 189 macaques from, 96–97 adult specimens and features of, 131–136 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–200 modern humans in eastern, 429–430, Ardipithecus versus, 167 diet of, 204 430–432, 447–450 Australopithecus anamensis as, 169, 170, Australopithecus afarensis, 170–173, 343 monkeys of, 94 171–172, 175 Ardipithecus versus, 167 Neandertal discoveries in, 345 autapomorphies of, 157–158, 159 Australopithecus anamensis versus, 169, Neandertals from, 352 bipedality of, 131, 150–151 170 Neandertals from central, 402–406 body heat control in, 264 Australopithecus bahrelghazali versus, Neandertals from western, 402–406 brain of, 291, 292 182–183 omomyids from, 115 dating of Sterkfontein fossil sites for, Australopithecus garhi versus, 184 plesiadapiforms from, 111 190–193, 193–195 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–201 Sivapithecus sivalensis from, 124–125 diet of, 201–205, 209–214, 263 Australopithecus platyops taxonomy and, spread of Homo throughout, 233, 234 dietary signatures on teeth of, 203 183 strepsirrhine primates of, 91 Dmanisi hominins versus, 282 average brain and body weights of, 133 Asia Minor, Griphopithecus from, 126 early African Erectine radiations and, 270 childbirth in, 172 Asians, skull of, 57 ecology, 205–207 in dating South African fossil hominins, Assimilation, 46 Erectines and Ergasters versus, 253 192, 193, 194, 195 by modern humans, 476–479 Erectines versus, 247, 251, 252 dental breadths of, 152 Index | 569

diet of, 202, 203 in dating South African fossil hominins, 192 dating South African, 190–191, 192, dimorphism index of, 209 dental breadths of, 152 193–195 estimated body sizes and sexual ecology of, 207 dental breadths of, 152 dimorphism in, 210 morphological species concept and, 49 diet of, 156, 202–203 femur of, 159 tibia of, 170 “digging sticks” used by, 266–267 foot bones of, 149 Australopithecus bahrelghazali, 182–183 early African Erectine radiations and, 268, hip joint of, 181–182 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196, 199 269, 270 Homo habilis versus, 220–221 ecology of, 207 early Homo versus, 222 intermembral index of, 100 secretiveness of research on, 185 estimated body sizes and sexual knee joint of, 144 Australopithecus boisei, 187–190, 217 dimorphism in, 211 Liang Bua hominins versus, 327 Australopithecus aethiopicus versus, femur of, 159 locomotion of, 173–176, 176–182 185–187 hip joint of, 182 maxilla of, 184 Australopithecus garhi versus, 184 niche partitioning by, 207–208 morphological species concept and, 49 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–201 pelvis of, 158 niche partitioning by, 208–209 average brain and body weights of, 133 postcranial peculiarities of, 157–158, OH 62 versus, 229 in dating South African fossil hominins, 159 scapula of, 179 194, 195 skull of, 153–156 sexual dinichism among, 214 dental breadths of, 152 systematics of, 152–153 Australopithecus africanus dentition of, 163 teeth of, 152–154, 155, 156 adult specimens and features of, 131–136 early Homo versus, 219, 222 Zinjanthropus boisei versus, 162–163 as ape, 157 estimated body sizes and sexual Australopithecus rudolfensis Australopithecus afarensis versus, dimorphism in, 211 body size estimates for, 258 170–172 fossils of, 224, 226 dating of, 240, 290 Australopithecus boisei versus, 189 Habilines versus, 228 encephalization quotients for, 261 in Australopithecus garhi phylogeny, Homo habilis versus, 227 Erectines and Ergasters versus, 253 184–185 niche partitioning by, 208, 209 Erectines versus, 243, 247, 249, 252 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 195–201 skull of, 162–163 Habilines versus, 232 Australopithecus robustus versus, Australopithecus garhi, 183–185 OH 28 versus, 260 152–156 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196, 197, stone tools of, 265 average brain and body weights of, 133, 199, 200, 201 Autapomorphies 134 in dating South African fossil hominins, 192 of Australopithecus, 157–158, 159 biomechanics of, 154–156 dental breadths of, 152 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 bipedality of, 150–151 diet of, 204 in Piltdown affair, 296 dating South African, 190–191, 192, 193, Habilines versus, 232 Avahi, intermembral index of, 100 194, 195 Liang Bua hominins versus, 327 Aves, evolutionary systematics and, 59, 60 dental breadths of, 152 OH 62 versus, 229 Awash River diet of, 156, 202, 203, 204 secretiveness of research on, 185 Ardipithecus ramidus from, 167 early African Erectine radiations and, 268, stone tools of, 265 Australopithecus anamensis from, 169 270 Australopithecus habilis. See also Homo Australopithecus garhi from, 183 estimated body sizes and sexual habilis Bodo cranium from, 318 dimorphism in, 211 brain size, body size, and subsustence dating Erectines from, 240 Habilines versus, 225, 226 strategies in, 262 Erectine material from, 239 Homo erectus versus, 218 dating of, 290 stone tools from, 265 Homo habilis versus, 227 Erectines versus, 243, 247, 252 Axillary border, Neandertal, 377–378 hypoglossal canal of, 395 Homo ergaster versus, 256 Axillary groove, of KNM-WT 15000, 258 intermembral index of, 100 stone tools of, 265 Axiom, parsimony principle as, 30 lumbar vertebrae of, 177–178 Australopithecus platyops, 183 Aye-aye, 90–91 niche partitioning by, 207–208, 209 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196, 199 pelvis of, 158 Australopithecus prometheus, systematics Baboons, 96 Plesianthropus as, 132 of, 152 Australopithecus versus, 203 postcranial peculiarities of, 157–158, 159 Australopithecus robustus, 152–156 canine fangs of, 96 single-species hypothesis and, 188 as ape, 157 giant, 128 skull of, 132, 133, 151–152, 218 Australopithecus aethiopicus versus, lumbar vertebrae of, 99 from Sterkfontein, 231 185–186 regional populations of, 44, 45 stone tools of, 265 Australopithecus africanus versus, scapula of, 97 systematics of, 152 152–156 shoulder girdle and thorax of, 97 Taung child as type specimen of, 130 Australopithecus boisei versus, 189 Back problems, human, 137–138 teeth of, 133–135 Australopithecus garhi versus, 184 Bacteria Australopithecus anamensis, 168–170 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 195–201 biological species concept and, 46 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196, 199, average brain and body weights of, 133 Ediacaran, 18 200 biomechanics of, 154–156 multicellular organisms and, 17 570 | Index

origins of life and, 15, 16 Bilzingsleben, Germany Birds resistance to antibiotics, 40 bone artifacts from, 266 accommodation in, 73 Bagadotten carrier pigeon, 30 Erectines from, 239 bipedality of, 135, 142 Bailey, S., 372, 412 Homo heidelbergensis from, 305 Cenozoic, 27 Baleen whales, 27 Binford, L., on hunting by early hominins, cladistics of, 62 Bamboo, for Erectine tools, 277 212 eggs of, 24 Bapang Formation Biocultural adaptations, of Erectines, 273 lifespan of, 74 dating Erectines from, 241 Biogeography lineage of, 24 Erectines from, 276–277 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199–201 after Permian mass extinction, 26 Baringo mandibles, in early African Erectine Erectine, 240–243 respiration among, 78 radiations, 271 of humans, 44, 46 sexual dinichism among, 215 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), Neandertal, in morphological species concept, 48 sexual selection among, 37, 38 376 theory of evolution and, 31–32, 42 Biretia, from Fayum, 118 Basalts, Pangaea and, 14 Biological defi nition of species, 39 Birth canal, Neandertal, 380 Basicranial fl exion/fl exure Biological species concept (BSC), 39 Bison, 478 of and modern human, 106 fossils and, 46–48 Bisulcate scapular crest, Neandertal, 378 of humans versus apes, 104 morphological species concept and, 49–50 Black, Davidson, 237 Neandertal language and, 394–395 Biology “Black skull,” of Australopithecus Basilar synchondroses, Neandertal, 384 uniformitarianism in, 4 aethiopicus, 185–186 Bateman, A., 37–38 versus creationism, xi Blending theory of heredity, 35 Bats Biomechanics Boa Leza, artifacts from, 277–278 diversity of, 27 of Australopithecus species, 154–156 Bodo cranium, 318–319, 335 eye of, 110 of Heidelbergs, 332 in early African Erectine radiations, 271 Beckershof, W., 339 in hominin origins, 215 Body hair Begun, D., 126, 261 Biostratigraphic column, 6 in body heat control, 264 Behavioral differences, as isolating Biostratigraphy of early humans, 263 mechanisms, 43 Erectine, 240–243 Body hair loss, in body heat control, 264 Berckhemmer, F., 306 faunal succession in, 7–9 Body mass Bergmann’s Rule, Erectines and, 253 in geological dating, 6 of Erectines, 253 Bermúdez de Castro, J.-M., 285–287, 293, relative and absolute dating in, 9 of Habilines, 231, 232 308–314, 383 Bipedality, 135 Pleistocene human, 293 Beryllium-10 (10Be), in dating South African of apes versus humans, 129–232 Body proportions fossil hominins, 191–192 of Ardipithecus, 167 of Habilines, 231, 232 Beta decay, 9, 10 of Australopithecus, 114, 131, 177 of Neandertals, 373–383 Beta particles, 9 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172–173, Body size Beta radiation, 10 173–176, 176–182 of East African human specimens, 258 Bi-Iliac Index, of KNM-WT 15000 and of Australopithecus africanus, 135, of Neandertals, 373–383 modern humans, 259 150–151 subsistence strategies and, 262 Biache-Saint-Vaast Neandertal cranium, 399 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169–170 Body size increase, in hominin evolution, Bible in Australopithecus lifestyle, 205–206, 261–262 biogeography problem with, 31 207 Body temperature, of mammals, 73 catastrophism and, 8–9 of Australopithecus species, 158, 159 Body weight–brain plots, for mammals, in dating earth’s history, 2–3 dating South African fossil hominins and, 72–73 evolutionary adaptations and, 33–34 195 Body weights, average ape versus hominin, Flood of Noah in, 2–3 of early hominins, 20 133, 134 fossil record and, 2, 3–4 feet in, 146–150 Bolus, M., 348 Linnaean classifi cation and, 58, 59 Habiline, 228 Bone accumulation, in dating South African species concepts in, 38–39 hip joint and, 145–146, 147 fossil hominins, 191, 193–194 speculation about earth’s history in, 1–2, in hominin origins, 215–216 Bone fragments, as tools, 266 2–3 as human feature, 129–130 Bone tools Biceps muscle human versus bird, 135 Australopithecus diet and, 204 of Australopithecus africanus, 179 in early hominin lifestyle, 209, 211, 212, in dating South African fossil hominins, Neandertal, 378 213 194 Bicondylar angle, 145 knees and, 142–145 Bones Biface assemblages, of Heidelbergs, 294 of KNM-WT 15000, 258, 259, 260 associated wth stone tools, 266 Bifaces, 265 of OH 28, 260 as tools, 266 Big Bang, 4 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166–167 Bonobos, 103–104. See also Pan paniscus Bilateral symmetry, of multicellular animals, primate pelvis and, 138–142 Australopithecus versus, 180 19 sexual dinichism and, 214–215 lifestyles of, 103 Bilevel nasal fossa fl oor, 367 of Taung child, 130 tool use among, 103–104 Bilophodont molars, of cercopithecoids, 96 vertebral column and, 136–138 Bony labyrinth, Neandertal, 360–361 Index | 571

Book of Job, speculation about earth’s of anthropoids, 93 Browsing, by Australopithecus, 202, 203 history in, 1–2 of Australopithecus, 201, 204, 205 Brückner, E., 13 Border Cave material, 435–436 in dating South African fossil hominins, Brunet, M., 164–165, 168, 182 Bos, 478 194 Brunhes polarity epoch (chron), 12, 241, Bose Basin tools, 275 diet and, 262–263 242, 243 Bothriolepis, 20 of Habilines, 232 Buccal side of cheek teeth, of early Bottlenecks, in speciation, 39 in hominin origins, 216 mammals, 78, 79 Boule, M., on Neandertals, 343, 357 of Homo habilis, 217–218, 218–219 Buia cranium, 239, 240, 254, 271 Boundaries, in species concepts, 46, 47, 48 Homo sapiens versus Homo Burial dating, of South African fossil Bounding, in mammals, 69, 70 heidelbergensis, 292–294 hominin, 191–192 Bouri Formation, Australopithecus garhi of humans and apes, 104 Burials from, 183, 184 and hunting hypothesis, 211 at Lagar Velho, 464 Boxgrove, Homo heidelbergensis from, 309 in newborn Ergasters, 261 by Neandertals, 338 Brace, C. L., 195, 218, 263, 289, 344, 371 ontogeny and development and, 267–268 Burma, Eosimias from, 120 Brachial index relative, 292 Butzer, K., 234 of KNM-WT 15000 and modern humans, required to be human, 291 259 sexual dinichism and, 215 Cachel, S., 223, 264–268, 273, 275 Neandertal, 374, 376 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, Caenolestes, skull of, 76 Brachiators, gibbons as, 101 328 Calcaneocuboid joint, Habiline, 228 Brachiopods, fi rst appearance of, 19 subsistence strategies and, 262 Calcaneus, 148–149 Brachioradialis muscle, of Orrorin Braincase of Australopithecus afarensis, 173, 174, tugenensis, 167 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 176 Brachyteles, intermembral index of, 100 of Australopithecus afarensis, 170 Calcite crystals, in uranium-series dating, 11 Brain(s) of Australopithecus africanus, 151, 226 Calcium allometry and mammalian, 71, 72–73 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 in dating “digging sticks,” 266–267 of Australopithecus, 171 of Australopithecus robustus, 153, 154 diet of Australopithecus and, 202, 203, of Australopithecus afarensis, 170–171 in dating South African fossil hominins, 204 of Australopithecus africanus, 132–133, 194–195 Callithrix, intermembral index of, 100 134 of early Homo, 218, 225 Callitrichidae, 90, 95 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 of Erectines, 244 Caloric intake, Neandertal, 385 average weight of ape versus hominin, of Fayum anthropoids, 118 Calvarium. See also Skull 133, 134 of Heidelbergs, 330, 332 KNM-ER 42700, 239 basicranial fl exure/fl exion and, 106 of humans versus apes, 104 Perning 1, 237–238, 240, 241–242, 249, of Eosimias, 120 from Java, 237–238, 244 250 of Erectines, 243–245, 247 modern human, 419 “Pithecanthropus II,” 244 of gorillas, 107 of monkeys, 94, 95 “Pithecanthropus VIII,” 244 of Heidelbergs, 294 Neandertal, 350 period, 8 of Homo erectus, 248–250 from Olduvai Gorge, 160 multicellular animals in, 18 homologies among, 32 pelvis and infant, 139, 140 Cambrian revolution, 18–21 human, 28 of reptiles and mammals, 70–71 Canine fangs in human evolution, 291–292 of Sahelanthropus, 165 of adapoid primates, 115 of Neandertals, 339–340, 361 of South African Habilines, 231 of Ardipithecus, 167 of Oreopithecus, 127 of Taung child, 130, 131 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171–172 of Pithecanthropus erectus, 236 Branchiostoma, 19, 20 of Australopithecus africanus, 133–134, of plesiadapiforms, 111 Bräuer, G., 256, 271, 279, 299, 344–345, 427, 135, 151 in primate origins, 111 435, 461, 470, 473, 481 of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, 169 of primates, 84, 85 Breathing, of early mammals, 69, 73 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 of reptiles and mammals, 70–71 Breccias, 130 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, in dating South African fossil hominins, of Australopithecus robustus, 153 329 191, 192, 193, 194 of Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 of Taung child, 130–131 Breeding, artifi cial selection in, 30 of cercopithecoid primates, 95–96 of asiatica, 114 Breeding patterns, in species concepts, 46 in dating South African fossil hominins, of vertebrates, 20 Broca’s area/cap, Erectine, 249 192, 194 Brain–body weight plots, for mammals, Broom, Robert, 132, 152, 217 in early hominin ecology, 208 72–73 Brow ridges of early mammals, 63, 66 Brain growth of humans versus apes, 104 Erectine, 252 Erectine, 249–250 modern human, 419 Ergaster, 256 Ergaster, 261 Neandertal, 408 Habiline, 228 Brain mass, Pleistocene human, 293 of Sahelanthropus, 165 in hominin origins, 216–217 Brain size. See also Encephalization quotient of Taung skull, 131 of Homo habilis, 164 (EQ); Large brains Brown, P., 248, 326–330, 447, 449, 453, 455 human, 129 572 | Index

of humans and apes, 108 Carpometacarpal joint Centrioles, 17 Neandertal, 370–373 in dating South African fossil hominins, Ceprano, Italy, Erectines from, 240, 245, of Orrorin tugenensis, 166 193 287–288 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Habiline, 228 Cercamoniinae, 115 replacement of, 74 Carpus Cercocebus, 96 of Sahelanthropus, 165 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173–174 intermembral index of, 100 from Sima de los Huesos, 311 pronation and supination of hominoid Cercopithecidae, 90, 96 sexual dimorphism among hominoid, hands and, 99–100 Cercopithecoidea, 90, 95–97 210–211 Carrier pigeons, 30 evolution of, 128 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Cartilage, of knee, 143 hominin origins and, 213 of Tarsius, 93 Caspari, R., 295, 344, 358, 387, 422 humeral torsion in, 98 Canine fossa Catarrhini, 90, 94 lumbar vertebrae of, 99 of Erectines, 246, 251 Aegyptopithecus zeuxis versus, 118 molars of, 96 modern human, 419 ancestral gibbons among, 126 Oreopithecus among, 127 Neandertal, 364 ancestral orangutans in, 124–125 postcranial skeleton of, 100–101 Cann, R., 297, 299, 466–467 canine teeth of, 108 thorax of, 98 Cannibalism evolution of, 128 Cercopithecus, 96 among Pan paniscus, 103 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 intermembral index of, 100 among Pan troglodytes, 103 Old and New World monkeys and, 121 Cerebellum “Cannstatt race,” 340, 341 oligopithecids versus, 118 in dating South African fossil hominins, Cantius frugivorus, cheek teeth of, 114 Oreopithecus among, 126–127 194–195 Capacious intestines, of herbivores, 25 Proconsul in, 123 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, Cape chacma baboon, 45 Propliopithecidae versus, 118 329 Capitalism, Darwinian evolution and, 52 Tethys Sea and, 125 Cerebral Rubicon, human, 291–292 Carbohydrates, structural, 25 Catastrophism, 8–9 Cervical lordosis, 137 Carbon, origins of life and, 15 Categories, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Cervical vertebrae Carbon-14 (14C) dating, 9–10 Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 of early mammals, 69 Carbon compounds, diet of Australopithecus Cats, eye of, 110 human, 137 and, 202, 203 Cattle of humans versus apes, 104

Carbon dioxide (CO2) artifi cial selection of, 30 Neandertal, 377 in carbon-14 dating, 9–10 condylar elevation in, 156 Cetacea, brain–body weight plot for, 72–73 origins of life and, 15, 16 Caucasus Chacma baboons, 45 Carbon isotopes Erectines from, 240, 272 Chad diet of Australopithecus and, 202, 203, Homo erectus from, 279–283 appearance of Miocene bipedal apes/ 204 Causality, in hominin origins, 216 hominins in, 201 in dating Neanderthal sites, 348 Cave bears, at Sima de los Huesos, 309 Australopithecus bahrelghazali from, Carbon monoxide (CO), origins of life and, Cave deposits, dating South African, 182–183 15 190–193, 193–195 hominin fossil sites in, 160 Carbonaceous fi laments, origins of life and, Caves, as Neandertal dwelling places, 338 Sahelanthropus from, 164 15 Cebidae, 90 Chalk, in sedimentology, 5 Carbonell, F., 309 Ceboidea, 90 Chambers, R., 9 period, 8 Cebuella, 95 “Character release,” by Erectines, 273, 275 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 Cebus, intermembral index of, 100 Character states evolution of vertebrates during, 23 Cebus albifrons, braincase of, 95 choices of, 55–58 fi rst reptiles from, 24 Cell membranes, origins of life and, 15, 16 phylogeny and, 53, 54, 55 Carnivore droppings Cell replication cycles, lifespan and, 74 Characters, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 in dating South African fossil hominins, Cells, 17 Cheek pouches, of cercopithecids, 96 191, 193–194 diploid and haploid, 17 Cheek teeth Carnivores of multicellular organisms, 17–18 of amphipithecids, 118 condylar elevation among, 156 origins of life and, 15, 16 of Ardipithecus, 167 early reptiles as, 25 Cellulose, of plants, 25 of Australopithecus, 201 Neandertals as, 390–391 Cenozoic era, 8 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185, 186 sexual dinichism among, 215 anthropoid radiations during, 121–128 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172 at Sima de los Huesos, 309 appearance of humans during, 27, 28 of Australopithecus boisei, 163 Carnivory climate change during, 206 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 as early human adaptation, 262–263 evolution of mammals during, 27–28 of Australopithecus robustus, 153, 157 hominin body size increase and, 261 global temperature fl uctuations during, 83 of early mammals, 64 stone tools and, 266 mass extinction beginning, 27 Erectine, 263 Carpal tunnel, Neandertal, 379 Central Asia of fossil euprimates, 114 Carpals, evolution of, 22 evolution of Homo sapiens in, 206 Habiline, 227 Carpolestes, 111 Neandertals from, 402–406 in hominin origins, 217 Index | 573

of Homo habilis, 164 teeth of, 108 Chronospecies of KNM-ER 1470 skull, 224 tool use among, 103–104 Homo heidelbergensis as, 336 Neandertal, 372–373 vocal tract of, 393 morphological species concept and, 49 of Oreopithecus, 127 Chin Chrons, 12 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 of Heidelbergs, 330–332 Churchhill, S., 348, 374, 376–378, 410 Cheetahs, genetic bottlenecks among, 39 modern human, 418 “Cinderella” jaws, 219 Cheirogaleidae, 90, 91 China Cingulum, of early mammal teeth, 79 Cheirogaleus medius, teeth of, 88 adapids from, 115 Ciochon, R., on Australopithecus afarensis “Chellean Man,” 239 ancestral gibbons from, 126 locomotion, 118, 121, 125, 173, 207 Chellean tools, from Olduvai Gorge, 160 ancestral orangutans from, 124 Clades Chemeron Formation, early human fossils ape evolution in, 128 evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 from, 222 archaic humans from, 429 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 Chemosynthesis, early multicellular fossils cercopithecoid primates from, 95 Cladistics, 60–61 and, 18 cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 allometry and, 73 Chenjiawo mandible, 251 dating Erectines from, 242–243 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 195–201 dating of, 242 earliest chordates from, 19, 20 in Homo taxonomy, 293 Cherokee, 478 earliest eukaryotes from, 16 problems with, 61–62, 201 Chert, origins of life and, 15 earliest humans in, 242 Cladogenesis Chesowanja, use of fi re by early humans at, earliest multicellular animals in, 18 evolution via, 39, 40, 41 267 earliest vertebrates from, 20 internodal species concept and, 47, 48 Chewing, by Heidelbergs, 332 early fossil euprimates from, 113 microevolution and macroevolution and, Chewing muscles, of Erectines, 263 early mammals from, 63, 65 50 Chignon occipital, Neandertal, 357 early marsupials from, 84 Cladograms Childbirth Eocene tarsiids from, 117 for Australopithecus phylogeny, 195–201 among callitrichid primates, 95 Eomaia scansoria from, 81–82 number of possible, 56, 57 in early Homo, 260–261 Eosimias from, 120 phylogenetic error and, 55, 56, 58 female cooperation in Ergaster, 261 Erectine stone tools in, 274 phylogeny and, 53, 54 “Lucy” and, 172 Erectines from, 237, 238, 239, 243–245, Clark, J. D., 316 pelvis and, 139–142, 158 250, 251, 273 Clarke, R., 181, 269–270 Childhood, in hunting hypothesis, 211 fossil euprimate cheek teeth from, 114 Classes, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Chimpanzees, 103–104. See also Pan giant proconsulids from, 125 in taxonomic hierarchy, 32, 33 entries Heidelberg specimens from, 321–323, Classic Neandertals, in Accretion Model, 334 Ardipithecus versus, 167, 168 333 Clavicle, of atelid primates, 95 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 173– Homo erectus from, 278–279 Claws 174, 176 Old World monkeys in, 121 of callitrichid primates, 95 Australopithecus anamensis versus, sivaladapids from, 115 on hands and feet, 84, 85 169–170 Chinese loess sequence, 243 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Australopithecus species versus, 156 Chlorocebus, 96 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Australopithecus versus, 177–178, 201 Chloroplasts, origins of life and, 16 in primate origins, 109 basicranial fl exure/fl exion in, 106 Choloepus, lumbar vertebra of, 123 Clay minerals, origins of life and, 15 body hair of humans versus, 264 Chopper/chopping tool tradition (CCT), of Clemontsi Cave, Homo heidelbergensis childbirth in, 140 Erectines, 274, 275 from, 302 in dating South African fossil hominins, Chordata (chordates) Climate 193, 195 earliest, 19 ape evolution and, 128 ecology of, 205, 211, 212 in geological column, 8 Ergasters and Erectines and, 259 Erectines versus, 249 homologies among, 32 global Cenozoic, 83 foot bones of, 148, 149 taxonomy of, 33 Neandertal body proportions and, 374, hip joint of, 181–182 Chorion, evolution of tetrapod, 24 375–376 hominin origins and, 216 , 127 Climatic changes humans and, 53 Chromatin, 17 in dating Chinese Erectines, 242, 243 knee joint of, 143–145 Chromosomal arrangements, speciation and, in dating the fossil record, 12–13, 242, 243 Orrorin tugenensis versus, 166, 168 41 and hominin origins, 206–207 pelvis of, 141, 142 Chromosome recombination, in speciation, Eocene, 121 premolars of, 135 40–41 Miocene, 121 Ramapithecus and, 136 Chromosomes Oligocene, 121 Sahelanthropus versus, 165 molecular clock and, 41–42 Pleistocene, 13, 242, 243 scapula of, 97, 179 in speciation, 40–41 Clines, human “races” as, 44 sexual dinichism among, 215 Chronology. See also Geochronological Clones, multicellular organisms as, 17–18 skull of, 105 sequences Cloning systematics of, 101–102 Erectine, 240–243 biological species concept and, 46 Taung child versus, 131 Neandertal, 346–350, 351 morphological species concept and, 50 574 | Index

Closed-canopy tropical forest, hominin Continental drift, 14–15 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, habitation of, 205 Africa and, 160 328 Clothing, Neandertal, 376 during Permian and periods, of South African Habilines, 231 Clydagnathus, 20 23 Cranial crests Coccyx, of hominoids, 100 Continental edges, in sedimentology, 4–5 of Australopithecus boisei, 162 Cochiti polarity event, 12 Continental glaciations, 5 of gorillas, 107–108 Cochlea Continental rocks, Pangaea and, 14 of KNM-ER 1805 skull, 225–226 of early mammals, 64–67 Continents, Pangaea and, 14 Cranial fontanels, of human infant, 140 of synapsids, 65–67 Contrafactual representation, as language Cranial fragments, of Sinanthropus Coeffi cient of variation (CV), Habiline, function, 391–392 pekinensis, 237 229–230 Convection, in shedding excess body heat, Cranial vault. See also Skull Cold climate 264 from Dmanisi, 280–281 Erectines and, 253 Convection currents, continental drift and, of Homo erectus, 243–248 of Europe, 206 14 of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, Neandertal body proportions and, 374, Convergence(s) 256 375–376 in dating South African fossil hominins, measurements of Neandertal and other Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Human 194 human, 352 Origins (1950), 238 homologies and, 32 Neandertal, 350–361 Collard, M., 197, 199, 226, 231–232 among primates, 127 from Petralona, 302–303 on Habiline variation, 231–232 Convergent evolution, 32 Piltdown, 295–297 Collateral ligaments, of knee, 143, 144 phylogenetic error and, 58 selected measurements of Erectine, 245 Collecting. See Gathering Cooling, by sweating, 264 from Spain, 283 Colobidae, 90, 96 Coon, Carleton, xi, 206, 344 Cranio-caudal shortening, of human ilium, evolution of, 128 on Neandertal nose, 364 139 Colonialism, in accounts of human evolution, Cooperation Cranium. See also Skull 205, 206 Darwinian evolution and, 52 of “Chellean Man,” 239 Colonization, in speciation, 39 in hunting and hypothesis, 212–213 from Sima de los Huesos, 312–313 Color vision Coopers, dating fossil hominins from, Creation myth, 1–2, 2–3 of primates, 84–85 193–195 Creationism in reptiles, birds, and mammals, 73 Coppens, Y., 185 evolutionary adaptations and, 33–34 Coloration, evolution of, 37 on early hominin ecology, 207 microevolution and macroevolution and, Columba livia, varieties of, 30 Coracobrachialis muscle, of 50 Combat, in hominin origins, 217 Australopithecus africanus, 179 scientifi c biology versus, xi Common ancestor, of plesiadapiforms and Coracoid process, of Australopithecus Crelin, E., 394 euprimates, 111 africanus, 179 Crepuscular activity cycle, of Erectines, 265 Communities, of chimpanzees and bonobos, Corn, artifi cial selection of, 30 Cretaceous period, 8 103 Cornifi ed epidermis, of reptiles, 24 angiosperms from, 82 Competition Coronoid processes, Erectine, 251 mammals during, 26, 81–84 Darwinian evolution and, 52 Corruccini, R., 118, 121, 125, 207, 417, 442, marsupials during, 84 dimorphism index and, 209 445 mass extinction at end of, 26–27 sexual dinichism and, 214 on Australopithecus afarensis transition to Cenozoic era from, 27 Compliant walking gait, 142–143, 181 locomotion, 173 Crista turbinalis, Neandertal, 366 Computer programs, phylogenetics and, Cosmic radiation, in dating South African Cro-Magnons, 462, 463, 477 55 fossil hominins, 191–192 Croatia, Neandertals from, 342, 408, 409 Computer reconstruction, of Cotylorhynchus, 26 Crocodiles Sahelanthropus, 164 Cranial base, Neandertal language and, cladistics of, 62 Computerized tomography (CT) endocasts, 394 evolutionary systematics and, 59, 60 of Neandertal bony labyrinth, 360 Cranial capacity Crown-group primates, 109–111 Conceptual thought, as language function, of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 Crown groups 392 of Australopithecus boisei, 189–190 cladistics and, 62 Conduction, of excess heat from body, of Australopithecus garhi, 184 evolutionary systematics and, 60 263–264 of European, African, and Asian Cruciate eminence, of Erectines, 248 Condylar elevation, 156 Heidelbergs, 304 Crural index Condyles, of femur, 143, 144, 145, 174–175 of Homo erectus, 248–250, 254 of KNM-WT 15000 and modern humans, Cone cells of Homo habilis, 218–219, 221 259 of anthropoid eyes, 91 of Homo rudolfensis, 221 Neandertal, 374, 376 of platyrrhine monkeys, 94 human, 291–292 Crustal plates, continental drift and, 14 Conodonts, 20 modern human, 420 Crystalline minerals, dating technqiues for, Consciousness framework, as language Neandertal, 362 11 function, 392 Pleistocene human, 293 Cuboid, 148 Consonants, in Neandertal language, 393 of primates, 229 Cultural drift, among Erectines, 275 Index | 575

“Cultural layers,” dating, 242–243 at Olduvai Gorge, 160 of Chinese archaic humans, 432 Culture radiometric, 9–11 of dryopithecids, 126 of Australopithecus, 188 for Sterkfontein fossil sites, 190–193, of early Homo, 222 among Erectines, 275 193–195 of Eosimias, 120 in Homo taxonomy, 289 for Swanscombe skull, 305–306 of Fayum anthropoids, 118, 119 Cuneiform, 148 Daubentonia, intermembral index of, 100 of Homo erectus, 251–252 of Australopithecus afarensis, 176 Daubentonia madagascariensis, 90–91 of Homo habilis, 164 Curnoe, D., 231, 239, 269–270 Daubentoniidae, 90–91 human versus ape, 108 Cusps, of early mammal teeth, 78, 79 Day, M., 173, 193, 216, 239, 253, 260, of Miocene Old World monkeys, 121 Cuvier, Georges, 8–9 416–417, 434 of monkeys, 94 Cyanobacteria Death. See Lifespan;Mortality rates Neandertal, 370–373 origins of life and, 15, 16 Deep gluteal muscles, 145–146, 147 of OH 13, 227 Vendian, 18 of Australopithecus species, 158, 159 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Cynocephalus, as primate, 111 Deep-sea cores, in dating Chinese Erectines, of pliopithecoids, 121 Cytoplasm, origins of life and, 16 243 in primate origins, 110 Czech Republic Deer, morphospecies of, 48, 49 of Propliopithecidae, 118 hominin sites in, 283 Defensive armor of Taung skull, 131 Mladecˇ cranium from, 460 of multicellular animals, 19 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 modern human remains from, 460, 461, of Paleozoic fi sh, 21 Derived character states. See also 462, 463–464 Delineation of the Strata of England and Apomorphic character states Wales (Smith), 6 (apomorphies) D 211 mandible, 280 Demes, B., 365, 371 phylogenetic error and, 55, 58 D 2280 cranium, 282 Demes in phylogenetic systematics, 61 D 2282 cranium, 281 in early African Erectine radiations, of primates, 84–89 D 2600 mandible, 282 270–271 Dermal bones, of Paleozoic fi sh, 21 D 2700 cranium, 280, 281, 282 in Homo taxonomy, 289 Descendants D-type amino acids, in amino acid Dendrograms, 33 morphological species concept and, 49 racemization dating, 11 Dendropithecidae, 90 in species concepts, 39, 47, 48 Dagosto, M., 115, 120 Dendropithecus, 126 Desert chacma baboon, 45 Daka skull, 239, 240, 254 Dendropithecus macinnesi, 126 Developed Oldowan stone tools, 265, 272, early African Erectine radiations and, 270, “Dental apes,” 121, 124, 126 273–274 271 Ramapithecus punjabicus, 136 Development, of Ergasters, 261 Dakanihylo Formation, dating Erectines Dental arcade Development hypothesis, 9 from, 240 of Australopithecus, 171 period, 8 Dali skull, 430, 431, 432 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 Danakil Depression, dating Erectines from, of Australopithecus robustus, 155 evolution of vertebrates during, 21–23 240 human versus ape, 108 Diaphragm, of early mammals, 69 Dart, Raymond, 130–131, 152 of Ramapithecus, 136 Diaphysis, of Australopithecus afarensis on early hominin lifestyle, 205, 206–207 Dental breadth femur, 181 hunting hypothesis and, 209–211 of early hominins, 152 Diapsids, 25 Darwin, Charles R., 4, 7, 9, 31, 33, 34, 35–36, Habiline, 222, 227 Cenozoic, 27 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 129, 131, 180 Dental enamel, human versus ape, 108. See cladistics of, 62 on early hominin lifestyle, 205 also Enamel early mammals and, 63 on evolution of man, 52 Dental formula, 81–82 ears of, 69 microevolution and macroevolution and, of Eomaia scansoria, 82 lineage of, 24 50, 51 Dental occlusion in and after Permian mass extinction, 26 morphological species concept and, 50 in early mammals, 64, 66 Diastemata theory of evolution of, 30–35, 35–38 of mammalian molars, 73–74, 78–79 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172 Darwin, Erasmus, 9 Dentary, of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 of Australopithecus africanus, 134 Dating techniques, xii, 5–7 Dentine, evolution of vertebrate, 21 Dicynodonts, 64 African rift and, 160 Dentition Didelphis, skull of, 71 Bible and, 2 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186–187 Diet for Ceprano cranium, 288 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171–172 of adapoids, 115 for Dmanisi Erectines, 279–280 of Australopithecus africanus, 133–135, of anthropoids, 93 earth cycles and, 11–13 157 of Australopithecus, 201–205, 209–214, for East African Erectine sites, 240 of Australopithecus boisei, 163, 187, 263 for Habilines, 223–224 189–190 of Australopithecus species, 156 for Homo erectus, 289–290 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 body and brain size and, 262 in human evolution models, 296–297 of Australopithecus robustus, 153, 155, carnivory in early human, 262–263 in Neandertal chronology, 346–347 157 of cercopithecoid primates, 96 for Ngandong fossils, 325 of catarrhines, 121 of chimpanzees and bonobos, 103 576 | Index

“digging sticks” and, 266–267 Diurnal animals, lack of mammalian, 27 Dutch East Indies, Homo erectus from, Erectine stone tools and, 266 Diurnality 235–236 of Erectines, 263 of monkeys, 94–95 Dwarf lemur, 90 fi re and food preparation in, 267 of Teilhardina asiatica, 114 Dwarfs, small hominins from Flores/Liang of gorillas, 102 Divergent pressures, in speciation, 39–40 Bua as, 328 in hominin origins, 216 Diversity, in Homo taxonomy, 289 human teeth and, 108 Division of labor Ea, 2 and hunting hypothesis, 212 by early humans, 263 Ear ossicles, of Sima de los Huesos skulls, of Neandertals, 390–391 sexual dinichism as, 214–215 313 of New World monkeys, 94–95 Djurab Desert, Sahelanthropus from, 164 Ear region of Oreopithecus, 127 Dmanisi of early mammals, 64–69 of plesiadapiforms, 111–113 dating Homo sites and specimens from, of Eosimias, 120 in primate origins, 110–111 290 of Fayum anthropoids, 117 of primates, 87–88 Erectines from, 240 of omomyoid primates, 115 sexual dinichism and, 214 hominins from, 206, 233, 234 Eardrum of Tarsius, 93, 94 Homo erectus from, 279–283 of anthropoids, 92 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 Homo ergaster from, 234 of lorisiforms, 91 Dietary hypothesis, Australopithecus species DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 465–466. See of omomyoid primates, 115 in, 156 also Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of primates, 85 Differential reproduction, in Mendelian in cladisticis, 61 of reptiles, synapsids, and mammals, 67 genetics, 37 of early modern humans, 469–470 Early mammals, 26, 63–71 Diffusion, of Homo out of Africa, 233–234, in Mendelian genetics, 37 allometry among, 73 240–243 molecular clock using, 41–42 angiosperms and, 82–83 Digastric sulcus, of Erectines, 247, 254 multicellular organisms and, 17 brain allometry among, 71, 72–73 Digestive system, of Australopithecus, 204 origins of life and, 15, 16 brain and braincase of, 70–71 “Digging sticks,” 266 phylogeny and, 53, 54, 55, 58 ear region of, 64–69 Australopithecus diet and, 204 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 43, 51 lifestyles of, 73 from Swartkrans, 266–267 Dog(s) live birth and placentation among, 80–81 Digital fl exor muscles, of foot, 149 hips of, 139 palate of, 64 Digits, evolution of, 22 locomotion of, 70, 145, 146 primates versus, 84–89 Dikika, Australopithecus afarensis from, nasal fossa of, 76, 78 respiration and palate of, 77–78 170, 178–179 third lumbar vertebra of, 99 size of, 63 Dimetrodon, 25, 59, 60, 61 Dolphins, 27 teeth of, 63–64, 66, 78–79 Diminishing returns, in sexual selection, placenta of, 80 tribosphenic molars of, 78–79 38 Donrussellia, 115 vertebrae of, 69–70 Dimorphism index, of early hominins, as early euprimate, 113 Early Neandertals, in Accretion Model, 209 Dorsal axillary groove, Neandertal, 378 334 Dinchism, by Australopithecus, 214–215 Dorsal nerve cord, of chordates, 19 Early Stone Age (ESA), tools and artifacts Dinosaurs Dorsal sacroiliac ligaments, 142 from, 265–266 cladistics of, 62 Dorsifl ection, in walking, 147 Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) early mammals and, 63 Dragonfl ies, giant Carboniferous, 23 humans of, 414 eutherian mammals and, 82 Drift, in speciation, 39, 41 Neandertals from, 352, 361, 363 evolutionary systematics and, 59, 60 Drimolen Early uptake (EU) model, in electron spin in geological column, 8 dating fossil hominins from, 193–195 resonance dating, 11 mammals take over from, 27 early Homo fossils from, 230–231 Ears after Permian mass extinction, 26 human fossils from, 152, 155 of anthropoids, 91, 92 Diploid cells, 17 Dropstones, in sedimentology, 5 of omomyoid primates, 115 Diploid plants, in Mendelian genetics, 36 Dryopithecidae, 90, 125–126 of primates, 85–87 Diploid zygotes, in evolution, 40 mid-lumbar vertebrae of, 123 of Tarsius, 94 Disasters, in mythology, 2 Nyanzapithecus among, 127 vestigial organs associated with, 33 “Dished face” radiation of, 127 Earth of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 Dryopithecus, 125–126, 128 age of, 35 of Australopithecus boisei, 163 ancestral gibbons versus, 126 Bible in dating of, 2–3 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 Dryopithecus brancoi, 125 Biblical accounts of history of, 1–2, 2–3 Habilines and, 224, 225 Dryopithecus fontani, 125–126 changing ideas about history of, 1–3 Distal cutting blade, of ape canines, 108 Dryopithecus laietanus, 125 radioactive heating of, 14, 35 Distortion, of Steinheim skull, 307 mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123 Earth cycles, dating fossil record via, 11–13 Distribution Dryopithecus punjabicus, 136 Earth history, species diversity in, 29 of Acheulian tool asemblages, 274 Dubois, Eugen, on human origins, Earth’s crust Erectine, 240–243 235–237 continental drift and, 14–15 Neandertal, 346–350, 351 Durband, A., 245, 278, 322, 324 shrinking of, 14 Index | 577

Earth’s magnetic fi eld, dating fossil record Elbow Eocene epoch via reversals in, 11–12 of apes, 98–99, 99–100 adapids from, 115 Earthquakes, 4. See also Tectonics of Dryopithecus brancoi, 125 anthropoids from, 117–118 orogeny and, 13–14 Neandertal, 378 climate change during, 121 East Africa of Oreopithecus, 126 early fossil euprimates from, 113 Australopithecus boisei from, 187, 188 Eldredge, Niles, 50, 51 Eosimias from, 120 body sizes of human specimens from, 258 Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating, 11 euprimate origins during, 111 dating South African fossil hominins and, of Chinese Erectines, 242, 243 fossil euprimate cheek teeth from, 114 190–191 of Neandertal sites, 348, 349 global temperature fl uctuations during, 83 Erectine teeth from, 252 of South African fossil hominin, 191 “lemurs” and “tarsiers” from, 115–117 Erectines and Ergasters from, 253, 254, Electrons, 11 omomyids from, 115 257–261 in beta decay, 9 plesiadapiforms from, 111 Erectines from, 239, 242, 243 Eliye Springs cranium, 422, 423 primates from, 115–117 fossil humans from, 158–160 Embryology Propliopithecidae from, 118 hominin fossils from, 164 of Tarsius, 93 Eomaia, 83 Homo erectus skulls from, 253–257 vestigial organs in, 33 Eomaia scansoria Louis Leakey in, 158–160 Embryonic development, ultraviolet radiation dental fomula of, 82 modern humans in, 432–435 and, 264–265 as earliest known eutherian, 81–82 Orrorin and Ardipithecus from, 165–168 Enamel. See also Dental enamel Eosimias, 120 Sahelanthropus from, 164–165 diet of Australopithecus and, 202–203, Eosimias centennicus, mandible of, 120 East Asia 203–204 Eosimias sinensis, cheek teeth of, 114 Heidelberg specimens from, 321–323 evolution of vertebrate, 21 Eosimiidae, 90, 120 modern humans in, 429–430, 430–432, Encephalization quotient (EQ). See also Eozostrodon, 65 447–450 Brain size Epaxial muscles (EM) Eccrine sweat glands, 264 of animals, 261 of apes, 98 of early humans, 263, 264 of early Homo, 292, 293 of Australopithecus, 178 Echinoderms, fi rst appearance of, 19 for Habilines, Erectines, and modern of Australopithecus robustus, 154 Echolocation, 27 humans, 261 of dryopithecids, 125 Ecological zones, as isolating mechanisms, Endemic dwarfs, small hominins from of humans and dogs, 99 43 Flores/Liang Bua as, 328 vertebral column and, 137 Ecosystem Endinion Epaxial neck muscles Australopithecus in, 205–207 of Erectines, 244, 248, 254 of Erectines, 248 stone tools and, 266 of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, of humans versus apes, 104–107 Ectotympanic bone, 105 256 Epiglottis, Neandertal language and, 393 of anthropoids, 91 Endocast Epiphyseal plates, of Australopithecus of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 Erectine, 249 afarensis femur, 181 of early mammals, 66, 67–69 of Taung skull, 130, 131 Epiphysis, of Australopithecus afarensis of monkeys, 94 Zhoukoudian Erectine, 249 femur, 181 of omomyoid primates, 115 Endocranial volume, of primates, 229. See Epipliopithecus, ancestral gibbons versus, of Oreopithecus, 126 also Cranial capacity 126 of pliopithecoids, 121 Endoplasmic reticulum, 17 Epitheliochoral placenta Eden, myth of, 206 Energy budget, of Australopithecus, evolution of, 80, 81 Ediacaran faunas 204–205 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Cambrian faunas versus, 19 Energy conservation, in walking, 142, Equus, 39, 478 multicellular organisms among, 18 147–148 in dating South African fossil hominins, Ediacaran fossils, in geological column, 8 Energy content, of meat, 262–263 191 Eggs England Equus asinus, 39 evolution of tetrapod, 23–24 Boxgrove teeth and tibia from, 309, 326 Equus caballus, 39 infant mortality and, 75 dating rock strata in, 5–7 Erect stance, of Australopithecus, 177 respiration in, 78 hominin sites in, 284 Erectines, 217, 235, 236–238. See also Homo sexual dimorphism and, 37–38 Piltdown affair in, 295–297 erectus Eggshell Swanscombe skull from, 305 from Africa and Eurasia, 238–240 amniote egg and, 24 English barb pigeon, 30 African Heidelbergs versus, 319–320 dating, 11 English carrier pigeon, 30 anatomy and physiology of early, 261–265 Egypt Entoconids Atapuerca remains among, 309 anthropoid fossils from, 117–118, 119 of hominoids and cercopithecoids, 96 Bilzingsleben skull among, 305 Eocene tarsiids from, 117 of primates, 87 biogeography and biostratigraphy of, Ehringsdorf H Neandertal cranium, 398, 399 Entotympanic bulla 240–243 Ekgmowechashala, 115 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Bodo and Ndutu skulls versus, 319 Elandsfontein, Heidelberg mandibles from, of tree shrews, 86, 87 body size estimates for, 258 319 Environments, adaptations to, 33, 34–35 body size increase among, 261–262 578 | Index

Ceprano cranium as, 287–288 Erinaceus, skull of, 85 arrival of modern humans in, 458–465 from China, 321–322 Eritrea dating Erectine dispersal into, 290 cranial capavity of, 248–250 Erectine material from, 239–240 dating Neandertal sites in, 346–350, 351 cranial vault morphology of, 243–248 in early African Erectine radiations, 271 diffi culties for Erectines to settle, 288 diet of, 263 Erosion, 1, 4 dispersal of Erectines from North Africa diminutive Indonesian, 278 continental drift and, 14 into, 272 from Dmanisi, 279–283 orogeny and, 13 early fossil euprimates from, 113 diurnality of, 265 Error early Neandertal discoveries in, 339–343 encephalization quotients for, 261 in molecular clock, 42 early Neandertals of, 398–401 Ergasters versus, 253–257 in radiation-based dating techniques, 10, Eocene tarsiids from, 117 face and mandible of, 250–251 11 Erectine stone tools from, 274–275 from Flores, 277–278, 326–330 in uranium-series dating, 11 Erectines from, 239–240, 243 growth and development of, 249–250, phylogenetic, 53–58 glacial periods in, 13 267–268 Erythrocebus, 96 Griphopithecus from, 126 Habilines versus, 228, 232 intermembral index of, 100 Heidelbergs in, 294, 301–316, 334–335 Heidelberg apomorphies among, 335 Eskimos, Neandertals versus, 371, 383 human colonization of, 206 Heidelbergs versus, 294, 331 Essential properties, in Linnaean human “races” and, 44 Homo heidelbergensis versus, 302 classifi cation, 59 ice sheets of, 5 in Homo taxonomy, 289 Estrous cycles, in feedback model of Miocene paleogeography of, 125 from Indonesia, 275–278 hominin origins, 211, 213 Neandertal discoveries in, Kabwe skull versus, 318 Ethiopia 345–350, 351 KNM-ER 3228 versus, 260 Ardipithecus species from, 167 Neandertals of, 56–57, 337, 338–339, 352 major world sites for, 234 Australopithecus aethiopicus from, Neandertals from western, 401–402 migration out of Africa, 272–275 186–187 notharctids from, 115 Neandertals versus, 351, 356, 361, 368 Australopithecus afarensis from, 170 occupation by Homo erectus, 283–288 in recent human evolution, 299 Australopithecus anamensis from, 169 omomyids from, 115 Ngandong skulls versus, 326 Australopithecus boisei from, 187, 189 origins of geology in, 3–4 oldest, 240 Australopithecus garhi from, 183 spread of Homo throughout, 234 ontogeny and development of, 268 Bodo cranium from, 318, 319 Tethys Sea and, 125 postcranial remains of, 252–253, 257–261 dating Erectines from, 240 Europeans protection against ultraviolet radiation in, in early African Erectine radiations, 271 Neandertal body proportions versus, 375 264–265 Erectine material from, 239 skull of, 57 Sambungmacan and Ngandong skulls as, hominin fossils from, 170, 222 Eustachian tube, of anthropoids, 91, 92 324 stone tools from, 265 Eusthenopteron, 21 Sima de los Huesos hominins as, 314 Ethmoid, 105 Eutheria small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua Ethmoturbinals, 76, 78 arboreal, 84 versus, 328 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Cretaceous, 81–84 Steinheim skull versus, 307 Eukaryote cells, origins of life and, 16 diversifi cation of modern, 82 from Sterkfontein, 231 Eukaryotes in geological column, 8 stone tools of, 265–266 earliest, 16 placenta of, 80 Ergasters, 217, 235. See also Homo ergaster multicellular, 17–18 teeth of, 87 body size estimates for, 258 Eulemur, classifi cation of, 89 Evaporation, in shedding excess body heat, brain of, 291 Euler diagrams, 33 264 brain size in newborn, 261 Euoticus, intermembral index of, 100 Evaporative water loss, in respiration, 77–78 Ceprano cranium versus, 288 Euparkeria, 25 Evolution, 29–62 childbirth in, 260–261 Euprimates anagenesis and cladogenesis in, 39, 40 Dmanisi hominins versus, 279–280, 281, Eosimias versus, 120 of Australopithecus, 195–201 283 fi rst fossil, 113–114 of Australopithecus afarensis from early African Erectine radiations after, origins of, 111 Australopithecus anamensis, 170 271 Eurasia convergent, 32 encephalization quotients for, 261 dating Erectine dispersal into, 290 Darwin’s theory of, 30–35 Erectines versus, 253–257 Homo erectus discoveries in, 238–240 early models of later human, 294–297 growth and development of, 261 ice sheets of, 5 evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 Habilines versus, 228, 230, 232 during Miocene epoch, 121 of Homo, 217–223, 234–235 Heidelbergs versus, 331 as part of Pangaea, 14 of Homo erectus, 267–268, 290 in Homo taxonomy, 289 proconsulids from, 124–125 Linnaean classifi cation and, 58–59 KNM-ER 3228 as earliest known, 260 spread of Homo throughout, 233, 234 microevolution and macroevolution in, major world sites for, 234 Tethys Sea and, 125 50–52 partial skeletons of, 257, 258 Europe morphospecies and, 48–50 teeth of, 227 adapids from, 115 multicellular organisms and, 17–18 tropical body proportions of, 259 ape evolution in, 127 multiregional model of human, 299–301 Index | 579

origins of the theory of, 29–30 fossil record and, 34 Fayum Depression, anthropoid fossils from, parallel, 32 geological column and, 7 117–118, 119, 126 phenetics and cladistics and, 60–61 mass, 26–27 Feedback model, of hominin evolution, phylogenetic inertia in, 113–114 morphs and, 46 209–211 phylogenetic systematics and, 61–62 radiation-based dating of, 11 Feeding behavior, in hominin origins, 215 of placenta, 80–81 Extra-somatic food preparation, 201–202 Feet of Pleistocene humans, 291–336 Eyasi, Heidelberg specimens from, 319–320 of Australopithecus, 201 problems with Darwin’s theory of, 35–38 Eye sockets. See also Orbits of Australopithecus afarensis, 174, 176, “races” and, 44–46 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 181 Recent African Origin model of human, of primates, 55–56, 57 in bipedal locomotion, 146–150 297–299 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 bones of, 148, 149 in reconstructing tree of life, 52–53, 54 Eyes in dating South African fossil hominins, semispecies, hybrids, and isolating of anthropoids, 91, 93 192, 194 mechanisms in, 43–44 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 of early marsupials, 84 sources of phylogenetic error and, 53–58 homologies among, 32 evolution of vertebrate, 21–23 of species, 38–40 imperfections of, 34 Habiline, 227 species and fossils and, 46–48 of Paleozoic fi sh, 21 of plesiadapiforms, 111 tempo of speciation in, 40–42 of platyrrhine monkeys, 94–95 in primate origins, 109, 110 Evolutionary biology, theoretical aspects of, of plesiadapiforms, 111 of primates, 84 xii of primates, 84–85 Felis margarita, eye of, 110 Evolutionary change of reptiles, birds, and mammals, 73 Females microevolution and macroevolution and, of strepsirrhine primates, 93 Australopithecus, 133, 134, 155 50 of Tarsius, 93 of Australopithecus afarensis, 170 in species concepts, 46, 47, 48 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113, 114 of Australopithecus afarensis, 209 Evolutionary patterns, for Homo erectus, of various mammals, 110 of Australopithecus boisei, 188, 189, 190 290 of vertebrates, 20 of Australopithecus species, 156 Evolutionary radiation, of bipedal apes/ of bonobos, 103 hominins, 201 Face of chimpanzees, 103 Evolutionary species concept (ESC), 48 of Gran Dolina hominins, 285–286 cooperation in childbirth by Ergaster, 261 morphological species concept and, 49 of Heidelbergs, 330–332 dimorphism index and, 209 Evolutionary synthesis, 51–52 of Homo erectus, 250–251 in early human lifestyle, 263 Evolutionary systematics, 59–60 of Kabwe skull, 318 Ergaster, 260–261 Linnaean classifi cation and, 59 of modern humans, 418–419, 427–428 in feedback model of hominin origins, phylogenetic systematics versus, 59–60 of Neandertals, 361–367, 368–369 209, 211 Evolutionary theory, xii. See also Theory of of Petralona skull, 304–305 of gibbons, 101 evolution of Sima de los Huesos skulls, 313 of gorillas, 102, 107 Great Chain of Being and, 34 of Steinheim skull, 307 of lemurs, 93 phylogeny in, 52–53, 54 of Zuttiyeh skull, 321 locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis, species concepts in, 39–40, 46–48, 48–50 Face/cranium index, of KNM-ER 1470 skull, 173, 175–176 Evolutionary trees, internodal species 224 in morphological species concept, 48 concept and, 47, 48 Facial expressions, in mammals, 75 of orangutans, 101 Exercise, by Neandertals, 376 Facial fl anges, of males, 101 of Proconsul heseloni, 121 Exoskeletons, in geological column, 8 Facial fl atness, of hominins, 255 placenta and offspring of, 80–81 Expensive-tissue hypothesis Facial metrics, Neandertal versus other primate, 88 Australopithecus diet and, 204–205 human, 363 sexual dimorphism of males and, 37 in hominin origins, 216 Facial muscles, in mammals, 75, 76, 77 sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Expressed genes, microevolution and Facial plate, Neandertal, 361–362 sexual selection and, 37–38 macroevolution and, 51 Facial projection, Neandertal, 364. See also in speciation, 43 Extension, of knee, 142, 143, 144 Prognathism Feminist critiques of hunting hypothesis, External acoustic meatus Falk, D., 197–198, 226, 328–330, 394–395 211–212, 213 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 Fallback foods, in Australopithecus diet, 203 Femur, 145 of Erectines, 245 Falsetti, A., 376, 484 of African Heidelbergs, 319 External ears, of mammals, 73 Families of Australopithecus afarensis, 172, 173, External occipital protuberance, 246, 358, in hunting hypothesis, 211, 212, 213 174–175, 180, 181, 182 419 in taxonomic hierarchy, 32, 33 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Extinct organisms, cladistics and, 62 of primates, 90 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 Extinction Family tree, tree of life as, 52–53, 54 of Australopithecus rudolfensis, 260 adaptation and, 35 Fantail pigeon, 30 of Australopithecus species, 157, 158, 159 catastrophism and, 9 Faults, orogeny and, 13–14 condyles of, 143, 144, 145, 174–175 Darwinian evolution and, 52 Faunal dating, 6. See also Faunal succession in dating South African fossil hominins, Flood of Noah in, 2 Faunal succession, 7–9 193 580 | Index

of Dryopithecus, 125 Flexor-sheath ridges, of Australopithecus Neandertal, 373–374, 377–379 in early hominin ecology, 208 afarensis, 174 of Orrorin tugenensis, 167 Erectine, 252–253 Flexor sheaths, 149 from Sima de los Huesos, 310 in estimating hominin body sizes, 258 “Flintstone model,” 211–212 vertebral column and, 136 evolution of, 22 Flood of Noah, 2–3 Forelimb joints, of Proconsul heseloni, 122 Habiline, 228 biogeography problem with, 31 Forests of Homo erectus, 235–236 catastrophism and, 9 in hominid evolution, 131 of Homo habilis, 220 fossil record and, 3–4 hominin habitation of, 205, 206, 207 of KNM-WT 15000, 258, 259 geological column and, 7 marsupials and, 84 modern human, 421 Floods, mythical, 2 multituberculates and, 83–84 Neandertal, 373–374, 381–382 Floral dating, 6 primates and, 84 of Orrorin tugenensis, 165–166, 166–167 Flores, artifacts from, 277–278. See also Formant frequencies, in human language, of Pithecanthropus erectus, 235–236, Liang Bua entries 393 237 Florisbad skull, 422, 423, 424 Fossa supratoralis, Neandertal, 358 in primate intermembral indices, 100 Flowering plants, fi rst appearance of, 82 Fossil fi sh, Flood of Noah and, 2–3 from Sima de los Huesos, 309–310 Flowers, of early angiosperms, 82 Fossil plants, mapping rock strata and, 3 Ferric oxide, origins of life and, 16 Flowstones, in dating South African fossil Fossil record, 1–28 Ferrous oxide, origins of life and, 16 hominins, 191 Bible and, 2, 3–4 Fertile hybrids Fluorine dating technique, 11 Cambrian revolution in, 18–21 among baboons, 44 Flying lemur, as primate, 111 changing ideas about, 1–3 in speciation, 43 Folate, ultraviolet radiation and, 264–265 cladistics and, 62 Fertility Fontanels, of human infant, 140 continental drift and, 14–15 in hominin origins, 211 Food carrying, in hominin origins, 216 cycles of the earth and, 11–13 sexual dimorphism and, 37–38 Food chains, of land and sea, 24–25 dating rocks and, 5–7, 9–11, 11–13 Fetuses, placenta and, 80–81 Food sharing, politics of, 215 early studies of, 3–4 Fibrous capsule, of human hip joint, 140 Foot early vertebrate evolution in, 18–21, 21–23 Fibrous plant tissues, as Australopithecus of Dmanisi hominins, 283 evolutionary tempo and, 41 food, 202, 203–204 Neandertal, 382 extinction and, 34 Fibula Footprints, from Laetoli, 173, 174, 181 faunal succession in, 7–9 evolution of, 22a Foraging fi rst three billion years of life in, 15–17 Habiline, 228 by Erectines, 265 fl ood myths and, 2 Neandertal, 373–374 in hunting and gathering lifestyle, 213 Flood of Noah and, 2–3 Fingernails, see Claws sexual dinichism and, 214 of Homo, 235 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Foramen magnum, 105 latest two mass extinctions in, 26–27 of primates, 84, 85 of Ardipithecus, 167 morphological species concept and, Fingers of Australopithecus africanus, 151 48–49 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174 of Australopithecus boisei, 189 multicellular life in, 17–18 of hominoids, 100 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 of Neandertals, 337–338, 338–339 Fins, evolution of vertebrate, 21–22 basicranial fl exure/fl exion and, 106 orogeny and, 13–14 Fire of Erectines, 247 phylogenetic error and, 55 evidence at Zhoukoudian, 279 of humans versus apes, 104 phylogeny and, 53 use by early humans, 267 of Sahelanthropus, 165 life in, 15–17 Fishes of Swanscombe skull, 306 radiometric dating of, 9–11 Flood of Noah and, 2–3 vertebral column and, 137 reptilian revolutions in, 23–26 in geological column, 8 Foraminifera rise of the mammals in, 27–28 homologies among, 32 climatic changes and, 12, 13 sedimentology and, 4–5 Paleozoic, 20–21 in Pleistocene stratigraphy, 13 species diversity in, 29 teeth of, 74 Forearm theory of evolution and, 31 Fission tracks, in radiometric dating, 10–11 of Dryopithecus, 125 Fossil shark teeth, 3 Fission-track dating, 11 Neandertal, 378 Fossil shells, Flood of Noah and, 2–3 Fitness, genotype and, 38 Forehead, of Erectines, 243 Fossil tooth enamel, dating, 11 Fixed genes/alleles, in speciation, 39 Forelimb(s). See also Arm-swinging Fossil-free rocks, in geological column, 7 Flaked quartzite pebbles, 273 of ancestral gibbons, 126 Fossils Flaked stone tools, 273–274 of apes, 98–99, 99–100 in geological dating, 5–7 from Zhoukoudian, 278 of arboreal mammals, 127 species and, 46–48 Flanges (facial), of orangutan males, 101 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173–174 Founder effect Flatfoot, 148 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199 among Erectines, 275 Flexing, of knee, 142, 143, 144 of gibbons, 101, 127 in speciation, 39 Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, of in hominin origins, 215 Four-chambered heart, of mammals, 73 Australopithecus afarensis, 173 of KNM-WT 15000, 258–259 Four-Stage Accretion Model, of Neandertal Flexor muscles, of foot, 149 of mammals, 149–150 origins, 334 Index | 581

Fovea Gamma-ray spectrometry, dating via, 428 Genome doubling of anthropoid eyes, 91, 93 Gardner, J., 391 in evolution, 40 of owl monkey, 94 Gathering microevolution and macroevolution and, of platyrrhine monkeys, 94 by Australopithecus, 205, 209–214 50 of Tarsius, 93 early human strategies for, 267 Genotype(s) FOXP2 gene, in Neandertals, 339 by early humans, 263, 265 of baboons, 44 France invention of, 212 Darwinian evolution and, 52 Cro-Magnon material from, 462, 463 Gaudry, A., 343 fi tness and, 38 early fossil euprimates from, 113 Gause’s Law, 188 in Mendelian genetics, 37 Heidelberg material from, 315 Gauss polarity epoch (chron), 12 Geochronological sequences, 12 Heidelberg skull from, 314, 315 Gazella, 478 for Homo erectus, 240–243 hominin sites in, 283 Gebo, D., 113, 115, 118, 120, 124, 216, 228 of human origins, 421–422 Neandertals from, 343, 353, 354, 355, 358, Gelada baboon, 44 for Neandertals, 346–350, 351 360, 367, 399, 406, 407 Gene duplication, molecular clock and, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E., 9 Franciscus, R., 250, 281, 374, 366–367 42 Geographic isolation Frayer, D., 356, 378, 394, 471, 472 Gene fl ow of humans, 44, 46 Freaks of nature, 3 among African and Mediterranean in speciation, 39, 40 Frontal, 105 humans, 444–447 Geography of Erectines, 245 barriers to, 41 Erectine cranial capacity and, 249 of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, in multiregional human evolution, in Homo taxonomy, 289 256 300–301 Geological changes, 1 of Kabwe skull, 317 in speciation, 40 Geological column, 8 of Neandertals, 351–356 Gene pool continental drift and, 14 of monkeys, 95 of deer, 49 evolution of mammals and, 27 Frontal angle, Neandertal, 351 in Mendelian genetics, 37 faunal succession and, 7 Frontal boss, of Erectines, 243, 244 microevolution and macroevolution and, Geological dating, xii, 5–7 Frontal bulge, of Erectines, 243 50 Bible and, 2 Frontal lobes, Erectine, 249 of a species, 46 radiometric, 9–11 Frontal sinuses Genealogical networks, internodal species via earth cycles, 11–13 of human species, 57 concept and, 46–48 Geology, early history of, 3–4 Neandertal, 351–354 Genealogy Geomagnetic reversals, 11–12 Frontal squama, of Erectines, 243, 244 evolutionary systematics and, 59 in dating South African fossil hominins, Frontal trigones, of Sambungmacan and in phylogenetic systematics, 61–62 191 Ngandong skulls, 324 tree of life as, 52–53, 54 Georgia Fruits Genera dating Homo sites and specimens from, as Australopithecus food, 202, 203 of primates, 90 289–290 as cercopithecid food, 96 in taxonomic hierarchy, 32, 33 Erectines from, 240, 273 of early angiosperms, 82 Genes Homo erectus from, 279–283 early land plants and, 25 expression of, 51 Homo ergaster from, 234 as platyrrhine food, 94 in Mendelian genetics, 37 Germany in primate origins, 110–111 in speciation, 39 Heidelberg skull from, 314–315y Fuhlrot, J., 339 Genesis creation story, 2–3 hominin sites in, 283 Functional equivalence, allometry and, 72 fossil record and, 3–4 human fossils from, 237, 239 Fur, in body heat control, 264 geological column and, 7 Stone Age artifacts from, 266 rock layers corresponding to, 3–4 Gesher Benoit Ya’acov Galago. See also Galagos Genetic bottlenecks, in speciation, 39 bone artifacts from, 266 eye socket of, 57 Genetic drift, in speciation, 39, 41 Heidelberg specimens from, 321 intermembral index of, 100 Genetic isolation, of European Neandertals, Gibbons Galagoidae, 90 345 Dendropithecus and, 126 Galagos Genetic polymorphism, in Recent African evolution of arm-swinging in, 125 omomyoids versus, 115 Origin model, 298–299 forelimbs and intermembral index of, 101 as strepsirrhine primates, 89, 91 Genetics as human ancestors, 235, 236 Galapagos Archipelago, biogeography of, of modern humans, 465–469, 469–470 locomotor adaptations of, 101 31 of Neandertals, 385–388 radiation of, 127 Galilee skull, 320 in synthetic theory of evolution, 51–52 sagittal crests of, 157 Gallop, in mammals, 69, 70, 98 Genetics and the Origin of Species Gibraltar Neandertal, 341, 363 “Games of nature,” 3 (Dobzhansky), 51 Gigantopithecus, 276 Gametes Genome in dating Chinese Erectines, 242 amniote egg and, 24 in evolution, 40 evolution of, 128 in evolution, 40, 41 multicellular organisms and, 17, 18 Gigantopithecus blacki, 125 multicellular organisms and, 17 Neandertal, 346 Gigantopithecus giganteus, 125 582 | Index

Gilbert polarity epoch (chron), 12 neck muscles of, 107 Grips, Habiline, 227 in dating South African fossil hominins, Orrorin and Ardipithecus versus, 168 Grooves, on hominoid teeth, 101 191 Sahelanthropus versus, 165 Group coordination, as language function, Gill slits scapula of, 179 391 of chordates, 19 sexual dimorphism among, 102–103 Groves, C., 234 evolution of vertebrate jaws from, 21 skull of, 107 Growth, of Ergasters, 261 Glabella, of Erectines, 245 systematics of, 101–102 Grypania, 16 Glacial maxima, 5 Gorillina, systematics of, 102 Guenons, 96–97 Erectine migrations, 275 Gorillinae, systematics of, 102 Guettard, Jean, 3 Glacial moraines, 5 Gorillini, systematics of, 102 Guinea baboon, 45 Glacial periods, 13 Gorjanovic´-Kramberger, D., 295, 342, 343, Gulf of Aqaba, African rift and, 160 Glaciations, continental, 5 358, 373, 378, 400 Günz glacial period, 13 Glaciers, in sedimentology, 5 Gould, Stephen Jay, 50, 51 Gut Glantz, M., 380, 402 Grades of Australopithecus, 204 Glenoid cavity evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 of chordates, 19 of apes, 97–98 in phenetics and cladistics, 60–61 Gypsonictops hypoconus, teeth of, 87 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174, 179 Gradualism of Morotopithecus bishopi, 124 hominin growth and development and, Habilines, 217, 222. See also Homo habilis Global climate change, and hominin origins, 268 Australopithecus versus, 224–227 206–207 macroevolution and, 50 brain of, 291 Glucose punctuationism versus, 52, 235 coeffi cient of variation among, 229–230 cellulose from, 25 Graferain Quarry, Mauer mandibles from, dating and geological context of, origins of life and, 15, 16 307 223–224 Gluteal muscles, 145–146, 147 Gran Dolina dating of East African, 240 of Australopithecus species, 158, 159 in early African Erectine radiations, 272 encephalization quotients for, 261 Gluteus maximus muscle, 139 hominin fossils from, 284–287 Erectines and Erhasters versus, 255–256 Golgi apparatus, 17 Grand Canyon, geological column in, 7 Erectines versus, 243, 247 Gona, Ardipithecus kadabba from, 167 Grasp-leaping theory, of primate origins, evolution of Homo from, 234 Gondolin 110, 113 KNM-ER 3228 versus, 260 dating fossil hominins from, 193–195 Grasping extremities phylogeny of, 231–232 early Homo fossils from, 230–231 of Australopithecus afarensis, 176 postcranial remains of, 227–229 Gongwangling skull, 239, 249, 250, 251 bipedal walking and, 146 skulls of, 224–227 dating of, 242 of plesiadapiforms, 111, 113 species among, 230 . See also Gorillas in primate origins, 109–110, 110–111 teeth of, 227 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 174 Grasping feet, of early marsupials, 84 variation among, 229–230 Australopithecus versus, 203 Grasses Habitat, of Tarsius, 83 average brain and body weights of, 133 appearance of, 27 Hadar hominin origins and, 216 as Australopithecus food, 202, 203 Australopithecus afarensis from, 170, 171, humans versus, 104–109 Grasslands, and early hominins, 206–207 172, 174, 175, 176, 181, 198 intermembral index of, 100 Gravettian industry, 462, 464 Australopithecus robustus from, 198 knees of, 145 Gray-footed baboon, 45 early hominin ecology at, 208 pelvis of, 138 Grazing, by Australopithecus, 202, 203 early Homo from, 198, 222 Gorilla beringei, systematics of, 103 Grazing mammals, 27 Hadrocodium wui Gorilla gorilla Great apes, arboreality of, 101 size of, 63 endocranial volume variation in, 229 Great Britain, dating rock strata in, 5–7. See skull of, 65 estimated body sizes and sexual also England Hadropithecus, 156 dimorphism in, 210 Great Chain of Being, 34 Haeckel, E., 342 Habilines versus, 230 Great Chain of Being, The (Lovejoy), 34 on human origins, 235, 236 skull of, 107 Greater sciatic notch, 139 Hair, in body heat control, 264 systematics of, 103 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Half-life, 9, 10 Gorillas Greater trochanter, 145, 146, 147, 159 in uranium-series dating, 11 Australopithecus afarensis versus, Greece Hallux, 148 173–174, 176 Heidelberg skull from, 314 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173, 174, Australopithecus anamensis versus, Homo heidelbergensis from, 302–305 176, 181 169–170 Green, M., 388, 410 in bipedal walking, 146 Australopithecus versus, 202 Green, R., 387, 388 of Dmanisi hominins, 283 in dating South African fossil hominins, Green plants, in food chains, 24–25 enlargement of human, 148 193 Greenland, ice sheets of, 5 in hominin origins, 216 evolution of, 127 Grimaldi skeletons, 296 in primate origins, 110 Habilines versus, 231 Grine F., 152, 197, 198, 202, 373, 435, 438 of primates, 84 lifestyles of, 102 Griphopithecus, 126 Hamadryas baboon, 45 Index | 583

Hand axes, 265, 275 grades and subgroups of, 334 Erectine, 239 in hominin origins, 217 in Homo taxonomy, 289 Ergaster and Erectine, 258, 259–260 Hands Kabwe skull versus, 318 evolution of, 22 of Australopithecus, 201 Mauer mandible versus, 309 Habiline, 228 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173–174 Neandertals versus, 351, 354, 361, 368 of KNM-ER 3228. 260 of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 Ngandong skulls versus, 326 of KNM-WT 15000, 258, 259 in dating South African fossil hominins, speciation, migration, and regional Neandertal, 379 193–194 continuity of, 332–336 from Ngandong, 326 of Dryopithecus, 125 supraorbital tori, chins, and faces of, of OH 28, 259–260 in early African Erectine radiations, 270 330–332 Hipparion, 173 of early Homo, 218 Hemibuns, 460 Australopithecus garhi and, 185 of gorillas and chimpanzees, 102 Hemochorial placenta Historical geology, xii Habiline, 227–228 evolution of, 80, 81 Holliday, T., 42, 46, 373–374, 376, 412, of mammals, 149–150 of Tarsius, 93 443–444, 478 Neandertal, 378–379 Hennig, Willi, 62 Holloway, R., 133, 134, 154, 157, 170, 221, in primate origins, 110 Herbivores 230, 249, 254, 302, 304, 326, 329, of primates, 84, 85 anatomical adaptations of, 25 361–362, 392, 426, 439 pronation and supination of hominoid, condylar elevation among, 156 Holocene epoch, 13. See also Recent epoch 99–100 early reptiles as, 25, 26 oxygen-isotope stages in, 13 of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 gorillas as, 102 Holophyletic taxa, in phylogenetic Hanoman 1, as Erectine, 243 lack of large Carboniferous, 25 systematics, 61 Hapalemur griseus, teeth of, 88 Herbivorous mammals, 27 Holoptychius, 21 Haploid cells, 17 early angiosperms and, 82–83 Holsteinian interglacial period, Steinheim Haploid zygotes, in evolution, 40 Herbivory skull from, 306 , 89, 90 of adapoids, 115 (hominids), 90, 101–103 Amphipithecidae versus, 118 in primate origins, 110–111 appearance and evolution of, 127 euprimates and, 113 Heredity, theories of, 35–36 arboreal specializations of, 127 omomyoids as, 115 Herto material, 433, 434 evolution of arm-swinging in, 125 tarsiids versus, 117 Heterochrony, Neandertal, 384 in geological column, 8 Tarsius and, 94 Heuglin’s baboon, 45 systematics of, 101–103 Haplotypes, mitochondrial DNA, 466–467 Hexian Tethys Sea and, 125 Hard palate, suckling and, 75 Erectines from, 239, 243, 245, 249 Hominin lineage, xii Harris, J., 223, 264, 265, 268, 273, 275 as Heidelbergs, 322–323 Hominina, systematics of, 102 Harvati, K., 357, 359, 365, 409 High metabolic rate, of early mammals, 26 , systematics of, 102 Hata Member, Australopithecus garhi from, Hind limb (hominins) 183, 185 of Australopithecus afarensis, 180 African sites for, 132 Hawks, J., 334–335, 387, 410, 455, 466 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199 Ardipithecus among, 167–168 Head. See also Skull in dating South African fossil hominins, 193 Australopithecus africanus among, 151 of multicellular animals, 19 Habiline, 228 Australopithecus among, 157 of Paleozoic fi sh, 21 of KNM-WT 15000, 258–259, 260 Australopithecus anamensis among, of vertebrates, 20 of mammals, 149–150 168–170 Hearing Neandertal, 373–374, 379–383 Australopithecus platyops taxonomy and, Neandertal language and, 395 vertebral column and, 136 183 of Sima de los Huesos hominins, 313 in walking, 142, 145 average brain/body weights of, 133, 134 Heart Hinton, R., 359 body sizes and proportions of, 373 of Australopithecus, 204 Hip joint dating South African, 190–193, 193–195 of mammals, 73 of Australopithecus africanus, 179–180, dental breadths in early, 152 Heat, Earth’s loss of, 35 181–182 “digging sticks” used by, 266–267 Heat exchange, in respiration, 78 of Australopithecus species, 158, 159 dimorphism index among, 209 Hebrew scripture, speculation about earth’s in bipedal locomotion, 145–146, 147 discovery of, 129–130 history in, 1–2 stabilization of human, 140 Heidelbergs as, 294 Hedgehog, skull of, 85 Hip socket. See also Acetabulum hunting and gathering among, 209–214 Heel bone, enlargement and stabilization of of Australopithecus afarensis, 174, 180, knee joint of, 144 human, 148–149 181–182 Louis Leakey on, 160 Heidelberg, Germany, human fossils from, 237 in dating South African fossil hominins, Oreopithecus among, 127 Heidelbergs, 294 194 origins of, 215–217 African, 316–320 human, 138–142 Orrorin tugenensis among, 166 Asian, 320–330 Hipbone Ramapithecus and, 136 Bodo and Ndutu skulls as, 318–319 from Arago, 315 Sahelanthropus as earliest known, in early African Erectine radiations, 271 in dating South African fossil hominins, 164–165 European, 301–316, 332–333 193, 194 single-species hypothesis concerning, 188 584 | Index

Sivapithecus versus, 124 early species of, 217–223 Bilzingsleben skull as, 305 stone tools of, 265–266 endocranial volume variation in, 229 brain of, 248–250 systematics of, 102 Erectines versus, 252, 253 Ceprano cranium as, 287–288 technologies of, 265–267 Ergasters versus Erectines and, 256 from China, 278–279 teeth and diet of early, 201–202 evolutionary changes in, 233 chronology of, 240–243 Hominoidea (hominoids), 90, 97–109 facial fl atness of, 255 cranial capacity of, 248–250 atelid primates and, 95 from Olduvai Gorge, 160–161 cranial vault of, 243–248 Cercopithecoidea versus, 95 Habilines versus, 227. 228, 229 dating of, 242, 289–290 chimpanzees and bonobos as, 103–104 hand of, 85 dentition of, 251–252 derived skeletal features of, 97–101 Heidelbergs versus, 331 discoveries in Africa and Eurasia, 238–240 dryopithecids versus, 126 hip joint of, 145–146, 147, 182 discovery and history of, 235–238 estimated body sizes and sexual Homo heidelbergensis as, 303, 336 distribution of, 240–243 dimorphism in, 210–211 humeral torsion in, 98 from Dmanisi, 279–283 fi rst, 123–124 knee joint of, 144 Dmanisi hominins versus, 280 gibbons and, 126 KNM-WT 15000 as, 258–259 early African Erectine radiations and, 268, glenoid cavity of, 97–98 in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 270, 271 hominids as, 101–103 lumbar vertebrae of, 137 early African radiations of, 268–272 human skulls and teeth, 104–109 Mauer mandible versus, 308 encephalization quotients for, 261 locomotion of, 98) migration out of Africa, 272 evolution of, 267–268, 290 lumbar region of, 98 modeling later evolution of, 294–297 face and mandible of, 250–251 molars of, 96 multiregional human evolution of, fossils of, 224, 226 Oreopithecus versus, 126 299–301 Gran Dolina hominins versus, 287 pongids, 101–103 Neandertal forelimb versus earlier, 378 growth and development of, 267–268 postcranial skeleton of, 100–101 niche partitioning by early, 208, 209 Homo ergaster versus, 253–257 Proconsul versus, 121–122 occipital angle of later, 245 Homo habilis versus, 227 straightened forelimb of, 98–99 ontogeny and development of early, Homo heidelbergensis versus, 237 supination of hands of, 99–100 267–268 from Indonesia, 275–278 systematics of, 121 pelvis of, 138–142 initial occupation of Europe by, 283–288 Homo, 216 phylogeny of early, 231–232 Meganthropus as, 275–278 African origins of, 333–334 Piltdown affair and, 297 from Naramda Valley, 321, 322 apes versus, 104–109 Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus as, Ngandong material versus, 326 appearance of and initial distribution of, 238 ontogeny and development of, 268 233 projecting nose of, 364, 365 Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus as, Atapuerca hominins versus, 285, 286 Sahelanthropus versus, 165 238 Atapuerca remains among, 310, 312 sexual dinichism and, 214 postcranial remains of, 252–253, 257–261 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 172, skin color of early, 288 provenance of, 233–235 174 skin of early, 263 radiations out of Africa, 272–275 Australopithecus africanus and, 135, 151, skull of early, 218 skulls of East African, 253–257 157 small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua as, stone tools of, 265–266 Australopithecus anamensis versus, 169 328, 329 from Swartkrans, 231 Australopithecus as primitive, 217–223 South African Habilines versus, 230–231 systematics of, 234–235, 253, 256–257 Australopithecus boisei versus, 187, 190 speciation of, 44–46 taxonomy of, 288–289 Australopithecus garhi versus, 184 species concepts in, 46 Telanthropus capensis as, 217 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 195–199 stone tool manufacture by, 213 from Turkey, 315–318 Australopithecus species versus, 157–158, stone tools of, 265–266 variation in, 229 159 Stone Age hunting by, 266 Homo ergaster. See also Ergasters Australopithecus versus, 177, 204 systematics of, 101, 102, 164 Australopithecus and Homo sapiens Bodo and Ndutu skulls as, 318–319 taxonomy of, 288–289 versus, 232 body heat control in, 264 use of fi re by early, 267 Australopithecus boisei versus, 187 body size increase in, 261–262 water consumption by early, 262 dental breadths of, 152 brain of, 291–292 Homo antecessor, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288 from Dmanisi, 279 brain–body weight plot for, 72–73 systematics of, 240 early African Erectine radiations and, childbirth in early, 260–261 taxonomy of, 288, 289 270 “digging sticks” used by, 266–267 Homo erectus, xii, 233–290, 240. See also Erectines and Habilines versus, 255–256 cranial capacity of modern, 420 Erectines Homo erectus versus, 253–257 in dating South African fossil hominins, adaptations of, 261–265, 265–267 in recent human evolution, 299 192, 193, 194, 195 anatomy and physiology of early, 261–265 stone tools of, 265–266 Dmanisi hominins versus, 280, 282, 283 Australopithecus and Homo sapiens systematics of, 234, 239, 253, 255–256, early African Erectine radiations and, 268– versus, 232 256–257 269, 269–270 Australopithecus boisei versus, 187 taxonomy of, 288, 289 early European, 284 Australopitheecus africanus versus, 218 type mandible of, 255–256 Index | 585

Homo fl oresiensis, Dmanisi hominins appearance of, 27 Hot climates versus, 283 “archaic,” 292–294, 334 hominin body size increase and, 261–262 Homo georgicus Australopithecus afarensis versus, 173, shedding excess body heat in, 263–264 from Dmanisi, 279 174, 176 Houghton, P, 395 taxonomy of, 288, 289 Australopithecus anamensis versus, Howell, F. C., 223, 289, 295, 298, 299, 344, Homo habilis. See also Australopithecus 170 399, 401, 440 habilis; Habilines Australopithecus versus, 201 Howells, W. W., xi, 206, 295, 298, 299, 344, appearance and evolution of, 217–223 body heat control in, 264 451, 452, 481 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 181 childbirth in, 260 Howieson’s Poort industry, 428, 429 Australopithecus and Homo sapiens in dating South African fossil hominins, Howler monkeys, Aegyptopithecus zeuxis versus, 232 192, 195 versus, 118 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–201 dental formula of, 82 hox complex, microevolution and Australopithecus versus, 229–230 distribution of, 234 macroevolution and, 51 in dating South African fossil hominins, encephalization quotients for, 261 Hoxnian interglacial, Swanscombe skull 193 endocranial volume variation in, 229 from, 305 dental breadths of, 152 Erectines versus, 249 Hrdlicˇka, A., 295, 298, 344 discovery of, 163–164 Ergasters versus Erectines and, 256–257 Hublin, J.-J., 332, 334, 358–360, 396, 406, fossils of, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 228 estimated body sizes and sexual 411, 412, 428, 438 Homo rudolfensis versus, 230, 223 dimorphism in, 210 Hubrecht, A., 93 major specimens assigned to, 221 evolution of, xi Hughes, A., 231 OH 28 versus, 260 femur of, 159 Human behavior, chimpanzee social skull of, 164 as generalized species, 272–273, 289 behavior as modeling, 103, 104 skull specimens referred to, 224–227 Heidelbergs versus, 330 Human evolution, politics of, 52 systematics of, 217 Homo heidelbergensis versus, 335 Human fossil record, xi teeth of, 227 intermembral index of, 100 cataloguing, xii Homo heidelbergensis, xii, 432. See also Liang Bua hominins versus, 329 in evolutionary biology, xii Heidelbergs lumbar vertebra of, 178 growth of, xi–xii apomorphies of, 335 Neandertals versus, 339–340, 340–341, Human lineage, xii Australopithecus and Homo sapiens 341–342, 343, 344, 346, 366 in geological column, 8 versus, 232 other Homo species versus, 232 mammalian evolution and, 28 Bodo and Ndutu skulls versus, 319s other primates versus, 84 morphological species concept and, 49 European, 301–316, 332–333 pelvis of, 158, 159 Human origins Homo sapiens versus, 292–294 Piltdown affair and, 296 study of, xi–xii in recent human evolution, 299 Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus this book and, xi–xii, xii–xiii systematics of, 234, 237 versus, 238 Human populations, Pleistocene ice sheets taxonomy of, 288, 289, 293–294 “races” of, 44, 46 and, 5 validity of, 335–336 recent African origins of, 297–299 Human society, Darwinian evolution and, 52 Homo helmei, taxonomy of, 423 skull of, 105, 107, 416–420 Humans Homo neanderthalensis, 46, 370. See also small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua as, apes versus, 104–109 Neandertals 329 appearance of, 27 Australopithecus and Homo sapiens systematics of, 234–235 arboreality in evolution of, 109 versus, 232 taxonomy of, 411, 423 artifi cial selection by, 30 in recent human evolution, 299 tibia of, 170 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 176, as subspecies, 293, 341–342, 411 tooth replacement in, 74 177 Swanscombe skull versus, 306 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, 46 Australopithecus species versus, 157 Homo palaeojavanicus, 276 Homo sapiens sapiens, taxonomy of, 478 Australopithecus versus, 177–178, 180, Homo primigenius, 342 Homo soloensis, systematics of, 325 201, 204 Homo rudolfensis, 222 Homologies basicranial fl exure/fl exion in, 106 Australopithecus and Homo sapiens molecular clock and, 41–42 being versus becoming, 129–130 versus, 232 theory of evolution and, 32 as bipedal apes, 129–232 Australopithecus platyops taxonomy and, Homologous traits, 32 bipedality of, 135–136 183 Homoplasies, 32 body size estimates of, 258 body size estimates for, 258 Homoplastic resemblances, 32 brain size of, 104 fossils of, 223 Homosexual activity, among Pan paniscus, character state choices among, 55, 56–57 Homo habilis versus, 223 103 chimpanzees and, 53 major specimens assigned to, 221 Hooton, E., 131, 132 dentition of, 108 phylogeny of, 232 “Hopeful monsters,” 50 discoveries of African fossil, 130–131, systematics of, 230 Hornbills, sexual dinichism among, 215 131–136 Homo sapiens. See also Humans; Modern Horse earliest Chinese, 242 humans hybridization of, 39 ecology of early, 205–207 in Accretion Model, 334 walking, 146 encephalization quotients for, 261 586 | Index

Erectines versus, 247, 248, 249, 252 Hungary Hypoconulids, of hominoids and in Europe, 206 Dryopithecus brancoi from, 125 cercopithecoids, 96 evolution from Pithecanthropus, 236 Erectines from, 239 Hypoglossal nerve, language and, 395 evolution of modern, 234–235 Heidelbergs from, 315 Flood of Noah and, 2–3 Hunt, K., 178 Iberian Peninsula, hominin sites in, 284 foot bones of, 148, 149 Hunting Ice, in sedimentology, 5 hip joint of, 181–182 by Australopithecus, 201, 205, 209–214 Ice ages, 5, 13 Homo antecessor versus, 240 early human strategies for, 267 Ice sheets hunting/gathering and origins of, 212–213 by early humans, 263, 265 Miocene, 121 Laetoli footprints of, 173, 174, 181 hominin body size increase and, 261 in sedimentology, 5 lifespan of, 74 by Neandertals, 376, 390–391 Ichthyosaurs, 27 in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 by Stone Age Homo, 266 Icon, as sign, 413 locomotor adaptations of, 101 stone tools and, 266 Igneous rocks maxilloturbinals of, 77 Hunting hypothesis, of hominin origins, dating of, 5 modeling later evolution of, 294–297 209–211, 212 strata of, 4 modern, xii Hutton, James, 6–7, 9 Iliac blade Neandertal, 337–412 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 46, 339–340 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172, 174, Neandertal body proportions versus, 375 Hybrid species, biological species concept 180 Neandertal femur versus, 382 and, 46 of Australopithecus species, 158, 159 Neandertals as ancestral, 411–412 Hybrid zones Iliac spine, of Australopithecus africanus, neck muscles of, 107 among baboons, 44, 45 150 origin of modern, 413–479 among humans, 44, 46 Iliofemoral ligament, 138–139, 140 Orrorin tugenensis versus, 166 isolating mechanisms and, 43 Ilium pedal phalanges of, 149–150 in speciation, 40 of Australopithecus afarensis, 180 phylogenetic inertia of, 114 Hybrids, 43–44 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Pleistocene evolution of, 291–336 in evolution, 40, 41 in dating South African fossil hominins, premodern, xii in Mendelian genetics, 36, 37 193, 194 “races” of, 44–46 in morphological species concept, 48 human, 138–142 recent African origins of, 297–299 Hydrocarbons, origins of life and, 15 of KNM-ER 3228. 260 reproduction among, 88 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), origins of life and, of OH 28, 259–260 scapula of, 97, 179 15 Impacted wisdom teeth, 108 sexual selection among, 38 Hydrogen fusion, solar energy from, 35 Imperfection of adaptations, theory of

shoulder girdle and thorax of, 97 Hydrogen sulfi de (H2S), origins of life and, evolution and, 33–35 supraorbital torus measurements in, 355 15 Incisors sysrematics of, 101–102 Hyena dens, at Zhoukoudian, 278–279 of adapoid primates, 115 Taung child among, 130–131 of Ardipithecus, 167 third lumbar vertebra of, 99 dimorphism index of, 209 of Australopithecus, 201 valgus knee of, 145 fossil, 126 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171–172 vertebral column of, 136–138 intermembral index of, 100 of Australopithecus africanus, 134 vestigial organs of, 33 Hylobates lar, braincase of, 95 of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, 169 vocal tract of, 393 Hylobates syndactylus, estimated body sizes of Australopithecus boisei, 190 walking by, 145–146, 147 and sexual dimorphism in, 210 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 Humeral torsion, of apes, 98 Hylobatidae (hylobatids) of Australopithecus robustus, 153 Humerus Dendropithecus and, 126 of Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 of apes, 98–99 locomotor adaptations of, 101 in dating South African fossil hominins, of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, Hyoid bone, Neandertal language and, 192 169–170, 180 395 diet of Australopithecus and, 202–203 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 “Hyper-tropical” adaptations, of KNM-WT of early mammals, 63, 66 from Dmanisi, 282–283 15000, 259 of Eosimias, 120 of Dryopithecus fontani, 125–126 Hypocones of Erectines, 247, 252 Erectine, 252–253 of Catopithecus browni, 118 of humans and apes, 108 evolution of, 21, 22 of early mammal teeth, 79 Neandertal, 370–373 of gibbons, 127 Neandertal, 372 of omomyoids, 115 Habiline, 229 Hypoconid cusp, of early mammal teeth, replacement of, 74 Neandertal, 373–374, 378 79 from Sima de los Huesos, 310–311 of KNM-WT 15000, 258s Hypoconids of strepsirrhine primates, 89 of Oreopithecus, 126 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 119 of Tarsius, 93 of Orrorin tugenensis, 167 of Catopithecus browni, 119 Incisure crest, 312 in primate intermembral indices, 100 of hominoids and cercopithecoids, Neandertal, 370 from Sima de los Huesos, 310 96 Inclusive-fi tness theory, placenta and of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 of primates, 87 motherhood in, 80–81 Index | 587

Incomplete information, in cladistics, 62 Insular dwarfs, small hominins from Flores/ Israel Incurvatio mandibulae Liang Bua as, 328 Heidelberg specimens from, 320–321 modern human, 418 Intelligence, of anthropoids, 91 modern human skull from, 440, 441, 442, Neandertal, 368 Intelligent design, human back problems 443, 444 Incus, of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 versus, 138 Italy Index, as sign, 413 Intention, Darwinian evolution and, 52 Erectines from, 240, 245, 287–288 Index fossils Interacetabular distance, of Australopithecus Grimaldi skeletons from, 296 for African human fossil sites, 161 africanus, 179–180 Oreopithecus from, 126–127 geological column and, 7 Interbreeding in geological dating, 5–6 in critique of Darwin, 35–36 Jablonski, N., 265, 288, 465 India in Recent African Origin model, 297–298, Jankovic´, I., 346, 407, 437–438 Heidelberg specimens from, 321, 322 299 Japan Miocene apes from, 136 in speciation, 39, 40, 41 cercopithecoid primates from, 95, 128 Indonesia Interglacial phases, 5, 13 Zhoukoudian Erectine fossils and, 237 cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 Intermediate transitional populations, Jaramillo polarity event, 12, 240, 279 dating Erectines from, 240–241, 241–242 adaptive plateaus and, 52 Java Erectine stone tools in, 274 Intermembral index, 101 dating Homo sites and specimens from, Erectine teeth from, 252 of gibbons, 100 290 Heidelberg skulls from, 323–324, 324–326 of living and extinct primates, 100 Erectine migrations to, 275 Homo erectus from, 235–236, 237–238, Neandertal, 373 Erectine teeth from, 252 239, 240, 243, 244, 245, 275–278 Internal fertilization, amniote egg and, 24 Erectines from, 273 migration of Homo to, 273 Internal nose, Neandertal, 366–367 Heidelberg skulls from, 323–324, 324–326 Indri, intermembral index of, 100 International Code of Zoological Homo erectus from, 235–236, 237–238, Indriidae (indriids), 90 Nomenclature, 125 239, 240, 243, 244 adapoids versus, 115 Internodal species concept (ISC), 46–48 human femur from, 144 Industrial Revolution, geological studies and, morphological species concept and, 49 “Java Man,” 235 3 Interorbital septum, of Tarsius, 93 Javanthropis soloensis, systematics of, 325 Infancy Interspecies hybridization, 43 Jaw adductor muscles, 68 Erectine, 249–250 Interspecies hybrids, morphological species Jaw joint elevation, of Australopithecus Ergasters, 261 concept and, 50 robustus, 154–156 in feedback model of hominin origins, Interstadials, 13 Jaw muscles 211 Interstitial wear, between teeth, 108 of Australopithecus, 171 Neandertal, 384 Intertrochanteric line (ITL), 139, 140 of Australopithecus afarensis, 170–171 Infant braincase, pelvis and, 139, 140 of Australopithecus species, 157 of mammals, 68 Infanticide Intervertebral disks, wedging of, 137 Jawed fi sh among Pan paniscus, 103 Intestines, of Australopithecus, 204 in geological column, 8 sexual selection and, 38 Intrabullar septum, of Fayum anthropoids, 117 Paleozoic, 20 Infants Invertebrates Jawless fi sh among callithrichid primates, 95 colonization of land by, 22 in geological column, 8 of primates, 88–89 fi rst appearance of, 18–19 Paleozoic, 20, 21 Information homologies among, 32 Jaws in cladistics, 61 Inverted-pendulum walking gait, 142–143 of amphipithecids, 118 Linnaean classifi cation and, 58–59 Iridium, as evidence of Cretaceous asteroid of Ardipithecus kadabba, 167 phylogenetic error and, 58 impact, 27 of Australopithecus, 171 Infraorbital foramen, Neandertal, 364 Iron ore, origins of life and, 16 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185, Infraorbital plate Iron-containing minerals, in dating fossil 186–187 Erectine, 251 record, 11–12 of Australopithecus afarensis, 169, 175 Neandertal, 364 Isaac, G. L., 234 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 Inheritance, theories of, 35–36 Ischium, of OH 28, 260 of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, 169 Inion Isernia La Pineta, 283 Australopithecus diet and, 203–204 of Erectines, 244, 247, 248, 254 Isolating mechanisms of Australopithecus garhi, 183 of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, absence among humans, 44 of Australopithecus platyops, 183 256 prezygotic and postzygotic, 43 of Australopithecus robustus, 153–154 Insects in speciation, 43–44 of Catopithecus browni, 118 early angiosperms and, 82 Isolation of “Cinderella (OH 13)” 219 giant Carboniferous, 23 evolution and, 43–44 of diapsids, 69 as plesiadapiform food, 111–113 in speciation, 39–40, 40–41, 42 in early hominin ecology, 208 as primate food, 88 Isotopes, 9, 10 of early mammals, 63, 66, 68 as Tarsius food, 93 climatic changes and oxygen, 12, 13 of Eomaia scansoria, 82 as Teilhardina asiatica food, 113 in uranium-series dating, 11 evolution of vertebrate, 21 Instant speciation, 40 of oxygen, 13, 242 of Fayum anthropoids, 118, 119 588 | Index

of gorilla, 107–108 Kelvin, Lord, 35 Knuckle-walking, 145 of Habilines, 231, 232 Kendung Brubus, Homo erectus from, 235 by gorillas and chimpanzees, 102 in hominin origins, 217 Kennedy, G., 253 in hominin origins, 216 of humans versus apes, 104 Kenya Kocabas¸ skullcap, 290, 315–316 from Java, 237–238 Ardipithecus species from, 167 Komodo dragon, small hominins from Kanam, 238 Australopithecus aethiopicus from, 187 Flores/Liang Bua and, 328 of Miocene Old World monkeys, 121 Australopithecus platyops from, 183 Konigsberg, L., 252, 276 of Oreopithecus, 127 dating Erectines from, 240 Konso of Orrorin tugenensis, 165–166 early Homo from, 177, 218–219, 220, 221, Acheulian tool assemblages at, 265–266, of Sahelanthropus, 164 223–224, 224–227 271 Jebel Irhoud crania, 425, 426 Erectine material from, 239, 247 Australopithecus boisei from, 187, 189 Jebel Qatrani Formation, anthropoid fossils Erectines and Ergasters from, 253, 254, dating Erectines from, 240 from, 117–118 257–261 in early African Erectine radiations, 271 Jelinek, A., 348, 421, 429, 439 fossil apes from, 127 Koobi Fora Jelinek, J., 402, 459–460, 463 Heidelberg mandibles from, 319 Australopithecus boisei from, 190 Jenkin, Fleeming, 35 Kanam jaw from, 238 body size estimates of hominins from, Jewish scripture, speculation about earth’s Louis Leakey in, 158–160 258 history in, 1–2 Nyanzapithecus from, 127 dating Erectine fossils from, 240 Jianshi molars, dating, 242 Orrorin tugenensis from, 165 early Homo from, 218–219, 220, 221 Jinniushan, pubis of, 381 Proconsul from, 121–123 Erectine stone tools from, 265–266 Jinniushan skeleton, 431 use of fi re by early humans in, 267 Erectines and Ergasters from, 253, 254, Jinniushan skull, 430 Kenyanthropus platyops, 183, 189 255, 256, 260 Johannesburg region Kenyapithecus, Ramapithecus and, 136 Habilines from, 223–224, 224–227, 228, human fossils from, 132 Key traits, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 229 Taung skull from, 130–131 Khoratpithecus, 124–125 Homo ergaster from, 234 Johanson, D. C., 213, 220 Kidder, J., 245, 278, 322, 405, 417, 442, 445 human femora from, 144 Jugae, canine, of apes, 151 Kimbel, W., 170–172, 186, 194–195, 198, 208, systematics of Habilines from, 230 Jungers, W., on Australopithecus afarensis 221, 222 use of fi re by early humans at, 267 locomotion, 173, 180, 229 Kinetic energy, 35 Koobi Fora legs, 228, 230 period, 8 King, W., 46, 341–342 Koobi Fora Research Project, Erectines angiosperms from, 82 Kingdoms, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 discovered by, 239, 240 early mammals from, 65 Klasies River Mouth (KRM) specimens, 436, Kow Swamp 1 skull, 453 mammals during, 26 437–438 Kramer, A., 230, 240, 252, 256, 276, 440, synapsids from, 63 Klein, R., 253, 265, 270, 293, 306, 316, 319, 445t 382, 390, 415, 436, 477 Krapina Kabuh Formation Kleine Feldhofer Grotte, fi rst Neandertal Atapuerca humans versus humans from, cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 discovered at, 339, 340, 342 311 dating Erectines from, 241 Knee joint Neandertals from, 342 Erectines from, 251, 276–277, 324, 326 of Australopithecus afarensis, 181 Krapina 63 mandible, 369 Kabwe, Heidelberg skull from, 316–318 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Krapina Neandertal incisors, 371, 383 Kaena polarity event, 12 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 Krapina Neandertals, 408 in dating South African fossil hominins, 191 in bipedality, 142–145 Kromdraai Kalambo Falls Kneecap, 143, 144 dating fossil hominins from, 193–195 bone artifacts from, 266 KNM-ER 992 mandible, 255–256 human fossils from, 152, 157 hominin tools from, 266 KNM-ER 1470 skull, 218–219, 220, 221, 224– Kuman, K., 231 Kalibeng Formation, dating, 241 225, 226, 227, 230, 243–245 !Kung, hunting and gathering lifestyle of, Kanam, 160, 164 KNM-ER 1805 skull, 225–226 212 Kanam jaw, 238 KNM-ER 1808 skeleton, 253, 257 Kanapoi, Australopithecus anamensis from, KNM-ER 1813 skull, 225, 226, 230 L-type amino acids, in amino acid 168–169, 170 KNM-ER 1814 skull, 221 racemization dating, 11 Kanjera, 160 KNM-ER 3228 hipbone, 239, 240 L3 ZKD cranium, 251 Kannemeyeria, 64 KNM-ER 3732 skull, 226–227, 230, 239, 240, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Neandertals from, Karanisia, from Fayum, 117 245, 253, 254, 255, 289 343, 353, 354, 358 Karari Industry, 265 KNM-ER 3883 skull, 245, 253–254 La Ferrassie, Neandertals from, 343, 353, Karavanic´, I., 347, 348, 389, 400, 407 KNM-ER 42700 calvarium, 239 355, 360, 367, 371–372, 379 Kay’s Threshold, 88 KNM-WT 15000 skeleton, 228, 240, 245, 247, La Naulette Neandertal, 341 KBS Tuff, Habilines from, 224 253, 254. 255, 257–261 La Quina, Neandertals from, 343, 353 Kebara 2 Neandertal hyoid bone, 395 hominin ontogeny and, 267–268 Labor Kebara 2 Neandertal pelvis, 380 limb lengths and body breadth indices for, and hominin origins, 211 Kebibat specimens, 320 259 sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Keith, Arthur, 295, 296 Knowledge, scientifi c, xii Lacrimal, 105 Index | 589

Laetoli Large yellow baboon, 45 Levant Australopithecus afarensis from, 170, 172, Larynx, 76 chronostratigraphy of Neandertal sites in, 174 Neandertal language and, 393 348, 349 human footprints from, 173, 174, 181 Late Migration Hypothesis, Neandertals and, Heidelberg specimens from, 321 Laetoli Hominid (LH) 18 skull, 424–425, 345 Neandertals and, 345 426 Late Stone Age (LSA), 428 Levantine Corridor, Erectines from, 272 Lagar Velho, burial at, 464 Lateral facial prognathism, of Erectines, 251 Level nasal fossa fl oor, 367 Lagothrix Lateral orbital pillar, Neandertal, 362 Lewis, G. E., 136 human evolution and, 95 Lateral tubercles, modern human, 418 Liang Bua, small hominin specimens from, intermembral index of, 100 Latimer, Bruce, on Australopithecus 326–330 Lahar, dating Erectine sites from, 241 afarensis locomotion, 176 Liang Bua 1 (LB 1) skull, 326–330 Lahr, M., 299 Latitude, climatic changes and, 12–13 Liberals, Darwinian evolution and, 52 Lake Baringo, Heidelberg mandibles from, Le Gros Clark, W., 150, 157, 305, 414 Lieberman, D., on Australopithecus platyops 319 on Australopithecus afarensis taxonomy, 183, 197, 230, 248, 258, 393, Lake Malawi locomotion, 173, 176 395, 410, 411, 444, 475 African rift and, 160 on Australopithecus phylogeny, 195 Lieberman, P., 394 Australopithecus boisei from, 187 Le Moustier, Neandertals from, 343 Life Lake Mungo hominin, 452 Le Vallonet Cave, 283 diversity of, 29 Lake Rudolf, early Homo from, 218–219, 220, Lead-206 (206Pb), in radiometric dating, 10 fi rst three billion years of, 15–17 221 Lead-207 (207Pb), in radiometric dating, 10 multicellular, 17–18 Lake Turkana Leaf monkeys, 96 origins of, 15 African rift and, 160 Leakey, Jonathan, 163 Life expectancy, Neandertal, 384 Australopithecus aethiopicus from, Leakey, Louis S. B., 158–160, 163, 217, 219, Life history, of Neandertals, 383–385 185–186 224, 227, 238, 297, 298 Lifespan Australopithecus anamensis from, Erectines discovered by, 239 cell replication cycles and, 74 168–169 Kanam jaw described by, 238 of early mammals, 73–74 Australopithecus boisei from, 190 at Olduvai Gorge, 160–164 Neandertal, 384–385 Australopithecus garhi from, 183 postcranial Habiline remains found by, sexual selection and, 38 Australopithecus platyops from, 183 227–229 Lifestyle dating Homo sites and specimens from, Leakey, Mary, 162, 265 of Australopithecus, 205–207 289 Leakey, Richard, 193, 196, 218, 219, 260, early hominin, 209–214, 214–215 early African Erectine radiations and, 268 427 of early mammals, 73 Erectines and Ergasters from, 253, 254, Leaves of gorillas, 102 257–261 as Australopithecus food, 202, 203, 204 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166 Erectines from, 239 as colobid food, 96 of Pan paniscus, 103, 104 Lake Victoria, African rift and, 160 Lee, S. -H., 281, 292, 442, 446 of Pan troglodytes, 103, 104 Lamarck, J. B., 9 Lehmann, Johann, 3–4 of Pongo, 101 Lambda, of Erectines, 247–248 Leigh, S., 250, 304 of shrew, 73 Lambdoidal fl attening, Neandertal, 356 Lemur Ligaments Lampreys, 21 classifi cation of, 89 collateral knee, 143, 144 Lancelet, 20 intermembral index of, 100 dorsal sacroiliac, 142 Land Lemur catta, 90 iliofemoral, 138–139, 140 food chains on, 24–25 Lemuridae (lemurids), 89–90 nuchal, 246 vertebrate locomotion on, 22–23 adapoids versus, 115 sacroiliac, 172 Land plants, in geological column, 8 Lemuriformes, classifi cation of, 89–91 stylohyoid, 394 Language Lemuroidea, 90 in walking, 147 functions of, 391–392 Lemurs Limb bones as macromutation, 51 arboreal specializations of, 127 of amphipithecids, 118 Neandertal, 339, 391–395 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 modern human, 421 Language abilities, Erectine, 249 Malagasy, 156 of omomyoids, 115 Lantian, Erectines from, 239, 242 placenta of, 94 Limb proportions Large brains sexual dimorphism among, 93 of Dmanisi hominins, 283 of Australopithecus africanus, 132–133, skull of, 86 of KNM-WT 15000, 258–259, 260 134 as strepsirrhine primates, 89–91 Neandertal, 376 basicranial fl exure/fl exion and, 106 supposed Eocene, 115–117 Limbs, evolution of vertebrate, 21–23 of early Homo, 218 tarsiids versus, 117 Lineages, evolutionary systematics and, human, 28 Lemuta Member, Habilines from, 223 59–60 in human childbirth problems, 140, 158 Leonard, W., 262, 272, 376 Linear uptake (LU) model, in electron spin as human feature, 129–130 Leptadapis magnus, skull of, 116 resonance dating, 11 of humans and apes, 104 Lesser trochanter, 159 Lingual side of early mammal cheek teeth, in hunting and gathering lifestyle, 211 Levallois technology, 274 78, 79 590 | Index

Linnaean classifi cation Lothagam, Ardipithecus kadabba from, Maba skull, 431 evolution and, 58–59 167 Macaca, 96–97 evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 Lovejoy, C. O., 34, 137, 139, 143, 158, 159, intermembral index of, 100 Linnaean hierarchy, 59 252, 262, 263, 276 Macaques, 96–97 cladistics and, 62 on Australopithecus afarensis MacLatchy, L., 181–182 Linnaean systematics, Great Chain of Being locomotion, 173 Macroevolution, 50–52 and, 34 on hominin origins, 213, 216–217 politics of, 52 Linnaeus (Linne), Karl, 58, 59 on hominin sexual dinichism, 214–215 “Macromutations,” 50, 51 Lions, condylar elevation in, 156 Lovejoy school Madagascar Lithostratigraphy, of Indonesian Erectine on Australopithecus afarensis strepsirrhine primates of, 89–91 sites, 241 locomotion, 173, 176, 179, 180, 182 surviving primates of, 121 Live birth, among mammals, 80–81 hominin sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Magnesium-rich igneous rocks, plate Living populations, speciation among, 41 “Lower Cavern” Locality 1, dating, 242–243 tectonics and, 14 Locomotion “Lucy,” 170–173, 208 Magnetism of ancestral gibbons, 126 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 198, 199 dating fossil record via, 11–12 of arboreal mammals, 127 childbirth in, 260 in dating South African fossil hominins, of Australopithecus, 172–182 femur of, 159, 175 191 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172–173, Homo habilis versus, 220–221, 228, 229 Makapansgat 173–176, 176–182 locomotion of, 173–176, 176–182 Heidelberg mandibles from, 319 of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 pelvis of, 172–173, 178, 179–180, 180–181, human fossils from, 132, 133, 152, 226 of Australopithecus species, 158 182 Malagasy lemur, 156 body size increase and, 262 tibia of, 175 Malar, 105 of dryopithecids, 125–126 Lufengpithecus, 124 Malar notch of early mammals, 69–70 in dating Chinese Erectines, 242 of Erectines, 246, 251 of gorillas and chimpanzees, 102 Lukeino Formation, Orrorin tugenensis modern human, 418–419 of Habilines, 231, 232 from, 165 Malawi Rift Valley, human fossils from, 222 hip joint and bipedal, 145–146, 147 Lumbar lordosis, 137 Malema, Australopithecus boisei from, 187 in hominin origins, 215–216 in Australopithecus, 177–178 Males of hominoids, 95 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 118 human versus bird, 135 Lumbar region of Australopithecus, 133, 134 knee joint in, 142–145 of apes, 98 of Australopithecus afarensis, 209 of KNM-WT 15000, 258, 259 of humans and dogs, 99 of Australopithecus boisei, 188, 189, 190 of Miocene Old World monkeys, 121 Lumbar vertebrae of Australopithecus robustus, 153 of Morotopithecus bishopi, 123–124 of arboreal mammals, 127 of Australopithecus species, 156 of Oreopithecus, 126–127 of arboreal primates and mammals, 123 of bonobos, 103 in primate origins, 110 of Australopithecus, 177 of chimpanzees, 103 of Proconsul heseloni, 122, 123 of Australopithecus africanus, 150, 177, dimorphism index and, 209 of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 178 in early human ecology, 263 vertebral column in, 98 of cercopithecoids, 99 of gibbons, 101 Longgupo cave, dating Erectines from, in dating South African fossil hominins, of gorillas, 102, 107 242 194 in hunting hypothesis, 209, 211 Longgushan, Erectines from, 237, 238 of early mammals, 69 KNM-WT 15000 as, 258 Longitudinal arch, in human walking, of gibbons, 127 of lemurs, 93 147–148 human, 137–138 locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis, Loomis, W., 288 human pelvis and, 138 173, 175–176 Lophocebus, 96 of Proconsul nyanzae, 122–123 in morphological species concept, 48 Lophs, of primate teeth, 96 sacrum and, 142 Neandertal, 352, 376 Lordosis, 137 Lumbosacral infl ection, 142 of orangutans, 101 in Australopithecus, 177–178 of Australopithecus, 177–178 sexual dimorphism and, 37 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Loris, intermembral index of, 100 “Lumpers” sexual selection and, 37–38 Loris tardigradus, teeth of, 88 on Australopithecus platyops taxonomy, of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 Lorises 183 Malleus, of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 arboreal specializations of, 127 at Cold Spring Harbor Symposium, 238 Mammal reproduction, primate reproduction as strepsirrhine primates, 89, 91 morphological species concept and, 49 and, 88–89 Lorisidae, 90 Lungs Mammal-like reptiles, in geological column, Lorisiforms, 91 of early land vertebrates, 75 8 eye of, 110 of early mammals, 69, 73 Mammalia middle ear of, 92 Lusi naturae, 3 evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 Lorisoidea (lorisoids), 90 Lyell, Charles, 7 in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 from Fayum, 117 Lysosome, 17 taxonomy of, 33 Index | 591

Mammals Erectine and Ergaster, 253 Mass spectrometry, 10 accommodation in, 73 of Erectines, 247, 250–251 Masseter muscle, 68, 76 as ancestral primates, 109–111 Ergaster, 255–256 of Australopithecus robustus, 154–156 brain allometry among, 71, 72–73 from Gran Dolina, 284, 285 of reptiles, synapsids, and mammals, 67 Cenozoic evolution of, 27–28 Habiline, 224 Mastication, by Heidelbergs, 332 character state choices among, 55, 58 of Habilines, Erectines, and Ergasters, Mastoid cranial crests among, 107–108 255–256 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171 Cretaceous, 81–84 hominin teeth from, 152 of Erectines, 245 dietary signatures on teeth of, 203 of Homo erectus, 250–251 of Fayum anthropoids, 117 diversifi cation of modern, 82 of Homo ergaster, 234 Mastoid cavity, of anthropoids, 91, 92 early, 26, 63–71 of Homo habilis, 164 Mastoid fi ssure, of Homo ergaster versus eggs of, 24 of Homo heidelbergensis, 237 Homo erectus, 256 epaxial muscles of, 98 of humans and apes, 108 Mata Mange, artifacts from, 277–278 facial musculature of, 76, 77 from Mauer, Germany, 307–309 Mate preference, in hominin origins, features of arboreal, 109 modern human, 419 216–217 in geological column, 7, 8 modern human from Morocco, 438 Mate recognition tests, in species concepts, human populations and, 478–479 Neandertal, 341, 348–350, 367–370 46 humans as, xii from Olduvai Gorge, 160 Maternal defense, epitheliochorial placenta knee joint of, 142 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166 as, 81 lifespans of, 74 Piltdown, 295–297 Maturation, Neandertal, 384 lineage of, 24 of Sahelanthropus, 164 Matuyama polarity epoch (chron), 12, 240, linguistic abilities of, 393 from Sima de los Huesos, 311 241, 242, 243, 279–280, 284 live birth and placentation among, 80–81 Sangiran 8, 277 Mauer, Germany Mesozoic radiation of, 78 of Sinanthropus pekinensis, 237 Homo heidelbergensis from, 307–309 motherhood among, 75–77 of Telanthropus, 239 human fossils from, 237 as Neandertal food, 391 of Zhoukoudian Heidelberg, 322 Maxilla, 105 ontogeny and development among, Mandibular condyle, 156 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172, 184 267–268 Mandibular dentition of Australopithecus garhi, 184 after Permian mass extinction, 26 of Australopithecus robustus, 153 of early Homo, 219 phalanges of, 149 of OH 13, 227 Erectine, 250 Pliocene footprints of, 173 Mandibular fossa Habiline, 228 pronation and supination of forefeet of, 99 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 hominin teeth from, 152 sexual dinichism among, 215 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 of Ramapithecus, 136 sexual selection among, 38 of Erectines, 247, 254, 263 of tarsiids versus Eocene primates, shedding excess body heat by, 263–264 Neandertal, 359 117 skulls of, 171 Mandibular incurvature, modern human, 418 Maxillary dentition, of OH 13, 227 tooth replacement among, 74 Mandibular ramus, 156 Maxillary sinuses, of human species, 57 Mammary glands, 75 Mandibular symphysis Maxilloturbinals, 76, 77–78 Mammoth polarity event, 12 of adapoid primates, 115 in body heat control, 264 Mandible, 105 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 Erectine nose and, 250–251 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 118 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 Mayr, Ernst, 39, 238 African Heidelberg, 319 of Eosimias, 120 Mazak, V., 234 from Arago, 315 of Fayum anthropoids, 118 McHenry, H., on Australopithecus afarensis of Ardipithecus, 167 Neandertal, 367–368 locomotion, 133, 134, 156, 157, 163, 170, of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185 of Plesianthropus, 132 172, 173, 176–177, 182, 192, 193, 194, of Australopithecus africanus, 151, 154 Mangabeys, 96 197, 198, 199, 210–211, 216, 229–330 of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, Mankind in the Making (Howells), xi McMenamin, M. and D., 18 169 Mann, A., 151, 383 Meat of Australopithecus bahrelghazali, Margins of error, in radiation-based dating energy content of, 262–263 182–183 techniques, 10, 11 in Neandertal diet, 390–391 of Australopithecus boisei, 189–190 Marmosets, as platyrrhine primates, 95 stone tools and, 266 of Australopithecus garhi, 183 Marsupials Medial accessory cavity, of lorisiforms, 91 of Australopithecus robustus, 153–154 during Cretaceous period, 84 Medial cuneiform, 148 Chenjiawo, 242 eye of, 110 of Australopithecus afarensis, 176 from Dmanisi, 279, 280 nasal fossa of, 76 Mediterranean region in early hominin ecology, 208 Martin, R. D., 113, 114, 328 Erectines from, 272 of early Homo, 217, 219 Masavera Basalt, 279 gene fl ow in humans from, 444–447 of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 Mass extinctions Medullary stenosis, of KNM-WT 15000, of Eomaia scansoria, 82 catastrophism and, 9 259 of Eosimias centennicus, 120 in geological column, 8 Megadont molars, of Australopithecus Erectine, 239, 240 two latest, 26–27 species, 152–153 592 | Index

Megadonty Metatarsals, 148 Old World monkeys during, 121 of Australopithecus, 201, 203–204 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173 omomyids from, 115 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 evolution of, 22 Oreopithecus from, 126–127 and hunting hypothesis, 212 hallux and, 148 origin of hominin features during, A., Megaladapidae, 90 in human walking, 147–148 151 Megaladapis Metatarsophalangeal joints, in walking, Proconsul from, 121–123 arboreal specializations of, 127 147 Sahelanthropus from, 164–165 lumbar vertebra of, 123 Mexico, asteroid impact in, 26–27 sivaladapids from, 115 Meganthropus Mezmaiskaya, Neandertals from, 345, 346 victoriapithecids from, 128 mandible of, 277 Micoquian tools, of Neandertals, 388 Miopithecus, 96 systematics of, 275–278 Microcebus berthae, 113 Miracles, special creation as, 29 Meganthropus paleojavanicus, Erectines Microcebus murinus, skull of, 86 “Missing link,” 235, 236 versus, 251, 252 Microcephaly, and small hominins from Taung child as, 130 Megazostrodon Flores/Liang Bua, 329 Mitochondria, 17 size of, 63 Microevolution, 50–52 origins of life and, 16 skeleton of, 65 Microfi laments, 17 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Melanin, in protection against ultraviolet Microorganisms, origins of life and, 15, 16 of modern humans, 466–468, 468–469 radiation, 264–265 Microtubules, 17 of Neandertals, 338, 346 Mendel, Gregor, 35–36, 37, 51 Microwear tooth features, diet of in Recent African Origin model, 297–298 Mendelian genetics, principles of, 36 Australopithecus and, 202, 203 Mitochondrial genes, 465 Menisci, of knee, 143 Mid-sphenoid synchondroses, Neandertal, Mitochondrial genome, Neandertal, 346, Menstrual cycles, and concealed estrus, 384 385–388 211 Mid-trigonid crest (MTC), Neandertal, 372 Mitotic cycles, lifespan and, 74 Mental eminence, of Heidelbergs, 331 Middle ear Mladecˇ cranium, 460 Mental foramen of anthropoids, 91, 92 Mode 1 industries, 275 Erectine, 251 of primates, 85 Mode 2 industries, 275 of Mauer mandible, 308–309 of Tarsius, 94 Modern evolutionary synthesis, 51–52 of Sima de los Huesos mandibles, Middle ear cavity, of reptiles, synapsids, and Modern humans, 413–479 311–312 mammals, 67–69 African transition to, 422–425, 425–427, Mental spine, language and, 394, 395 Middle Stone Age (MSA), 415 427–428, 428–429 Mental trigone, modern human, 418 Midsagittal cranial angles, Neandertal, 354 ancient DNA in early, 469–470 Mentum osseum Midtarsal break, 149 assimilation of and interactions among modern human, 418 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174, 181 populations of, 476–479 from Sima de los Huesos, 311 Migration Australasian, 450–458 Mesial drift, of teeth, 108 of Erectines out of Africa, 272–275 cranial capacity of, 420 Mesial groove Heidelberg, 332–336 “creative explosion” among, 414–416 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 of Homo out of Africa, 233–234 early eastern African, 432–435 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166 in Homo taxonomy, 289 eastern Asian, 447–450 Mesopotamia, fl ood myths in, 2 in multiregional human evolution, 301 eastern Asian archaic, 429–430, 430–432 Mesozoic era, 8 Neandertal, 345 European, 458–465 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 Milankovic´, M., 12 gene fl ow among African and mammalian radiation during, 78 Milankovic´ cycles. See also Earth cycles Mediterranean, 444–447 mass extinction ending, 27 ice ages and, 13 genetics of, 465–469, 469–470 Metabolic rate in dating the fossil record, 12–13 geochronology of origins of, 421–422 body and brain size and, 262 Milk, and mammals, 74, 75–77 models of origins of, 470–476 of early mammals, 26 Mimomys, 283, 284 Near Eastern, 439–444 Metacarpals Mindel glacial period, 13 northern and southern African, 435–439 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174 Mines, Taung skull from South African, postcranial skeleton of, 421 in dating South African fossil hominins, 130–131 skull of, 416–420 193–194 Miocene epoch as symbolic apes, 413–414 Metacone African human fossil sites from, 161 Modjokerto of early mammal teeth, 79 ape evolution during, 127–128 dating Erectines from, 241, 242 Neandertal, 372 appearance of bipedal apes during, 201, fossil Erectines from, 237–238, 240, 249 of primates, 87 213 Molars Metaconids climate change during, 121, 207 Neandertal, 372–373 of hominoids and cercopithecoids, 96 Europe during, 125 occlusion of mammalian, 73–74, 78–79 of primates, 87 fossil euprimate cheek teeth from, 114 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 119 Metaconule global temperature fl uctuations during, 83 of Apidium, 126 of early mammal teeth, 79 human fossils from, 160 of Ardipithecus, 167 of primates, 87 Indian and African apes from, 136 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185, 186 Metamorphic rocks, in dating rock strata, 7 Morotopithecus bishopi from, 123–124 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171–172 Metaphors, of Darwinism, 52 Nyanzapithecus from, 127 of Australopithecus africanus, 135 Index | 593

of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, 169 Morant, G., 305 Muscles of Australopithecus boisei, 190 Morganucodon of chordates, 19 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 jaws and teeth of, 66, 78 of mammalian jaws and skull, 67, 68 of Australopithecus species, 152–153, 157 skull of, 71 vestigial, 33 of callitrichid primates, 95 Morocco in walking, 147 of Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 in early African Erectine radiations, 272 Muscular strength, Neandertal, 378–379, in dating South African fossil hominins, Erectines from, 239 382–383 192 North African Heidelbergs from, 320 Musculature, of KNM-WT 15000, 257–258 diet of Australopithecus and, 202, Morotopithecidae, 90 Mutant superman myth, 51 203–204 Morotopithecus, 123–124, 127 Mutations of early mammals, 63, 66, 78–79 Morotopithecus bishopi, 123–124 evolution of resistance and, 40 Erectine, 251, 252 Dryopithecus versus, 125 in Mendelian genetics, 37 Habiline, 227, 228 mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123, 124 microevolution and macroevolution and, of hominoids and cercopithecoids, 96 Morphological species concept (MSC), 50–51 of hominoids versus cercopithecoids, 48–50 in speciation, 43 100–101 Morphology Mycoplasmas, origins of life and, 15 of humans and apes, 108 internodal species concept and, 47, 48 Myositis ossifi cans, Erectines and, 253 Jianshi, 242 phylogenetic error and, 55, 56, 57–58 Myotomes, of chordates, 19 of Morotopithecus bishopi, 123 Morphospecies, in evolution, 48–50 Mythical disasters, 2 of Oreopithecus, 127 Morphs, within species, 46 of Orrorin tugenensis, 165–166 Mortality rates Nacholapithecus, 127 of plesiadapiforms, 111 among hatchlings and juveniles, 75 Nagwi specimen, 325–326 of primates, 87–88 sexual selection and, 38 Nails of South African Habilines, 231 Mosaic evolution of plesiadapiforms, 111 of tarsiids versus Eocene primates, 117 Eosimias and, 120 of primates, 84, 85 replacement of, 74 of primates, 113 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 from Sima de los Huesos, 311 Motherhood Namibia tribosphenic, 78–79 allometry and, 74–77 fossil apes from, 127 Molecular clock among callitrichid primates, 95 Heidelberg specimens from, 319–320 eutherian mammals and, 82 live birth and placentation and, 80–81 Nanjing, Erectines from, 243 evolutionary tempo and, 41–42 Mountain ranges, continental drift and, 14 Nariokotome Ramapithecus and, 136 Mountain-building. See Orogeny early Homo from, 177, 239, 240, 247 Molecular data, in cladisticis, 61 Mountains, formation of, 7 Erectines and Ergasters from, 253, 254, Molecules, in origins of life, 15 Mouse lemur, 90 257–261, 267 Molleson, T., 253 Mousterian tools, 341, 348, 350, 414 Narmada Valley, Heidelberg specimens from, Mollusc shell, dating, 11 of Neandertals, 388–390 321, 322 Molluscs Mouth, of chordates, 19 Nasal aperture, Neandertal, 364 fi rst appearance of, 19 Movius, H., 274 Nasal bone, 105 homologies among, 32 Movius Line, 274–275 of proconsulids, 123 taxonomy of, 33 Mt. Ararat, in biogeography problem, 31 Nasal fossa Molten glass, as evidence of Cretaceous Mt. Carmel in mammals, 76 asteroid impact, 27 modern human skull from, 440 Neandertal, 367 Monkeys Neandertals from, 343–344 Nasal metrics, Neandertal, 363 arboreality in evolution of, 109 Mucous membrane, in respiration, 78 Nasal skeleton, of South African Habilines, 231 ecology of, 205 Mugharet El-Zuttiyeh, Heidelberg specimens Nasalis, intermembral index of, 100 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 from, 320–321 Nasion radius (NAR), Neandertal, 364 glenoid cavity of, 97 Mule deer, 48, 49 Nasoturbinals, 76, 78 humeral torsion in, 98 Multicellular life, 17–18 Natural kinds, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 lumbar region of, 98 Cambrian revolution among, 18–21 Natural selection. See also Selection lumbar vertebrae of, 99 Multicellular organisms, microevolution and adaptation and, 34–35 Old World and New World, 94 macroevolution among, 50–51 Australopithecus afarensis and, 176 pelvis of, 138 Multiple tooth roots, of early mammals, 64 in Darwin’s theory of evolution, 31, 52 placenta of, 94 Multiregional evolution (MRE) model evolution of useless or undesirable sacrum of, 98 for later humans, 295, 297, 299–301 features via, 180–181 Monocentric models, of recent human Neandertals and, 345–346 and Mendelian genetics, 37 evolution, 298, 299 of recent human evolution, 470–471, microevolution and macroevolution and, Monogamy 472–473 50, 51 in early hominins, 213 small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua and, phylogenetic inertia and, 114 of gibbons, 101 340 placenta and, 81 Monophyletic taxa Multituberculates, 83–84 sexual selection as, 38 evolutionary systematics and, 60 Multivariate analysis, of Erectine crania, in speciation, 39, 41 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 245 in synthetic theory of evolution, 51–52 594 | Index

Natural tools, 266 technology of, 388–390 early primates from, 116–117 Naturalists, Linnaean classifi cation and, 58 western and central Asian, 402–406 Eocene tarsiids from, 117 Nature, parsimony principle in, 30 western European, 401–402 fi rst fossil euprimate from, 113 Navicular, 148 Würm, 399, 401–402 fossil euprimate cheek teeth from, 114 of Australopithecus afarensis, 181 Zuttiyeh skull among, 320–321 ice sheets of, 5 Ndutu cranium, 318–319 Near East during Miocene epoch, 121 Neander Valley (Neanderthal), Neandertals dating Neandertals from, 348–350 modern humans in, 416 from, 339 Heidelbergs from, 334 notharctids from, 115, 116 Neandertal I skeleton, 339–341 modern humans in, 439–444 omomyoids from, 115, 116 Neandertal Phase models Neck, Neandertal, 377–379 orogeny in, 14 of human evolution, 294–295, 296 Neck muscles. See also Epaxial muscles as part of Pangaea, 14 Recent African Origin model versus, 298 (EM); Epaxial neck muscles plesiadapiforms from, 111, 112 Neandertals, xii, 337–412 of gorilla, 107 Nose Accretion Model of origins of, 334 of humans, 107 of anthropoids, 91 African Heidelbergs versus, 319–320 Necrolemur, as Eocene tarsiid, 117 Erectine, 250–251 Atapuerca remains among, 309, 311–312, Neo-Darwinian synthesis, 51–52 modern human, 419 313, 314 Neoplatonic species concept, in Homo of monkeys, 94 body size and proportions of, 373–383 taxonomy, 289 Neandertal, 364–365 brain of, 291, 292 Neosaimiri fi eldsi, cheek teeth of, 114 of plesiadapiforms, 111 character state choices among, 56–57 Neptunists, 3, 4, 7, 27 of Tarsius, 93–94 chronology and distribution of, 346–350, Nerves, of chordates, 19 Nostrils 351 New World monkeys, 94 Erectine, 250–251 cranial vault of, 350–361 arrival in South America, 121 of monkeys, 94 dentition of, 370–373 braincase of, 95 Notharctidae, 90, 115 diet of, 390–391 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 , 115 early discoveries of, 337–338, 339–343 Old World monkeys versus, 95 skeleton of, 116 early European, 398–401 Newman, R., 264 Notochord, of chordates, 19–20 endocranial volume variation in, 229 Ngaloba skull, 424, 426 Notopuro Formation, dating 241 Erectines versus, 252 Ngandong NP-complete problems, phylogenetics and, face of, 361–367 Erectines from, 243 55 facial fl atness of, 255 skulls from, 245, 323–324, 324–326 Nuchal crest genetics of, 385–388 Ngandong 5 skull, 325 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 Gran Dolina hominins versus, 2287 Ngandong 9 skull, 325 of gorilla, 107, 157 Heidelbergs versus, 314–315, 334, 335, 336 Ngandong Homo of Sahelanthropus, 165 Homo antecessor versus, 240 dating, 242 Nuchal ligament, of Erectines, 246 Homo heidelbergensis versus, 293–294, discovery of, 237–238 Nuchal plane 302, 303 endocranial volume variation in, 229 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 in Homo taxonomy, 289 Niche partitioning, among Australopithecus, of Erectines, 245, 247–248, 255 as human “race,” 44–46, 340–341, 344 207–209 of Neandertals, 357 importance in human paleontology, Nitrogen-14, in carbon-14 dating, 9 of Sahelanthropus, 165 337–339 Noah’s Ark, biogeography problem with, 31. of Sima de los Huesos skulls, 313 Kabwe skull versus, 318 See also Flood of Noah Nuchal shelf, Neandertal, 357 language of, 391–395 Nocturnal animals, mammals as, 27 Nuchal torus, of Erectines, 243–245, 246, late, 406–410 Nocturnality 247, 248, 255 life history of, 383–385 of Erectines, 265 Nuclear DNA, of Neandertals, 338, 346 mandible of, 367–370 of owl monkey, 94–95 Nuclear DNA polymorphisms, in Recent Mauer mandible versus, 308–309 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 African Origin model, 299 as modern human ancestors, 411–412 Nonbiface assemblages, of Heidelbergs, Nuclear energy, age of the Earth and, 35 modern humans versus, 415–416, 442, 294 Nuclear envelope, 17 443, 460–461, 464–465 North Africa Nuclear families, in hunting hypothesis, 211, modern ideas about, 343–346 dispersal of Erectines into Eirope from, 212 morphological distinctiveness of, 410–411 272 Nuclear genes, 465 Ngandong skulls versus, 326 Erectines from, 239, 243 Nuclear reactions, age of Earth and, 35 Petralona skull versus, 304–305 Heidelbergs from, 320 Nucleic acids, origins of life and, 15 Piltdown affair and, 296–297 modern human sites and specimens from, Nucleolus, 17 purported ancestors of, 284–285 436 Nucleotide sequences Steinheim skull among, 307 modern humans in, 435–439 molecular clock and, 41–42 subsistence behavior of, 390–391 North America phylogeny and, 53, 54, 55, 58 Swanscombe skull versus, 306 asteroid impact in, 27 Nucleus (cell), 17 symbolic behavior of, 395–398 biogeography of, 31–32 origins of life and, 16 systematics of, 411 early marsupials from, 84 Nunivak polarity event, 12 Index | 595

Nursling mammals, 75–77 OH 24 (Olduvai hominid 24), skull of, 225 Oligopithecidae, 90 Nyanzapithecus, Oreopithecus versus, 127 OH 28 (Olduvai hominid 28), 259–260 from Fayum, 118 Nycticebus, intermembral index of, 100 OH 35 (Olduvai hominid 35), hind limb Olivier, 6, 481 Nycticebus coucang, eye of, 110 elements of, 228 Olorgesaille skull bones, 239, 240, 271 Nyctimene rabori, eye of, 110 OH 62 (Olduvai hominid 62), postcrania of, Omo Kibish skulls, 422, 423, 426, 427, Nyctiphruretus, 25 228–229, 230 432–433, 434 OH 65 (Olduvai hominid 65), 230 Omo River valley Oakley, K. P., 297 Okote Member Australopithecus aethiopicus from, 185, Oblique power grip, Neandertal, 379 Habilines from, 224 186 Observational taxonomic units (OTUs), 199 Homo erectus specimens from, 254 Australopithecus boisei from, 187 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199–201 Old World dating Erectines from, 240 Obsidian hydration dating technique, 11 dating Erectine dispersal into, 290 Habilines from, 223–224, 228 Occam’s Razor Heidelbergs in, 333 human fossils from, 184, 222 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199 Old World monkeys, 94, 95–97 (omomyids), 90, 115 Australopithecus platyops taxonomy and, appearance of, 121 Eosimias versus, 120 183 braincase of, 95 middle ear of, 92 morphological species concept and, 49 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 Omomyinae, skull of, 116–117 Occipital hominin origins and, 213 Omomyoidea (omomyoids), 90 of Bilzingsleben skull, 305 Old World primates, atelid primates and, 95 as euprimates, 113, 115 of Erectines, 245, 248 Oldowan Industry, 265, 266 relationships of, 115–117 of Kabwe skull, 317–318 Oldowan tools, 161–162, 185, 222, 223, 272, tarsiids versus, 117 Occipital angle, of Erectines, 245 275 On the Origin of Species by Means of Occipital bones in dating South African fossil hominins, Natural Selection, Or the Preservation Neandertal, 356–359 191, 194 of Favoured Races in the Struggle for of Petralona skull, 303 at Dmanisi, 279 Life (Darwin), 31. See also Origin of Occipital bunning, 304 from Europe, 240, 283 Species, The (Darwin) Neandertal, 356–357 of Heidelbergs, 294 One-time-only processes, 4 Occipital condyle, 105, 107 use of fi re and, 267 Ontogeny of Australopithecus africanus, 151 “Olduvai George” skull, 219 of Habilines, 231, 232 of humans versus apes, 104 Olduvai Gorge of Homo erectus, 267–268 vertebral column and, 137 Australopithecus boisei from, 187, 188 of Neandertal cranium, 357 Occipital plane bone artifacts from, 266 Open country, hominin habitation of, 205 of Erectines, 247, 248, 254, 255 dating Erectines from, 240, 242 Opisthion, of Erectines, 247, 248 of Sima de los Huesos skulls, 313 in early African Erectine radiations, 271 Opisthocranion, of Erectines, 244, 247, Occipitomarginal (O/M) sinus system, in early hominin fossils from, 217, 218, 254 Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–198 219–220 Orangutans Occipitomastoid crest, Neandertal, 356, Erectine stone tools from, 265 ancestral, 124–125 358–359 Erectines from, 239, 242 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 176 Occiput Ergaster and Erectine fossils from, Australopithecus versus, 204 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 259–260 evolution of, 126 of Erectines, 247, 254–255 Habiline teeth from, 227, 228 hominin origins and, 216 Occlusion Habilines from, 223–224, 225–227, 230 lifestyle of, 101 in early mammals, 64, 66 hominin fossils from, 160–164, 196 mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123 of mammalian molars, 73–74, 78–79 Ndutu cranium and, 318 scapula of, 179 Ocean basins, Pangaea and, 14 Olduvai polarity event, 12 skull of, 124 Ocean water, in Pleistocene stratigraphy, 13 in dating South African fossil hominins, Supraorbital torus and, 331 Oceans, in sedimentology, 4–5 191 systematics of, 101 Odocoileus hemionus, as morphospecies, Olfactory bulbs tool use among, 103–104 48, 49 of anthropoids, 91 Orbital plate, Neandertal, 361–362 Odocoileus virginianus, as morphospecies, of primates, 85 Orbits. See also Eye sockets 48, 49 Olfactory sense, of Tarsius, 93–94. See also of anthropoids, 91–93 OH 5 (Olduvai hominid 5), skull of, 162–163 Vomeronasal organ; Smell of Australopithecus africanus, 151 OH 6 (Olduvai hominid 6), 163 Olfactory turbinals, respiration and, 78 of Australopithecus boisei, 162 OH 7 (Olduvai hominid 7) Oligocene epoch of Eosimias, 120 hand of, 227, 228 anthropoids from, 118 of Heidelbergs, 330–332 parietals of, 230 climate change during, 121 of Neandertals, 362 skull of, 163–164, 224, 227 global temperature fl uctuations during, of omomyoid primates, 115 OH 8 (Olduvai hominid 8), foot of, 227, 228 83 of plesiadapiforms, 111 OH 9 (Olduvai hominid 9), 245, 271 Old World monkeys during, 121 in primate origins, 110 OH 13 (Olduvai hominid 13), dentition of, omomyids from, 115 of primates, 84–85 227 Propliopithecidae from, 118 of Teilhardina asiatica, 114 596 | Index

Orders Pääbo, S., 346, 385 Australopithecus africanus versus, 151, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Pacitinian stone tools, 274 157 in taxonomic hierarchy, 32, 33 Pads, on primate hands and feet, 84, 85 Australopithecus anamensis versus, period, 8 Pair bonding, in early hominins, 213 169–170 vertebrates from, 20–21 Paired fi ns, evolution of, 21 Australopithecus versus, 203, 212 Oreopithecidae, 90 Pakistan dimorphism index of, 209 Oreopithecus, 126–127 Erectines from, 273 hominin origins and, 216 appearance and evolution of, 127 Sivapithecus sivalensis from, 124–125 humans versus, 104–109 Oreopithecus bambolii, 126 Palaechthon nacimienti, skull of, 112 intermembral index of, 100 Organic materials, dating, 11 Palaeopropithecidae, 90, 127 knees of, 145 Organisms Palate lumbar vertebrae of, 99, 137 adaptations of, 33 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 systematics of, 102, 103 evolution of resistance among, 40 of early mammals, 64, 77–78 Pan paniscus, 103 genes of, 37 Erectine, 250 average brain and body weights of, 133 homologies among, 32 of Kabwe skull, 318 endocranial volume variation in, 229 lifespans of, 73–74 of KNM-ER 1470 skull, 224–225 estimated body sizes and sexual Linnaean classifi cation of, 58–59 suckling and, 75 dimorphism in, 210 microevolution and macroevolution , xi, xii intermembral index of, 100 among, 50–52 debates in, xii lifestyle of, 103, 104 phylogeny of, 52–53, 54 history of, 235–238, 238–240 Pan troglodytes, 103 Organs, of multicellular organisms, 17–18 secretiveness in, 185 Ardipithecus versus, 167 Origin of Races, The (Coon), xi–xii this book and, xii–xiii Australopithecus afarensis versus, 173 Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 7, 31, 35, Paleocene epoch Australopithecus anamensis versus, 170 39, 43, 180 early fossil euprimates from, 113 average brain and body weights of, 133 Orogeny, 13–14 global temperature fl uctuations during, in dating South African fossil hominins, continental drift and, 14 83 192 Orrorin, 128, 165–167, 168 plesiadapiforms from, 111, 112 ecology of, 205 Australopithecus afarensis versus, 182 Paleoclimatic cycles, in dating Chinese endocranial volume variation in, 229 Australopithecus anamensis versus, 169 Erectines, 242, 243 estimated body sizes and sexual in Australopithecus phylogeny, 198 Paleodemes, in Homo taxonomy, 289 dimorphism in, 210 environment of, 207 Paleolithic femur of, 159, 175 restricted distribution of, 233 Erectine feeding strategies during, 265 knuckle-walking by, 102 Orrorin tugenensis, 165–167, 168 Grimaldi skeletons from, 296 lifestyle of, 103, 104 Orthognathic skull, 417 human body mass, brain mass, and cranial manidble of, 108 Osborn, Henry Fairfi eld, 206 capacity during, 293 pelvis of, 141, 142 Otavipithecus, 127 humans of, 414 skull of, 105 Otolemur, skull of, 85 Kabwe skull from, 316–318 Taung child versus, 131 “Out of Africa” models, of recent human Neandertals from, 352 tibia of, 170 evolution, 299, 333–334, 469 Paleolithic industries, of Neandertals, Pangaea, 14 “Out of Asia” model, of recent human 388–390 during Permian and Triassic periods, 23 evolution, 469 Paleolithic tools and artifacts, 266, 274, 276 Permian mass extinction and, 26 Outgroups Paleomagnetic dating Panina, systematics of, 102 phylogenetic error and, 55 of African human fossil sites, 161, 191–192 Panini, systematics of, 102 phylogeny and, 53, 54 of East African Erectine sites, 240 Panthera, 478 Overbite, in human teeth, 108 of European hominin sites, 284 Panting, 78 Owl monkey, nocturnality of, 94–95 of Indonesian Erectine sites, 241 Papio, 96 Oxidative atmosphere, origins of life and, 16 Paleontology canine fangs of, 96 Oxnard, C. E., on Australopithecus modern evolutionary synthesis and, 51–52 humeral torsion in, 98 afarensis locomotion, 173 morphological species concept in, 48–49 intermembral index of, 100 Oxygen Paleozoic era, 8 lumbar vertebrae of, 99 origins of life and, 16 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 regional populations of, 44, 45 Paleozoic increase in atmospheric, 23 evolution of vertebrates during, 21–23 Paracones, of primates, 87 Oxygen-16 (16O), in Pleistocene stratigraphy, fi shes from, 20–21 Paraconids 13, 242 mass extinction ending, 27 of Apidium, 126 Oxygen-18 (18O), in Pleistocene stratigraphy, Paleozoic vertebrates, homologies among, of Catopithecus browni, 119 13, 242, 243 32 in primate origins, 110 Oxygen Isotope Stages (OIS) Paley, William, 33–34 of primates, 87 in Neandertal chronology, 346, 347 Palms, of primates, 84, 85 of Propliopithecidae, 118 Pleistocene, 12, 13 Pan Paraconules Oxygen isotopes, Pleistocene stratigraphy Australopithecus afarensis versus, 172, of early mammal teeth, 79 and, 13, 242 174, 180 of primates, 87 Index | 597

Parallel evolution, 32 Pelvic diaphragm Habiline, 228 phylogenetic error and, 58 of hominoids, 100 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166, 167 Parallelisms, in Australopithecus phylogeny, upright posture and, 136 reduction of human, 149–150 199 Pelvic fi ns, evolution of, 21 Phalangeroid marsupials, eye of, 110 Paranthropus Pelvic tilt Phanerozoic eon, 8 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 198 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174 mass extinctions during, 27 Zinjanthropus boisei versus, 163 in walking, 146, 147 multicellular animals during, 18 Paranthropus aethiopicus, systematics of, 186 Pelvis Pharyngeal constrictor muscles, in mammals, Paranthropus crassidens, systematics of, 152 of Australopithecus afarensis, 172–173, 75–77 Paranthropus robustus 174, 179–180, 180–181 Pharynx, in mammals, 75, 77 niche partitioning by, 207–208 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Phenetics, 60–61 systematics of, 157 of Australopithecus species, 157–158 Phenotype(s) Parapatric speciation, 40, 43–44 of chimpanzee, 141, 142 of baboons, 44, 45 Paraphyletic taxa evolution of, 22 in Mendelian genetics, 37 in cladistics, 62 human posture and, 138–142 in morphological species concept, 48 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 of KNM-WT 15000, 258, 259, 260. 261 Philosophy Parapithecidae, 90 of “Lucy,” 172–173, 178, 179–180, 180–181, in Homo taxonomy, 289 from Fayum, 118, 119 182 parsimony principle in, 30 Parapithecus, Aegyptopithecus zeuxis Neandertal, 375, 379–383 Photosynthesis versus, 118 from Sima de los Huesos, 310 diet of Australopithecus and, 202 Parapithecus grangeri, 118, 119 Penck, A., 13 early multicellular fossils and, 18 skull of, 119 Periglacial conditions, Neandertal body food chains and, 24–25 Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus, proportions during, 376 origins of life and, 15, 16 systematics of, 185, 186 Perikymata patterns, Neandertal, 383 Phyla, in taxonomic hierarchy, 32–33 Parent populations, in speciation, 39–40 Peripheral isolates, in speciation, 39–40, 41, Phyletic gradualism Parent species, internodal species concept 52 macroevolution and, 50 and, 48 Peripheral populations, adaptive plateaus punctuationism versus, 52, 235 Parental investment, sexual selection and, 38 and, 52 Phylogenetic inertia Parent–daughter isotope pairs, in radiometric Permanent teeth, 74 of Australopithecus afarensis, 176, 179, dating, 10 Permian period, 8 180, 181 Parietal, 105 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 among primates, 113–114 of Erectines, 239, 245 early reptiles from, 25 Phylogenetic species concept, in of Homo ergaster versus Homo erectus, evolution of vertebrates during, 23 phylogenetic systematics, 61 256 mass extinction at end of, 26, 27 Phylogenetic systematics, 61. See also of Neandertals, 356 reptilian evolution during, 23–26 Cladistics of monkeys, 95 Perning 1 calvarium, 237–238, 240, 241–242, evolutionary systematics versus, 59–60 Parsimony principle, theory of evolution 249, 250, 275 molecular clock and, 42 and, 29–30, 35. See also Principle of dating, 241-242 problems of, 61–62 Parsimony Perodicticus, intermembral index of, 100 Phylogenetic trees, internodal species Particle sizes, in sedimentology, 4–5 Pesticides, resistance to, 40 concept and, 47, 48 Particulate inheritance, 35–36, 37 Petalia, Erectine, 249 Phylogeny Parties, of chimpanzees and bonobos, 103 Petralona, Homo heidelbergensis from, of Australopithecus, 195–201, 231–232 Patas monkey, 96 302–305 of Australopithecus garhi, 184–185 Pathology Petrifi cation, 4 of Hominini, 157 in Ergaster skeleton, 257, 258 Petrosal of Homo heidelbergensis, 335–336 of Neandertal I skeleton, 341 in dating South African fossil hominins, Homo taxonomy and, 293 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, 194, 195 Linnaean classifi cation and, 58–59 329 of Eosimias, 120 of organisms, 52–53, 54 Patjitanian stone tools, 274 of Erectines, 247 phenetics and, 61 Patrilocal males, sexual dinichism and, 215 in primate origins, 109 sources of error in, 53–58 Patrols, among Pan troglodytes, 103 of primates, 85, 86, 87 Physics, evolutionary theory versus, 35 Patterson, H., 46 Phalanges Phytoliths, diet of Australopithecus and, Pavlovian industry, 463–464 of Ardipithecus kadabba, 168 202 Pea plants, Mendel’s experiments with, of Australopithecus afarensis, 149 Pierolapithecus, 126 35–36, 37 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173, 174, Pierolapithecus catalaunicus, mid-lumbar Pearson, O., 374, 383, 421, 464, 472 176, 182 vertebra of, 123 Pectoral fi ns, evolution of, 21 of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 Pigeons, varieties of, 29, 30 Pectoralis minor muscle, of Australopithecus chimpanzee, 149 Pigmentation africanus, 179 in dating South African fossil hominins, of early humans, 263 Pei, W., 237 193–194 in protection against ultraviolet radiation, Peking, Erectines from, 237 evolution of, 22 264–265, 288 598 | Index

Pilaster early African Erectine radiations during, , 90 Erectine, 253 270–271 ancestral gibbons among, 126 Neandertal, 381 Erectine feeding strategies during, 265 appearance of, 121 Pilgrim, Guy, 136 Erectine fossils from, 237, 238 Plumage Piltdown affair, 295–297 Erectine migrations during, 273 evolution of, 37 fl uorine dating in exposure of, 11 European hominins from, 288 varieties of pigeon, 30 Piriform aperture, Neandertal, 364 evolution of Homo during, 235 Pluvial periods, 13 Pisiform, of Australopithecus afarensis, fossil hominids from, 102 Pohjajar Formation, dating, 241 173–174 fossil gibbons, 126 Polar ice caps, in sedimentology, 5 Pithecanthropus global temperature fl uctuations during, Polar ice sheets, Miocene, 121 Piltdown affair and, 296 83 Polarity epochs (chrons), 12 skull of, 278 hominin distribution during, 233, 234, in dating South African fossil hominins, systematics of, 235, 236, 238 240–243 191 taxonomy of, 342 hominin fossils from, 164, 218 Polished wooden implements, 266 Pithecanthropus alalus, systematics of, human evolution during, 291–336 Politics 235 human speciation during, 44 of food sharing, 215 Pithecanthropus erectus Neandertal migrations during, 345 in hominoid sexual dimorphism systematics of, 235 Olduvai Gorge fossils from, 160 speculations, 209–214 taxonomy of, 342 phylogeny of hominins from, 195–201 of macroevolution, 52 Pithecanthropus modjokertensis, sugrivapithecids from, 125 in theories of human origins, 205, 206 systematics of, 275 Plesiadapiformes Pollen, of early angiosperms, 82 Placenta as primates, 111 Poloyo, Heidelberg specimens from, 323–324 among mammals, 80–81 skeleton of, 112 Polygyny in primates, 94 skull of, 86, 112 of Australopithecus afarensis, 209 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Plesiadapis, as primate, 111 among gorillas, 102–103 of Tarsius, 93 Plesiadapis tricuspidens, skull and skeleton of primates, 101 vestigial egg features and, 33 of, 112 Polymerized sugars Plantar aponeurosis, 148 Plesianthropus, 132 cellulose, 25 in dating South African fossil hominins, Plesianthropus transvaalensis, systematics origins of life and, 15 194 of, 152 Polymorphisms, 467–468 in human walking, 147 Plesiomorphic character states Polyphyletic taxa, evolutionary systematics Plants (plesiomorphies) and, 60 adaptations of, 33 in cladistics, 62 Polythetic taxa, 335, 417 as Australopithecus food, 202, 203 in Neandertal pelvic morphology, 381 Polytypism, in multiregional human biological species concept and, 46 phylogenetic error and, 55 evolution, 301 in carbon-14 dating, 9–10 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 Pondaungia, 118 as cercopithecoid food, 96 Plesions, in cladistics, 62 Pongidae, 90, 101, 125 colonization of land by, 22–23 Plesiopithecidae, 90 systematics of, 101 in early human diet, 262–263 Plesiopithecoidea, 90 Pongo. See also Orangutans Ediacaran, 18 Plesiopithecus, from Fayum, 117 ancestral orangutans versus, 124–125 fi rst appearance of fl owering, 82 Plesiosaurs, 27 average brain and body weights of, 133 as food, 25 Pliocene epoch intermembral index of, 100 in food chains, 24–25 African human fossil sites from, 161 lifestyle of, 101 in geological column, 8 ape evolution in, 128 molars of, 96 as gorilla food, 102 Australopithecus anamensis from, Sivapithecus versus, 124 mapping rock strata and, 3 168–169 systematics of, 101 Paleozoic, 22–23 climate change during, 206 Pongo pygmaeus Pangaea and, 14 dating South African fossil hominins from, estimated body sizes and sexual as primate food, 87–88 190–191 dimorphism in, 210 tetraploid hybrid species among, 40 Erectine migrations during, 273 mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123 underground storage organs of, 203–204 fossil hominids from, 102 skull of, 124 Plate tectonics, continental drift and, 14 global temperature fl uctuations during, Pope, G., 243 Platymeria, of KNM-WT 15000, 259 83 Population control, 52 Platyrrhini, 90, 94–95, 121 hominin distribution during, 233 Population genetics, 51 Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 hominin fossils from, 164, 218 Populations Pleistocene epoch, 5 hominin lifestyle during, 205 adaptive plateaus and, 52 African human fossil sites from, 161 human footprints from, 173 human, 46 ape evolution in, 128 Orrorin and Ardipithecus from, 165–168 hybrid zones within, 43 climatic cooling during, 13 phylogeny of hominins from, 195–201 microevolution among, 50 dating South African fossil hominins from, stone tools from, 265 in morphological species concept, 48 190–191, 193–195 , 90 Neandertal, 56–57 Index | 599

semispecies, hybrids, and isolation Pre-Neandertals, 344 Prey mechanisms in, 43–44 in Accretion Model, 334 in Australopithecus diet, 203 in speciation, 39–40, 41 Pre-Sapiens model Cambrian, 19 varieties within, 46 of human evolution, 294, 295–296, early hominins as, 212 Postcranial remains 296–297 of early human hunters, 263 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 Neandertals in, 343, 344 Prezletice, 283 of Australopithecus garhi, 183, 184 Prebregmatic eminence, of Ngandong skulls, Prezygotic isolating mechanisms, 43 of Australopithecus rudolfensis, 260 326 Primary rocks, 3–4 in dating South African fossil hominins, Precambrian eon, 8 dating rock strata and, 7 194 life during, 15–17 in geological column, 7 of Dmanisi hominins, 281–282 multicellular animals during, 18 Precambrian eon and, 18 Erectine, 239 multicellular life in, 19 Primates, xii, 84–89 Habiline, 224, 227–229 Precision grip anthropoid radiations of, 121–128 of Homo erectus, 252–253, 257–261 in early African Erectine radiations, 270 arboreality in evolution of, 109 from Kabwe, 318 of early Homo, 218 character state choices among, 55–56, from Koobi Fora, 220–221 Habiline, 227 57 from Ngandong, 326 Precocial infants, of primates, 88–89 climate change versus, 121 from Sima de los Huesos, 309–310 Predation convergences among, 127 from Skh _ l and Qafzeh, 442–443 hominin body size increase and, 261 crown-group, 109–111 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, in primate origins, 110, 111, 113 derived features of, 84–89 326–330 stone tools and, 266 dimorphism index among, 209 Postcranial skeleton by Teilhardina asiatica, 113 ears of, 85–87 of Australopithecus, 157–158, 159 Predators Eocene, 115–117 of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 Cambrian, 19 estimated body sizes and sexual modern human, 421 and early hominin evolution, 205 dimorphism in, 210–211 of primates, 100–101 mammalian, 27 eyes and orbits of, 84–85 Postglenoid process Ordovician, 21 fi rst anthropoid, 117–120 of Erectines, 244, 247 after Permian mass extinction, 26 genera and families of, 90 of Neandertals, 359 Predatory lifestyle, of early hominins, in geological column, 8 Postglenoid/tympanic plate fi ssure, of Homo 209–214 hallux among, 148 ergaster versus Homo erectus, 256 Pregnancy, spacing in early hominins, 213 hands and feet of, 84, 85 Postorbital bar, 55 Prehensile feet, in primate origins, 109, intermembral indices of, 100 of primates, 85 110–111 knee joint of, 142–145 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 Premolars in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Postorbital constriction of Australopithecus afarensis, 172 molars and diets of, 87–88 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 of Australopithecus africanus, 134–135 origins of, 109–111, 111–113 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, placenta of, 80–81 Postorbital constriction index, of Erectines, 169 polygyny of, 101 247 of Australopithecus boisei, 190 reproduction of, 88–89 Postorbital septum, 55, 56 Australopithecus diet and, 203–204 skulls of, 171 of amphipithecids, 118 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 stem-group, 111–113 of anthropoids, 93 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 teeth and diet of, 202 of Eosimias, 120 of cercopithecoid primates, 95–96 Primitive character states of Fayum anthropoids, 117 of chimpanzees, 135 in cladistics, 61–62 of Tarsius, 93 in dating South African fossil hominins, phylogenetic error and, 55 Posture 192 Principle of Parsimony of early mammals, 69–70 of early mammals, 63, 66 morphological species concept and, 49 Neandertal, 361 Erectine, 251, 252 phylogenetic error and, 55, 58 Postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 43 Habiline, 227 phylogeny and, 53, 54 Potassium-40 (40K), in radiometric dating, human, 135 theory of evolution and, 29–30, 35 10 of humans and apes, 108–109 Principle of Plenitude, 34 Potassium–argon dating techniques, 10 of monkeys, 94 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 7 Pouter pigeon, 30 Neandertal, 372–373 Probainognathus, skull of, 71 Power grip replacement of, 74 Proconsul, 121–123 Habiline, 227 of Sahelanthropus, 165 Sivapithecus versus, 124 Neandertal, 379 sectorial, 108 Proconsul heseloni, 121–122, 123 Praeanthropus, in Australopithecus from Sima de los Huesos, 311 intermembral index of, 100 phylogeny, 198 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113 skull of, 122 Pre-Aurignacian industry, 429 Prenatal grownth acceleration, Neandertal, Proconsul major, 123 Pre-Neandertal model, of human evolution, 384 Proconsul nyanzae, 122 294, 295, 296 Presbytis, intermembral index of, 100 mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123 600 | Index

Proconsulidae, 90 in Homo taxonomy, 293 Radius African radiation of, 127 microevolution and macroevolution and, of Australopithecus garhi, 184 giant Pleistocene, 125 50, 51 of Dryopithecus, 125 mid-lumbar vertebrae of, 123 Puren Formation, dating, 241 evolution of, 21, 22 Nyanzapithecus among, 127 Purgatoriius, 111, 113 of hominoids, 98–99 systematics of, 123 Purines, origins of life and, 15 of KNM-WT 15000, 258 Proconsuloidea, 90 Pygmies Neandertal, 373–374, 378 ancestral gibbons among, 126 Australopithecus versus, 180 of Orrorin tugenensis, 166 Oreopithecus versus, 126 small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua as, in primate intermembral indices, 100 systematics of, 121–128 329–330 pronation and supination of hominoid Procumbent incisors, 108 Pygmy chimpanzees, 103 hands and, 99–100 Prognathism Pygmy marmoset, 95 Radovcˇic´, J., 342, 400 of Erectines, 244, 251, 254, 255 Pyrimidines, origins of life and, 15 Rain forest, hominin habitation of, 205, 207 of Heidelbergs, 330–331, 332 Pyrites, origins of life and, 16 Rak, Y., 180, 312, 356, 365, 369, 370, 372, of Kabwe skull, 318 Pyruvate, origins of life and, 16 380, 404, 411, 419, 442, 446 of Neandertals, 365–366, 371 Ramapithecus, as sexual dimorph of among modern humans, 417 Qafzeh, modern humans from, 439–442, 443 Sivapithecus, 124 of Petralona skull, 302 Quadrate Ramapithecus brevirostris, 136 of Sima de los Huesos skulls, 313 of diapsids, 69 Ramapithecus punjabicus, discovery and Projection, of Neandertal supraorbital torus, of early mammals, 66, 67, 68 description of, 136 354–355 Quadriceps femoris muscle, 143, 144 Rapid maturation, Neandertal, 384 Pronation, of hominoid hands, 99–100 Quadrupedal mammals, epaxial muscles of, Receding forehead, of Erectines, 243 Propithecus, intermembral index of, 100 98 Recent African Origin (RAO) model Propliopithecidae, 90 Quadrupedality of human evolution, 295, 297–299 from Fayum, 118 of ancestral gibbons, 126 multiregional evolution model versus, 301 Propliopithecoidea, 90, 118 of Australopithecus, 177 Neandertals and, 345, 346 Prosimians, 110 knee joint and, 142, 145 of recent human evolution, 471–472 from Fayum, 117 of Megaladapis, 127 small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua and, Fayum anthropoids versus, 118 pelvic tilt and, 146 340 Prosimii, 89, 90 pelvis and, 139 Recent epoch, 13 Prosthion radius (PRR), of Erectines, 255 of Proconsul heseloni, 122, 123 global temperature fl uctuations during, 83 Protein(s) of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 Recognition species concept (RSC), 46 amino acids in, 11 Quadrupedia, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Recombination in gene expression, 51 Qualla Boundary, 478 multicellular organisms and, 17 origins of life and, 15, 16 Quam, R., 350, 370, 405 in speciation, 40–41 Proteopithecidae, 90 Quantum evolution, macroevolution as, 52 Rectum, of hominoids, 100 from Fayum, 118 Quaternary period Red Sea, African rift and, 160 Proto-Aurignacian, 415 Erectine stone tools from, 274–275 Regional continuity Protobifaces, 265 evolution of mammals during, 27 of Heidelbergs, 332–336 Protocones Quaternary rocks, 4 of modern humans, 448, 456–457 of early mammal teeth, 78, 79 in geological column, 7 Regional traditions, among Erectines, 275 of primates, 87 Regulatory genes, microevolution and Protoconids Racemization, amino acid, 11 macroevolution and, 51 of hominoids and cercopithecoids, 96 “Races” Reilingen, Germany, Heidelberg skull from, of primates, 87 evolution and, 44–46 314–315 Protsch, R., 298 Neandertals among human, 44–46, Relationships, phylogeny and, 53 Proximal lateral femoral ridge, Neandertal, 340–341, 344 Relative dates 381–382 Radiation, in shedding excess body heat, 264 of African human fossil sites, 161, 191–192 Pseudocheirus peregrinus, eye of, 110 Radiation-based dating techniques, 9–11 for fossil record, 9 Pterygoid muscle, of Australopithecus Radioactivity, surplus heat generated by, 14, Relethford, J., 387, 466–468, 470, 473 robustus, 154–156 35 Remanent magnetism, dating fossil record Pterygoid tubercle, Neandertal, 370 Radiocarbon dating, 10. See also Carbon-14 via, 11–12 Pubis, Neandertal, 379–380, 380–381 (14C) dating Replacement teeth, 74 Pucangan Formation Radioisotopes Replacement with Hybridization Model, dating Erectines from, 241 dating via, 9–11 Neandertals and, 345 Erectine teeth from, 252 in dating East African Erectines, 240 Reproduction Erectines from, 276 in dating South African fossil hominins, of gibbons, 101 Punctuationism 191–192 origins of life and, 15 gradualism versus, 52, 235 Radiometric dating techniques, 9–11 of primates, 88–89 hominin growth and development and, Radiopotasssium dating, of European Reproductive isolation 268 hominin sites, 283 among humans, 44, 46 Index | 601

in morphological species concept, 48 Robertson, M., 262 Sahelanthropus, 128, 164–165 in speciation, 39, 40–41, 42, 43–44 Robinson, J., 152, 153, 217 Australopithecus anamensis versus, 169 Reproductive success, sexual dimorphism on Australopithecus diet, 203 Australopithecus bahrelghazali versus, and, 38 on Australopithecus niche partitioning, 182 Reptiles (Reptilia) 207–208 ecology of, 207 accommodation in, 73 on Australopithecus phylogeny, 195 Orrorin and Ardipithecus versus, 168 brain and braincase of, 70–71 Rock layers/strata Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 164–165 breathing of, 69 dating of, 5–7 Saimiri, eye socket of, 57 cochlea of, 65 formation and distortion of, 3, 4 Saint-Césaire Neandertal cranium, 406, 407 cornifi ed epidermis of, 24 fossil record and, 3 Salamander, locomotion of, 70 early mammals and, 63 mineral-bearing, 3 Sambung, skulls from, 245 eggs of, 24 in sedimentology, 4–5 Sambungmacan evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 Rock-forming processes, 1, 3, 4 Erectines from, 239, 243 in geological column, 7, 8 in dating rock strata, 7 Heidelberg specimens from, 323–324 hatchling, 75 Rock-pigeon, 30 tools from, 277 jaw muscles and ears of, 68 Rod cells Samburupithecus, 127 locomotion of, 69–70 of anthropoid eyes, 91 Sampling errors, in speciation, 39–40 Mesozoic evolution of, 23–26 of platyrrhine monkeys, 94 Sand, in sedimentology, 5 second-arch muscles of, 77 Rodents, diversity of, 27 Sangiran, dating Homo sites and specimens teeth of, 74 Roebroeks, V., 283–284 from, 290 Resemblances, phylogeny and, 53 Rooted trees, phylogenetic error and, 55 Sangiran 2 cranium, 244 Resistance, evolution of, 40 Rosenberg, K., 260–261, 380, 381, 431 Sangiran 4 Respiration Rossi, F. Ramirez, 383 cranium, 246, 278 origins of life and, 16 Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 17 maxilla, 250 of synapsids and early mammals, 77–78 Rubidium-87 (87Rb), in radiometric dating, 10 Sangiran 6 mandible, 277 Retina Rubidium-strontium dating techniques, 10 Sangiran 17 cranium, 239, 244, 246 of anthropoid eyes, 91 Ruff, Christopher, 180, 257, 258–259, Sangiran Dome, dating Erectines from, of owl monkey, 94 261–262, 292, 373–375, 465 240–241 of platyrrhine monkeys, 94 Rungwecebus, 96 Sangiran Formation of Tarsius, 93 Running, knee joint in, 142–145 dating Erectines from, 241 Retromolar space, Erectine, 251 skulls from, 245, 249, 250–251, 275–276 Reunion polarity event, 12 Sacral promontory, of Australopithecus, Sarcopterygians Reversals of Earth’s magnetic fi eld, in dating 177–178 evolution of, 21–22 fossil record, 11–12 Sacroiliac joint as reptile, bird, and mammal ancestors, 24 Rhinarium, of strepsirrhine primates, 89 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Sarich, V. M., 136 Ribosomes, 17 of Australopithecus species, 157–158 Savanna ecosystems, hominin habitation of, origins of life and, 16 human, 138–142 205, 206–207 Ribs of OH 28, 260 Savannas, in hominid evolution, 131 of early mammals, 69 Sacroiliac ligaments, of Australopithecus Scala naturae, 34 evolution of, 22 afarensis, 172 Scales, evolution of vertebrate, 21–22 of “Lucy,” 178 Sacrum Scapula Neandertal, 374–375 of Australopithecus, 177 of Australopithecus, 178, 179 Richmond, B., 167, 169, 170, 177, 182, 199, of Australopithecus africanus, 150 of Australopithecus afarensis, 174 216 evolution of, 22 of atelid primates, 95 Rift valleys of hominoids, 98 baboon, human, and chimpanzee, 97 African, 160 human, 137, 138–142 from Dmanisi, 28 Australopithecus afarensis from, 170 lumbar vertebrae and, 142 evolution of, 22 Australopithecus bahrelghazali and, 183 Neandertal, 380 of KNM-WT 15000, 258 2 hominin evolution in, 207 Sagittal crest Neandertal, 377–378 Orrorin and Ardipithecus from, 165 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 of Morotopithecus bishopi, 124 Rifts, continental drift and, 14 of Australopithecus afarensis, 170–171 Scapular spine, of Australopithecus Rightmire, G. P., 239, 243, 245, 249, 256, of Australopithecus boisei, 190 africanus, 179 268, 271, 281, 298–299, 301, 316, of Australopithecus robustus, 154, 157 Scavenging 318–319, 335, 422, 438 of gibbons, 157 by early humans, 263, 265, 267 Riss glacial period, 13 of gorilla, 107 by Neandertals, 390–391 Steinheim skull from, 306 Sagittal keel stone tools and, 266 River currents, in sedimentology, 4 of Ceprano cranium, 288 Scent, respiration and, 78 RNA (ribonucleic acid) of Erectines, 245–246, 248 Schaaffhausen, H., 339, 340 in gene expression, 51 Sagittal suture, of Erectines, 245, 247–248 Schmitz, R. W., 341, 342 origins of life and, 15 Saguinus, intermembral index of, 100 Schöningen, Germany, Stone Age artifacts Roberts, M., 309 Saharagalago, from Fayum, 117 from, 266 602 | Index

Schwalbe, G., 342, 343 Sergi, S., 295, 344 Sibling species, in morphological species Schwartz, G., 206, 228, 383 Sex concept, 48 Schwartz, J., 101, 124, 183, 185, 242, 243, and hominin origins, 213 Sidi Abderrahmen, Morocco 253, 272, 286, 366–367, 411, 418, multicellular organisms and, 17–18 in early African Erectine radiations, 272 442, 465 Sexual activity Erectines friom, 239 on Australopithecus platyops taxonomy, and hominin origins, 211 North African Heidelbergs from, 320 183 among Pan paniscus, 103 Signs, types of, 413 on secretiveness in paleoanthropology, sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Silberberg Grotto, in dating South African 185 Sexual competition, dimorphism index and, fossil hominins, 191, 192 Sciatic notch 209 period, 8 of Australopithecus species, 157 Sexual dimorphism Silverback male gorillas, 102–103 Neandertal, 379 of adapoid primates, 115 Sima de los Huesos (SH), 285 of OH 28, 260 among anthropoids, 93 Homo heidelbergensis from, 309–314 Science, parsimony principle in, 30 of Australopithecus, 207–209, 209–214 Sima de los Huesos 5 cranium, 312 Scientifi c biology, versus creationism, xi of Australopithecus afarensis, 174–176 Sima del Elefante, 284 Scientifi c rigor, in cladistics, 61 of Australopithecus boisei, 188, 189, 190 shelf, of Heidelbergs, 331 Sea(s) of Catopithecus browni, 118 Simmons, T., 321, 411, 426, 442, 446 food chains in, 24–25 of Dmanisi hominins, 280 Simons, Elwyn L., 117, 136 in sedimentology, 4–5 of early hominins, 104 Simpson, George Gaylord, 46, 48, 51–52, Sea level, ice ages and, 13 Erectine skull morphology and, 243 59 Sea of Galilee, African rift and, 160 of Erectine teeth, 252 Sinanthropus, systematics of, 238 Seawater, in Pleistocene stratigraphy, 13 and estimated body sizes in hominoids, Sinanthropus pekinensis, systematics of, Second-arch muscles, 76, 77 210–211 237 Secondary rocks, 3–4 evolution of, 37 Single-origin models, for later humans, 295 Phanerozoic eon and, 18 among gibbons, 101 Single-species hypothesis Sectorial premolars, 108 among gorillas, 102–103, 107 Australopithecus boisei and, 188 Sedimentary rocks in hominin origins, 215 of Australopithecus phylogeny, 196 evidence of Cretaceous mass extinction in, hunting and gathering and, 212, 209–214 Sinus cavities 26–27 among lemurs, 93 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171 metamorphic rocks from, 7 among orangutans, 101 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–198 origins of life and, 16 of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 Sinuses, of human species, 57 orogeny and, 13 Sexual dinichism, in Australopithecus, Sipka Neandertal, 341 Sedimentation, 1, 4 214–215 Sivaladapidae, 90, 115 Earth’s magnetic fi eld reversals in dating, Sexual division of labor, early hominins, 211 Sivapithecidae, 125 11–12 Sexual odorants, among monkeys, 94 Sivapithecus, 124–125, 128 relative and absolute dating of, 9 Sexual receptivity, among monkeys, 94 dryopithecids and, 126 Sedimentology, 4–5 Sexual selection, in evolution, 37–38. See Ramapithecus and, 136 fossil record and, 3 also Selection Size. See also Body size; Brain size; Small relative and absolute dating in, 9 Shark teeth, fossil, 3 entries Seeds Shearing edges, of early mammal teeth, 78, of adapoids, 115 of early angiosperms, 82 79 of early mammals, 26, 63 early land plants and, 25 Shell ornaments, 415 of euprimates, 114 Segmented muscles, of chordates, 19 Shells, Flood of Noah and, 2–3 of Teilhardina asiatica, 114 Selection. See also Natural selection; Sexual Short-faced tumbler pigeon, 30 SK 15 specimen, early African Erectine selection Shoshonius, as Eocene tarsiid, 117 radiations and, 268–269 creating diversity via, 30 Shosonius cooperi, skull of, 116–117 SK 27 specimen, early African Erectine in Darwin’s theory of evolution, 31 Shoulder girdle radiations and, 268, 269 Self-replication, origins of life and, 15 of apes, 97–98 SK 45 specimen, early African Erectine Self-suffi ciency, origins of life and, 15 of baboon and human, 97 radiations and, 268–269 Semicircular canals, of early mammals, 64 Shovel-shaped incisors, Neandertal, 371 SK 80 specimen, early African Erectine Semispecies, 43–44 Shredding teeth, of herbivores, 25 radiations and, 268, 269–270 defi ned, 44 Shrew Skeleton(s) human “races” as, 44 lifestyle of, 73 of Ardipithecus, 168 morphological species concept and, 50 newborn, 74–75 of Australopithecus, 157–158, 159 Sense organs, of Tarsius, 93–94 Shungura Formation of Australopithecus afarensis, 170 Sensory systems Australopithecus aethiopicus from, 185, of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 of early mammals, 26 186 of Eomaia scansoria, 81 of multicellular animals, 19 Habilines from, 223–224 Erecrtine, 239 Sénut, B., on Australopithecus afarensis human fossils from, 184, 222 in hominin origins, 215 locomotion, 173 Shuotherium, teeth of, 79 Lake Mungo hominin, 452 Septal fl anges, 55 Siberia, Permian mass extinction and, 26 of “Lucy,” 171, 172–173, 180 Index | 603

from Olduvai Gorge, 160 of human infant, 140 Smell of Oreopithecus, 126 of human species, 57, 74 among anthropoids, 91 of Paleozoic fi sh, 21 from Israel, 439–442, 443 respiration and, 78 of Plesiadapis, 112 of Israel Heidelberg, 320–321 of Tarsius, 93 of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 Kow Swamp 1, 453 Smilodectes gracilis, skeleton of, 116 of Smilodectes gracilis, 116 of La Chapelle Neandertal, 343, 353, 354, Smith, B. H., 257, 267, 268 of vertebrates, 20 358 Smith, G. Elliot, 131, 206 Skhu¯l of Leptadapis magnus, 116 Smith, William, 5–6, 7 modern humans from, 439–441, 442, 443 of Microcebus marinus, 86 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 17 Neandertals from, 343–344 Mladecˇ cranium, 460 Snow, in sedimentology, 5 Skin of modern human, 105, 107, 416–420 Social behavior, sexual selection and, 38 in body heat control, 264 from Modjokerto, 237–238, 240, 249 Social hierarchies, among Pan troglodytes, of early humans, 263, 264 from Nagwi, 325–326 103 Skin cancer, ultraviolet radiation and, 264 Neandertal, 340, 350–361 Social patterns Skin color Neandertal language and, 392 Aurignacian, 414–415 in Erectine migrations to Europe, 288 from Ngandong, 323–324, 324–326 of Australopithecus, 201 human “races” and, 44 of Oreopithecus, 126 of chimpanzees and bonobos, 103–104 in protection against ultraviolet radiation, of Otolemur, 85 in hominin origins, 215 264–265, 288 of Palaechthon nacimienti, 112 in hunting hypothesis, 212 Skull. See also Head of Pan troglodytes, 131 Social welfare programs, 52 of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis, 118, 119 of Parapithecus grangeru, 119 Soft palate, suckling and, 75 of Afropithecus turkanensis, 122 of pigeons, 30 Solar system, formation of, 4 of anthropoids, 91–93 Piltdown, 295–297 Soles, of primates, 84 of Ardipithecus, 167 of Pithecanthropus, 278 Solo River Australasian modern human, 454 of Pithecanthropus modjokertensis, 275 Heidelberg skulls from, 324–326 of Australopithecus, 171 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Homo erectus from, 235, 237–238 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185–186 of Plesiadapis, 112 South Africa of Australopithecus afarensis, 170–171 of Plesianthropus (“Mrs. Ples”), 132 advanced Australopithecus from, 230–231 of Australopithecus africanus, 132, 133, of Pongo pygmaeus, 124 appearance of Miocene bipedal apes in, 151–152, 218 of Proconsul heseloni, 122 201 of Australopithecus boisei, 162–163, of proconsulids, 123 Australopithecus africanus from, 187–190 of reptiles and mammals, 67, 70–71, 76 150–151 of Australopithecus garhi, 183–184 of Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 164, 165 Australopithecus from, 190–193, 193–195 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–198, from Sambungmacan, 323–324 dating fossil hominins from, 190–193, 199 Sangiran 4, 278 193–195 of Australopithecus platyops, 183 of Shosonius cooperi, 116–117 early African Erectine radiations and, 268 of Australopithecus robustus, 153–156 from Sima de los Huesos, 312–313 Heidelberg mandibles from, 319 of Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 of Sivapithecus sivalensis, 124 Heidelberg specimens from, 319 from Ceprano, Italy, 287–288 of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, hominin fossil sites in, 160 of chimpanzee, 105 326–330 hominin fossils from, 164 of Chinese Heidelbergs, 322–323 of Taung child, 130–131 modern human sites and specimens from, Cro-Magnon, 463 of Tetonius homunculus, 116–117 436 in dating South African fossil hominins, of Tupaia tana, 86 modern humans in, 435–439 194–195 of various Heidelbergs, 314–316 phylogeny of Australopithecus from, of early Homo, 218, 219 vertebral column and, 137 195–201 of early reptiles, 24 from Yunxian, 322, 323 Taung skull from, 130–131 Erectine, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, Skull material South African caves, dating hominin fossils 268–269 from Dmanisi, 279, 280–281 from, 190–193, 193–195 Ergaster versus Erectine, 253–257 from Gran Dolina, 285 South America of Erinaceus, 85 Sloped nasal fossa fl oor, 367 biogeography of, 31–32 Gibraltar Neandertal, 363 Sloth, mid-lumbar vertebra of, 123 fossil euprimate cheek teeth from, 114 of Gorilla gorilla, 107 Sloth lemurs, arboreal specializations of, during Miocene epoch, 121 Habiline, 224–227 127 monkeys of, 94–95 of Hadrocodium wui, 65 Small diurnal animals, lack of mammalian, 27 orogeny in, 14 from Hexian, 322, 323 Small hominins, from Flores, 277–278, as part of Pangaea, 14 of Homo erectus, 235, 236, 237, 238, 243– 326–330 South Asia, Heidelberg specimens from, 321, 248, 248–250, 250–251, 251–252, Small size 322 253–257 of early adapoids, 115 Spain of Homo habilis, 164 of early mammals, 26e ancestral gibbons from, 126 of Homo heidelbergensis, 302–332 of Teilhardina asiatica, 114 Dryopithecus laietanus from, 125 human, 104–109 Small yellow baboon, 45 Erectines from, 240 604 | Index

hominin sites in, 283, 284 “Splitters” from Olduvai Gorge, 160, 161 Neandertals from, 339 on Australopithecus platyops taxonomy, of small hominins from Flores/Liang Bua, Pierolapithecus from, 126 183 328 Spatial model, of supraorbital torus, 332 at Cold Spring Harbor Symposium, 238 Stony Brook school Spear points, 266 morphological species concept and, 49 on Australopithecus afarensis Special creation, species diversity and, 29 Splitting events, internodal species concept locomotion, 173–176, 179, 181, 182 Speciation, 39 and, 46–48 hominin sexual dinichism and, 214 allopatric, sympatric, and/or parapatric, Sponges, Ediacaran, 18 Strait, D., 170, 189, 194, 197, 198, 203, 216, 40, 41, 43–44 Spring ligament, 148 222 evolutionary tempo of, 40–42 in human walking, 147 “Strapping youth,” 257 of Heidelbergs, 332–336 Spy Neandertal, 341 Strata of humans, 44–46 SQ (Skhu¯l and Qafzeh) fossils, 439–444 dating of, 5–7 instant, 40 Squamosal, of reptiles, synapsids, and fossil record and, 3 morphological species concept and, 49 mammals, 67 mineral-bearing, 3 semispecies, hybrids, and isolation Squamosal suture, of Erectines, 244, 245 Stratigraphic sequence, in dating rock strata, mechanisms in, 43–44 Square-cube law, 71–72 6 Speciation models, of recent human Squirrels, arboreality of, 109 Stratigraphic time scale, African rift and, evolution, 298, 299 Sr/Ca ratio 160, 161 Species in dating “digging sticks,” 266–267 Stratigraphic units, in geological column, 8 abrupt appearance in fossil record, 41 diet of Australopithecus and, 202, 203, Stratigraphy adaptations of, 34–35 204 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 199–201 change through time, 9 Stadials, 13 faunal succession and, 7–9 concepts of, 38–40, 46–48, 48–50 Stance phase, in walking, 142 Pangaea and, 14 creation of, 29, 30 Stapes, of reptiles, synapsids, and mammals, Pleistocene, 13, 242 in Darwin’s theory of evolution, 31, 52 67 relative and absolute dating in, 9 defi ned, 39 States, phylogeny and character, 53, 54, 55 of South African fossil hominin sites, evolution of, 38–40 Steegman, A., 262, 364, 390 190–191, 193 evolutionary, 48 Stegodon, from Flores, 277, 328 Stratocladistics, in Australopithecus fossils and, 46–48 Stegosaurus, 62 phylogeny, 199–201 in geological column, 7–8 Steinheim, Homo heidelbergensis from, Stratophenetics, in Australopithecus human, 56–57 306–307 phylogeny, 199–201 living primate, 84 Steinius vespertinus, cheek teeth of, 114 Streams, in sedimentology, 4–5 in microevolution and macroevolution, Stem-group primates, 111–113 Strength, Neandertal, 378–379, 382–383 50–52 Stem groups (strepsirrhine primates), 89–91 molecular clock and, 41–42 cladistics and, 62 anthropoids versus, 89 origins of diversity of, 29 evolutionary systematics and, 60 classifi cation of, 90 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 Steno, Nicolaus, 3 Eocene, 115 phylogeny of, 52–53, 54, 58 Stenosis, KNM-WT 15000, 257–258, 259 euprimates and, 113 splitting and lumping of, 183 Sterkfontein teeth of, 88 of Tarsius, 93 Australopithecus africanus from, 177, tarsiids versus, 117 in taxonomic hierarchy, 32, 33 179 Tarsius and, 94 varieties within, 46 Australopithecus from, 190–193, 193–195, Stride length, body size increase and, 262 Species concept, in Homo taxonomy, 289 199 Stringer, Christopher B., 34, 229, 243, 248, Speech bone tools at, 204 256, 270, 299, 309, 314, 318, 334, 344, Neandertal, 339 early Homo fossils from, 230–231 346, 372, 400, 411, 416–417, 423, 424, of Sima de los Huesos hominins, 313 human fossils from, 132, 133, 134, 150, 434, 442, 455, 465 Spencer, F., 295, 296, 297, 339, 343 152, 218 on Recent African Origin model, 297–298, Spencer, M., 371 Stern, J. 334 Spenodon, second-arch muscles of, 77 on Australopithecus afarensis Stromatolites, 16 Sperm, sexual dimorphism and, 37–38 locomotion, 173–176 Strontium Spermatogenesis, ultraviolet radiation and, on Habiline postcrania, 228 in dating “digging sticks,” 266–267 264–265 Stibbe, E. P., 130 diet of Australopithecus and, 202, 203, Sphenoid, 105 Sticks, as tools, 266 204 of monkeys, 95 Stone tools Strontium-87 (87Sr), in radiometric dating, 10 Sphincter colli muscles, 76, 77 animal bones asociated, 266 Structural carbohydrates, 25 Spider monkeys in dating South African fossil hominins, Sts 5 skull, 225 arboreal specializations of, 127 191, 193, 194 Stw 53 hominin, 231 human evolution and, 95 in early African Erectine radiations, 270 Stw 252 hominin, dental breadths of, 152 Spinal cord, of chordates, 19 of Erectines, 265–266, 273–274 Stylar shelf Spinous processes, on mammalian vertebrae, in hunting hypothesis, 213 of early mammal teeth, 78, 79 69–70 of Neandertals, 388–390 of plesiadapiforms, 111 Index | 605

in primate origins, 110 of Petralona skull, 304 in primate origins, 109 of primates, 87 of Sambungmacan skulls, 323–324 among stem-group primates, 111–113 Stylohyoid lugament, Neandertal language of Zuttiyeh skull, 321 Synapsids, 25, 26 and, 394 Supraorbital trigones, modern human, 418 cochlea of, 65–67 Styloid process, Neandertal language and, Supraspinous fossa, of Australopithecus jaw muscles and ears of, 68 394 africanus, 179 lineage of, 24 Subadult male orangutans, 101 Supratoral sulcus, of Erectines, 245 locomotion of, 69–70 Subduction, continental drift and, 14 Susman, R. as mammalian ancestors, 63, 64 Subsistence behavior, of Neandertals, on Australopithecus afarensis Permian mass extinction and, 26 390–391 locomotion, 173–176 respiration and palate of, 77 Subsistence strategies on dating South African fossil hominins, Synchondroses, Neandertal, 384 body and brain size and, 262 193, 194 Synthetic theory of evolution (STE), of early hu,ams, 267 on Habiline postcrania, 228 formulation of, 51–52 Subspecies, human, 46 Suspensory locomotion, of hominoids, 95 Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 59 Subspinale angle (SSA), of Erectines, 255 Sussman, R., 110–111 Systematics, 59 of Petralona Skull, 304–305 Swamps, Carboniferous, 23 evolutionary, 59–60 Suckling, 75–77 Swanscombe, Homo heidelbergensis from, phenetics and, 61 Sugars, origins of life and, 15 305–306 phylogenetic, 61 Sugrivapithecidae (sugrivapithecids), 90, 125 Swartkrans Szalay, F. S., 110, 113 Australopithecus africanus and, 135 bone artifacts from, 204, 266–267 evolution of, 128 dating fossil hominins from, 193–195 Tabelia, 118 radiation of, 127 early Homo fossils from, 230–231, 240 Tabu¯n Ramapithecus and, 136 Erectine skulls from, 268–269 Heidelberg specimens from, 321 Sugrivapithecus, 125 Habiline postcrania from, 228 Neandertals from, 343–344, 348–350, 405 Sulci, on hminoid teeth, 101 human fossils from, 152, 153, 157, 182, Tail Sulfur, origins of life and, 15 217 of hominoids, 100 Sun, energy of, 35 Telanthropus mandible from, 239 of multicellular animals, 19 Sunlight use of fi re by early humans at, 267 of plesiadapiforms, 111 dangerous exposure to, 264–265 Sweat, in body heat control, 264 Talocrural joint food chains and, 24–25 Sweat glands, 264 of amphipithecids, 118 Superciliary arches, modern human, 418 of early humans, 263, 264 of Australopithecus afarensis, 176 Superior nuchal line Swing phase, in walking, 142 of Eocene primates, 115 of Erectines, 247 Symbol, as sign, 413 of humans, 149 of gorilla, 107 Symbolic behavior knees and, 145 Superior orbital fi ssure, in dating South of modern humans, 413–414 of omomyoid primates, 115 African fossil hominins, 194 of Neandertals, 395–398 Talonids Superior pubic ramus, Neandertal, 379, Symbolic importance, of language, 392 of early mammal teeth, 78, 79 381 Sympatric speciation, 40 of Eomaia scansoria, 82 Superior transverse torus, Erectine, 251 Australopithecus boisei and, 188 of primates, 87 Supination niche partitioning and, 207–208 Talus, 145, 148, 149 by dryopithecids, 125–126 Sympatry of Australopithecus afarensis, 181 of hominoid hands, 99–100 of Australopithecus species, 208 Habiline, 228 of Proconsul heseloni, 122 of Homo habilis and Australopithecus in human walking, 147 Supraglabellar depression, of Erectines, 245, boisei, 164 Tamarins, as platyrrhine primates, 95 246 niche partitioning in, 207–208 Tangier maxilla, 438–439 Suprainiac fossa Symphalangus, intermembral index of, 100 Tanner, N. Neandertal, 356, 357–358 Symplesiomorphies on hominin origins, 212, 213, 216–217 of Petralona skull, 305 of Australopithecus species, 157 Tanzania Supramastoid crest, of Erectines, 245 in cladistics, 61–62 in early African Erectine radiations, 271 Supramastoid ridges, of Erectines, 246, 248 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 chimpanzees from, 103 Supraorbital sulcus, of Erectines, 243–245 of strepsirrhine primates, 89 early hominin ecology at, 208 Supraorbital torus (SOT) Synapomorphies early hominin fossils from, 218, 259 of Australopithecus africanus, 151 of adapoid primates, 115 Heidelberg specimens from, 319–320 of Bilzingsleben skull, 305 in Australopithecus phylogeny, 196–201 hominin tools from, 266 of Erectines, 243–245, 246, 248, 250 of Australopithecus species, 157 Ndutu cranium from, 318 of Erectines and Ergasters, 253–254, 255 in dating South African fossil hominins, Olduvai Gorge in, 160 of Heidelbergs, 330–332 194 Tapetum lucidum of humans versus apes, 104 of euprimates, 111 of platyrrhine monkeys, 94–95 of Kabwe skull, 317 of omomyoid primates, 115–117 of strepsirrhine primates, 93 of Neandertals, 354, 355, 408 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 Tardieu, C., on Australopithecus afarensis of Ngandong skulls, 323–324 of Platyrrhini, 94–95 locomotion, 173, 174–175 606 | Index

Tarsal bones of Chinese Erectines, 237 Tempo, of evolution, 40–42, 113–114 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173 in dating South African fossil hominins, Tempo and Mode in Evolution (Simpson), enlargement and stabilization of human, 192 51–52 148–149 dietary signatures on mammalian, 203 Temporal, 105 evolution of, 22 of early carnivorous reptiles, 25 in Australopithecus, 169, 171, 194, 195 Tarsiers of early euprimates, 11 of Erectines, 245, 247 omomyoids versus, 115 in early hominin ecology, 208 from Gran Dolina, 285 placenta of, 94 of early Homo, 221–222 of Neandertals, 359–361 supposed Eocene, 115–117 of early mammals, 26, 63–64, 66, 78–79 Temporal crest, of Australopithecus Tarsiidae, 90, 117 of Eomaia scansoria, 82 aethiopicus, 186 , 90 of Erectines, 247, 251–252, 263 Temporal fossa Tarsioidea, 90 evolution of mammalian, 82 of Australopithecus robustus, 154, 155 Eosimias versus, 120 evolution of vertebrate, 21 of early reptiles, 24, 25 Tarsius, 93–94 Gigantopithecus, 242 of human skull, 25 character state choices for, 55–56 from Gran Dolina, 285 Neandertal, 368–369 classifi cation of, 89 of Habilines, 227, 231, 232 Temporal lines, of Australopithecus in Eocene, 117 of Heidelbergs, 330 robustus, 154 Eosimias versus, 120 in hominin ontogeny and development, Temporal muscles eye socket of, 57 267–268 of Australopithecus robustus, 154 intermembral index of, 100 in hominin origins, 217 of gorilla, 107 Tattersall, I., 120, 171, 185, 234, 243, 251, of hominoids versus cercopithecoids, of reptiles, synapsids, and mammals, 67 286, 289, 293, 313, 333, 335, 366–367, 100–101 Temporalis muscle, 68, 76 411, 412, 418, 442, 465 of Homo ergaster, 256 of Australopithecus, 171 on secretiveness in paleoanthropology, human, 104–109 of Australopithecus robustus, 154, 155, 185 from Hungary, 315 156 Taung child, 130–131, 152 interstitial wear between, 108 of gorilla, 107 Taurodontism, Neandertal, 373 of Kabwe skull, 318 Neandertal, 370 Taxa, evolutionary systematics and, 60 of KNM-ER 1470 skull, 224 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), of early Taxonomic hierarchy, theory of evolution lifespan and, 73–74 mammals, 67, 68 and, 32–33 modern human, 419 Temporonuchal crest Taxonomy modern human from Tangier, 438–439 of Australopithecus afarensis, 170–171 of Homo erectus, 288–289 of monkeys, 94 of gorillas, 107 nomenclature of, 125 Neandertal, 362–363 Ternifi ne, Algeria theory of evolution and, 32–33 of omomyoids, 115 in early African Erectine radiations, Technological skills, among chimpanzees of Oreopithecus, 126 271–272 and bonobos, 103 of Orrorin tugenensis, 165–166 Erectines from, 239, 242 Technology permanent, 74 Terrestriality as human feature, 129 of plesiadapiforms, 111 of cercopithecids, 96 of Neandertals, 388–390 of Plesianthropus, 132 sexual dinichism and, 214–215 Tectonics, 1, 4. See also Earthquakes of primates, 87–88 Tertiary period, 8 Teeth. See also Dental occlusion; Tooth of Ramapithecus punjabicus, 136 appearance of grasses during, 27 entries of Sahelanthropus, 164, 165 evolution of mammals during, 27 of Altiatlasius koulchii, 113 from Sima de los Huesos, 310–311 Tertiary rocks, 3, 4 of amphipithecids, 118 of South African Habilines, 231 in geological column, 7 of Ardipithecus, 167 of strepsirrhine primates, 88 Tethys Sea, 125 of Australopithecus, 201–202 of Tarsius, 93 Tetonius homunculus, skull of, 116–117 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 185, vertebrate, 74 Tetonoides, teeth of, 87 186–187 wear surfaces of, 74 Tetraploid zygotes, in evolution, 40 of Australopithecus afarensis, 171–172, Teilhardina, as early euprimate, 113–114 Tetrapods, 22 175 Teilhardina asiatica, as early euprimate, Devonian, 21 of Australopithecus africanus, 133–135, 113–114 evolution of eggs among, 23–24 151–152, 157 Teilhardina belgica, teeth of, 87 Thailand of Australopithecus anamensis, 168, 169 Tektites, in dating Indonesian Erectines, 241 Erectine stone tools in, 274 of Australopithecus bahrelghazali, Telanthropus capensis Khoratpithecus from, 124–125 182–183 discovery of, 239 Theory of evolution. See also Evolutionary of Australopithecus garhi, 184 early African Erectine radiations and, 268 theory of Australopithecus robustus, 152–154, systematics of, 217 Darwin’s, 30–35 155, 156, 157 Temperature explanatory power of, 31–35 from Boxgrove, 309 climatic changes and, 12–13 Great Chain of Being and, 34 of Catopithecus browni, 118, 119 global Cenozoic, 83 origins of, 29–30 of cercopithecoid primates, 95–96 Templeton, A., 299, 333, 466, 468–469, 474 synthetic, 51–52 Index | 607

Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 6–7 Tongue mass extinction at beginning of, 26 Thermal-ionization mass-spectrometry in mammals, 75–77 synapsids from, 63, 64 (TIMS), in dating Chinese Erectines, Neandertal language and, 394 vertebrate evolution during, 23 242, 243 “Tongue stones,” 3 Tribosphenic molars “Thermodynamic effect,” in Eectine cranial Tool use of early mammals, 78–79 capacity, 249 among chimpanzees, bonobos, and of Eomaia scansoria, 82 Thermoluminescent (TL) dating, 11 orangutans, 103–104 Trigone of Neandertal sites, 348, 349 hominin body size increase and, 261 of early mammal teeth, 79 Thermoregulation, in Erectines, 262 in hunting hypothesis, 209, 213 of Sima de los Huesos mandibles, 311 Theropithecus, 44, 96 Toolmaking skill, of early Homo, 218 Trigonids Thickness, of Neandertal skull, 354 Tools, 185 of Catopithecus browni, 118 Thissen, J., 341 in dating South African fossil hominins, of early mammal teeth, 78, 79 Thomas Quarries 191, 193, 194 of Eomaia scansoria, 82 in early African Erectine radiations, 272 of Homo habilis, 164 of plesiadapiforms, 111 North African Heidelbergs from, 320 Neandertal incisors as, 371–372 of primates, 87 Thomson, William, 35 of Neandertals, 388–390 of Propliopithecidae, 118 Thoracic vertebrae, of early mammals, 69 from Olduvai Gorge, 160, 161 Trilobites, fi rst appearance of, 18 Thorax Tooth enamel, dating fossil, 11 Trinil of apes, 97–98 Tooth replacement, in Homo sapiens, 74 Erectine femora and other remains from, of Australopithecus, 178 Tooth-comb primates 253, 277–276 of baboon and human, 97 adapoids versus, 115 human femur from, 144 Thorne, A., 299, 301 from Fayum, 117 Pithecanthropus erectus from, 235–236, Thought, as language function, 392 omomyoids versus, 115 237 Thrinaxodon, 64, 66 Toothcomb, of strepsirrhine primates, 89 Trinil 2 specimen, cranial capacity of, 249 skull of, 71 Total facial prognathism, of Erectines, 251 Trinkaus, E., 193, 250, 281, 309, 315, 331, Throwing, in hominin origins, 216 Total-replacement models, of recent human 343, 345, 350, 357, 361, 366, 369, 372, Tibia, 145 evolution, 298, 299 374, 377, 378, 379–380, 382, 384, 403, of Australopithecus afarensis, 173, 175, Trace fossils, Vendian, 18 404–405, 407 176, 181 Tracks, Vendian, 18 Triploid zygotes, in evolution, 40 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169, 170 Traits, in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Trivers, R. L., 38 from Boxgrove, 309, 326 Transcription factors, microevolution and Trochanteric fossa, of Orrorin tugenensis, Erectine, 252–253 macroevolution and, 51 166 evolution of, 22 Transformation, in theory of evolution, 29 Trochlear notch, Neandertal, 378 Habiline, 228 Transitional populations, adaptive plateaus Tropical adaptations knee joint and, 143–145 and, 52 hominin body size increase as, 261–262 of KNM-WT 15000, 259 Transvaal of KNM-WT 15000, 259 Neandertal, 373–374 Australopithecus from, 131, 217 Tropical forest, hominin habitation of, 205, in primate intermembral indices, 100 hominin habitation of, 205, 206 206, 207 Tibiotalar joint Transvaal baboon, 45 Tuffs of Australopithecus afarensis, 173 Transverse mandibular torus, of Heidelbergs, African rift and, 160 of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 331 dating Erectines from, 240–241 Habiline, 228 Transverse power grip, Neandertal, 379 Tugen Hills Tighenif, Algeria Transverse processes Ardipithecus ramidus from, 167 in early African Erectine radiations, of Australopithecus, 178 Orrorin tugenensis from, 165 271–272 of Morotopithecus bishopi, 124 Tupaia tana, skull of, 86 Erectines from, 239, 242 of Proconsul nyanzae, 122–123 Turbinals, Neandertal, 366 North African Heidelbergs from, 320 Transverse sinuses, in Australopithecus Turkey Tiktaalik, 21 phylogeny, 196–198 ancestral orangutans from, 124 Time horizons, in species concepts, 46, 48, Travel, by early Homo, 262 dating Homo sites and specimens from, 49 Tree of life, reconstructing, 52–53, 54 290 Time-binding, as language function, 392 Tree shrew, skull of, 86 Heidelberg skull material from, 315–318 Tiptoe walking, 147 Tree sloths, arboreal specializations of, Turtles, lifespans of, 74 Tobias, P., 192, 196, 197, 230, 231, 276, 420 127 Tuttle, R., on Australopithecus afarensis Toenails, see Claws Tree-building algorithms, in cladistics, 61 locomotion, 173, 181 Toes “Trellis” model, of human evolution, 344 Twenty Questions, Linnaean classifi cation of Australopithecus afarensis, 174, 176 Treponemal disease, skeletal evidence of, and, 58–59 in bipedal walking, 146, 147, 148 257 Two-toed sloth, mid-lumbar vertebra of, in dating South African fossil hominins, Trevathan, W., 260–261 123 194 Triassic period, 8 Tympanic cavity in hominin origins, 216 atmospheric oxygen levels during, 23 of lorisiforms, 91 Toilet claw, of strepsirrhine primates, 89 mammals during, 26, 63–71 of primates, 85 608 | Index

Tympanic plane, of Erectines, 247 van Schaik, C., 103–104 Viruses, origins of life and, 15 Tympanic region, 105 Vandermeersch, B., 321, 344, 439–440 Viscera, evolution of vertebrate, 22 Tympanic ring. See also Ectotympanic of Varanus komodoensis, small hominins from Vision. See also Eye entries Erectines, 244 Flores/Liang Bua and, 328 of anthropoids, 91, 93 Tympanum, of anthropoids, 92 Varecia of platyrrhine monkeys, 94–95 Tyrannosaurus, cladistics of, 62 classifi cation of, 89 in primate origins, 109, 110, 111 face of, 90 of primates, 84–85 U-shaped valleys, 5 Variation in reptiles, birds, and mammals, 73 Ulna of Habilines, 229–230 of Teilhardina asiatica, 113, 114 of Australopithecus garhi, 184 in morphological species concept, 48 Visual cortex, of primates, 85 of Dryopithecus, 125 Varieties Visual predation theory, of primate origins, evolution of, 21, 22 in morphological species concept, 48 110, 111 of gibbons, 127 as semispecies, 44, 46 Vitamin-A poisoning, skeletal evidence of, Habiline, 229 Vault-height index, Neandertal, 350–351 257 of hominoids, 98–99 Vegetables, as Australopithecus food, 202 Vitamin C Neandertal, 373–374, 378 Velociraptor, 59, 60, 61 anthropoid need for, 93 pronation and supination of hominoid cladistics of, 62 Tarsius need for, 94 hands and, 99–100 Vendian period, 8 Vocal folds, Neandertal language and, 393 Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) earliest multicellular animals in, 18 Vocal tract, Neandertal language and, Erectine migrations to Europe and, 288 Venous sinuses, in Australopithecus 392–393 protection against, 264–265 phylogeny, 196–198 Volcanic eruptions, Permian mass extinction Unconformity, in dating rock strata, 6 Ventral axillary groove, Neandertal, 378 and, 26 Underground storage organs (USOs) Vertebrae Volcanic minerals “digging sticks” in harvesting, 267 of Australopithecus species, 157–158 in dating Erectines, 240–241 of plants, 203–204 in dating South African fossil hominins, potassium–argon dating and, 10 sexual dinichism and, 214 194 Volcanic mountains, continental drift and, Uniformitarianism, 4, 7 of early mammals, 69–70 14 development hypothesis and, R., 9 of KNM-WT 15000, 258 Volcanoes, African rift and, 160 theory of evolution and, 29 lumbar, 98 Vomeronasal organ, of monkeys, 94 Universe, perfection of, 34 of Proconsul nyanzae, 122–123 von Koenigswald, G. H. R., 237–238 Unrooted trees, phylogenetic error and, 55 Vertebral canal, of KNM-WT 15000, 257–258 Vowels, in Neandertal language, 393, 395 Upper airway, Neandertal language and, Vertebral column Vulcanism, 1, 4 393–394 of Australopithecus, 177–178 Vulcanists, 3, 4 Upper Burgi Member in locomotion, 98 Habilines from, 224, 225–226 upright posture and, 136–138 Wadjak I skull, of Homo erectus, 235 OH 28 from, 260 Vertebrata, taxonomy of, 33 Walker, A., 193, 219, 224, 243, 258, 260–261, Upper facial projection, Neandertal, 364 Vertebrate evolution, early, 18–21, 21–23 374 Upper midfacial prognathism, of Erectines, Vertebrates Walking 251 earliest, 20–21 by Australopithecus afarensis, 174 Upright posture, evolution of human, 136 evolution of jaws, fi ns, and feet of, 21–23 by Australopithecus species, 158 Uranium (U), in electron spin resonance evolutionary systematics and, 59, 60 compliant, 142–143, 181 dating, 11 in geological column, 8 inverted-pendulum, 142–143 Uranium-235 (235U), in radiometric dating, 10 homologies among, 32 knee joint in, 142–145 Uranium-238 (238U), in radiometric dating, 10 lungs of early land, 75 in mammals and reptiles, 69–70 Uranium-lead dating techniques, 10 primitive and derived character states Wallace’s Line, 278 Uranium-series dating technique, 11 among, 55 Walrath, D., 380 in dating South African fossil hominins, taxonomy of, 32 Ward, C., 122, 123, 127, 169, 170, 177, 207, 191 teeth of, 74 257 Ursus deningeri, 309 Vertesszöllös Ward, S., 137 Uterus, of hominoids, 100 Hominin fossils from, 239, 315 Warfare, among Pan troglodytes, 103 Utnapishtim, 2 Vertex radius, Neandertal, 350–351 Warm climate, Allen’s Rule and, 259 Uzbekistan Vestigial structures, theory of evolution and, Warm-bloodedness early eutherians from, 82 33 of mammals, 73, 74–77 modern Neandertal discoveries in, 345 Vibrissae, of mammals, 73 respiration and palate and, 77, 78 Victoriapithecidae, 90 Wastebasket taxa Vaginal delivery, in humans, 140–142, 158 evolution of, 128 in cladistics, 62 Valgus knee, 145 Vietnam, giant proconsulids from, 125 evolutionary systematics and, 59–60 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173 Vindija Neandertals, 408, 409 in phylogenetic systematics, 61 of Australopithecus africanus, 150 Virchow, R., 341 Water of Australopithecus anamensis, 169 Virtual (CT) endocasts, of Neandertal bony ice ages and, 13 Vallois, H., 131 labyrinth, 360 origins of life and, 15, 16 Index | 609

in Pleistocene stratigraphy, 13 on multiregional human evolution, Erectine stone tools in, 274 vertebrate locomotion in, 21–22 299–301 Erectine teeth from, 251–252 Water consumption on Steinheim skull, 307 Erectines from, 237, 238, 239, 242–243, in body heat control, 264 Wood, B., 152, 190, 197, 198, 203, 219, 221, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 278–279 in Erectines, 262 222–223, 224, 226, 234, 243, 256, 271, Gran Dolina hominins versus hominins Water loss, in respiration, 77–78 319 from, 287 Water transport, of stone tools, 266 on Erectine skull, 255 Heidelberg specimens from, 321–322 Water velocity, in sedimentology, 4–5 on Habiline variation, 230, 231–232 Kabe material versus that from, 318 Waterholes, in shedding excess body heat, Wooden implements, 266 use of fi re by early humans at, 267, 264 Woodland communities, chimpanzee 279 Wave action, in sedimentology, 4–5 habitation of, 205 Zihlman, A. Weapon use, in hominin origins, 216–217 Woodward, A. Smith, Piltdown affair and, on hominin origins, 216–217 Weapons, 266 295 on hominin sexual dinichism, 214 hominin body size increase and, 261 Woolly monkeys, human evolution and, 95 on hunting and gathering lifestyle, 212, Wear facets, of human and ape teeth, Worm tracks, Vendian, 18 213 108–109 Worms, fi rst appearance of, 19 Zinjanthropus, 189 Wear surfaces, of teeth, 74 Wrist Zinjanthropus boisei Wedging, of intervertebral disks, 137, 150 of Australopithecus afarensis, 173–174 anatomy of, 162–163, 164 “Weed species,” humans as, 273 of Australopithecus anamensis, 170 discovery of, 162 Wegener, Alfred, 14, 23 of Oreopithecus, 126 systematics of, 163 Weidenreich, Franz, 237, 238, 252–253, 295, pronation and supination of hominoid ZMR/PRR Index, of Erectines, 255 344, 417–418 hands and, 99–100 Zuckerman, S., 157 Weighting, phylogenetic error and, 58 Wu, X., 299 on Australopithecus afarensis Weiner, J., Piltdown affair and, 296–297 Würm glacial period, 13 locomotion, 173, 176 Weinert H., 319 Neandertals from, 399, 401–402 on Australopithecus phylogeny, 195 Werner, Abraham, 4 Wymer, J., 305 Zuttiyeh skull, 320–321 Western Asia Zygapophyses Erectines from, 239–240 Xanthorhysis, as Eocene tarsiid, 117 of Australopithecus, 177 Neandertals from, 402–406 human, 137 Whales Y-5 pattern, of hominoid teeth, 101 Zygomatic arch(es), 71 brain–body weight plot for, 72–73 Y-chromosome features, 466, 468 of Australopithecus aethiopicus, 186 cladistics of, 61 Yellow baboons, 45 of Australopithecus boisei, 189 in Linnaean classifi cation, 59 Yokley, T., 366, 378 of Australopithecus robustus, 154, 155 White, Leslie, 413 Yolk sac of KNM-ER 1470 skull, 224 White, T., 167, 168, 183, 397, 400, 434, 437 evolution of tetrapod, 23 of KNM-ER 1813 skull, 225 on Australopithecus platyops taxonomy, vestigial human, 33 Zygomatic-retreat model, of Neandertal and 183 Young, R. B., 130 Homo face, 365 White-tailed deer, 48, 49, 207 Yucatan peninsula, asteroid impact on, Zygomaticoalveolar margin (ZAM) Wieland, Christoph, 34 26–27 modern human, 418 Wild stocks, in artifi cial selection, 30 Yunxian Neandertal, 364 Wiley, E. O., 48 Erectines from, 239, 243 of Dmanisi hominins, 281 William of Occam. 49 Heidelberg material from, 322, 323 of Erectines, 246, 251, 253, 255 Wilson, A., 136 of Gran Dolina hominins, 286 Wind, in sedimentology, 5 Zambia, Heidelberg skull from, 316–318 of Kabwe skull, 317, 318 “Windlass effect,” in walking, 147 Zhoukoudian (ZKD) of Sima de los Huesos skulls, 313 Wisdom teeth, 108 accumulation of Erectine fossils at, of Steinheim skull, 307 Wolpoff, M. H., 218, 224, 230, 231, 232, 251, 278–279 Zygomatics, 56, 105, 437 292, 321, 322, 332, 334–335, 346, 383, Atapuerca humans versus humans from, Erectine, 250, 251 387, 407, 410, 432, 449, 450, 454–455, 311 of monkeys, 95 461, 472, 473 bone artifacts from, 266 Zygomaxillary radius (ZMR), of Erectines, on Erectine body size increase, 263 Ceprano cranium versus hominins from, 255 on Erectine skull, 255 287–288 Zygotes on hominin growth and development, 268 cranial capacity of Erectines from, 249 in evolution, 40 on Homo sapiens systematics, 234–235 Erectine postcranial remains from, in speciation, 40, 43 on Indonesian Erectines, 276–277 252–253 multicellular organisms and, 17