REDACTED

EXPANDED PHASE 1A ARCHAEOLOGICAL

INVESTIGATION FOR THE PROPOSED HORSESHOE

SOLAR PROJECT, TOWN OF CALEDONIA, Northeast Branch 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, NY 14227 LIVINGSTON COUNTY, AND Tel: (716) 821-1650 Fax: (716) 821-1607

Southeast Branch TOWN OF RUSH, MONROE COUNTY, NEW YORK. 2301 Paul Bryant Drive Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 Tel: (205) 556-3096 Fax: (205) 556-1144 NYSHPO# 18PR07941

Mid-South Branch 91 Tillman Street Memphis, TN 38111 Tel: (901) 454-4733 Fax: (901) 454-4736

Corporate Headquarters Prepared for: P.O. Box 20884 Tuscaloosa, AL 35402 INVENERGY Tel: (205) 248-8767 Fax: (205) 248-8739 One South Wacker Drive, Suite 1800 Chicago, Illinois 60606

Prepared by:

PANAMERICAN CONSULTANTS, INC. Buffalo Branch Office 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, New York 14227 (716) 821-1650

February 2020

PUBLIC RELEASE COPY

EXPANDED PHASE 1A ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

FOR THE PROPOSED HORSESHOE SOLAR PROJECT,

TOWN OF CALEDONIA, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, AND

TOWN OF RUSH, MONROE COUNTY, NEW YORK

NYSHPO# 18PR07941

Prepared for:

INVENERGY One South Wacker Drive, Suite 1800 Chicago, Illinois 60606

Prepared by:

Robert Hanley, M.A., RPA, Principal Investigator Mark Steinback, M.A., Project Director

PANAMERICAN CONSULTANTS, INC. 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, New York 14227-1735 (716) 821-1650 Fax (716) 821-1607

February 2020

Management Summary

SHPO Project Review Number: 18PR07941

Involved State and Federal Agencies: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE; Lead Agency), New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), and NYS Department of Public Service (DPS)

Phase of Survey: Phase 1A Cultural Resources Investigation

Location Information: Location: Minor Civil Division: Town of Caledonia and Town of Rush Counties: Livingston and Monroe

Survey Area (Metric & English): The revised and expanded Phase 1A survey area covered in this report comprises approximately 2,768 acres (1,120 hectares). This revised Phase 1A includes the approximately 2,230 acres (902 ha) of buildable area considered in the initial Phase 1A investigation (Hanley and Steinback 2019) and an additional 538 acres (217 ha) to the southwest of the original area, The final construction Area of Potential Effect (APE) has not been determined but will ultimately be limited to a smaller total area confined within the buildable area.

USGS 7.5 Minute Quadrangle Map: Caledonia, NY 1984 [1950], Rush, NY 1997 [1971]).

Phase 1A Archaeological Survey Overview: The setting of the project area is sensitive for precontact period archaeological sites due to its location along the Genesee River at the transition of the Allegheny Plateau and the Ontario Lowlands. Proximity to the river and the access to the diversity of resources from the biomes of two physiographic provinces made this location particularly attractive for visitation and settlement. Evidence of this is reflected in the presence of 43 archaeological sites, eight (8) New York State Museum Areas, and one (1) Rochester Museum of Science area within the buildable APE or within the project’s (APE) or within 500 ft of the APE. These include archaeological sites where human remains have been reportedly found. The history of the project area includes intense occupation during pioneering expansion and the resulting creation of Native American reservations such as the Canawaugus Reservation. A portion of the APE is located within the area of the former reservation.

A Phase 1B cultural resources investigation is recommended for the project’s construction APE once the project design is finalized. Although the buildable APE includes approximately 2,768 acres, the ultimate design of the proposed Horseshoe Solar power generating facility will involve a smaller part of the buildable APE. Horseshoe Solar Energy LLC is working with Panamerican and SHPO to create a final project design that will attempt to avoid previously reported archaeological sites.

Results of Architectural Survey

Panamerican prepared and submitted a separate historic architectural resources survey for a two-mile (visual) project APE for this project (Longiaru and Steinback 2020).

Report Author(s): R. Hanley, M. Steinback

Date of Report: February 2020

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. ii Horseshoe Solar, Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

Table of Contents

Management Summary ...... ii List of Figures and Tables ...... iv List of Photographs ...... vi

1.0 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Project Description ...... 1 1.2 Methodology ...... 2

2.0 Environmental Setting ...... 4

3.0 Background Research ...... 6 3.1 Precontact Period ...... 6 3.2 Historic Period ...... 9 3.2.1 Protohistoric/Contact Period Summary ...... 9 3.2.2 Historical Context ...... 9 3.2.3 The Canawaugus Reservation ...... 11 3.2.4 American Occupation ...... 16 3.2.5 The Genesee Valley Canal and Right-of-Way...... 16 3.2.6 Genesee Oak Trees ...... 21 3.3 Archival and Site File Review ...... 22 3.3.1 Mortuary Customs...... 23 3.4 Historical Map Analysis ...... 25 3.5 Previous Cultural Resources Surveys ...... 36 3.6 Archaeological Site File Review ...... 36 3.7 Archaeological Sensitivity Assessment for Site Types within the Project Area ...... 45 3.7.1 Precontact Archaeological Sites ...... 45 3.7.2 Historic Archaeological Sites ...... 45 3.7.3 Burial Sites ...... 48

4.0 Field Reconnaissance ...... 49

5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 56 5.1 Conclusions ...... 56 5.2 Recommendations ...... 56

6.0 References ...... 57

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. iii Horseshoe Solar, Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

List of Figures and Tables

FIGURE PAGE

1 Location of the project area in the Towns of Caledonia and Rush, Livingston and Monroe Counties, New York ...... 1

2 Soils within and surrounding the project area ...... 5

3 Augustus Porter’s map of the boundaries of the Canawaugus Reservation in 1798 ...... 13

4 Location of the Canawaugus reservation in 1829 ...... 13

5 Map of Site #50 Canawaugus drawn by H.C. Follett in 1915 ...... 15

6 Map of the Genesee Valley Canal in the Town of Caledonia, ca. 1855 ...... 18

7 Approximate location of the APE in relation to the Genesee Valley Canal and the former Canawaugus reservation on an 1872 map of the Town of Caledonia based on Porter’s 1798 map ...... 19

8 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Caledonia in 1872 ...... 26

9 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1872 ...... 27

10 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Caledonia in 1902 ...... 28

11 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1902 ...... 29

12 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1924 ...... 30

13 The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1934 ...... 31

14 Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area west of the Genesee River ...... 34

15 Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area east of the Genesee River ...... 35

15a Structures depicted on historic maps within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) to the southwest portion of the project area ...... 35a

16 Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area west of the Genesee River ...... 42

17 Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area west of the Genesee River ...... 43

18 Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) in the southwest portion of the project area ...... 44

19 Locations of previously reported archaeological site types within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area ...... 46

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. iv Horseshoe Solar, Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

20 Locations of previously reported archaeological sites of specific time/cultural periods within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area ...... 47

21 Archaeological site types reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area ...... 48

22 Archaeological sites of specific time/cultural periods reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area ...... 48

23 Photograph locations within the project area ...... 49

TABLE

1 Chronology of Seneca Sites ...... 10

2 Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area...... 32

3 Archaeological surveys within one-half mile of the project area ...... 36

4 Archaeological sites reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area...... 37

5 Museum Areas within one-half mile of the project area ...... 41

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. v Horseshoe Solar, Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

List of Photographs

PHOTOGRAPH PAGE

1. Agricultural fields in the southwest portion of the buildable APE In the vicinity of NYS Museum Site 3629, facing northeast ...... 50

2. Farmstead and agricultural fields in the west portion of the buildable APE, facing west ...... 50

3. Agricultural fields in the buildable APE west of West River Road, facing west ...... 51

4. Agricultural fields in the southwest portion of the buildable APE In the vicinity of Street Farm #4 Site (Follett F273A; 05102.000019) and Street Farm #5 Site (Follett F273B; 05102.000020), facing southeast ...... 51

5. Agricultural fields and utility corridor east of Genesee River and north of Stull Road, facing northeast ...... 52

6. Agricultural fields east of the Genesee River from East River Road, facing west ...... 52

7. The Erie-Lackawanna Railroad corridor adjacent to fields of the buildable APE east of the Genesee River, facing south ...... 53

8. The buildable APE in the vicinity of previously reported precontact archaeological sites (05516.000040 GOLAH SITE and NYSM 1016 Stull), facing south ...... 53

9. Agricultural fields in the northeast portion of the buildable APE taken from Golah Road, facing north ...... 54

10. The vicinity of previously reported site NYSM 3916, facing southwest ...... 54

11. The northeastern corner of the buildable APE, facing southwest ...... 55

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. vi Horseshoe Solar, Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 1.0 Introduction

1.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Panamerican Consultants, Inc., was contracted by Horseshoe Solar Energy LLC (HSE), a subsidiary of Invenergy, to conduct a Phase 1A cultural resources investigation for the Horseshoe Solar power generation project in the Town of Caledonia, Livingston County, and the Town of Rush, Monroe County, New York, where HSE is planning to construct a solar power generating facility (Figure 1).

The revised and expanded Phase 1A survey area covered in this report comprises approximately 2,768 acres (1,120 hectares). This revised Phase 1A includes the approximately 2,230 acres (902 ha) of buildable area considered in the initial Phase 1A investigation (Hanley and Steinback 2019) and an additional 538 acres (217 ha) to the southwest of the original area, The final construction Area of Potential Effect (APE) has not been determined but will ultimately be limited to a smaller total area confined within the buildable area. The New York State Historic Preservation Office (NYSHPO) has assigned this project number 18PR07941.

New Areas added as part of revised APE

Figure 1. Location of the project area in the Towns of Caledonia and Rush, Livingston and Monroe Counties, New York (USGS Caledonia, NY 1984 [1950]; Rush, NY 1997 [1971]). Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised The purpose of the Phase 1A investigation is to identify previously recorded cultural resources that may be impacted by the proposed project and to assess the likelihood that unrecorded resources may be present within the APE (New York Archaeological Council [NYAC] 1994). The cultural resources investigation included documentary and historical map research, a site file and literature search, the examination of properties listed in the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places (S/NRHP), preparation of prehistoric and historic contexts of the project area, assessment of cultural resources sensitivity and past disturbances at the site, a walkover reconnaissance, and photographic documentation of field conditions. Photographs of the field investigation are presented in Appendix A.

The cultural resource investigation was conducted in compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act (as amended), the National Environmental Policy Act, the New York State Historic Preservation Act, and the State Environmental Quality Review Act, as well as all relevant federal and state legislation. The investigation was also conducted according to the New York Archaeological Council’s Standards for Archaeological Investigations and NYSHPO guidelines.

The Phase 1A field reconnaissance was conducted in March 2019 and included field survey reconnaissance, photographic documentation of the setting (e.g., land-use, structures, field conditions). Senior Archaeologist Mr. Robert J. Hanley, M.A., RPA, served as the Principal Investigator; Senior Historian Mr. Mark A. Steinback, M.A., served as Project Historian; and Dr. Michael A. Cinquino, RPA, served as Project Director. Senior Architectural Historian Ms. Christine M. Longiaru, M.A., prepared a work plan for an architectural resources survey based on the indirect (visual) project APE as requested by NYSHPO which was submitted as a separate report (Longiaru and Steinback 2020). Additional archival research was conducted at research institutions (discussed below) by Mr. Edwin Button, M.A., and Mr. Alexander Brown, M.A. The work plan includes a methodology for the survey and a proposed survey map depicting areas of project visibility based on bare earth topography.

1.2 METHODOLOGY

A Phase 1A cultural resources investigation is designed to identify and assess sensitivity and potential for locating cultural resources within the project’s APE. These resources include archaeological sites (prehistoric and historic) and standing structures or other aboveground features. The investigation consists of a background/literature search, a site file check, and a field reconnaissance of the project area. The geography, prehistory and history of the region are reviewed in order to understand the historic background of the project area and provide a context for any cultural resources that may exist within the project’s APE. Archaeological and historic site files at the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation’s (OPRHP) online Cultural Resources Information System (CRIS) are reviewed as an initial step to determine the presence of known archaeological sites within 500 ft (150 m) of the project’s buildable APE. These files include data recorded at both the OPRHP and the New York State Museum (NYSM). Literature and site file research were also conducted at the University of Buffalo’s Marian E. White Anthropology Research Museum and the Rochester Museum of Science. Field reconnaissance is conducted to observe and photographically document the setting and general conditions (e.g., disturbances, drainage, sensitive terrain) of the APE.

Archival research conducted at the University of Buffalo Archaeological Survey Archives and the Rochester Museum of Science, focused on previously identified archaeological sites in the area and the history of the National Register of Historic Places-eligible (NRE) Canawaugus Indian reservation. Additional background research was also conducted on the Genesee Valley Canal.

Information collected during the Phase 1A background research and field examination was used to further assess the sensitivity of the project APE for the presence of cultural resources. A pedestrian reconnaissance survey was conducted to assess conditions related to the potential of the project area for containing archaeological resources and what methods would best be employed for determining whether resources are present. These conditions include the presence/absence of above-ground cultural features,

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised ground surface visibility, indications of soil disturbance, and the presence of wet or poorly drained areas. Typically, areas that are untestable or severely disturbed are identified according to the following criteria:

 graded and cut areas through surrounding steep terrain, such as those resulting from road construction;

 areas previously impacted by construction of utilities, drainage ditches, streets or other obvious areas of significant earth movement;

 areas with poorly drained soils and wetlands; and

 areas having slopes greater than 15 percent.

Areas of archaeological potential and high sensitivity are identified by the following criteria:

 areas with relatively level well-drained soils or in the vicinity of potable water such as springs, streams or creeks (these characteristics typify known site locations in the region);

 areas near known precontact or historic archaeological sites; and

 areas near historic structures (either extant or documented on historic maps; in the parlance of the NYSHPO, a building shown on an historic map and that is no longer extant is a map-documented structure [i.e., MDS]).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 2.0 Environmental Setting

Topography. The project area is primarily situated on the west side of the Genesee River Valley at the boundary between the glaciated Allegheny Plateau (an upland plateau dissected by streams, the primary physiographic province of Livingston County) to the south and the Great Lakes Lowlands to the north (Ritchie 1980). The Genesee River meanders across the base of the valley cutting into the uplands to the south. Elevations within the project area range from approximately 530 ft (162 m) above mean sea level (AMSL) along the river flood plain, to about 690 ft (210 m) AMSL at Finnegan Hill in the southwestern portion of the project area (see Figure 1).

Geology. Bedrock underlying the project area was formed in bands oriented east to west during the Devonian Period (410 to 360 million years ago). The bedrock beneath the project area is an extensive mix of Middle Devonian Onondaga limestone and shaly sandstones (Cressey 1966:23-24, 45).

Drainage. The project area is located on the walls and flood plain at the mouth of the Genesee River Valley (see Figure 1). Water drains through tributaries (e.g., White Creek) and through the water table to the Genesee which flows north to Lake Ontario.

Forest Zone and Vegetation. The northern part of Livingston County, including the Genesee Valley and the project area, lies within the Elm-Red Maple-Northern Hardwood zone. This zone reflects recent conditions in which poorly drained areas are widespread, the natural forest has been removed, and better-drained areas have been utilized for agriculture. The prevalence of elm and red maple is due to human impacts to the environment. South-facing slopes support an oak-hickory mix (due to more sunlight) while north-facing slopes support more northerly-predominant trees, such as elm, red cedar, and hawthorn (de Laubenfels 1966a:92, 95). At the time of the field investigation, the project area had largely been plowed and was devoid of vegetation. Shrubs, deciduous trees and wild grasses predominate in the northwestern corner of the project area, around the intermittent creek, and are also along the boundaries of the plowed field. The project’s buildable APE is comprised of agricultural fields.

Soils. The project area is primarily within a region of “alluvial soils on valley bottoms” (de Laubenfels 1966b:107). Approximately 1,227 acres of the buildable APE have alluvium present and are part of the flood plain. These soils tend to be deep, moderately drained, and level to gently sloping. Away from more urban areas, dairy farming accounts for most of the current land use, although market gardening, fruit growing and poultry farming are also represented (Pearson et al. 1956). Due to the large size of the study area—2,768 acres (1,120 hectares)—specific soils within the project area are not described. Soil associations applicable to the project area are described below and depicted on Figure 2.

. Minoa-Lamson-Galen-Arkport. The association generally includes deep soils that range from well drained to very poorly drained. Soils range in slope from level to very steep. Soils form in depressions formed by glacial lakes with little to no runoff.

. Ontario-Lima-Lansing-Honeoye-Conesus. The association generally includes deep soils that range from moderately well drained to well drained. Soils range in slope from level to very steep. Soils formed in glacial till composed primarily of limestone, sandstone, and shale.

. Palmyra-Howard-Alton. The association generally includes deep soils that are well drained to excessively well drained. Soils range in slope from level to very steep. Soils form in areas of glacial outwash and deposit.

. Wayland-Teel-Hamlin. The association generally includes deep soils that range from very poorly to very well drained and tend to occur on flat terrain. Soils form in flood plains and are susceptible to periodic flooding.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 4 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised New Areas added as part of revised APE

Figure 2. Soils within and surrounding the project area (Pearson et al. 1956: Sheets 1 & 2).

Manmade Features and Alterations. Most of the project area has been farmland for more than 150 years and has been plowed regularly. The Erie-Lackawanna Railroad corridor and a Niagara Mohawk overhead utilities corridor are parallel to each other and cross the project area along its eastern side east of the Genesee River (see Figure 1).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 5 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 3.0 Background Research

3.1 PRECONTACT PERIOD

Precontact Period Summary. The three major cultural traditions manifested in west-central New York State during the prehistoric/precontact era were the Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Woodland. Cultural change in the area can be summarized as a gradual increase in social complexity, punctuated by several important cultural and/or technological innovations (Ritchie 1980; Engelbrecht 2003; Hart et al. 2003; Tuck 1978a). The project area is within a particularly rich section of the Genesee River valley for archaeological resources (Follett 1956; Ritchie 1980). Occupations of the valley date back at least to the Archaic period (ca. 8000 to 3000 BC), with several seasonal campsites dating to the period scattered across the river valley. During the Woodland Period (1000 BC-AD 1600), the occupation of the valley intensified, consisting of longer-term settlements, as well as the use of the valley for ritual sites and cemeteries. Longer-term occupations (i.e., several years duration) occurred in the valley during the Late Woodland and were still present into the Historic period. Villages were stockaded, houses were of the typical Iroquoian longhouse style, and burials were near the villages. The valley was an important center of Haudenosaunee occupation during the Historic period and includes what was once the Canawaugus Indian reservation.

Paleo-Indian Period (ca. 12,000-8000 BC). Hunter-gatherer bands of the Paleo-Indian culture were the first humans in New York State after the last glacial retreat approximately 14,000 years ago. At this time, Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River were locked in ice, and the project area may not have been an ideal environment for occupation (Fitting 1975:27). It is possible, however, that environmental fluctuations which occurred early during this period were conducive to periodic forays by the Paleo-Indian groups into the region when conditions were suitable. Micro-environments, such as glacial lakes, boggy areas, and swamps, probably attracted game animals and concomitantly humans. As the climate gradually became more temperate, these forays may have become more extended.

The Paleo-Indian subsistence strategy has been traditionally viewed as one that emphasized hunting big game. These species, many of which are extinct, included mastodon, mammoth, great beaver, caribou, and moose-elk, along with a variety of smaller game. The remains of mammoths and Pleistocene deer were found in the northern portion of Livingston County while those of mastodons were found within the central portion of the county (Ritchie 1980:10-11).

Adapted to the harsh tundra or park tundra environment, Paleo-Indians utilized a nomadic settlement system in which their movements were directed by the migration of game animals. During the seasonal peaks of resources, larger populations occupied strategically located large camps; and during periods of low resource potential, the population dispersed, occupying small camps and rockshelters on a temporary basis. A band-level social organization is attributed to Paleo-Indian groups, with each band consisting of 25 or 30 people (Snow 1980:150; Fitting 1968; Funk 1978). As climatic conditions allowed more permanent occupation of an area, this wandering became more restrictive and bands settled into loose territories.

Ritchie and Funk (1973:333) have classified Paleo-Indian sites into two main categories: quarry workshops and camps. Chert quarrying and the preliminary stages of tool production were carried out at the tool workshops (Gramly and Funk 1990:13). Located near the margin of extinct glacial lakes, many Paleo-Indian sites in the Northeast are located on elevated areas that served as loci for monitoring the migratory patterns of game species (Funk 1978:18).

Technologically, the Paleo-Indian period has been associated with the fluted Clovis point industry. These points are generally large (1 to 4 inches [2.5 to 10 centimeters] in length), with a flute on each face that facilitated hafting (Funk and Schambach 1964; Snow 1980). Paleo-Indian sites have not been excavated in the vicinity of the project area, although fluted points have been found along the Genesee River in southern Monroe County and northern Livingston County (Ritchie 1980). Fluted points gradually decreased in size as larger game animals moved north or became extinct (Kraft 1986:47) and were

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 6 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised eventually replaced in the late Paleo-Indian-Early Archaic period (8000-6000 BC) with unfluted triangular points, stemmed points and Plano points. The last are lanceolate-shaped points without flutes (Kraft 1986; Ritchie 1980).

Archaic Period (ca. 8000-1000 BC). The Archaic period is differentiated from the Paleo-Indian period by a stylistic shift in lithic assemblage, an apparent increase in population, changes in the subsistence strategy, and a less nomadic settlement system (Funk 1978; Tuck 1978b). These changes reflect an adaptation to an improved climate and a more diversified biome (Funk 1972:10). Three subdivisions are generally recognized for the Archaic: Early, Middle, and Late.

The Early Archaic tool kit consisted of Hardaway, Dalton, Palmer corner-notched, Kirk corner-notched, and bifurcate base points which frequently had serrated edges (Funk 1993). People of the Early Archaic also used end scrapers, side scrapers, spokeshaves, drills, gravers, choppers, hammers, and anvil stones. Moreover, bifurcate base points were found incidentally during Ritchie’s (1945) excavation of the Late Archaic site, Frontenac Island. Despite evidence that Early and Middle Archaic cultures occupied the Finger Lakes, excavations have not been carried out on sites primarily related to these periods. Although archaeological sites from these periods are rare and poorly understood for the Finger Lakes region, important sites from the Early and Middle Archaic have been found in eastern New York, in Ulster County and near Sylvan Lake (Dutchess County), as well as western Connecticut, the upper Delaware valley, and the Susquehanna valley (Dent 1991; Funk 1991, 1993; Nicholas 1988).

In addition to an improved climate and more diversified biome, a few technological changes, such as the production of ground and polished stone tools, serve to identify the Middle Archaic period (6000-4000 BC) (Funk 1991; Kraft 1986). People began to develop woodworking tools during this period, using coarse- grained stones and river cobbles as their raw materials. These stones were commonly available in large sizes and allowed toolmakers to reserve high quality lithic materials for finely flaked tools. The Middle Archaic tool kit included anvil stones, choppers, netsinkers, an array of projectile points, axes, adzes, gouges, choppers and other woodworking implements (Funk 1991; Kraft 1986).

Changes in the cultural system were not qualitative, however; more elaborate planning seems to have been devoted to seasonal scheduling (Snow 1980; Mason 1981). The territorial "settling in" process begun during the Early Archaic continued into the Middle Archaic, stimulating a process of group isolation. Sites from these periods cluster along major rivers and marshy, swampy land as well as lowlands.

During the Late Archaic period (4000-1000 BC) hunting, fishing, and gathering remained the principal daily activities, although greater emphasis was placed on deer and small game like birds and turtles, shellfish, nuts and possibly wild cereal grains. Charred acorn shells were found in hearths at the Lamoka Lake site in Schuyler County, New York, about ten miles west of Seneca Lake (Ritchie 1980). Associated with the shift in subsistence strategies was the increase in population densities, and as population increased, camps became larger and more numerous. People still lived in bands whose territories may have been well defined. They moved seasonally or when resources dwindled. Most sites of the Late Archaic period were seasonal, special purpose habitation sites. These include winter hunting camps, spring fishing stations, fall nut-gathering and processing stations, and shellfish processing. Principal settlements such as Frontenac Island, Lamoka Lake, and Geneva were located near major rivers or lakes and were multi- activity spring and summer villages (Ritchie and Funk 1973).

Artifacts characteristic of the Late Archaic Lamoka phase include hammerstones, anvils, beveled adzes, and Lamoka points which are small, narrow-bladed, thick-stemmed or side-notched points. Tools like these have been found throughout Livingston County, including along the Canaseraga River (Ritchie 1980:44). Ritchie and Funk (1973) argue that several of the Finger Lakes Lamoka-type sites are unique in being permanent, sedentary, or semi-sedentary villages supported by food storage in addition to an optimum mix of a broad range of food resources.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 7 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised A Transitional period (ca. 1500-1000 BC) between the Archaic and Woodland periods featured a continuation of Late Archaic cultural and economic patterns, with only a few innovative traits. Among these are a developing burial / ceremonial complex and, toward the end of the period, the introduction of ceramics (Ritchie and Funk 1973:87; Funk 1993:198). The earliest pottery in New York State (Vinette 1 type) has been radiocarbon-dated to about 1250 BC at the Frost Island component of the O’Neil site on the Seneca River.

Woodland Period (1000 BC-AD 1500). The definitive characteristic of the Woodland period in New York State is the adoption of pottery technology, a development that occurred at different times from one location to another (Feder 1984:101-102; Sears 1948; Snow 1980:262). Native groups also became more dependent on domesticated plants—including maize, beans, and squash—during the Woodland in the Northeast, although this change does not seem to have significantly altered subsistence and settlement patterns until the Late Woodland, after AD 1000 (Ritchie and Funk 1973:96). In the meantime, hunting and gathering continued to be important elements of native lifeways for much of the Woodland, and people likely still employed these strategies, at least part time, at the time of contact with Europeans. The Woodland period in New York witnessed significant cultural developments, most of which were related to the adoption of agriculture. Among these were: increasingly sedentary village life accompanied by increases in populations and population densities; technological changes, including the refinement of pottery-manufacturing techniques and the adoption of small triangular projectile points; and an intensification of warfare. Researchers have traditionally divided the Woodland into three phases (Early, Middle, and the Late; Funk 1993).

In Ritchie’s cultural-historical framework, the Early Woodland (1000 BC–AD 1) in central New York State is defined as the time during which people manufactured Vinette I-type ceramic vessels, gorgets, tubular smoking pipes, bar amulets, boatstones, birdstones, and copper ornaments (Ritchie 1980:194; Ritchie and Funk 1973:96). During this time, people throughout the Northeast and Midwest interred the deceased with elaborate burial goods (Tuck 1978b:39-43). Those in Central New York cremated the dead and buried them with items that included Meadowood projectile points and unnotched cache blades, copper objects, and birdstones. People almost never placed ceramic vessels in Early Woodland graves.

During the early part of the Middle Woodland period (ca. AD 1–300) people in central and western New York participated in trade networks that extended through large areas of the eastern woodlands and was centered in Illinois and southern Ohio (generally referred to as the Hopewell Interaction Sphere). Archaeologically, this network is manifest as geometric earthworks and elaborate burials that have similar qualities across a large geographic area. The deceased were usually interred in mounds accompanied by objects usually created from exotic materials including shells from the Gulf of Mexico, Wyoming obsidian, and copper from the upper Great Lakes (Coe et al. 2000 [1980]:48-55).

The Middle Woodland period (AD 1–1000) began when people diversified the techniques they employed to decorate their ceramic vessels. While Vinette I vessels were typically plain, people employed a variety of techniques to decorate their wares in the Middle Woodland, including impressions created with a corded stick, rocker-stamping, dentate-stamping, and pseudo-scallop shell stamping (Ritchie and Funk 1973:117; Ritchie and MacNeish 1949). The end of the period, which Ritchie argued came around AD 1000 (or shortly thereafter), occurred when people in Central New York adopted the suite of characteristics he associated with the Late Woodland: primarily agriculture based on maize, beans, and squash; Owasco-style pottery (collarless vessels with elongate bodies, conoidal bases, slightly everted rims, and cord-wrapped, stick-impressed exterior decoration confined largely to their necks); and house structures resembling historical Haudenosaunee longhouses. However, recent research has determined that these events occurred individually at different times over a span of years and not together (Hart 2000, 2011).

The Late Woodland in Ritchie’s scheme for the Northeast was the period between AD 1000 and the time at which native people traded for or otherwise obtained European goods (ca. 1600), the precise timing of which varied throughout the region. In the 1930s, Ritchie (1937 [1936]) proposed dividing the Late Woodland into two shorter periods: Owasco and Iroquoian (see also Ritchie 1944). Through radiocarbon

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 8 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised dating the two have acquired distinct temporal boundaries, with the Owasco lasting from AD 1000 to 1300 and the Iroquoian spanning the years thereafter (Hart and Brumbach 2003:747; Hart 2011).

During the later years of the Iroquoian period, people in some areas began clustering their villages within the territories occupied by historically known nations (Snow 2000:46-51). During this time, the techniques people (likely women) employed to decorate pottery diversified across space, probably reflecting concomitant changes in the ways and frequencies with which people interacted (MacNeish 1952; Whallon 1968). Likely in part because of the large amounts of wood consumed during the construction and maintenance of these settlements, as well as that needed for firewood, inhabitants periodically relocated their villages roughly every 10 to 20 years (Engelbrecht 2003:101-103). In several cases, researchers have reconstructed parts of the resulting sequences of settlements and produced detailed data concerning local culture change and the effects thereon of contact with Europeans (e.g., White 1961).

The Late Woodland period brought increasing sociopolitical complexity and diversification of resource exploitation. Contact with European explorers, beginning in the sixteenth century, caused changes in the social environment, culminating in the formation of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy in either Late Woodland or early Protohistoric times.

Cultural changes during the late prehistoric period laid the groundwork for the development of the individual nations of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy during the historic period. In Central New York, this occurred in three areas: the western Finger Lakes (Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca, Cayuga), the Little Finger Lakes (Honeoye, Hemlock, Conesus, Canadice), and the Bristol Hills and Genesee valley. In both prehistoric and historic times, Haudenosaunee nations moved their villages at intervals that may have been related to the exhaustion of local resources, such as soil, wood or game. The Seneca generally occupied the area encompassing the project area (Parker 1922; White et al. 1978).

3.2 HISTORIC PERIOD

3.2.1 Protohistoric/Contact Period Summary. Archaeological evidence exists for Native American occupation at and around what is now the village of Avon prior to 1779, although no documentary data has been recovered. Follett (n.d.) believed a Seneca village lay just east of the project area on the south side of the present Route 5 (described by Parker 1922:592). An occupation identified as “Genesee Castle” was noted along the west bank of the Genesee south of the future Canawaugus reservation. The village was noted to contain approximately 130 houses and was reputed to have been razed during General Sullivan’s 1779 campaign during the Revolutionary War (Jordan 2002:332; Abler and Tooker 1978:508). During that campaign, a detachment of soldiers was reportedly dispatched along the west side of Genesee and destroyed the villages of Canawaugus and Big Tree, although Sullivan reported that he never sent men that far (Doty and Duganne 1876:203). A Haudenosaunee village called Canawaugus was located on the east side of the Genesee River in proximity to the current location of the Village of Avon during the early to mid-portion of then eighteenth century before it relocated to the west side of the river after the American Revolution (Doty 1905; Parker 1922). Archaeological remains have been documented along both sides of the river in this area since the nineteenth century (Steinback et al. 2004).

3.2.2 Historical Context. During the Late Prehistoric and Protohistoric/Contact periods, tribal clusters of Iroquoian-speaking peoples were distributed throughout New York State and lower Ontario Canada. Comprising several thousand people in at least one, and usually several, villages in proximity to one another, each tribal cluster was separated the others by extensive and wide spread hunting and fishing areas (Trigger 1978:344; Englebrecht 2003). The sequence of Seneca village sites for the Protohistoric (ca. 1525-1609) and Early Historic period (1609-1687) has been largely established. The general pattern reflects a gradual northward drift of two large villages (i.e., eastern and western Seneca) with a number of small outlying settlements. During the Contact period, Seneca sites (Adams and Tram) were situated north of Conesus, Hemlock and Honeoye lakes and moved northeastward. The first recorded visit to the Seneca was by Jesuit priest Pierre Joseph Marie Chaumonot in 1656. By 1687, Seneca settlement was established in what is now the Town of Victor, New York, at the Boughton Hill site (or Ganondagan, now a

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 9 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised New York State Park). At that date, the French expedition under the direction of Jacques-Rene de Brisay, marquis de Denonville destroyed it and three other Seneca habitations and the surrounding corn crop before the French retreated to what is now Fort Niagara. The looting of seventeenth-century Seneca cemeteries is attributed to this contingent of attackers (Wray and Schoff 1953; Niemczycki 1984; Wray et al. 1987, 1991; Tooker 1978a:432; Abler and Tooker 1978:505; see also Englebrecht 2003).

During the subsequent half-century of peace between the Europeans and the Seneca, the Seneca expanded their influence over the beaver trade to the south and west, but did not resettle the towns destroyed by the French. Subsequent Seneca settlements trended both eastward toward the Canadaigua and Geneva areas and the Finger Lakes and westward through the Genesee Valley (Abler and Tooker 1978:505-507; Wray and Schoff 1953:53; Jordan 2002:15).

The eastern Seneca drifted east, finally establishing one village at the foot of Canandaigua Lake and another, their principal village, at the foot of Seneca Lake. From there, they also established settlements on both sides of Seneca Lake and down the Chemung River. The western Seneca drifted westward, settling along the fertile flats of the middle Genesee. From there, they also moved up the Genesee, across to the Allegheny and down that river into Ohio. No longer threatened by attack, the eighteenth- century Senecas built unpalisaded villages in which the houses were dispersed [Abler and Tooker 1978: 507].

Jordan (2002) presents a chronology of selected Seneca sites for the Late Historic period (1687-1779; Table 1).

Table 1. Chronology of Seneca Sites (Jordan 2002:295) Site Name Occupation Dates (approximate)

Boughton Hill (Ganondagan) 1670-1687 Rochester Junction 1670-1687 Snyder-McClure 1688-1710/1715 White Springs 1688-1715 New Ganechstage 1715-1754 Huntoon 1710/1715-1740 Kendaia 1710/1720-1779 Fall Brook 1740-1775 Honeoye 1740-1779 Kanadesaga 1754-1779 Genesee Castle 1775-1779

During the American Revolution, both the British and Americans enlisted the aid of individual Haudenosaunee nations in their battles in the frontier, although the Confederacy itself maintained an official policy of neutrality; several of the nations allied with Great Britain and several with the Americans. As a result, Major General John Sullivan led a punitive assault into the heart of Haudenosaunee country in an effort to halt incursions against the settlers in the Mohawk and Cherry valleys. In 1779, Sullivan’s army moved up the east side of Seneca Lake, adopted "scorched earth" tactics, and destroyed everything in its path. The swath of destruction stretched from Newtown (present-day Elmira) all the way to Canandaigua and Honeoye to the Genesee Valley. Seeking refuge in the Niagara River valley, many Haudenosaunee, burned out of their Central New York homes, suffered through a difficult winter of hardship and hunger. They remained in this area until after the completion of the Treaty of Paris (Abler and Tooker 1978:507-508; Ellis et al. 1967:115-117; Tooker 1978a:435). Provisioned and armed by the British, groups of Haudenosaunee periodically attacked colonial settlements until the end of the war, although the Seneca were no longer a major military threat.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 10 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised The British and their Loyalist allies were expelled from the new United States after the Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the Revolutionary War, and they settled on the west bank of the Niagara River in what was then called Upper Canada, although the British did not vacate forts at Niagara and Oswego until 1796. The Haudenosaunee, abandoned in the United States by their British allies after the Treaty of Paris, were forced to make peace as separate nations with the Americans, who aspired to usurp their lands. During these negotiations the individual nations as well as individuals themselves had to decide whether to live in the United States or relocate to Canada. “Some Senecas determined that they would continue to live in the Genesee Valley where they had lived before the war, but others decided to move to or remain in the more westerly parts of New York State” (Tooker 1978a:435).

As a result of the Second Fort Stanwix Treaty (1784), the Haudenosaunee relinquished all their land west of the Genesee River, except for several reservations. This treaty was disputed by groups of Haudenosaunee until 1794, when a treaty was signed at Canandaigua between the United States government and the Six Nations which defined the boundaries of Seneca lands and the reservations to the other Haudenosaunee nations (Abler and Tooker 1978:508). Native American title to the land in the Genesee Valley was largely extinguished with the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797, although several areas were reserved for the Native Americans to use and live on (Turner 1974 [1850]:403; Abler and Tooker 1978: 509, 512; Hauptman 1999).

With the return of peace, settlers and land speculators again began to trickle westward, exerting pressure to open up land formerly occupied by Native Americans. Further, states, especially New York, viewed the granting of former Haudenosaunee lands as a cheap way to compensate Continental soldiers for serving in the fight for American independence and to settle their claims of being owed back pay. Although the land was physically open for European-American settlement with the relocation of the Haudenosaunee, border disputes between New York and Massachusetts, both of which claimed the new territory, frustrated the actual, legal sale of these lands. Under an agreement signed in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1786, the land once occupied by the Haudenosaunee came under the jurisdiction of New York State. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts maintained the preemption right to land west of Seneca Lake once the Indian title to the land was extinguished. During the next decade large grants of land in western and central New York would be sold to private investors who would attempt to open the land to settlement (Ellis et al. 1967:152-156; Abler and Tooker 1978:507-509; Turner 1974 [1850]:326; Doty and Duganne 1876:214).

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts sold the preemption rights to the entirety of western New York (more than 6 million acres) to a syndicate of land speculators headed by Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham. This land, eponymous Phelps & Gorham purchase, became Ontario County in January 1789. The 1788 treaty of Buffalo Creek extinguished the Haudenosaunee title of land east of the Genesee River. Financial troubles soon undermined the syndicate’s efforts to sell parcels within their purchase to settlers, ultimately leading to their forfeiture of the western two-thirds of the tract in 1790 in exchange for retention of title to the eastern third. Massachusetts sold the remaining unsurveyed portion of the area to Robert Morris in 1791. The following year, 1792, Morris sold a portion of this land (approximately 1.2 million acres) to Charles Williamson, an agent for Sir William Pulteney, William Hornby, and Patrick Colquhoun of London, England, which was called the Pulteney Estate. (At that time, aliens were not allowed to purchase land.) Keeping a portion of the land for his own purposes (the so-called “Morris Reserve”), Morris sold the remainder to a consortium of Dutch investors called the Holland Land Company in 1792-1793. The eastern portion of what is now Livingston County was included within the Phelps & Gorham Purchase, and the western portion was within the Morris Reserve (Turner 1974 [1850]: 396-403; Ellis et al. 1967:154-156; Abler and Tooker 1978:508; Smith and Cale 1881:73).

3.2.3 The Canawaugus Reservation. At the time the first permanent European-American settlers arrived in the Genesee valley after the war, a Haudenosaunee village called Canawaugus was located just west of the Genesee River in what is now the Town of Caledonia. The word Canawaugas (or Ga-no-wau-ges) literally meant “fetid” or “stinking water” or “it has the smell of the scum” (Doty and Duganne 1876:74-75, 81; Follett n.d.; Hayes 1965:4), and referred to nearby sulfur springs in Avon. It is unclear when a village was established in this location, but it was likely around 1740 (Jordan 2002:130). Initially, the village was

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 11 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised located on the east of the Genesee River, but it was the birthplace of Handsome Lake, the prophet of the Longhouse religion, ca. 1735, and his half-brother Cornplanter, the Seneca War chief. The village was also home to Gayasuta, who was a leader of the western Seneca during Pontiac’s Rebellion in 1763 (Hauptman 1999). Although some nineteenth-century histories (i.e., Doty and Duganne 1876:82) stated that Canawaugus was destroyed during the Sullivan-Clinton invasion of Haudenosaunee territory in 1779, Sullivan’s soldiers reported they did not travel that far west or north (Ryan 2017:182, 213). However, sometime after the American Revolution, likely around the time of Phelps and Gorham’s 1788 purchase, the village was relocated from the east side of the Genesee River to the west side of the river. With the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797, Canawaugus was circumscribed as a two-square-mile reservation on the west bank of the river (see Figures 3 and 4). Two areas of the APE are located in the western portion of the area formerly comprising the reservation.

Northernmost of the Haudenosaunee river towns, the village was situated along “the great central trail” that started near Albany and continued through the state to Lake Erie. The trail, which New York State Route 5 essentially follows, reputedly crossed the Genesee near the current bridge, entering Canawaugus about a mile above the ford before continuing to the northwest (Doty and Duganne 1876:57- 59; Follett n.d.). Further, the Genesee River was flanked by two trails running south from what is now Rochester. The trail on the west side passed through Canawaugus to the other Haudenosaunee villages farther south along the river, such as the villages of Little Beard’s Town and Big Tree (Doty and Duganne 1876:60, 74-75).

With the 1797 Treaty of Big Tree, the Seneca sold most of their remaining lands to Robert Morris for $100,000 and individual cash payments to specific Seneca leaders. Under this treaty tracts of land along the Genesee River, as well as along major waterways in western New York, were reserved for the Haudenosaunee. These riverine reservations were enumerated by Joseph Ellicott at the time, and included:

1 at Kannawaugus [Canawaugus], Jeneseo [Genesee] River, 2 square miles 2 at Big Tree, Jeneseo River, 2 square miles 3 at Little Beard’s town, Jeneseo River, 2 square miles 4 at Squawkie Hill, Jeneseo River, 2 square miles 5 at Gardeaw [Gardeau], Jeneseo River, 2 square miles 6 at Ka-oun-de-ou [Caneadea], Jeneseo River, 16 square miles 7 at Allegenny [Allegheny] River, 42 square miles 8 at Kattaraugus [Cattaraugus Creek], about 42 square miles 9 at Buffalo and Tannawanta [Tonawanda] Creeks, 200 square miles [Doty and Duganne 1876:234n].

In addition, the Oil Spring reservation near Cuba Lake in Allegany County was also reserved for the Haudenosaunee. The Canawaugus reservation subsumed the Native American village of that name and comprised approximately 128 acres on the west bank of the Genesee River south of the State Road to Buffalo Creek. The residents of the reservation utilized the nearby sulfur spring and cultivated a peach orchard and extensive cornfields (Abler and Tooker 1978:509; Doty and Duganne 1876:81; Ryan 2017:213). The population of Seneca in New York State at about the time of the Big Tree treaty was approximately 1,700 and 1,800, with one-third of them living along the Genesee River, one-third at the Buffalo Creek reservation and the remainder spread among the remaining reservations (Abler and Tooker 1978:509).

Beginning in 1789 until his death in 1797, Gilbert Berry, the first permanent European-American settler in the area, operated a tavern on the east bank of the Genesee just south of the current bridge and a rope ferry across the river. His wife, Maria (also called Polly), took over the business and operated it until ca. 1812. Called Hartford during the initial years of the village’s settlement, the present-day village of Avon received its current name in 1808. Dr. Timothy Hosmer erected a log cabin on the north side of the village in 1792 and Nathan Perry opened another tavern before 1800 north of the village park (Doty and Duganne 1876:80-82; Hayes 1966).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 12 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

Figure 3. Approximate location of the portion of the APE (in red) shown on Augustus Porter’s map of the boundaries of the Canawaugus Reservation in 1798. Note, the cluster of houses in the lower portion of the reservation (New York State Archives [Porter 1798]).

Figure 4. The Canawaugus reservation in 1829 with the approximate location of the portion of the current APE within the former reservation delineated in red (Burr 1829).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 13 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised During this early period (1804), the Ontario & Genesee Turnpike Company extended the toll road through Avon (then Hartford) and a bridge was erected over the Genesee. Christopher Lyth ran a brickyard in the vicinity on the tavern location for a few years during the 1860s (Hayes 1965). Berry’s wife reported that prior to her arrival an Indian village had been located on the east side of the river not far from the bridge and a detachment from Sullivan’s army burned numerous huts on “that side of the river” (Doty and Duganne 1876:82). As noted, it is unlikely Sullivan’s men reached this location (Follett n.d.).

The population of the Canawaugus reservation was estimated to be approximately between 500 and 1,000 at one time, but that estimate seems high (Doty and Duganne 1876). The population of the village of Canawaugus was reported to be 40 people in five houses in 1789, and 112 people in 15 houses in 1790 with a Council House, orchards, agricultural fields, and multiple cemeteries (Ryan 2017:182, 209, 213). The population was approximately 150 inhabitants by 1826 (Ryan 2017:82), after which it continuously declined. In the nineteenth century, Doty and Duganne noted

Their burial-place, situated a score of rods to the north of the town, has often yielded up its bones to the plowman, and relics such as stone hammers, flint arrow heads, iron axes and other aboriginal weapons, have, from time to time been found it the vicinity. … [It has been many] years since the council house at Canawaugus was standing. When last visited by me [Doty and Duganne are quoting Timothy Hosmer, grandson of an earlier settler], a quarter of a century ago, it was in a state of decay—the roof, overlaid with bark, was falling in, and the storms had partly beaten down the walls. The building was low and about sixty feet in length. In the center of the roof, which was bark bent to a rounded form over the ridge pole, was an open place for the escape of smoke, when the elders of the tribe convened [Doty and Duganne 1876:80-82; see also Hayes 1965:4].

The post-1779 period witnessed extensive cessions of Native American land by the Haudenosaunee to European-Americans and the establishment of reservations in New York State. The Treaty of Big Tree in 1797 marked the beginning of the reservation period for the Seneca. The concept of the reservation at this time seemed to be “what the term literally implied—lands reserved by the Indians from a cession of land and intended for their own use and occupancy. Generally such reservations included an already existing settlement and some surrounding area deemed minimally adequate to supply the subsistence needs of the local population living by traditional custom” (Wallace 1978:444). At a time when the nearby European-American settlements were small, few, and far between, these reservations were not conceived as locations surrounded by invisible fences that compelled the Seneca to remain inside, but which allowed the Seneca the control to keep European-American interlopers out. For example, Follett’s 1915 map of Site #50 Canawaugus detailed several locations outside what would be the boundaries of the reservation (Figure 5).

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the Seneca, succumbing to the intense pressure and unscrupulous tactics by well-connected land speculators to sell their remaining reservations in the state, began to divest themselves of their Genesee Valley property. In 1801, the Seneca authorized the disposal of the Canawaugus reservation in order to generate the funds to build a grist and sawmill (Doty and Duganne 1876:283). In 1803, Little Beard’s town was sold. With the arguably fraudulent Buffalo Creek Treaty of 1826, the Seneca sold their remaining reservations on the Genesee River to a group of trustees headed by Robert Troup, Thomas L. Ogden, and Benjamin W. Rogers, often loosely referred to as “the Ogden Land Company” for $48,260. Prior to this treaty, David A. Ogden had acquired the preemption right to the remaining Seneca reservations from the Holland Land Company. Under the 1826 treaty the Seneca sold the Big Tree, Canawaugus, Caneadea, Squawkie Hill, and the remaining lands at Gardeau, in addition to parts of the Buffalo Creek, Cattaraugus, Tonawanda reservations (Tooker 1978b: 452; Abler and Tooker 1978:511; Hauptman 2019). Never ratified by the U.S Senate, this treaty was subject to several court cases and federal investigations, but the results were not overturned (Hauptman 1999, 2019). At the time this treaty was signed there were approximately 550 Senecas living at Buffalo Creek, 350 at Cattaraugus, 500 at Allegany, 325 at Tonawanda, and 450 on the Genesee. Within a few years after the sale of the Genesee lands, the Senecas who had lived there had moved to the other Seneca reservations (Abler and Tooker 1978:511). By the beginning of the decade of the 1830s, most of the Seneca had relocated to areas west of the Genesee valley (see Figure 4). “Indeed, coincident with the advent of the whites, began the [Native American] exodus, for, by 1816 there were not more than four

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 14 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised hundred Indians within the limits of [Livingston] county, all of whom lived on the westerly side of the river. Canawaugus, at the latter date, contained ninety souls, of whom several were descendants of Cornplanter” (Doty and Duganne 1876:61). Ryan surmises that the Canawaugas reservation contained

a semi-dispersed village, with at least two distinct clusters of homes—possibly grouped by clan or family relationships—less than a mile apart from one another along the river. Multiple, small cemeteries were distributed on or near the village. There were likely ample outdoor workspace near each of the house lots, with quick access to small, household orchards and gardens. Larger agricultural fields were likely farmed communally by groups of women [Ryan 2017:215].

APE

Figure 5. Map of Site #50 Canawaugus drawn by H.C. Follett in 1915 with red arrow indicating direction of the current project APE. The approximate eastern boundaries of the Canawaugus reservation are in blue (Rochester Museum and Science Center Archives).

William A. Ritchie succinctly (perhaps overly simplistically) characterized the post-1794 Native transition to European-American lifeways during the early reservation period.

With the reservation period following the Pickering Treaty of 1794, communalism in food production and shelter was replaced by primary family life on farmsteads scattered about the reservation lands. Men at first resented and despised the new role of male farmers but seem generally to have become resigned [to it] by about 1810. With individual farmsteads often went family burial plots located behind the log house, the graves being arranged in rows and the dead interred, still with some small gifts—a cooking pot, dish and spoon, mirror, beads, etc.—all long since of Caucasian manufacture, fully extended in plank coffins, as found by the writer on the Canawaugus site in Livingston County [Ritchie 1980:322, 324].

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 15 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 3.2.4 American Occupation. The earliest settlement in what is now the Town of Caledonia occurred in 1795 when two squatters named Moffat and Kane erected a log tavern at a location identified as “Big Springs” (the present-day village of Caledonia). Despite the success of their tavern/hotel, the men were suspected of unlawful behavior and driven from the community by settlers from Avon. The enterprise was taken over by two other men, L. Peters and David Fuller, in 1798. Shortly thereafter, Charles Williamson, agent for the Pulteney Estate who was responsible for securing settlers for the region, encouraged a group of immigrants from Scotland to visit the area in hopes of making a sale. Sufficiently enticed, the Scots established the first settlement in the present-day Town of Caledonia in the spring of 1799. These pioneers acquired 3,000 acres around what is now the village of Caledonia and included the families of John and Donald McPherson, Malcom McLaren, Hugh McDermid, John and Donald McVean, Peter Campbell, and John McNaughton, among others. A grist mill was erected along the Big Springs under the direction of Williamson by 1802. In 1803, the mill lot was purchased by John McKay, who constructed a sawmill near it in 1804 (Smith and Cale 1881:448-451; Doty 1905:646-647).

The northern part of the Town of York was originally part of the Town of Caledonia, which was also first settled by immigrants from Scotland and the area became known as “Caledonia South Woods.” Pioneers of this area included Donald, John, and William McKenzie, John and Alexander Fraser, Angus McBean, John McCall, Archibald and Alexander Gillis, John Clunas, John Russ, and Alexander Stewart, among others (Doty 1876:80-82; Smith and Cale 1881:426; Doty 1905:901-903). What is now Fowlerville was settled by Wells Fowler in 1816. Fowler played a role in the erection of the bridge over the Genesee River from Avon through Fowlerville to Buffalo in 1820 (Doty 1905:903).

During the course of the 1800s, settlement and economic growth of the county centered on the large villages along the Genesee River (i.e., Big Tree [later the village of Geneseo], Avon, Mount Morris, Piffard). Numerous sawmills and flour mills were built along the area’s copious streams. The Town of Caledonia was created in April 1806 when the area was still part of Genesee County, and attained its present size in 1821. The Town of York was created from the towns of Caledonia and Leicester in 1819, also as part of the larger Genesee County. In 1821, Livingston County was formed from Genesee and Ontario counties; it attained its present size in 1857 (French 1860; Smith and Cale 1881). The Erie Canal, located north of Livingston County opened October 26, 1825, and linked Buffalo and Lake Erie with New York City. The canal provided an economic boost to rural areas along its route.

Agriculture formed the predominant economic activity of the project area until well into the twentieth century. During the nineteenth century, wheat was the great staple, but after the Civil War and the opening of the great Midwest wheat fields, barley, corn, and oats were the staples. Many farms also grew fruit, especially apples, pears, peaches, and occasionally grapes. In the twentieth century, dairying and livestock predominated (Doty and Duganne 1876; Halsey 1999). Located about twelve miles south of the City of Rochester, the project area has remained largely rural.

The former Genesee Valley Canal (and consequently Genesee Valley Canal Railroad) crossed the project area running roughly parallel to and west of the Genesee River. Completed in 1856, the canal was generally unsuccessful and was abandoned and sold in 1880 to the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad company (later the Western New York & Pennsylvania Railroad). Similarly, the Erie Lackawanna/ Rochester and Genesee Valley Railroad (now actively known as the Livonia, Avon & Lakeville Railroad) crossed the project area running roughly parallel to the Genesee River starting in 1851.

By 1852, the Genesee Valley Railroad ran for approximately 18 miles along the east side of the Genesee River and connected outlying townships to Rochester. The line was subsequently operated by Conrail and more recently by CSX. The Erie Railroad operated this line in 1902. A branch of the New York Central Railroad ran east-west through the Town of Rush, while another branch ran through the Town of Pittsford (Halsey 1999; Lathrop 1902). In 1853, the village of Avon was incorporated, and by the end of that decade, had 879 residents, five hotels, and three churches (French 1860).

3.2.5 The Genesee Valley Canal and Right-of-Way. The selection of Rochesterville (now the City of Rochester) as the Genesee crossing of the Erie Canal in 1817 provided an unprecedented economic

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 16 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised stimulus to the village at Genesee Falls. With canal construction commencing eastward from the river in 1819, Rochesterville within twenty years was transformed from a struggling frontier mill town to “Flour City,” the nexus of the regional economy and a thriving local entrepôt. The movement of goods east began in 1823, although the canal itself would not be completed until 1825. The success and expansion of the canal and, later, the railroads would link the city to other ports on the eastern seaboard and communities of the Old Northwest. As a result, Rochester would become increasingly another node in a larger, more national, network of trade and commerce (McKelvey 1941:9).

During the initial euphoria engendered by expanding canal commerce, the impulse to create water-borne linkages to rural areas to spread the benefits of internal improvements energized communities within the state. The impetus for a Genesee Valley canal emerged at this time. A petition to improve navigation along the Genesee River was submitted to the New York State Legislature as early as 1823, without success. The legislature, however, passed an act in April 1825 echoing the suggestion of Governor Dewitt Clinton, which called for the creation of “navigable communication” between Rochester and the Allegheny River at Olean, although a route through the Genesee Valley was only one of a number of possible avenues (Whitford 2012 [1906]). A rough survey of routes was undertaken the following year. The canal committee charged with selecting a route postponed its decision because of the poor condition of state finances at the time, and the ardor for the lateral canal cooled.

Later, pro-canal advocates articulated a seductive argument that advanced three broad goals that seemed beneficial to the Rochester business community. These goals involved improved access to the forests and farms of the Southern Tier and southern Genesee Valley, access to the coal fields of northern Pennsylvania, and access to national river routes farther south and west for improved trade (e.g., the Ohio and Mississippi valleys) in the attempt to expand Rochester as a commercial port (Warlick 1994:3- 5). A valley canal also would benefit the farmers and rural areas of the Genesee Valley by providing a means of moving raw materials north and finished products south, as well as increasing the linkages between the Southern Tier and New York interests rather than to Pennsylvanian interests.

During the ensuing five years more than 70 petitions were submitted to the state legislature concerning the project, but it was not until April 1830 that an act was passed authorizing a careful survey of a route through the Genesee Valley. Meagerly funded, the survey was not initiated, and interest in the valley route wavered during the early 1830s. The attraction of accessing the bituminous coal supplies of western Pennsylvania animated lobbying on behalf of the Genesee route, as the old arguments about the fertile lands and virgin forests of the Genesee Valley and the Southern Tier were recycled. Inferences that either the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania or the federal government were planning improvements to the Allegheny River to improve access of navigation to the Ohio valley was an added enticement (Whitford 2012 [1906]).

As a result, a more detailed survey of the valley was authorized in 1834 and presented to the legislature in March 1835. As reported by Frederick C. Mills, “the proposed canal, [Dansville-Mount Morris] side cut, and navigable feeders, if located on the west side of the Genesee river, would extend 122¼ miles, with 1,057 feet of lockage and were estimated to cost $1,890,614.12; if the east side of the river were chosen, the length would be 123.3 miles, the amount of lockage the same, and the estimated cost, $2,002,285.92” (Whitford 2012 [1906]).

Petitioning for the project intensified during the next two years and the legislature passed an act for the construction of the Genesee Valley Canal on May 6, 1836. The canal was to run from the Erie Canal at Rochester to the Allegheny River at Olean via Mount Morris, with a side-cut from Mount Morris to Dansville. Two million dollars were allocated for the project despite the absence of a specific route south of Mount Morris (Warlick 1994:6). The first contracts were let in June 1837 for the section extending from Rochester to Genesee Rapids (approximately two miles), which was completed by January 1839. The 51- mile section from the rapids to Dansville was completed by October 1840. Navigation, including daily packet service, was opened on a 36-mile segment between Rochester and the Genesee River dam near Mount Morris on September 1, 1840. Warehouses were constructed along the route and the station at Scottsville collected $6,929.15 in tolls during the remainder of the season (Whitford 2012 [1906]). At the

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 17 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised close of the construction season in 1841, a total of 52 miles of canal had been completed, including a section from Mount Morris to what is now Sonyea and an 11-mile branch to Dansville (Figure 6).

Route of Genesee Valley Canal

Figure 6. Map of the Genesee Valley Canal in the Town of Caledonia, ca. 1855, showing approximate location of the project area (in red). Note boundary of former Canawaugus reservation (in blue) (Cornell and Gavit ca. 1855).

Cost overruns and disruptions to financial markets caused by the Panic of 1837 resulted in the “Stop Law” imposed on all canal expenditures by the state legislature in 1842. Construction on all canals, other than that for maintenance and repairs to continue their utility, was frozen until 1847, when the new state constitution went into effect, which authorized further canal construction. In March 1843, it was estimated that the completion of the Genesee Valley Canal would cost $4,535,776.47, more than twice the original estimate (Warlick 1994:7-8; Whitford 2012 [1906]).

When construction resumed in 1847, the portion of the canal from Sonyea (called the Shaker settlement at the time) to Olean remained to be completed. A distance of approximately 66 miles, this section included 95 lift-locks, of which the foundations of 71 had been laid (Whitford 2012 [1906]). During the new construction period, efforts were made to address the concerns of Rochester manufacturers who claimed

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 18 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised the two canals (i.e., the Erie and the Genesee Valley) diverted excess amounts of water from their privileges. As a result, a feeder canal was dug at Caneadea in 1848.

Construction along the southern half of the route was recognized from the beginning as the most difficult and technologically challenging because of the combination of the region’s geology and topography. As a result, the proposed Portage tunnel was reconfigured into an open cut (“the Deep Cut”), and the route followed closely the edgetop of the gorge. Quicksand also was encountered along the route. Moreover, the dramatic ascent south of Mount Morris required numerous closely spaced locks for which insufficient local rock was available. As a necessity, locks were constructed from wood and from a combination of both wood and stone when possible (Warlick 1994:8-9, 14; Whitford 2012 [1906]).

By 1857, the main route, including the side-cut to Dansville had been completed, and an extension from Olean to Millgrove Pond in the Allegheny River had been planned and funded (Figure 7). Oil and Ischua creeks and associated reservoirs provided water for the southern portion of the canal. The entire canal of approximately 124 miles, including the extension to Millgrove Pond, was completed in December 1861 and opened for use the following year. Accomplished through the use of 106 locks, the canal rose more than 900 feet in elevation from Rochester to Cuba Lake, a man-made impoundment. Nine additional locks were required to lower the canal from its Cuba Lake summit to its southern termination with the Allegheny River at Olean and Millgrove Pond. The canal prism measured 42 feet wide at the surface and 26 feet at the bottom (Whitford 2012 [1906]; Warlick 1994:4). The largest craft planned for use on the canal, the 12- x-75-ft scow could carry 75 tons of freight, although some contemporaries reported that 14-x-80-ft vessels capable of hauling 90 tons saw service (Palmer 1999).

Route of Genesee Valley Canal

Figure 7. Approximate location of the APE in relation to the Genesee Valley Canal and the former Canawaugus reservation on an 1872 map of the Town of Caledonia based on Porter’s 1798 map (Beers 1872). Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 19 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Even as the canal advanced toward completion, the railroads, which did not have to close for the winter, were gaining on the canals in terms of transporting freight and people (McKelvey 1941:11-12). In 1853, numerous local routes between Albany and Buffalo consolidated into the New York Central Railroad, and alternate routes provided a connection to the New York & Erie Railway, which had been completed through the Southern Tier in 1851. Initially forbidden to carry freight while the Erie Canal was in operation, the railroads would eat into the freight–carrying trade of the canals during the next twenty years, reducing it into near obsolescence by the end of the century. In 1853, the New York Central and the Erie railroads combined carried less than 25 percent of the freight (in tons) carried by the canal system. By the end of the 1870s “the two railroads quadrupled their shipments, overshadowing the canal in weight and volume of their deliveries as well as in the value carried and revenue paid” (McKelvey 1968:10). This trend continued for the remainder of the century. Reduced shipments on the Genesee Valley Canal foreshadowed the future eclipse of the canal in the region’s economy. For example, the greatest amount of freight ever shipped via the Genesee Valley Canal totaled 158,942 tons, which occurred in 1854, three years before the canal was completed. This level was never attained again (Warlick 1994:15-16).

Difficulties generic to canal operation also afflicted the Genesee Valley Canal, including large expenditures for maintenance and repairs, floods that washed out embankments, dams, aqueducts and locks, and the constant need for additional water. In addition, the trove of Pennsylvania coal and linkages to the great waterways of the Ohio valley proved to be an El Dorado, since neither the government of the United States nor that of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania followed up their proposals to improve the Allegheny River. Pennsylvania also had its own transportation avenues. By the middle of the 1870s, costs associated with maintaining and improving the canal system exceeded the revenue they generated, as the railroads continued to expand, undermining the utility of the canals (Whitford 2012 [1906]; Warlick 1994). The Genesee Valley Canal was not only losing money but it failed to meet the exuberant expectations of its advocates. Agitation for abandoning unprofitable laterals began to percolate through the legislature.

In 1874, an amendment to the New York State Constitution allowed the state to dispose of (or abandon) any of the state’s unprofitable canals, except the Erie, Champlain, Oswego, and Cayuga-Seneca—the four canals that primarily comprise the current New York State Barge Canal system. The years 1875 and 1876 saw several studies commissioned to investigate Erie Canal laterals. One reported that the Genesee Valley cost $6,723,625.23 to build and maintain and concluded with the recommendation that the state lease the canal and, if no takers emerged, abandon it after five years. Another report documented that $14,668.50 in tolls had been collected on the Genesee Valley during the 1876 season, however, expenditures for labor and maintenance totaled $23,264.10 (Whitford 2012 [1906]).

The legislature, consequently, passed an act in June 1877 abandoning the Genesee Valley Canal and its feeders and disassociating its authority over them as of September 30, 1878, when it would be put up for sale. The date for selling the canal was later amended to January 1, 1880. The legislature, moreover, authorized the sale of its banks and prism for $100 a mile “to any railroad corporation that would give bonds as a guarantee that it would, within two years, begin construction of a standard gauge railroad substantially following the line of the Genesee Valley canal” (Whitford 2012 [1906]).

On November 6, 1880, the Governor deeded the main line of the Genesee Valley canal to the Genesee Valley Canal Railway Company, so that, with the exception of the Cuba reservoir, its feeder of about three-fourths of a mile between the reservoir and the Genesee Valley canal, about seven and a half miles of canal below the mouth of the feeder and about ten miles between the dam across Allen’s creek [present-day Oatka Creek] and the City of Rochester, the Genesee Valley canal was no longer under the control of the State [Whitford 2012 (1906)].

The Dansville side-cut and the Wiscoy and Ischua reservoirs and feeders were sold to farmers near those waterways after 1882.

The formation of the New York Central in the mid-nineteenth century ruffled the business community of Rochester, which feared the railroad’s monopoly would undermine the city’s economy and the profitability of its trade. These leaders sought to alleviate this potential problem by building a rail connection to the

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 20 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised competing Erie Railway, which ran through the Southern Tier well south of the city. This endeavor would be the Genesee Valley Railway, which ran predominantly on the east side of the Genesee River and should not be confused with the Genesee Valley Canal Railway. The Genesee Valley Canal Railroad ran predominantly on the west side of the Genesee River (McKelvey 1968:8, 12).

The Genesee Valley Canal Railroad ran predominantly within the right-of-way of the former Genesee Valley Canal and its construction was motivated by the chimera of cheap Pennsylvania coal, since neither the Erie nor the Genesee Valley Railway tapped those coal fields. The towpath served as the foundation of the canal railroad when completed in 1882, and the canal itself remained a health hazard until the 1890s. Within the City of Rochester, the issue of minimizing the number of times the line crossed city streets at grade dampened enthusiasm for the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad. The line was finally erected during the early 1880s from Rochester south to Pennsylvania, although the company would have to wait until the early twentieth century before it could expand its limited freight and coal yards around what is now West Main Street in the City of Rochester (McKelvey 1968:16; Dunn 2000:46).

The Genesee Valley Canal Railroad Company consolidated with the Genesee Valley Terminal Railroad Company on November 15, 1912 to form the Pennsylvania & Rochester Railroad Company. In 1916, this entity merged into the Western New York & Pennsylvania Railway Company, which had formed in 1887 (Netzlof 2008; Dunn 2000). In 1900, the Pennsylvania Railroad assumed full operation of the Western New York & Pennsylvania and the former Genesee Valley Canal Railroad lines (McKelvey 1968:19-20; Dunn 2000:162). As a result, the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad became the Rochester Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which went out of service in 1963. The right-of-way was purchased by Rochester Gas & Electric Corp., which conveyed it to New York State for the development of the Greenway. Monroe County maintains the ROW as a trail.

In sum, the Genesee Valley Canal was a disappointment to its advocates as few of the factors informing its development materialized. It was not part of the initial round of lateral canal creation, and the timing of its inauspicious construction dovetailed with the emergence of the railroads as credible rivals to canals for moving both people and freight. Moreover, its protracted construction occurred during a period of huge expenditures by the state for the maintenance and enlargement of other canals as well as an economic depression after 1837. The tolls collected along the route never compensated for the expense of maintaining it. By the time the canal was completed, it was obsolete. It was abandoned less than twenty years after the entire route had been constructed (Whitford 2012 [1906]; McKelvey 1949:19; Warlick 1994:14).

3.2.6 Genesee Oak Trees. Livingston County and the Genesee Valley, notably areas in proximity to the village of Geneseo and along the river, are characterized by very large and very old trees, predominantly oak trees. These large oak trees are believed to be remnants Seneca horticultural / land management practices in the middle Genesee Valley prior to the large-scale arrival of Euro-American settlers in the late nineteenth century. The remaining large trees have been maintained over the centuries by various landholders, and they hold great significance for the local residents. Haudenosaunee land practices routinely involved controlled burns to clear the underbrush from the forest in other areas of the Northeast (Engelbrecht 2003:28-29). These controlled burns drove game to predetermined locations, allowed the oak trees to thrive by reducing other natural competition, and kept the valley open for horticulture and settlement. The early settlers of the Genesee valley and early landscape enthusiasts (Andrew Jackson Downing, for example) marveled at the open landscape and large old trees, which exhibited a park-like appearance. Downing’s writings were a major influence to the thinking of Frederick Law Olmsted. Interestingly, the early name for the settlement that became Geneseo was Big Tree (Robertson ca. 2014; Genesee Valley Conservancy nd).

The persistence of these trees within the landscape has been attributed to James Wadsworth (1768- 1844) and his brother, William, pioneer land developers in the Genesee valley. James Wadsworth is purported to have admired the English tradition of managed rural landscapes and, along with a love of trees, implemented a practice of tree preservation on his estate and lands he leased to area settlers. The brothers would stipulate in their leases that one shade tree should be left for every two acres of land

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 21 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised leased. “The Genesee Oaks, it is widely believed, were pared-out from a primeval frontier forest and were subsequently spared the pioneer’s axe on Wadsworth land” (Robertson ca. 2014; Genesee Valley Conservancy nd).

Robertson suggests “the Genesee Oaks are remnants of a pre-settlement, Seneca-maintained oak savannah subsequently protected on Wadsworth property and absorb into an English-inspired 19th century manorial landscape” (Robertson ca. 2014). The trees local importance is suggested by the Town of Geneseo, which maintains a database of the large oak trees. The documented trees are clustered around the Village of Geneseo between the Genesee River and Routes 39 and 63, but some extend north to the town line.

The Genesee Oaks could be eligible for listing to the National Register of Historic as part of a rural historic landscape (McClelland et al. 1999) or as part of a Traditional Cultural Property (Parker and King 1998), since they are “tangible evidence of the activities of the people who occupied, developed, used, and shape the land to serve human needs; they may reflect the beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and values of these people” (McClelland et al. 1999). If the Genesee Oaks were determined to be eligible, an assessment would be required to determine whether or not the trees extend north of the Town of Geneseo into the project area.

3.3 ARCHIVAL AND SITE FILE REVIEW

Squier (1851:61) and Beauchamp (1900:80-81) repeated Augustus Porter’s 1798 observation that an “old fort” was located on the flats of the Genesee River in the Town of Caledonia within the former Canawaugus reservation. The earthworks covered approximately two acres. Follett (n.d.) cast doubt on the existence of an Indian earthwork in the location, since he found no trace of it. Beauchamp (1900:81) further identified a general, post-contact occupation of the area west of Avon Springs. Arthur C. Parker (1922:585) called Livingston County “the most important [area] in the history of the Seneca of the later colonial period ... [where] after the destructive results of the French raids, the Seneca Indians found their chief refuge.” He enumerated at least ten Native American sites along both sides of the Genesee River in the vicinity of the village of Avon and the former Canawaugus reservation (Parker 1922), and reprinted (although slightly modified) Follett’s ca. 1915 map of site/settlements within the Canawaugus reservation (Parker 1922:589, Plate 182). Although Parker did not discuss the Canawaugus occupation (aside from the Follett reprint), he did describe a site along the east bank of the river in the area of the current Avon Bridge site (OPRHP #05143.000015):

Village site near the river bridge in Avon. Burials removed several years ago by Tony Biser. Relics scattered and lost so far as obtaining any information of them is concerned.

Surface findings consist of stone age implements except on one site where a few glass beads have been found on a sand knoll where the burials were removed. Some very fine worked flint arrows are to be taken from the surface after plowing has been done each year. Celts are abundant compared with other sites, many of which have the three beveled sides.

A refuse heap was located in 1912 by R. Downing in or a little to the east of his front dooryard while digging a post hole. It produced animal bones, some glass beads and small pieces of copper, not extensively worked. A small camp site to the southeast yielding a few arrow points, nearer the village of Avon and nearly opposite the late residence of Hugh Tighe (Follett) [Parker 1922:592].

Parker also identified a pre-pottery village occupation scattered over two miles along the river (Parker 1922:592, site 19), and a small, briefly occupied camp on the east bank of the river in the area of Avon known as the ‘high banks’ on Curry or Wadsworth farm (Parker 1922:592, site 22).

Listed as Follett Site #50 (CDA-2 Canawaugus), the area along the Genesee River in the eastern portion of the reservation consists of at least 29 known sites. Parker described the well-watered flat lands on the west side of the river as two miles wide and noted that the former Genesee Valley canal was constructed

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 22 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised along the ridge at the west side of the flats with “the toe [sic] path being utilized by the Penna. R/R/” (Follett n.d.). He added: “The site yields artifacts from the very early to the very late period and undoubtedly preoccupied in many cases.” He noted that burials were also identified in several locations.

On the east side of the river in proximity to the Avon Bridge site, Charles Wray conducted numerous episodic excavations between 1937 and 1971. The area was identified in the files as the Gootman (Maiers) site—Avon Bridge from which Wray documented the excavation of more than 15 burials north of US Route 20 and east of the river. Echoing Parker, Wray reported that Tony Biser opened numerous historic Seneca graves, recovering kettles, pipes, and iron axes, but that all information regarding these activities as well as the artifacts has disappeared. Graves were also reported east of the house on the north side of Route 20 and just opposite River Street (Wray n.d.:1). During seasonal plowing, bones and iron grave goods were revealed in the field, at which time he recorded the exhumation of the burial.

Wray concluded that the cemetery dated to just prior to the establishment of the Canawaugus reservation. “The material recovered indicated an age of approximately 1770-1800, and is very similar to material from Honeoye and Fall Brook” (Wray n.d.:2). Maria Berry, pioneer tavern-keeper, recounted that Indians from Canawaugus had said that their village had been formerly located on the east side of the river. He recorded his excavation of 15 graves on the knoll and ridge in 1941 with three or four remaining in an untested area (Wray n.d.).

The burials extended along the crest of the ridge in a fairly straight line and all with their long axes parallel (except No. 10). All except No. 10 lay in a north-south axes [sic] with the heads of all to the south. The east-west grave lay with the head to the west. All were in the fully extended position, and nearly all were accompanied by not over-abundant grave offering—consisting mainly of axes, knives, kettle, fire-making sets, and beads (on clothing). The beads (some 15,000 recovered) were of two main types, small white seed beads (on hips, knees, and legs) and a small tubular black glass variety found sprinkled in great abundance over the chest and around the head—probably representing beaded jackets.

Scattered between the burials over the ridge were fairly numerous fire pits (one intruding and right over one of the burials). No occupational debris was recovered in these pits, and it is surmized [sic] that they represent ceremonial fires kindled over and beside the burial as part of the regular ceremonial custom of the Seneca at this period [Wray n.d.:2-3].

In sum, the individuals were typically buried singly (except for one mother-child burial), clothed, and extended with hands folded over the sacrum. Material items buried with the individuals included pieces of iron, clay pipes, silver and glass jewelry (rings, broaches, bracelets, and earrings), brass kettles, bone combs, iron knives, gun flints, and iron axes. Several also contained fire-making kits (English gun flints, iron, tinder materials). The graves were relatively shallow (since they were uncovered during plowing) with some indications of wooden coffins with iron nails and/or bark linings. Graves fossae were rectangular when ascertainable and red ochre had been spread over some of the graves (Wray n.d.).

Hayes discussed the excavation of six burials (originally exhumed in 1936) from the cemetery of the Canawaugus site, south of the former Native village of Canawaugus around which the Canawaugus reservation was created (Hayes 1965:4-7). The burials were shallow (between 16 and 22 inches deep), extended, and containing grave goods. These items consisted of brass kettles, wood ladle, beads, jewelry, pins and knives. The fossae were rectangular with evidence of wooden coffins with iron nails. William Ritchie (1980:323, plate 113) presented a photograph of one burial from the general area, the caption of which read “Extended burials in family plot of adult Seneca Indians of the late historic period (c. 1812) on the Canawaugus site at Avon, Livingston Co., N.Y. Note offerings of brass kettles, and mirror on skeleton to the right [two parallel skeletons are shown].”

3.3.1 Mortuary Customs. Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the increasingly regular encounters between Europeans and Native Americans incubated a pandemic of European diseases among unprepared Native populations that decimated many Native groups. The presence of typhus, smallpox, measles, and others ravaged Native communities. In addition to the tensions introduced through simple contact with Europeans, trade has been recognized as having a major impact upon Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 23 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised traditional aboriginal cultural patterns (Brasser 1978:83). The most immediate changes were due to the introduction of a different material culture. Once the fur trade was established, assuring a stable supply of these goods, the manufacture of Native goods rapidly declined until they were entirely replaced by European-manufactured implements. Finally, changes occurred in sociopolitical relationships after 1640 as the fur trade intensified and the supply of furs declined. The most important of these changes was the formation of confederations such as the Five Nations Confederacy of New York State and the Huron Confederacy.

Also during this period, mortuary customs changed. Toward the end of the Late Woodland period into the early Protohistoric period (i.e., 1350-1570) burials with grave offerings were rare (although children were lavished with offerings), but included an occasional item of personal importance (e.g., a pipe, bone comb, necklace, hunting item) for an adult (Ritchie 1954:31; Wray 1973). During that time cemeteries usually bordered the village on higher ground or ridges and contained clusters of between ten to thirty burials. Seneca villages had several cemeteries, which may have reflected clan or moiety associations within the community. In general, burials were single interments with the bodies flexed with the head facing east. The grave fossae tended to be oval, relatively deep (two to three feet) with straight sides and a flat bottom, lined with fur, bark or reeds. Recovered pieces of charcoal suggested a ceremonial fire or fires within the cemetery. Seneca cemeteries with numerous multiple burials may represent the results of epidemic disease within the village (Wray and Schoff 1953:35; Weiskotten 2000:n.p.; Wray 1973:27; Englebrecht 2003). In cemeteries from the later Protohistoric and early historic period (i.e., 1570 to 1687), the dead were accompanied by a sizable and varied assortment of grave goods, the amount of which increased in the burials during the seventeenth century. Further, the ratio of grave goods gradually shifted from predominantly aboriginal-made articles to predominantly European materials with few aboriginal materials. These grave offerings included weapons (both iron and chert), tools (iron axes and bifaces), utensils (such as brass or iron kettles), items of personal adornment, glass beads, pipes, ceremonial objects, and even dogs and food for both adults and children (Wray and Schoff 1953:36-41; Ritchie 1954; Weiskotten 2000).

Wray (1973:27-28) estimated that between 40 and 50 percent of all Seneca graves between 1640 and 1660 had been looted of their shell and glass beads and other usable (i.e., European) trade goods. Items of Native manufacture were left. Further, the percent of Seneca graves looted increased during both the 1660 to 1670 period and the 1670 to 1687 period; 75 percent of the graves had been looted during the former period and almost all during the latter. Burials from the post-1687 period were largely not looted. In some post-1700 burials, a mixture of earlier and later bead types has been found, reinforcing the observation that earlier burials had been looted and the earlier beads had reentered circulation (Weiskotten 2000:n.p.; Wray 1973:28).

During the seventeenth century, while the flexed style of burial remained predominant, extended burials, which had been introduced after 1650 with the more prolonged associations with the Jesuits, increased in prevalence as the century progressed (Wray and Schoff 1953:39). Further, the looseness of the flexed position increased from loosely flexed to partly extended to fully extended as the century ended (Wray 1973:28). “By the early part of the eighteenth century the flexed-burial mode of prior times was supplanted by extended burial, often in wooden coffins” assembled with iron nails (Ritchie 1980:321-322). In addition, the depth of the burial had decreased, “becoming progressively shallower until by 1779 they were barely below plow depth” (Weiskotten 2000:n.p.; Wray 1973:28).

Other post-1700 changes included placing burials in rectangular plots in rows rather than in circular plots of scattered graves.

As communities were breaking up and families living in individual cabins the burial plots became much smaller and more numerous with each family having their own plot behind their cabin. Burial offerings were often placed beside the body with food at the feet. The goods included in the burials were mostly manufactured items with little of native make, replaced by crockery, pails, and iron tools of the European trader [Weiskotten 2000:n.p.; Wray 1973:28].

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 24 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Follett (n.d.) noted the presence of burials in several locations within the portion of the Canawaugus reservation circumscribed by his Site No. 50 (Canawaugus; CDA-2).

Burials were discovered when excavating for the cellar of the farm residence on the south side of white [sic] creek[,] one of the northern most sites.

The main burial site was located in the gravel bank on the Williams farm which has been completely excavated in working the pit for ballast by the penna [sic] R.R. co. [A] great many relics were found by various people[,] the [sic] most of which have been lost or destroyed and scattered all over the country. [A] great many were taken out with the gravel and scattered along the R.R. bed. It is said that hundreds of skeletons were exhumed[,] most of which went out with the gravel [Follett n.d.: Site No.50].

In sum, burial practices among the Seneca appear to have acquired more European characteristics as their contact with European-Americans increased during the late historic period (1687-1779). Pre-Contact into Early Historic period Seneca burials were found in dual cemeteries, which may have reflected clan or moiety relationships, with the mostly single interments flexed in deep oval fossae with few grave goods. Multiple burials may have reflected family or moiety relationships (Englebrecht 2003; Ritchie 1936:55-56). During the Protohistoric period (ca. 1525-1609) Seneca villages (e.g., Culbertson, Adams, Tram, Cameron) had multiple cemeteries in which grave fossae were oval, deep, and sometimes lined with bark or fur. The interments were flexed, mostly single, but many multiple, that showed a dramatic increase in the amount of grave goods, most of which were of Native creation (Wray et al. 1987, 1991; Parker 1922: 600-602). At other villages, such as Factory Hollow and Dutch Hollow, the cemeteries contained flexed burials in lined fossae, a majority of which contained grave goods (Niemczycki 1984; Ritchie 1954, 1980). During the latter half of the seventeenth century Seneca burial practices were influenced by the numerous outside groups that had been adopted by the Seneca to replenish their ranks, depleted by disease and warfare. Some of these influences included refugees from the east, as well as Huron, Jesuits, and Christian converts (Weiskotten 2000:n.p.).

3.4 HISTORICAL MAP ANALYSIS

Six historic maps were inspected for analysis: two for the Town of Caledonia (Beers 1872 and Century 1902) and four for the Town of Rush (Beers 1972, Lathrop 1902, Hopkins 1924, and USGS 1934) (Figures 8 through 13). It is important to note that due to flaws associated with antiquated cartography, the synchronized placement of the buildable APE is estimated and therefore not definitively reliable. As previously mentioned, the Genesee Valley Canal and consequently the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad formerly crossed the project area running roughly parallel to and west of the Genesee River (see Figures 8 and 10). This linear feature is now used for the Genesee Valley Greenway which passes between but not within sections of the buildable APE. The Erie Lackawanna/Rochester and Genesee Valley Railroad (now actively known as the Livonia, Avon & Lakeville Railroad) is depicted on Figures 9, 11, 12 and 13.

Historic map-documented structures (MDS) are primarily depicted along roads (West River Road, Warth Road, East River Road [formerly Markham Road], Golah Road [partially now known as Yamka Hill Road]), the Genesee Valley Canal/Genesee Valley Canal Railroad, and the Erie Lackawanna/Rochester and Genesee Valley Railroad (i.e., the Livonia, Avon & Lakeville Railroad). MDSs are depicted both within or adjacent to the buildable APE, although the accuracy of the historic maps is not reliable and the ultimate construction APE has not been determined. The Canawaugus Reservation of the Seneca is indicated south of Route 5 and the project area on Figure 10 and discussed in Section 3.1.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 25 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised

Figure 8. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Caledonia in 1872 (Beers 1872).

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Figure 9. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1872 (Beers 1872).

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Figure 10. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Caledonia in 1902 (Century 1902).

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Figure 11. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1902 (Lathrop 1902).

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Figure 12. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1924 (Hopkins 1924).

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Figure 13. The approximate location of the project area in the Town of Rush in 1934 (USGS Rush, NY 1934).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 31 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 2 and Figures 14 and 15 depict the historic MDS and extant structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area

Table 2. Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area. MDS Date of Map Documentation (--- = not depicted) (extant building) 1872 1902 1924 1934 1 Mrs W.W. (Fig 8) ------2 R. Finnegan J.W. Wadsworth ------(3) J.W.W. J.W. Wadsworth ------(4) J.W. Wadsworth J.W. Wadsworth ------5 T. Mertha No Name Listed ------6 J.W.W. J.W. Wadsworth ------7 R.E. Mrs. A Finigan ------8 J. Stoddara ------9 J.S. ------10 J.S. J. Stoddard ------(11) --- J.W. Wadsworth outbuilding --- (12) --- J.W. Wadsworth outbuilding --- (13) --- J.W. Wadsworth outbuilding --- (14) --- J.W. Wadsworth outbuilding --- (15) --- J.W. Wadsworth outbuilding --- (16) --- Herbert Wadsworth --- 17 --- S.W. Faley ------18 --- Mrs. A Finigan outbuilding --- 19 --- Mrs. A Finigan outbuilding --- 20 --- Louisa Wm. G. Markham --- 21 --- Ira W Green Kelsey Farm 22 --- Peter F Martin ------(23) --- Louisa Gibbard Wm. Sielaff --- 24 --- Joseph A Stull ------25 --- Joseph A Stull ------(26) --- Joseph A Stull ------(27) --- School School No 7 --- 28 --- W.R. Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- 29 --- W.R. Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- (30) --- Chas Luke Ray Murphy --- 31 --- J.A. Mattern John Galenbee --- 32 --- John Mattern Alfons Mantell --- 33 --- John Mattern Alfons Mantell --- (34) --- J.A. Mattern Joh Galenbee --- (35) --- J.T. Kelly Jas Kelly --- 36 --- J.T. Kelly Jas Kelly --- 37 --- Louisa Gibbard Wm. Sielaff ---

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 32 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 2 continued. MDS Date of Map Documentation (--- = not depicted) (extant building 1872 1902 1924 1934 (38) --- Louisa Gibbard Wm. Sielaff --- 39 --- Louisa Gibbard ------40 --- Hamilton Mrs. Aldride --- 41 --- Hamilton ------42 --- RR Station ------43 --- W.R Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- 44 --- W.R. Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- 45 --- W.R. Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- 46 --- W.R. Rotzel Warren Rotzel --- (47) --- Name not listed Amelia --- 48 --- Name not listed Amelia --- 49 --- Name not listed ------50 --- Name not listed ------(51) --- Name not listed Name not listed --- 52 --- Name not listed Name not listed --- 53 --- Name not listed ------54 ------Herbert Stull --- 55 ------56 ------(57) ------Peter Burgett --- 58 ------59 ------Herbert Stull --- (60) --- Herbert Stull ------(70) --- Herbert Stull ------71 --- Jacob Klink ------(72) ------Mrs Geo Bock --- (73) ------Mrs Geo Bock --- 74 ------(75) --- Name not listed Name not listed --- (76) ------R.R. --- (77) ------Name not listed (78) ------Name not listed (79) ------Name not listed 80 ------Name not listed 90 ------Name not listed 91 ------Name not listed 92 ------Name not listed

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Figure 14. Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area west of the Genesee River.

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Figure 15. Map-Documented Structure locations within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area east of the Genesee River.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 35 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 3.5 PREVIOUS CULTURAL RESOURCES SURVEYS

Six archaeological surveys and four other consultation projects are registered in SHPO’s CRIS as being within one-half mile of the project area (Table 3).

Table 3. Archaeological surveys within one-half mile of the project area Survey Location relative to Survey Name Number the project area Archaeological Survey Phase 1 Archaeological Investigation, Buckeye Partners, L.P. Genesee 14SR62792 within project area River Crossing Project, Livingston and Monroe Counties, New York Additional Phase 1 Archeological Investigation and Phase 2 Site within ½-mile of 13SR62670 Evaluation, Valley Sand & Gravel, Avon Pit, River Road, Town of project area Caledonia, Livingston County, New York Phase 1 Archaeological Survey for the Town of Caledonia Water District within ½-mile of 01SR51392 No. 3, Town of Caledonia, Livingston County, New York project area Phase 1 Cultural Resource Survey for the Over Residence, 8025 East within ½-mile of 07SR57550 River Road, Town of Rush, Monroe County, New York project area Phase 1 Cultural Resource Investigation: Residential Building Lot, 8045 within ½-mile of 05SR55762 East River Road, Town of Rush, Monroe County, New York project area Phase 1 Cultural Resource Survey of the Lehigh Valley Trail Extension within ½-mile of 10SR59628 and Enhancement Project NY (DOT PIN 4LS087), Town of Mendon, project area Monroe County and Town of Caledonia, Livingston County, New York Consultation Projects 19PR00039 Forefront Krenzer Solar Farm Construction Project within project area 16PR03077 AGL - Rezoning of Lands within ½-mile of 18PR03072 Holcomb Residence project area within ½-mile of 09PR02097 Valley Sand & Gravel Avon project area

3.6 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE FILE REVIEW

As presented in Section 1.2, archaeological site file research included a review of files accessible through the OPRHP’s online CRIS, and information available at the University of Buffalo’s Marian E. White Anthropology Research Museum as well as the Rochester Museum of Science. The archaeological site file review identified 43 archaeological sites, 8 New York State Museum (NYSM) Areas, and 1 Rochester Museum and Science Center Area within the buildable APE or within 500 ft (150 m) of the buildable APE (Tables 4 and 5 and Figures 16 and 18). In order of frequency, site types include camps (n=14), burials (n=12), villages (n=9), undetermined (n=8), historic (n=3), and a stray find (n=1) (note: individual components of multi-component sites are considered separately in this listing [e.g., a site with a village and burials reported have both site types listed separately]). Forty (40) of the 43 sites and all eight (8) NYSM areas have a Precontact Period component with time/cultural periods including Archaic (n=4); Late Archaic (n=2); Woodland (n=2); Late Woodland (n=13); while the time period of 19 precontact sites is undetermined (i.e., not stated in the site files). It is important to note that the former Canawaugus Indian reservation (USN 05102.000041) has been determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places under Criteria A, B, and D (Herter 2013). The western portion appears to be within the southwestern portion of the project’s buildable APE (see Figure 18 and Section 3.2.3). To facilitate discussion, sites were assigned arbitrary numbers in the first column of Table 4 (called “Site List”) which then correspond with site locations depicted on Figures 16 through 20.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 36 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 4. Archaeological sites reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area. Human Estimated Site Additional Highest Phase of USN Number Site Type Time Period Remains Confidence in List # Site Names Investigation Reported Reported Location White Creek SW Site; 1 05102.000054 Wray 32; Camp Laurentian Archaic No Surface Inspection Good (Sketch map) RMSC CDA 213 White Creek NW Site; 2 05102.000056 Wray 151; No Info. Precontact No Surface Inspection Good (Sketch map) RMSC CDA 215 White Creek E Site; Wray 3 05102.000058 No info. Laurentian Archaic No Surface Inspection Good (Sketch map) 156; RMSC CDA 217 GAI/GRC07 Genesee Canal; 4 05102.000046 Valley Canal & Railroad Historic (1840s) No Phase 1 Good Railroad Siding Street Farm #3 Site 5 05102.000018 (Follett F272); Burial Historic (1840s) Purported Unknown poor RMSC CDA 102 Street Farm #6 Site; Camp (lithic 6 05102.000008 RMSC CDA 063; Late Woodland No Phase 1 Surface Good (map) scatter) UB 3354 Street Farm #7 Site; Camp (lithic 7 05102.000009 RMSC CDA 064; Late Woodland No Phase 1 Surface Good (map) scatter) UB 3355 Street Farm #8 Site; Camp (lithic 8 05102.000010 RMSC CDA 065; Late Woodland No Phase 1 Surface Good (map) scatter) UB 3356 Street Farm #9 Site; Camp (lithic 9 05102.000011 RMSC CDA 066; Late Woodland No Phase 1 Surface Good (map) scatter) UB 3357 Street Farm #2 Site 10 05102.000029 (Follett F86); Camp Woodland No No info. poor RMSC CDA 094 “Site List #” refers to each site identified on Figures 16, 17, 18 and 19.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 37 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 4 continued. Human Site Additional Highest Phase Estimated Confidence USN Number Site Type Time Period Remains List # Site Names of Investigation in Reported Location Reported Street Farm #10 Site Stray find; Unknown Late 11 05102.000012 RMSC CDA 067; No Phase 1 Surface fair camp Woodland UB 3358 Street Farm #5 Site Unknown 12 05102.000020 (Follett F273b); Burial Yes No info. poor Precontact RMSC CDA 104 Street Farm #4 Site (Follett F273A); Unknown 13 05102.000019 Camp No No info. poor (RMSC added A); Precontact RMSC CDA 103 Burgett #3 Site Burial, Unknown 14 05516.000048 Yes No info. poor (Follett F66) camp Precontact Golah Site (site cluster including RMSC – HNE Burial, Unknown 15 05516.000040* Yes No info. fair 21-1, 23-1, F57a-d, ACP villages Precontact Marro 63, NYSM 3913) Joseph Mattern Farm 16 05516.000053 Site (Follett F394); Camp Archaic No No info. poor UB 2959 Route 251 Coates Bros. #2 Site 17 05102.000013 Burial Woodland Yes No info. poor (Follett F92C); UB 2955 HNE120, NYSM 3905, Burial, 18 --- ACP MNRO 54; Late Woodland Yes No info. poor Village UB 2969 NYSM3909; ACP Possibly also MNRO 58; possibly also 19 USN Number: Burials No info. Yes No info. poor Follet 9 UB 2961 05516.000047 Commons House NYSM 3916; ACP 20 --- MNRO 66; UB 2966 Village No info. No No info. poor Honeoye Bend

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 38 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 4 continued. Human Site Additional Highest Phase of Estimated Confidence USN Number Site Type Time Period Remains List # Site Names Investigation in Reported Location Reported NYSM 2178, Rapp HNE 21 --- No info. No info. No No info. poor 38-1; UB 2972 NYSM 1018, Klink HNE Late Woodland; 22 --- Camp No No info. poor 25-1; UB 2970 Owasco 23 --- HNE 149 No info. No info. No info. No info. Poor 24 --- HNE 17 No info. No info. No info. No info. Poor NYSM 1010; Late Woodland 25 --- Camp No No info. poor Farrell; HNE 16 Iroquois 26 --- HNE 322 No info. No info. No info. No info. poor F57D; NYSM 3913; Village; Late Archaic? 27 Yes No info. poor ACP MNRO burial Late Woodland? 28 05516.000040* Follet 57b Village Owasco/Iroquois No No info. poor 29 --- NYSM 1017; HNE 24 Camp No info. No No info. poor NYSM 1015, Stull; 30 --- Village Late Woodland No No info. poor HNE 21-1 NYSM 3913; HNE23, Burial, 31 05516.000040* Late Woodland Yes No info. poor ACP MNRO 63 villages Unknown 32 05516.000040* F57A Village No No info. poor Precontact 33 --- HNE130 No info. No info. No No info. poor NYSM 3629; 34 --- Burial Historic; Colonial Yes No info. poor ACP LSTN 13 NYSM 3626; Village; 35 --- Simmons Farm, Burial; No info. Yes No info. poor ACP LSTN 10A, 10B Cache NYSM 2179; Late Woodland 36 --- Leatherstitch, No info. No No info. poor Iroquois Wadsworth Street Farm

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 39 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 4 continued. Human Estimated Site USN Additional Highest Phase of Site Type Time Period Remains Confidence in List # Number Site Names Investigation Reported Reported Location NYSM 3630; 37 --- Burial No info. Yes No info. poor ACP LSTN 14 Over Residence Phase 1 Surface 38 05516.000072 Camp Late Archaic No poor Precontact Site Inspection 39 05516.000090 Krenzer 1 No info. Archaic No Phase 1 poor 40 3735 ACP LSTN NO# Village No info. No Info. No info, poor 41 2701 US209 - 88-73-CO9 No info. No info. No info. No info. poor Camp, No info. No info. No info. 42 3620 ACP LSTN 4 poor Village RMC CDA-69; White Lithic 43 05102.000007 Late Woodland No No info. poor Creek Mine Site scatter

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 40 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Table 5. Museum Areas reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area. Human Estimated Site USN Additional Highest Phase Site Type Time Period Remains Confidence in List # Number Site Names of Investigation Reported Reported Location Archaic, Middle NYSM HNE 17-1; Woodland, Late --- Village No No info. fair Area 1011 UB 2968 Farrell Site Woodland (Vine Valley and Owasco) NYSM ACP LSTN 6; --- Village No info. No No info. poor Area 3622 Wadsworth Farm NYSM --- ACP LSTN No# Camp No info. No No info. poor Area 3737 NYSM ACP MNRO 63; Village, Late Archaic? Late --- Yes No info. poor Area 3913 Stull House burials Woodland NYSM --- ACP MNRO 64 Village No info. No No info. poor Area 3914 NYSM Traces of --- ACP LSTN No # No info. No No info. poor Area 8669 occupation

NYSM Traces of --- ACP LSTN No # No info. No No info. poor Area 8670 occupation NYSM --- ACP LSTN No # Burial No info. No No info. poor Area 8671 Village, RMSC Canawaugus cemetery, --- Early Historic Yes No info. poor CDA 2-6 Reservation house, cabin

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Figure 16. Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area west of the Genesee River.

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Figure 17. Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.,e., 500 ft) of the project area east of the Genesee River.

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Figure 18. Archaeological Site locations previously reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the southwest portion of the project area.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 44 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 3.7 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SENSITIVITY ASSESSMENT FOR SITE TYPES WITHIN THE PROJECT AREA

Background and site file research results indicate the project area is highly sensitive for a variety of archaeological sites. Archaeological site types previously reported to be found within or adjacent (within 500 ft [150 m]) to the project’s buildable APE include Native American camps (n=14), burials (n=12), villages (n=9), and stray finds (n=1). Historic sites (n=3) and Precontact sites of undetermined type (n=8) have also been reported (see Section 3.6).

3.7.1 Precontact Archaeological Sites. The environmental setting of the project area is very favorable for settlement and use due to the presence of riverine features of the Genesee River such as oxbow ponds and fertile flood plain alluvial soil as well as other geographic features found at this location which is at a transition of the Allegheny Plateau and the Ontario Lowlands. As previously mentioned, site types already found at or near the project area range from isolated finds and camps to villages and burial sites. The project area is sensitive for Precontact sites from all time/cultural periods as sites have been found that are dated from the Archaic through the Woodland and to the Historic Period. Although Paleoindian sites have not been reported within 500 ft (150 m) of the APE, they have been found in the vicinity along the Genesee River. Figures 19 and 20 illustrate the distribution of sites by type and by time/cultural period. Figures 21 and 22 are graphs showing the frequency of archaeological sites by type and time/ cultural period. Precontact camps have been reported with the greatest frequency followed by burials, villages, and stray finds. The project area is sensitive for finding Precontact artifact types typical of the region and any and all types should be anticipated. The type artifacts and context in which they are found can be used to assess the type and time period of sites found during future field investigations. Although Figures 19 and 20 suggest clustering of some site types, the whole of the project area is considered very sensitive for precontact sites of all types.

3.7.2 Historic Archaeological Sites. The project’s APE is sensitive for Historic Period archaeological sites including, but not exclusive to, sites associated with early European settlement, the Native American Reservation (Canawaugus Reservation) period, the Genesee Valley Canal, the Genesee Valley Railroad, mills, and farmsteads.

 Early Historic Settlement and the Canawaugus Reservation. A portion of the APE is located within the lands formerly comprising the Canawaugus Indian Reservation (USN 05102.000041). Associated settlements likely spread north of the official boundary and into the APE as well (as depicted in Figure 5). As presented in Section 3.2, the reservation was described at one time to be “a semi-dispersed village, with at least two distinct clusters of homes—possibly grouped by clan or family relationships—less than a mile apart from one another along the river. Multiple, small cemeteries were distributed on or near the village. There were likely ample outdoor workspaces near each of the house lots, with quick access to small, household orchards and gardens. Larger agricultural fields were likely farmed communally by groups of women [Ryan 2017:215]. The “semi-dispersed” village with clusters of homes and small cemeteries along the river could very well extend into the project APE.

 Genesee Valley Canal/Railroad. Portions of the APE in proximity to the route of the Genesee Valley Canal/Railroad are sensitive for cultural resources associated with the former structures (i.e., canal prism and later, the railroad) as well as sites that could be adjacent to them such as tow paths, stations, businesses, and loading/unloading facilities. The Horseshoe Solar project, however, will avoid any direct impacts to the Greenway which follows the canal railroad route. Therefore, disturbances to this NRHP-eligible resource are not anticipated.

 Historic Map-Documented Structures (MDS). The project APE is sensitive for cultural resources associated with historic farmsteads and mills. Historic structure locations (documented and extant) presented in Table 2 and Figures 14 and 15 are particularly sensitive for historic archaeological sites. The sensitivity for historic mill sites (e.g., sawmills, gristmills) is in proximity to the Genesee River and its tributaries.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 45 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised NOT FOR PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION

Figure 19. Locations of previously reported archaeological site types within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area.

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Figure 20. Locations of previously reported archaeological sites of specific time/cultural periods within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 47 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 21. Archaeological site types reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area.

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 22. Archaeological sites of specific time/cultural periods reported within or in proximity (i.e., 500 ft) of the project area.

3.7.3 Burial Sites. Both Precontact and Historic Period Native American burial sites (n=12) have been reported within and near the project APE. Although the site files and historic accounts clearly indicate the project area is highly sensitive for burials, very little specific information is available. Cemeteries such as the one reported by Doty and Duganne (1876:61) “contained ninety souls, of whom several were descendants of Cornplanter…. Multiple, small cemeteries were distributed on or near the village” [Ryan 2017:215]. But the project area is sensitive for smaller family plots as described by Ritchie: “individual farmsteads often had family burial plots located behind the log house, the graves being arranged in rows and the dead interred, still with some small gifts—a cooking pot, dish and spoon, mirror, beads, etc.—all long since of Caucasian manufacture, fully extended in plank coffins, as found by the writer on the Canawaugus site in Livingston County” (1980:322, 324).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 48 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 4.0 Field Reconnaissance

As described in Section 2, field reconnaissance of the project area was conducted in March 2019 to observe and photographically document the setting and general conditions (e.g., disturbances, drainage, sensitive terrain) of the APE. Agricultural crops had not been planted or growing at the time of the reconnaissance, but types are typical staples such as corn, hay, and alfalfa. Weather conditions during the reconnaissance were fair and generally overcast. The project’s buildable APE is comprised of agricultural fields (Figure 22 and Photographs 1 through 11). Therefore, the locations of previously reported sites within the buildable APE are characteristically in undeveloped open fields (see Photographs 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10). As the buildable APE generally avoids wetlands, soils within the APE are well drained though periodically subjected to flooding as approximately 1,227 acres are part of the Genesee River flood plain and have alluvium present according to the USDA Soil Survey.

The buildable APE also avoids locations of buildings such as houses associated with the farmsteads and fields as well as the Erie-Lackawanna Railroad corridor and a Niagara Mohawk overhead utilities corridor and the Genesee Valley Greenway (formerly the Genesee Valley Canal and consequently Genesee Valley Canal Railroad; see Figure 14 and Section 2).

Figure 22. Photograph locations within the project area.

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Photograph 1. Agricultural fields in the southwest portion of the buildable APE in the vicinity of NYS Museum Site 3629, facing northeast (Panamerican 2019).

Photograph 2. Farmstead and agricultural fields in the west portion of the buildable APE, facing west (Panamerican 2019).

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Photograph 3. Agricultural fields in the buildable APE west of West River Road, facing west (Panamerican 2019).

Photograph 4. Agricultural fields in the southwest portion of the buildable APE In the vicinity of Street Farm #4 Site (Follett F273A; 05102.000019) and Street Farm #5 Site (Follett F273B; 05102.000020), facing southeast (Panamerican 2019).

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Photograph 5. Agricultural fields and utility corridor east of Genesee River and north of Stull Road, facing northeast (Panamerican 2019).

Photograph 6. Agricultural fields east of the Genesee River from East River Road, facing west (Panamerican 2019).

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Photograph 7. The Erie-Lackawanna Railroad corridor adjacent to fields of the buildable APE east of the Genesee River, facing south (Panamerican 2019).

Photograph 8. The buildable APE in the vicinity of previously reported precontact archaeological sites (05516.000040 GOLAH SITE and NYSM 1016 Stull), facing south (Panamerican 2019).

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Photograph 9. Agricultural fields in the northeast portion of the buildable APE taken from Golah Road, facing north (Panamerican 2019).

Photograph 10. The vicinity of previously reported site NYSM 3916, facing southwest (Panamerican 2019).

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Photograph 11. The northeastern corner of the buildable APE, facing southwest (Panamerican 2019).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 55 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

The setting of the project area is sensitive for precontact period archaeological sites due to its location along the Genesee River at the transition of the Allegheny Plateau and the Ontario Lowlands. Proximity to the river and access to the diverse resources from the biomes of two physiographic provinces made this location particularly attractive for visitation and settlement. Evidence of this is reflected in the presence of 43 archaeological sites, eight New York State Museum areas, and one Rochester Museum of Science Area within the buildable APE or within 500 ft (150 m) of the 2,768 acres (1,120 ha) buildable APE. Thirteen (13) of these archaeological sites are where human remains have been reportedly found (including description of cemetery). In addition, the history of the project area includes intense occupation during pioneering expansion and the resulting creation of Native American reservations such as the Canawaugus Reservation. A portion of the APE is located within the lands formerly comprising the reservation.

The project area has been continually used for agriculture and is sensitive for historic cultural resources associated with early mills and farmsteads. MDS locations depicted on historic maps presented in this report have the highest sensitivity for such resources. Similarly, the project area is also sensitive for historic cultural resources associated with the former Genesee Valley Canal and consequently Genesee Valley Canal Railroad (now the Genesee Valley Greenway). This historic feature passed between sections of the buildable APE.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

A Phase 1B cultural resources investigation is recommended for the project’s construction APE once the project design is finalized. Although the buildable APE includes 2,768 acres (1,120 ha), the ultimate design of the proposed Horseshoe Solar power generating facility will involve a smaller part of the buildable APE. Horseshoe Solar Energy LLC is working with Panamerican and SHPO to create a final project design that will attempt to avoid previously reported archaeological sites. In particular, attention will be paid to avoid the locations of five sites within the buildable APE where human remains were reported to be present.

The vertical APE of the final design should also be used to determine the appropriate depth below ground surface that needs to be addressed as part of the Phase 1B survey. Approximately 1,227 acres (496 ha) of the buildable APE have alluvium present and are part of the Genesee River flood plain. Alluvium from flooding episodes can cover and deeply bury archaeological cultural resources. Therefore, portions of the construction APE where alluvium is present are sensitive for this possibility.

In regards to any potential effect of the project on architectural resources, a work plan for an architectural resources survey based on the indirect (visual) project APE as requested by SHPO was submitted separate from this Phase 1A cultural resources investigation.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 56 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised 6.0 References

Abler, Thomas S. and Elisabeth Tooker 1978 Seneca. In Northeast, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, pp. 505-517. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Beauchamp, William M. 1900 Aboriginal Occupation of New York. New York State Museum Bulletin 7(22). Albany.

Beers, F.W. 1872 New Topographical Atlas of Livingston Co., New York. F.W. Beers & Co., New York.

Burr, David H. 1829 Map of the County of Livingston. In An Atlas of the State of New York. D.H. Burr, New York. David Rumsey Map Collection online. Electronic database, https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~20047~510043:Map-of-the- County-of-Livingston---B, accessed August 19, 2019.

Century Map Co. 1902 New Century Atlas of Livingston County, New York. Century Map Co., Philadelphia.

Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson 2000 [1980] Atlas of Ancient America. Facts on File, Inc., New York.

Cornell, Silas, and John E. Gavit ca. 1855 Map of the Genesee Valley Canal. J.E. Gavit, Albany, NY. On file, Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, The New York Public Library, New York Public Library Digital Collections. Electronic document, http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/ace0b210-c129-0133- ef61-00505686a51c, accessed August 13, 2019.

Cressey, George B. 1966 Land Forms. In Geography of New York State, edited by John H. Thompson, pp. 19-53. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY. de Laubenfels, David J. 1966a Vegetation. In Geography of New York State, edited by John H. Thompson, pp. 90-103. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse.

1966b Soil. In Geography of New York State, edited by John H. Thompson, pp. 104-110. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse.

Dent, Richard J. 1991 Archaeology in the Upper Delaware Valley: The Earliest Populations. In The People of Minisink, edited by D.G. Orr and D.V. Campana, pp. 117-144. National Park Service, Philadelphia.

Doty, Lockwood R., ed. 1905 History of Livingston County, New York. W.J. Van Deusen, Publisher, Jackson, MI.

Doty, Lockwood L., and A.J.H. Duganne 1876 A History of Livingston County, New York. Edward E. Doty, Geneseo NY.

Dunn, Edward T. 2000 A History of Railroads in Western New York. Second edition. Canisius College Press, Buffalo.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 57 Horseshoe Solar Phase 1A Expanded/Revised Ellis, David M., James A. Frost, Harold C. Syrett, and Harry J. Carmen 1967 A History of New York State. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

Engelbrecht, William 2003 Iroquoia: The Development of a Native World. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse.

Feder, Kenneth L. 1984 Pots, Plants, and People: The Late Woodland Period in Connecticut. Archaeological Society of Connecticut Bulletin 47:99-111.

Fitting, James E. 1968 Environmental Potential and the Postglacial Readaptation in Eastern North America. American Antiquity 33(4):441-445.

1975 Climatic Change and Cultural Frontiers in Eastern North America. Michigan Archaeologist 21:25-39.

Follett, Harrison C. 1956 Archaeology of the Counties of Monroe, Ontario, Livingston and Genesee, New York. 1894- 1930. Updated. Unpublished Manuscript on file at the Rochester Museum and Science Center, Research Division, Rochester, NY.

n.d. Field notes for Site #50 Map. Archaeological files for Canawaugus (CDA-2). Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester, NY.

French, J.H. 1860 Historical and Statistical Gazetteer of New York State. J.H. French and R.P. Smith, Publisher, Syracuse.

Funk, Robert E. 1972 Early Man in the Northeast and the Late Glacial Environment. Man in the Northeast 4:7-42.

1978 Post-Pleistocene Adaptations. In Northeast, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, pp. 16-27. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

1991 The Middle Archaic in New York. Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology 7:7-18.

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