governors Gubernatorial Elections, Campaign Costs and Powers By Thad Beyle

The 2006 elections reversed a decade-long Republican trend as 20 Democrats and 16 Republi- cans won their races in 2006. This means that in 2007, the 50 states will be in a partisan split with 28 Democratic governors and 22 Republican governors—the exact reverse of the split going into the 2006 gubernatorial elections.

Governors continue to be in the forefront of activ- There were changes in who was to be the gover- ity as we move into the 21st century. With Republi- nor in 2007 in 11 states. In five states—, can governors across the states serving as his major Colorado, Florida, Nevada and Ohio—the incum- supporters and guides, Texas Gov. George W. Bush bent was term-limited so the races in those sought and won the presidency in the 2000 election. states were for an open seat. In three other states— He became the fourth of the last five presidents who Iowa, and New York—the incumbent had served as governor just prior to seeking and win- governor decided to retire from being governor and ning the presidency.1 When George H.W. Bush, a did not seek re-election, again setting up an open non-governor, won the 1988 presidential election, he seat race. Finally, in two other states, the incumbent beat a governor, (D-Mass., 1975– governor sought re-election but was beaten in the 1979 and 1983–1991). Clearly, presidential politics party primary—Frank Murkowski, R-Alaska—or in the three decades following the Watergate scandal in the general election—Robert Ehrlich, R-Md. So, finds governors as major actors. In 2008, we will see there were 11 new governors sworn in January, 2007. if that trend continues. Seven were Democrats and four were Republicans. Additionally, the demands on the governors to One other new governor appeared in 2006. Repub- propose state budgets and then to keep them in bal- lican Jim Risch was sworn in as the new governor of ance during the two recessions of the early 1990s and Idaho on May 26, 2006. As lieutenant governor, he in the early 2000s have made the governor’s chair a ascended to the governorship upon the resignation of “hot seat” in more ways than one.2 In the most recent incumbent Republican Gov. , who downturn, governors moved from the half-decade was sworn in as U.S. Secretary of the Interior after of economic boom of the late 1990s, in which they being appointed to that position by President Bush could propose tax cuts and program increases, to an and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. Risch became the economic downturn period in which there is increas- 31st governor of Idaho. ing demand for program support while state tax revenues fell off significantly. Proposed and adopted Gubernatorial Elections budgets fell victim to severe revenue shortfalls in As seen in Table A, in the 519 gubernatorial elections most states. Easy times had switched to hard times held between 1970 and 2006, incumbents were eli- again. Now as we enter 2007, we have seen an upturn gible to seek another term in 399 (77 percent) of the in the economy easing some of the budgetary prob- contests. Seventy-eight percent (313) of the eligible lems that governors have been facing. incumbents sought re-election and 236 (75 percent) of them succeeded. Those who were defeated for 2006 Gubernatorial Politics re-election were more likely to lose in the general In the even years between presidential elections, 36 election than in their own party primary by a 2.8-to- states hold their gubernatorial elections. Two states, 1 ratio, although two of the four incumbent losses New Hampshire and Vermont, have two-year guber- in 2004 and one of their losses in 2006 were tied to natorial terms, so they hold a gubernatorial election party primaries. Not since 1994 had an incumbent every other year. The 2006 elections reversed a governor been defeated in a party primary. decade-long Republican trend as 20 Democrats and Democratic candidates had a winning edge in 16 Republicans won their races. This means that in elections held between 1970 and 2006 (56 percent). 2007, the 50 states will be in a partisan split with And in 201 races (39 percent) the results led to a 28 Democratic governors and 22 Republican gov- party shift in which a candidate from a party other ernors—the exact reverse of the split going into the than the incumbent’s party won. Yet these party shifts 2006 gubernatorial elections. have evened out over the years so that neither of the

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Table A: Gubernatorial Elections: 1970–2006 Number of incumbent governors Democratic Lost winner Eligible to run Actually ran Won Number In general Year of races Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent In primary election 1970 35 22 63 29 83 24 83 16 64 8 36 1 (a) 7 (b) 1971 3 3 100 0 ...... 1972 18 11 61 15 83 11 73 7 64 4 36 2 (c) 2 (d) 1973 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 ...... 1 100 1 (e) . . . 1974 35 27 (f) 77 29 83 22 76 17 77 5 24 1 (g) 4 (h) 1975 3 3 100 2 66 2 100 2 100 ...... 1976 14 9 64 12 86 8 67 5 63 3 33 1 (i) 2 (j) 1977 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1978 36 21 58 29 81 23 79 16 73 7 30 2 (k) 5 (l) 1979 3 2 67 0 ...... 1980 13 6 46 12 92 12 100 7 58 5 42 2 (m) 3 (n) 1981 2 1 50 0 ...... 1982 36 27 75 33 92 25 76 19 76 6 24 1 (o) 5 (p) 1983 3 3 100 1 33 1 100 ...... 1 100 1 (q) . . . 1984 13 5 38 9 69 6 67 4 67 2 33 . . . 2 (r) 1985 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1986 36 19 53 24 67 18 75 15 83 3 18 1 (s) 2 (t) 1987 3 3 100 2 67 1 50 ...... 1 100 1 (u) . . . 1988 12 5 42 9 75 9 100 8 89 1 11 . . . 1 (v) 1989 2 2 100 0 ...... 1990 36 19 (w) 53 33 92 23 70 17 74 6 26 . . . 6 (x) 1991 3 2 67 2 67 2 100 ...... 2 100 1 (y) 1 (z) 1992 12 8 67 9 75 4 44 4 100 ...... 1993 2 0 0 1 50 1 100 ...... 1 100 . . . 1 (aa) 1994 36 11 (bb) 31 30 83 23 77 17 74 6 26 2 (cc) 4 (dd) 1995 3 1 33 2 67 1 50 1 100 ...... 1996 11 7 36 9 82 7 78 7 100 ...... 1997 2 0 0 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1998 36 11 (ee) 31 27 75 25 93 23 92 2 8 . . . 2 (ff) 1999 3 2 67 2 67 2 100 2 100 ...... 2000 11 8 73 7 88 6 86 5 83 1 17 . . . 1 (gg) 2001 2 2 100 0 ...... 2002 36 14 39 22 61 16 73 12 75 4 25 . . . 4 (hh) 2003 4 (ii) 1 25 2 50 2 100 ...... 2 100 . . . 2 (jj) 2004 11 6 55 11 100 8 73 4 50 4 50 2 (kk) 2 (ll) 2005 2 2 100 1 50 ...... 2006 36 20 56 31 86 27 87 25 93 2 7 1 (mm) 1 (nn) Totals: Number 519 286 399 313 236 77 20 57 Percent 100 55.1 76.9 78.4 75.4 24.6 26.0 74.0

Source: The Council of State Governments, The Book of the States, 2006, (u) , D-La. (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2006), 144, updated. (v) Arch A. Moore, R-W.Va. Key: (w) Two Independent candidates won: Walter Hickel (Alaska) and Lowell (a) Albert Brewer, D-Ala. Weiker (Conn.). Both were former statewide Republican office holders. (b) Keith Miller, R-Alaska; , R-Ark.; Claude (x) Bob Martinez, R-Fla.; Mike Hayden, R-Kan.; James Blanchard, D-Mich.; Kirk, R-Fla.; Don Samuelson, R-Idaho; Norbert Tieman, R-Neb.; Dewey Rudy Perpich, DFL-Minn.; Kay Orr, R-Neb.; Edward DiPrete, R-R.I. Bartlett, R-Okla.; Frank Farrar, R-S.D. (y) , R-La. (c) Walter Peterson, R-N.H.; Preston Smith, D-Texas. (z) Ray Mabus, D-Miss. (d) Russell Peterson, R-Del.; Richard Ogilvie, R-Ill. (aa) James Florio, D-N.J. (e) William Cahill, R-N.J. (bb) One Independent candidate won: Angus King of Maine. (f) One independent candidate won: James Longley of Maine. (cc) Bruce Sundlun, D-R.I.; Walter Dean Miller, R-S.D. (g) David Hall, D-Okla. (dd) James E. Folsom Jr., D-Ala.; Bruce King, D-N.M.; Mario Cuomo, (h) John Vanderhoof, R-Colo.; Francis Sargent, R-Mass.; Malcolm D-N.Y.; Ann Richards, D-Texas. Wilson, R-N.Y.; John Gilligan, D-Ohio. (ee) Two Independent candidates won: Angus King of Maine and Jesse (i) Dan Walker, D-Ill. Ventura of Minnesota. (j) Sherman Tribbitt, D-Del.; Christopher “Kit” Bond, R-Mo. (ff) Fob James, R-Ala.; David Beasley, R-S.C. (k) Michael Dukakis, D-Mass.; Dolph Briscoe, D-Texas. (gg) Cecil Underwood, R-W.Va. (l) Robert F. Bennett, R-Kan.; Rudolph G. Perpich, D-Minn.; Meldrim (hh) Don Siegelman, D-Ala.; Roy Barnes, D-Ga., Jim Hodges, D-S.C.; Thompson, R-N.H.; Robert Straub, D-Oreg.; Martin J. Schreiber, D-Wis. and Scott McCallum, R-Wis. (m) Thomas L. Judge, D-Mont.; , D-Wash. (ii) The California recall election and replacement vote of 2003 is included (n) , D-Ark.; Joseph P. Teasdale, D-Mo.; Arthur A. Link, D-N.D. in the 2003 election totals and as a general election for the last column. (o) Edward J. King, D-Mass. (jj) Gray Davis, D-Calif.; Ronnie Musgrove, D-Miss. (p) Frank D. White, R-Ark.; Charles Thone, R-Neb.; Robert F. List, (kk) Bob Holden, D-Mo.; Olene Walker, R-Utah, lost in the pre-primary R-Nev.; Hugh J. Gallen, D-N.H.; William P. Clements, R-Texas. convention. (q) David Treen, R-La. (ll) Joe Kernan, D-Ind.; Craig Benson, R-N.H. (r) Allen I. Olson, R-N.D.; John D. Spellman, R-Wash. (mm) Frank Murkowski, R-Alaska. (s) Bill Sheffield, D-Alaska. (nn) Robert Ehrlich, R-Md. (t) Mark White, D-Texas; Anthony S. Earl, D-Wis.

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two major parties has an edge in these party shifts. In Five governors were members or former members three of the six party shifts in the 2006 elections, of Congress who returned to work in their state. These Democrats won the seat for the first time since the included U.S. Sen. (D-N.J.), and U.S. 1986 elections (Massachusetts, Ohio), and for the first Congressmen Ernie Fletcher (R-Ky.), L.C. “Butch” time since the 1990 election (New York). But there Otter (R-Idaho), Jim Gibbons (R-Nev.) and Ted Strick- have been some interesting patterns in these shifts land (D-Ohio). And (D-Mont.), who over the past 36 years of gubernatorial elections. had unsuccessfully sought a U.S. Senate seat in 2000 Between 1970 and 1992, Democrats won 200 of as the Democratic candidate, turned that around to the 324 races for governor (62 percent). Then begin- win the governorship in 2004. ning in 1993 to 2003, Republicans leveled the playing Two governors came from the business sector: field by winning 85 of the 145 races for governor (59 John Lynch (D-N.H.) and John Huntsman Jr. (R-Utah). percent). Despite this Republican trend, Democratic Two mayors or former mayors were elected in 2006: candidates did win eight of the 11 gubernatorial races Sarah Palin (R-Wasilla, Alaska) and Martin O’Malley in 2000, when Gov. Bush won the presidency in a very (D-Baltimore, Md.). close race, and six of the 11 when Bush won his sec- Five new governors followed a unique path com- ond term in 2004. And the Democrats have won 28 of pared to their counterparts: actor-businessman Arnold the 49 most recent races in 2004 to 2006 (57 percent). Schwarzenegger (R-Calif.), former head of the Fed- Another factor in determining how many gover- eral Office of Management and Budget Mitch Daniels nors have served in the states is how many of the (R-Ind.), former Republican Party National Chairman newly elected governors are truly new to the office (R-Miss.), former Denver District and how many are returning after complying with Attorney Bill Ritter (D-Colo.) and , constitutional term limits or holding other positions. former head of the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Looking at the number of actual new governors tak- Department of Justice in the Clinton Administration ing office over a decade, the average number of new (D-Mass.). governors elected in the states dropped from 2.3 new In the 409 gubernatorial races between 1977 and governors per state in the 1950s to 1.9 in the 1970s 2006, among the candidates were 106 lieutenant and to 1.1 in the 1980s. In the 1990s, the rate began governors (29 won), 90 attorneys general (24 won), to move up a bit to 1.4 new governors per state. 30 secretaries of state (eight won), 24 state treasurers As we move through the first decade of the 21st (six won) and 16 state auditors, auditors general or century, we continue to find new faces in the gover- comptrollers (three won). Looking at these numbers nors’ offices. New governors were elected in 56 of from a bettor’s point of view, the odds of a lieutenant 102 elections held between 2000 and 2006 (55 per- governor winning were 3.7-to-1, an attorney general cent). And, two other governors ascended to the office 3.8-to-1, a secretary of state 3.8-to-1, a state treasurer during 2004 and one each in both 2005 and 2006. So, 4.0-to-1 and a state auditor 5.3-to-1. in 2007, 24 incumbent governors will be serving in One other unique aspect about the current gover- their first term (48 percent). The beginning of the 21st nors is that there will be nine women serving as gov- century has certainly proved to be a time of change in ernor in 2007—the same as in the last half of 2004 the governors’ offices across the 50 states. which was the all-time high for women serving at one time in the office. Seven women were elected in their The New Governors own right: Sarah Palin (R-Alaska), Over the 2003–2006 cycle of gubernatorial elections (D-Ariz.), Ruth Ann Minner (D-Del.), Linda Lingle and resignations, there were several different routes (R-Hawaii), Kathleen Sebelius (D-Kan.), Kathleen to the governor’s chair by the elected governors and Blanco (D-La.), Jennifer Granholm (D-Mich.), Chris­ by those governors who have ascended to the office. tine Gregoire (D-Wash.) and M. Jodi Rell (R-Conn.), Twelve new governors have previously held statewide who became governor upon the resignation of Gov. office. These include: five lieutenant governors—M. John Rowland in 2004 and was elected in her own Jodi Rell (R-Conn.), Kathleen Blanco (D-La.), Dave bid in 2006 to continue serving as governor. While Heineman (R-Neb.), Timothy Kaine (D-Va.) and gubernatorial politics continues to be volatile, women James Risch (R-Idaho); four attorneys general— are also continuing to hold their own in these races. Christine Gregoire (D-Wash.), Mike Beebe (D-Ark.), In the 2003–2006 gubernatorial races, nine of the 15 Charlie Crist (R-Fla.) and Eliot Spitzer (D-N.Y.); and women running either as the incumbent or as the three secretaries of state—Matt Blunt (R-Mo.), Joe candidate of a major party won—a 60 percent suc- Manchin (D-W.V.) and Chet Culver (D-Iowa). cess rate.

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Table B: Total Cost of Gubernatorial Elections: 1977–2005 (in thousands of dollars)

Total campaign costs Number Average cost Percent change in Year of races Actual $ 2005$ (a) per state (2005$) similar elections (b) 1977 2 12,312 39,717 19,859 N.A. 1978 36 102,342 306,412 8,511 N.A. (c) 1979 3 32,744 88,021 29,340 N.A. 1980 13 35,634 84,440 6,495 N.A. 1981 2 24,648 53,007 26,503 +33 1982 36 181,832 368,081 10,224 +20 (d) 1983 3 39,966 78,364 26,121 -11 1984 13 47,156 88,639 6,818 +5 1985 2 18,859 34,226 17,113 -35 1986 36 270,605 482,362 13,399 +31 1987 3 40,212 69,092 23,031 -12 1988 12 (e) 52,208 86,152 7,179 -3 1989 2 47,902 75,437 37,718 +120 1990 36 345,493 516,432 14,345 +7 1991 3 34,564 49,590 16,530 -28 1992 12 60,278 83,953 6,996 -3 1993 2 36,195 48,912 24,456 -35 1994 36 417,873 550,557 15,293 +7 1995 3 35,693 45,760 15,253 -8 1996 11 (f) 68,610 85,442 7,767 +2 1997 2 44,823 54,529 27,265 +11 1998 36 470,326 563,265 15,646 +2 1999 3 16,276 19,081 6,360 -58 2000 11 97,098 110,088 10,008 +29 2001 2 70,400 77,619 39,909 +42 2002 36 841,427 913,601 25,378 +62 2003 3 69,939 74,245 24,748 +289 2004 11 112,625 116,468 10,588 +6 2005 2 131,996 131,996 65,998 +70

Source: Thad Beyle. the actual costs of these elections by some unknown amount. The sources Key: are: Rhodes Cook and Stacy West, “1978 Advantage,” CQ Weekly Report, (a) Developed from the Table, “Historical Consumer Price Index for All (1979): 1757–1758, and The Great Spendathon (Baton Rouge: Urban Consumers (CPI-U),” Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department Public Affairs Research Council, March 1980). of Labor. Each year’s actual expenditures are converted to the 2005$ value (d) This particular comparison with 1978 is not what it would appear to of the dollar to control for the effect of inflation over the period. be for the reasons given in note (c). The amount spent in 1978 was more (b) This represents the percent increase or decrease in 2005$ over the than indicated here so the increase is really not as great as it appears. last bank of similar elections, i.e., 1977 v. 1981, 1978 v. 1982, 1979 v. (e) As of the 1986 election, Arkansas switched to a four-year term for 1983, etc. the governor, hence the drop from 13 to 12 for this off-year. (c) The data for 1978 are a particular problem as the two sources com- (f) As of the 1994 election, Rhode Island switched to a four-year term piling data on this year’s elections did so in differing ways that excluded for the governor, hence the drop from 12 to 11 for this off-year. some candidates. The result is that the numbers for 1978 under-represent

Timing of Gubernatorial Elections As seen in Table A, the year following a presiden- The election cycle for governors has settled into a tial election has only two states with gubernatorial regular pattern. Over the past few decades, many elections.3 Then in the even years between presidential states have moved their elections to the off-presiden- elections, 36 states hold their gubernatorial elections, tial years in order to decouple the state and national and in the year before a presidential election, three level campaigns. Now, only 11 states hold their guber­ Southern states hold their gubernatorial elections.4 natorial elections in the same year as a presidential election. Two of these states—New Hampshire and Cost of Gubernatorial Elections Vermont—still have two-year terms for their gover- Table C presents data on the costs of the most recent nor so their elections alternate between presidential elections. There is a great range in how much these and the even non-presidential years. races cost, from the all-time most expensive race

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recorded in New York in 2002 ($159.3 million in 2002 and 2005—just over two decades later—the 2005 dollars) to the low-cost 2004 race in Vermont total expenditures were a bit over $1,236 million in ($1,242,534 in 2005 dollars). Both the New York 2005 dollars, an increase of 138 percent. The greatest and the Vermont races saw an incumbent Republican increase in campaign expenditures was between the governor successfully win re-election. 1997–2000 and 2002–2005 cycles when there was a But if we look at how much all candidates spent 65.5-percent increase. per general election vote, a slightly different picture These increases reflect the new style of campaign- evolves. In 2004, the West Virginia governor’s race ing for governor—with the candidates developing was the most expensive at $16.05 per vote, followed their own personal party by using outside consul- by the Indiana race at $13.53 per vote. Both races tants, opinion polls, media ads and buys, and exten- were for an open seat. The most expensive gover- sive fundraising efforts to pay for all of this. This nor’s race per vote in the 2002–2005 cycle was in style has now reached into most every state. Few the New Hampshire 2002 race when the candidates states will be surprised by a high-price, high-tech spent $46.44 per vote in 2005 dollars. The least campaign; they are commonplace now. The “air- expensive race during the same cycle was in the war” campaigns have replaced the “ground-war” Minnesota 2002 race when the candidates spent only campaigns across the states. $2.88 per vote. Another factor has been the increasing number In Figure A, by converting the actual dollars spent of candidates who are either wealthy or who have each year into the equivalent 2005 dollars, we see access to wealth and are willing to spend some of how the cost of these elections has increased over this money to become governor. For some, spend- time. Since 1981, we have been able to compare the ing a lot of money leads to winning the governor’s costs of each four-year cycle of elections with the chair. In 2002, Gov. Gray Davis spent $69.7 million previous cycle of elections. in 2005 dollars in his successful bid for re-election In the 54 elections held between 1977 and 1980, in California, while Gov. George Pataki spent $48 the total expenditures were $519 million in equiva- million in 2005 dollars to win his third term. How- lent 2005 dollars. In the 52 elections held between ever, spending that amount of money and winning

Figure A: Gubernatorial Elections Expenditures (by millions)

1,400 $1,236 1,200 $1,182 ) 1,000

800 $725 $731 $747 $672 $588 600 $519

400 2005 Dollars (in millions

200

0 1977–1980 1981–1984 1985–1988 1989–1992 1993–1996 1997–2000 2001–2004 2002–2005

Source: Thad Beyle.

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Table C: Cost of Gubernatorial Campaigns, Most Recent Elections, 2000–2005

Total campaign expenditures Winner Point All candidates Cost per vote Percent of all Vote State Year Winner margin (2005$) (2005$) Spent (2005$) expenditures percent Alabama...... 2002 R★★★ +0.3 $34,276,592 25.07 $15,035,805 43.9 49.2 Alaska...... 2002 R# +15 5,801,363 25.58 1,877,435 32.4 55.9 Arizona...... 2002 D# +1 8,269,772 6.74 2,495,093 30.2 46.2 Arkansas...... 2002 R★ +6 4,899,588 6.08 2,964,448 60.5 53.0 California...... 2002 D★ +4.9 118,967,033 15.92 69,723,350 58.6 47.3 Colorado...... 2002 R★ +29 6,573,049 4.66 5,232,764 79.6 62.6 Connecticut...... 2002 R★ +12 8,544,229 8.35 6,641,767 77.7 56.1 ...... 2004 D★ +5.1 2,736,056 7.50 1,824,805 66.7 50.9 Florida...... 2002 R# +13 18,631,452 3.65 8,278,899 44.4 56.0 Georgia...... 2002 R★★★ +5 26,339,492 12.99 3,968,732 15.1 51.4 Hawaii...... 2002 R# +4 10,270,605 26.88 5,872,451 57.2 51.1 Idaho...... 2002 R★ +14 2,428,340 5.90 1,208,795 49.8 56.3 Illinois...... 2002 D# +8 52,948,701 14.96 24,331,775 46.0 52.2 Indiana...... 2004 R★★★ +5.3 33,121,022 13.53 17,403,404 52.5 50.8 Iowa...... 2002 D★ +8 14,276,961 13.92 6,570,682 46.0 52.7 Kansas...... 2002 D# +8 16,751,045 19.83 4,736,636 28.6 52.9 Kentucky...... 2003 R# +10 12,137,530 11.20 6,049,179 49.8 55.0 Louisiana...... 2003 D# +3.8 41,328,350 29.36 7,024,925 17.0 51.9 Maine...... 2002 D# +5.6 4,700,459 9.30 1,720,282 36.6 47.1 Maryland...... 2002 R# +3.9 5,576,868 3.27 2,751,178 49.3 51.6 Massachusetts...... 2002 R# +5 33,226,827 14.97 10,163,955 30.6 49.8 ...... 2002 D★★★ +4 17,620,847 5.55 9,650,701 54.8 51.4 Minnesota...... 2002 R# +8 6,478,602 2.88 2,742,421 42.3 44.4 ...... 2003 R★★★ +7 20,779,410 23.23 11,982,403 57.7 52.6 Missouri...... 2004 R★★ +2.9 16,056,590 5.90 4,992,482 31.1 50.8 Montana...... 2004 D# +4.4 3,920,271 8.79 1,785,885 45.6 50.4 Nebraska...... 2002 R★ +41 1,736,127 3.61 1,317,215 75.9 68.7 Nevada...... 2002 R★ +46 2,949,722 5.85 2,870,828 97.3 68.1 New Hampshire..... 2004 D★★★ +2.1 5,931,162 8.90 3,079,332 51.9 51.0 New Jersey...... 2005 D# +10.5 85,036,740 37.13 44,587,866 52.4 53.5 ...... 2002 D# +16.5 10,881,913 22.47 7,954,937 73.1 55.5 New York...... 2002 R★ +15.5 159,339,374 33.97 47,979,478 30.1 48.2 North Carolina...... 2004 D★ +12.7 18,798,874 5.39 8,508,336 45.3 55.6 North Dakota...... 2004 R★ +43.9 1,443,419 4.66 933,267 64.7 71.3 Ohio...... 2002 R★ +19.5 15,713,183 4.87 13,934,554 88.7 57.8 Oklahoma...... 2002 D# +0.7 12,183,875 11.76 3,508,914 28.8 43.3 ...... 2002 D# +2.8 16,406,810 13.02 4,525,078 27.6 49.0 Pennsylvania...... 2002 D# +9 70,728,345 19.75 42,522,878 60.1 53.4 Rhode Island...... 2002 R# +10 7,517,619 22.65 2,651,130 35.3 54.8 South Carolina...... 2002 R★★★ +6 32,148,748 29.23 7,771,015 24.2 52.8 South Dakota...... 2002 R# +14.9 10,057,457 30.06 1,763,461 17.5 56.8 Tennessee...... 2002 D# +3 18,671,319 11.29 10,600,807 56.8 50.6 Texas...... 2002 R★ +17.8 114,621,099 25.17 30,292,861 26.4 57.8 Utah...... 2004 R★★ +16.4 6,513,232 7.08 3,388,101 52.0 57.7 Vermont...... 2004 R★ +20.7 1,242,534 4.02 704,925 56.7 58.7 Virginia...... 2005 D# +5.7 46,959,066 23.67 20,696,046 44.1 51.7 ...... 2004 D# +0.005 14,757,740 5.25 6,422,148 43.5 48.9 West Virginia...... 2004 D# +29.5 11,947,552 16.05 3,661,550 30.6 63.5 Wisconsin...... 2002 D★★★ +3.7 18,572,054 10.46 6,000,339 32.3 45.1 Wyoming...... 2002 D# +2.1 2,797,926 15.09 812,406 29.0 50.0

Source: Thad Beyle. Key: Note: 2005$ — Using the November 2005 CPI Index which was 1.953 D — Democrat of the 1982–84 Index = 1,000, the actual 2002 expenditures were based I — Independent on a 1.799 value or .921 of the 2005$ index, the actual 2003 expenditures R — Republican were based on a 1.840 index value or .942 of the 2005$ index, the actual # — Open seat 2004 expenditures were based on a 1.889 index value or .967 of the 2005$ ★ — Incumbent ran and won. index, and the 2005 expenditures were exact dollars spent in that election ★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in party primary. year. Then the actual expenditures of each state’s governor’s race were ★★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in general election. divided by the .9 value for that year to get the equivalent 2005$ value of those expenditures.

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Table D: Women Governors

Year elected How woman Last elected or succeeded became Previous position held Governor State to office governor Tenure of service offices held before governorship Phase I—From initial statehood to adoption of the 19th Amendment to U.S. Constitution No women elected or served as governor Phase II—Wives of former governors elected governor, 1924 –1966 Nellie Tayloe Ross (D) Wyoming 1924 E 1/1925 –1/1927 F . . . Miriam “Ma” Ferguson (D) Texas 1924 E 1/1925 –1/1927 F . . . 1/1933 –1/1935 Lurleen Wallace (D) Alabama 1966 E 1/1967–5/1968 F . . . Phase III—Women who became governor on their own merit, 1970 to date Ella Grasso (D) Connecticut 1974 E 1/1975 –12/1980 SH, SOS, (a) (a) Dixy Lee Ray (D) Washington 1976 E 1/1977–1/1981 (b) . . . Vesta M. Roy (R) New Hampshire 1982 S (c) 12/1982 –1/1983 (d) (d) Martha Layne Collins (D) Kentucky 1983 E 12/1983 –12/1987 (e), LG LG Madeleine M. Kunin (D) Vermont 1984 E 1/1985 –1/1991 SH, LG LG Kay A. Orr (R) Nebraska 1986 E 1/1987–1/1991 T T Rose Mofford (D) Arizona 1988 S (f) 4/1988 –1/1991 SOS SOS Joan Finney (D) Kansas 1990 E 1/1991–1/1995 T T Barbara Roberts (D) Oregon 1990 E 1/1991–1/1995 (g), C, SH, SOS SOS Ann Richards (D) Texas 1990 E 1/1991–1/1995 C, T T Christy Whitman (R) New Jersey 1993 E 1/1994 –1/2001 (h) (h) Jeanne Shaheen (D) New Hampshire 1996 E 1/1997–1/2003 (d) (d) Jane Dee Hull (R) Arizona 1997 S (i) 9/1997–1/2003 (j), SOS SOS Nancy P. Hollister (R) Ohio 1998 S (k) 12/1998 –1/1999 LG LG Ruth Ann Minner (D) Delaware 2000 E 1/2001– SH, SS, LG LG Judy Martz (R) Montana 2000 E 1/2001–1/2005 LG LG Sila Calderon (Pop D) Puerto Rico 2000 E 1/2001–1/2005 M M (R) Massachusetts 2001 S (l) 4/2001–1/2003 SS, LG LG Janet Napolitano (D) Arizona 2002 E 1/2003 – (m), AG AG Linda Lingle (R) Hawaii 2002 E 12/2002 – C, M (n) M Kathleen Sebelius (D) Kansas 2002 E 1/2003 – SH, (o) (o) Jennifer Granholm (D) Michigan 2002 E 1/2003 – (p), AG AG Olene Walker (R) Utah 2003 S (q) 11/2003 –1/2005 SH, LG LG Kathleen Blanco (D) Louisiana 2003 E 1/2004 – SH, LG LG M. Jodi Rell (R) Connecticut 2004 S (r) 7/2004 – SH, LG LG Christine Gregoire (D) Washington 2004 E 1/2005 – AG AG Sarah Palin (R) Alaska 2006 E 1/2007– M (s) M

Sources: National Governors Association Web site, www.nga.org, and (g) Local school board member. individual state government Web sites. (h) Whitman was a former state utilities official. Key: (i) Hull as secretary of state became acting governor when Gov. Fife S — Succeeded to office upon death, resignation or removal of the Symington resigned. Elected to full term in 1998. incumbent governor. (j) Speaker of the state house. AG — Attorney general. M — Mayor. (k) Hollister as lieutenant governor became governor when Gov. C — City council or SH — State house member. stepped down to serve in the U.S. Senate. county commission. (l) Swift as lieutenant governor succeeded Gov. Paul Celluci who re- E — Elected governor. SOS — Secretary of state. signed after being appointed ambassador to Canada. Was the first governor F — Former first lady. SS — State senate. to give birth while serving in office. LG — Lieutenant governor. T — State treasurer. (m) U.S. attorney. (a) Congresswoman. (n) Lingle was mayor of Maui for two terms, elected in 1990 and 1996. (b) Ray served on the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission from 1972 to (o) Insurance commissioner. 1975 and was chair of the AEC from 1973 to 1975. (p) Federal prosecutor. (c) Roy as state senate president succeeded to office upon the death (q) Walker as lieutenant governor succeeded to the governorship upon of Gov. Hugh Gallen. the resignation of Gov. in 2003. (d) State senate president. (r) Rell as lieutenant governor succeeded to the governorship upon the (e) State supreme court clerk. resignation of Gov. John Rowland in 2004. (f) Mofford as secretary of state became acting governor in February (s) Palin was a two-term Mayor of Wasilla, Alaska, and had unsuccess- 1988 and governor in April 1988 upon the impeachment and removal fully sought the lieutenant governor’s office in 2002. of Gov. Evan Mecham.

re-election did not deter those wanting to have Davis spent $82.8 million in 2005 dollars as the unsuc- recalled from office less than a year later. cessful Democratic candidate. In California’s 1998 But spending a lot doesn’t always lead to a win. gubernatorial election, three candidates spent $129.5 For example, in the 2002 New York election, Thomas million in 2005 dollars in their campaigns. Two of Golisano spent $82.8 million in 2005 dollars in his these candidates won their party’s nomination and unsuccessful campaign for governor as an Indepen- faced off in November, with Democrat Gray Davis at dent candidate. And in Texas, Tony Sanchez also $45.1 million in 2005 dollars the winner over Repub-

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lican candidate Dan Lundgren at $37.8 million in executive branch officials (plus 28 percent). How- 2005 dollars. The largest spender at $46.6 million in ever, the governor’s appointment power over specific 2005 dollars, Al Checci, wasn’t even able to win the functional area executive branch officials increased Democratic nomination. by only 7 percent. In addition, the states continue to hold to the concept of the multiple executives in 5 Gubernatorial Forced Exits terms of the number of statewide elected officials. The California 2003 gubernatorial recall and replace- In 2006, there were 308 separately elected execu- ment votes highlighted the fact that some elected tive officials covering 12 major offices in the states.9 governors faced situations in which they could lose This compares to 306 elected officials in 1972. Ten their office without being beaten by a challenger at states also have multimember boards, commissions the ballot box, becoming ill or dying. In 2004, two or councils with members selected by statewide or other governors resigned from office, John Rowland district election. (R-Conn.) faced the threat of a potential impeach- The gubernatorial budgetary power actually de- ment move and Jim McGreevey (D-N.J.) due to per- clined over the period (minus 14 percent). However, sonal reasons. we must remember that during this same time period, However, 2005 and 2006 were rather quiet on this state legislatures were also undergoing considerable type of situation and no governor was driven or re- reform, and gaining more power to work on the gov- called from office. Several governors have been fac- ernor’s proposed budget was one of those reforms ing some difficult times in terms of things that have sought. Hence, the increased legislative budgetary happened while they served and their job approval power more than balanced out any increases in gu- ratings in state-level polls indicate many are not bernatorial budgetary power. happy with their performance. There has also been a drop in the gubernatorial party control in the state legislatures over the period 6 Gubernatorial Powers (minus 11 percent). Much of this can be attributed to One way to view the changes that have been occur- the major partisan shifts occurring in the Southern ring in gubernatorial powers is to look at the “Index states as the region has been moving from one-party of Formal Powers of the Governorship” first devel- dominance to a very competitive two-party system.10 oped by Joseph Schlesinger in the 1960s,7 which In 1960, 13 of the 14 governors were Democrats, this author has continued to update.8 The index used and all 28 state legislative chambers were under here consists of six different indices of gubernato- Democratic control. In 2007, Republicans and rial power as seen in 1960 and 2007. These indices Democrats each control seven governorships, while include the number and importance of separately the Democrats hold a 14-to-13 edge in control of the elected executive branch officials, the tenure poten- legislative chambers. Three Southern governors face tial of governors, the appointment powers of gov- a legislature completely controlled by the opposite ernors for administrative and board positions in the party,11 while three others face a legislature with split executive branch, the governor’s budgetary power, partisan control.12 Four Democratic governors have the governor’s veto power and the governor’s party legislative chambers controlled by their own party,13 control in the legislature. Each of the individual indi- and four Republican governors also have legislative ces is set in a five-point scale, with five being the chambers controlled by their own party.14 most power and one being the least. During the four and a half decades between 1960 Notes and 2007, the overall institutional powers of the 1 The former governors winning the presidency over the nation’s governors increased by 13.6 percent. The past three decades were Jimmy Carter (D-Ga., 1971–1975) greatest increase among the individual gubernato- in 1976, Ronald Reagan (R-Calif., 1967–1975) in 1980 and rial powers was in their veto power (plus 61 percent) 1984, Bill Clinton (D-Ark., 1979–1981 and 1983–1992) in as more governors gained an item veto, and in 1996 1992 and 1996, and George W. Bush (R-Texas, 1995–2001) North Carolina voters were finally able to vote on a in 2000 and 2004. 2 constitutional amendment giving their governor veto For an analysis of governors trying to handle the impact power. It was approved by a 3-to-1 ratio. of the early 1990s economic downturn, see Thad Beyle, ed., Governors in Hard Times (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1994). The indices measuring the governor’s tenure po- 3 New Jersey and Virginia. tential (length of term and ability to seek an additional 4 Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi. term or terms) also showed an increase in power (plus 5 For more detail on this topic check “Table E: Impeach- 26 percent) as did the number of separately elected ments and Removals of Governors” and accompanying text

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“Gubernatorial Forced Exits” in The Book of the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005): 198–200. 6 For more detail on this topic check Thad Beyle, “The Governors,” in Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson, eds., Politics in the American States: A Comparative Analysis, 8th ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2004): 210–218. 7 Joseph A. Schlesinger, “The Politics of the Executive,” Politics in the American States, 1st and 2nd ed., Herbert Jacob and Kenneth N. Vines, eds., (Boston: Little Brown, 1965 and 1971). 8 Thad L. Beyle, “The Governors,” Politics in the American States, 8th ed., Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson, eds., (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003). Earlier versions of this index by the author appeared in the 4th edition (1983), the 5th edition (1990), the 6th edition (1996), and the 7th edi- tion (1999). 9 Kendra Hovey and Harold Hovey, “D-12—Number of Statewide Elected Officials, 2004,” CQ’s State Fact Finder, 2006 (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2007). 10 The following states are included in this definition of the South: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia. 11 They are Republicans Bob Riley in Alabama and Haley Barbour in Mississippi, and Democrat Tim Kaine in Virginia. 12 They are Republican Ernie Fletcher in Kentucky, and Democrats Brad Henry in Oklahoma and Phil Bredesen in Tennessee. In Oklahoma, the state senate is split with an equal number of Democrats and Republicans. 13 They are Mike Beebe in Arkansas, Kathleen Blanco in Louisiana, Mike Easley in North Carolina and in West Virginia. 14 They are Charlie Crist in Florida, Sonny Perdue in Geor- gia, Mark Sanford in South Carolina, and Rick Perry in Texas.

About the Author Thad Beyle is a professor of political science at the Univer- sity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A Syracuse University A.B. and A.M., he received his Ph.D. at the University of Illi- nois. He spent a year in the North Carolina governor’s office in the mid-1960s and has worked with the National Governors Association in several capacities on gubernatorial transitions.

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