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Tuning Optical Radiation for Visual and Nonvisual Impact

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Tuning Optical Radiation for Visual and Nonvisual Impact The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Engineering TUNING OPTICAL RADIATION FOR VISUAL AND NONVISUAL IMPACT A Dissertation in Architectural Engineering by Michael P. Royer © 2011 Michael P. Royer Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2011 The dissertation of Michael P. Royer was reviewed and approved* by the following: Kevin W. Houser Associate Professor of Architectural Engineering Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Richard G. Mistrick Associate Professor of Architectural Engineering Richard A. Behr Charles and Elinor Matts Professor of Architectural Engineering David M. Almeida Professor of Human Development and Family Studies Noel H. Ballentine Associate Professor of Medicine Special Member Chinemelu J. Anumba Professor of Architectural Engineering Head of the Department of Architectural Engineering *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii Abstract Spectral tuning—the allocation of radiant energy emitted by a lamp—is a fundamental element of illuminating engineering. Proper placement of optical radiation allows for reduced energy consumption, increased brightness perception, and improved color rendition. It can also result in lamps that have a greater impact on nonvisual human functions such as circadian rhythms, sleep, mood, and cognition. For an architectural lighting system, careful consideration must be given to all of these areas; recent advancements in understanding nonvisual photoreception must be balanced with the traditional emphasis on visual quality and energy efficiency. The three research projects described herein investigated spectral tuning by examining the effects of optical radiation or seeking ideal spectral power distributions. In all three cases, emphasis was placed on developing an architectural lighting system based on red, green, and blue (RGB) light emitting diodes (LEDs) that is capable of providing maximum stimulation to nonvisual systems while maintaining visual quality standards. In particular, the elderly were considered as a target population because they have an increased risk of developing disorders linked to illumination deficits. The three endeavors can be summarized as follows: Light Therapy for Seniors in Long-term Care AIM: To examine the effect of optical radiation on circadian rhythms, sleep, mood, and cognition for frail elderly in a long-term care environment. METHODOLOGY: A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of light therapy was conducted using circadian-effective short-wavelength (blue) optical radiation to treat a sample of residents recruited for participation without bias for existing medical diagnoses. KEY FINDINGS: Light therapy treatment improved cognitive functioning compared to placebo but no changes were detected in nighttime sleep statistics, reports of daytime sleepiness, circadian rhythms, or depression inventory parameters. Perceived Brightness of Trichromatic Light Sources AIM: To examine the effect of tuning optical radiation on brightness perception for younger (18-25 years of age) and older (50 years of age or older) observers. METHODOLOGY: Participants made forced-choice evaluations of the brightness of a full factorial of stimulus pairs selected from two groups of four metameric stimuli. The large-field stimuli were created by systematically varying either the red or the blue primary of an RGB LED mixture. KEY FINDINGS: Light stimuli of equal illuminance and chromaticity do not appear equally bright to either younger or older subjects. The rank-order of brightness is not predicted by any current model of human vision or theory of brightness perception including Scotopic to Photopic or Cirtopic to Photopic ratio theory, prime color theory, correlated color temperature, photometry, color quality metrics, linear brightness models, or color appearance models. Age may affect brightness perception when short-wavelength primaries are used, especially those with a peak wavelength shorter than 450 nm. Optimizing RGB LED Mixtures AIM: To investigate potential tradeoffs between luminous efficacy, nonvisual efficacy, and color quality of RGB LED mixtures when the peak wavelength and full with half maximum of the primaries are iii varied. To identify mixtures suitable for architectural lighting which provide increased circadian stimulation. METHODOLOGY: Software to calculate the properties of RGB LED mixtures matching the chromaticity of blackbody radiation was developed using Microsoft Excel and Visual Basic. Excel Solver was used to perform a series of optimization routines, identifying high-performing mixtures that were then compared to traditional lamps. KEY FINDINGS: Trichromatic mixtures suitable for architectural interiors can outperform traditional lamps when luminous efficacy, nonvisual efficacy, and color quality are considered simultaneously. However, misplacement of radiant energy can result in poor performing trichromatic systems. When radiant energy is manipulated, tradeoffs may occur between luminous efficacy, nonvisual efficacy, and color quality. iv Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. VIII LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... XI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... XII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ XIII 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1 2 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................ 3 THE HUMAN EYE—FUNDAMENTALS OF VISION........................................................................................................ 3 Rod Photoreceptors .................................................................................................................................. 3 Cone Photoreceptors ................................................................................................................................ 4 Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs) .................................................................... 5 MODELS OF HUMAN VISION ................................................................................................................................. 7 Color Vision .............................................................................................................................................. 7 Colorimetry ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Color Spaces ........................................................................................................................................... 13 Additivity Failures ................................................................................................................................... 13 Prime Color Theory ................................................................................................................................. 15 Brightness Metrics .................................................................................................................................. 20 CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS ........................................................................................................................................ 22 Circadian Disorders ................................................................................................................................ 22 CIRCADIAN EFFICACY OF OPTICAL RADIATION ......................................................................................................... 23 Spectrum ................................................................................................................................................ 23 Duration and Intensity ........................................................................................................................... 25 Timing .................................................................................................................................................... 26 Photic History and Adaptation ............................................................................................................... 27 Location and Size .................................................................................................................................... 27 Daylight and the Importance of Circadian Lighting ............................................................................... 27 CIRCADIAN DISRUPTION IN SENIORS: PREVALENCE, MEASUREMENT, AND CONSEQUENCES ............................................. 28 Depression .............................................................................................................................................. 28 Sleep Disorders ....................................................................................................................................... 29 Cognitive Disorders ...............................................................................................................................
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