Notes

Introduction 1. In Spain: A Unique History (2011), Stanley Payne points out that “between 1833 and 1923 Spain lived for more years under parliamentary government than did one of its great ‘modernizing mentors,’ France. In 1812, 1820, and even during the 1830s, Spain was serving as an inspiration to many other countries in Latin America and Europe. No other country more thoroughly experienced the entire gamut of European political and social practices during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries—all the European trends were present in Spain, sometimes in exaggerated or extreme form and often locked in mortal conflict” (92). 2. Habermas further defines the phenomenon of modern subjectivity: “In moder- nity, therefore, religious life, state, and society as well as science, morality, and art are transformed into just so many embodiments of the principle of subjectivity” (18). He also cites Hegel’s assertion of the key role of subjectivity in modernity: “The right of the subjects’ particularity [. . .] is the pivot and center of the differ- ence between antiquity and modern times” (quoted in Habermas 388n44). 3. Mónica Bolufer Peruga’s research has revealed that there were only between 170 and 180 women writers during the eighteenth century in Spain (22). See Bolufer Peruga, “Women of Letters in Eighteenth- Century Spain: Between Tradition and Modernity” 17–32. According to Joseba Gabilondo, between 1832 and 1868 only 120 Spanish women wrote and published literature. This number increased to 1,080 between 1868 and 1900. She also notes that 81 percent of women (versus 62.7 percent of men) were not able to read in 1877. See Gabi- londo 73–95. Kirsty Hooper finds that only just over 1 percent of approximately 80,000 books incorporated into the Biblioteca Nacional between 1890 and 1920 are by women, yet she identifies 400 Spanish women who published at least one work during the period from 1890 to 1920 (205, 200). 4. I define canonical women writers as those who are cited as exceptions and who represent the accepted voice of women among the intellectual elite of mod- ernizing Spain. In her article “Críticos, críticas y criticadas: El discurso crítico ante la mujer de letras,” Begoña Sáez Martínez presents the examples of Fernán Caballero— deemed as an exceptional literata (woman of letters) by A. de San Martín in La mujer: apuntes para un libro (1861, 34)—and Emilia Pardo Bazán and Blanca de los Ríos as writers that “bien pueden parangonarse con los literatos” (45; can definitely compare themselves with male writers). In “Gender and Lan- guage: The Womanly Woman and Manly Writing,” Maryellen Bieder describes how Carmen de Burgos recalls “the significance of this move out of gendered 182 O Notes

writing into gender- neutral writing— from literata (woman of letters) to escritora (woman writer)” (104). In “On Spanish Literary History and the Politics of Gen- der,” Constance A. Sullivan asserts that “at the end of the [nineteenth century] and for almost all of [the twentieth century . . .] the many successful nineteenth- and early twentieth- century women writers of novels, plays, poetry, and essays [. . .] were reduced to Emilia Pardo Bazán, followed not too closely by the less important Fernán Caballero and [. . .] Rosalía de Castro” (31). These are five of the seven canonical women writers whose literary texts are explored in the pres- ent study. The other two writers, Josefa Amar y Borbón and María Lorenza de los Ríos, were firmly entrenched in the elite group of women granted membership in the Junta de Damas (Women’s Assembly), established in 1787, whose social utility was supposed to contribute to Enlightenment Reform through mother- hood and education. See Theresa Ann Smith’s The Emerging Female Citizen: Gen- der and Enlightenment in Spain. 5. I consider Fernán Caballero to be a woman writer of the general canon even though Sánchez Llama cites her as a prime example of a conservative woman writer of the canon isabelino (canonical literature under Queen Isabella II). Caballero still retains her canonicity after Galdós’s criticism of female writers of the canon isabelino who write serial novels and folletines (serial melodramas). Sim- ilarly, writers such as Eugenio de Ochoa, El Duque de Rivas, Ramón de Cam- poamor, and Ramón Nocedal criticized the social novelists but exalted Fernán Caballero as Spain’s exemplary novelist. See Goldman, “Toward a Sociology of the Modern Spanish Novel: The Early Years” 192. 6. I include two chapters on Emilia Pardo Bazán as “la única [mujer] que logra franquear la separación de los sexos en el campo literario y ser designada escritora” (the only woman who manages to overcome the literary separation of the sexes and be designated a woman writer) according to Maryellen Bieder. See Bieder, “Emilia Pardo Bazán y la emergencia del discurso feminista” 75– 110. I dedicate two chapters to works by Benito Pérez Galdós to complement this emphasis on Emilia Pardo Bazán. 7. Alda Blanco contends that Fernán Caballero is allowed to enter the canon because of the “Spanishness” of her patriotic costumbrismo (literature of manners) and that Emilia Pardo Bazán attains canonical status because of her cultivation of the realist novel (133–34). See Blanco, “Gender and National Identity: The Novel in Nineteenth-Century Spanish Literary History” 120– 36. 8. Nerea Aresti describes this transformation from an explanation of women’s infe- riority based on religion to one based on science in her Médicos, donjuanes y mujeres modernas: Los ideales de feminidad y masculinidad en el primer tercio del siglo XX: “Durante los años del principio del siglo veinte, los científicos no hicieron sino reproducir en términos seculares y modernos las concepciones más sexistas de la ideología tradicional [. . .] Querían convertir a la mujer de una figura idealizada a una figura de escrutinio científico que probaría la inferioridad femenina” (45; Dur- ing the first part of the twentieth century, scientists only reproduced the most sexist concepts of traditional ideology in secular and modern terms [. . .] They wanted to convert the woman as an idealized figure into a figure of scientific scrutiny which would prove the inferiority of women). Notes O 183

9. Adrian Shubert gives evidence of this “dechristianization of Spain” during the late nineteenth century with startling statistics such as the attendance at Easter Mass falling below 70 percent in the province and city of Logroño in the 1870s and the dioceses of Cuenca, Toledo, and Ciudad Real having only a 5 percent attendance rate for Easter Mass in the late nineteenth century (161). Accord- ing to Shubert, religion lost support in the South and the big cities because the Church neglected these areas and also because the lower classes associated the Church with the social order that oppressed them (162). See Shubert 145– 68. 10. Solange Hibbs traces the Church’s defense against rationalism and modernity at the end of the nineteenth century but explains that the Church’s focused attack on rationalism had been going on since the late eighteenth-century threat of the influence of the French Revolution’s liberal values on Spanish society. 11. See Bordo 439– 56. 12. Christopher Britt Arredondo’s Quixotism: The Imaginative Denial of Spain’s Loss of Empire (2005) analyzes the “regenerating elitism that Quixotists recommended for modern Spain” in their quest for Spain to return to the “premodern ascetic self-abnegation of Spanish mystics such as St. Theresa of Avila and St. Ignatius of Loyola and the premodern crusading self- sacrifice of Christian conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Vasco Nuñez de Balboa” (19). This nostalgia for premodern Spain accompanied the other reaction of paralyzing disillusion and critique of modernity typically exhibited by canonical Spanish male writers and explored in the present study. 13. Arintero made this statement in 1853, and Solange Hibbs cites its source in Púlpito e ideología en la España del siglo XIX 64. 14. Nerlich makes this assertion in his chapter “The Crisis of a Literary Institution Seen from Within (On a Parallel Reception of Voltaire and Chateaubriand in Spain)” in The Crisis of Institutionalized Literature in Spain 35– 66. 15. Immanuel Kant believed that women had a beautiful understanding of the world, while men had a deep understanding of the world linked to the sublime. See C. Christopher Soufas, “The Sublime, Beautiful, and the Imagination in Zorrilla’s Don Juan Tenorio” 302– 19. 16. Burke and Kant represent a sort of “pesimismo ilustrado” (enlightened pessimism) that Fernando Savater has identified in eighteenth- century Spanish literature. See Savater 253– 71. 17. Antonio Ramos-Gascón points out that the concept of literature as we know it today had not been invented until the late eighteenth century and that the term literature was still in an inchoate state even in the late nineteenth century. He explains that when Menéndez Pelayo underwent the examination for the post of Chair of Critical History of Spanish Literature, he had to begin his presenta- tion with a discussion of the definition of literature (175). See Ramos- Gascón 167– 94. 18. Russell P. Sebold even goes as far as declaring José Cadalso the first European romantic of Spain in his book Cadalso: el primer romántico “europeo” de España (1974). 19. Susan Kirkpatrick has studied the sense of female agency and disillusion expressed by female romantic poets in her groundbreaking book Escritoras y Subjetividad: 184 O Notes

Las Románticas 1835–1850 (1991). In a later article, Kirkpatrick sums up the mid-nineteenth- century Spanish woman poet’s subjectivity and discontent, which contrasts greatly with the domestic novel writers of the same time period such as María del Pilar Sinués: “[T]he poet’s desire thrusts against the restrictions imposed by society, producing expressions of protest, complaint, and frustration— the very feelings that Sinués’s protagonist must banish in order to become a properly adjusted female subject.” See Susan Kirkpatrick “Women as Cultural Agents in Spanish Modernity” 234. The present study analyzes only narrative, but it is inter- esting to note that, even in the early to mid-nineteenth century in which the ángel del hogar (angel of the house) paradigm dominated, poetry serves as a platform from which women can more fully express themselves as modern subjects. 20. Valis discusses this idea in her book The Decadent Vision in Leopoldo Alas: A Study of La Regenta and Su único hijo (1981).

Chapter 1 1. In “Textual Pluralities: Readings and Readers of Eighteenth-Century Discourse,” Iris M. Zavala calls the Inquisition the “privileged reader” whose “moral and political verdict [. . .] intercepts the communicative act” (256). Zavala identifies the Inquisition’s main targets as narrative and innovations in the philosophical and scientific arenas. The Inquisition guards “purity of faith” and prohibits any- thing labeled “indecent,” “vulgar,” “obscene,” “lustful,” “lascivious,” and “against the Church and State” (257). The “concrete reader” or “contemporary compe- tent recipient” of Cadalso’s Cartas marruecas is a “‘rational man,’ interested in patriotism, secularization, the critique of vanity, the progress of philosophy, and the common good” (255). The evasion of the prohibition of the “privileged reader” of the Cartas lies in its tendency toward multiple readings due to its three stories, three narrators, three characters, three writers, and three readers (262). 2. Constance A. Sullivan points out how Amar y Borbón consciously omits ref- erence to model Hispanic women of the Renaissance such as María de Zayas, Teresa de Jesús, Sor María de Agreda, and Sor Juan Inés de la Cruz and never once mentions by name any Spanish women of her time because of a “recogni- tion of her society’s bias against noblewomen’s writing for publication, Amar’s own social status, and her concern not to alienate her potential readership” (146). See “Constructing Her Own Tradition: Ideological Selectivity in Josefa Amar y Borbón’s Representation of Female Models” 142– 59. 3. See Michael Crozier Shaw’s exhaustive analysis on the development of the Euro- pean consensus on Spain’s intellectual and political backwardness and how it penetrated European consciousness in “European Travelers and the Enlighten- ment Consensus in Eighteenth- Century Europe” 23– 43. 4. For an incisive analysis on the pervasive role of the pursuit of happiness in women writers of the Spanish Enlightenment such as Josefa Amar y Borbón, see Elizabeth Franklin Lewis’s Women Writers of the Spanish Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness. 5. In an analysis of the number of “achievement images” per thousand words of representative Spanish literature of a 500- year period, Juan B. Cortés found that Notes O 185

in samples from the years 1200– 1492 the mean was 10.75, declining for the years 1492– 1610 to 6.07 and for 1610– 1730 to only 2.67. See Stanley G. Payne, Spain: A Unique History 130. 6. La Rubia Prado believes that Cartas marruecas reflects postmodernism, while Lettres Persanes by Montesquieu reflects modernism. This is ironic, considering that Montesquieu denounced Spain’s backwardness in “Lettre LXXXIII” of his Lettres Persanes. See “Cadalso y el malestar de la razón ilustrada” 208. 7. In contrast to Montesquieu’s verbosity, Nuño’s silences and laconic nature also point to stoicism, a tenet of the Hispano- Classical and Arabic traditions, which speaks to Cadalso’s nostalgia for pre- Enlightenment values and his communica- tion of this nostalgia through the homosocial bond between Nuño the Spaniard and Gazel and Ben-Beley as representatives of Spain’s Afro-Arabic past. See Scar- lett 70. 8. In Church, Politics, and Society in Spain, 1750– 1874, William J. Callahan shows how at the time Cadalso was writing, the Inquisition experienced a period of moderation, especially in regard to censorship due to Charles III’s decision to appoint Felipe Bertrán, bishop of Salamanca and a leading Episcopal reformer, to be inquisitor general in 1774 (33–34). This period lasted until 1790, the year after Cadalso published the Cartas and the year Amar y Borbón published her Discurso. Even though the French Revolution occurred in the summer of 1789 and provided the Inquisition a reason to return to its severe standards, the cen- sorship and prohibition of works coming in at the French border did not occur until 1792 (Callahan 36). 9. In light of the reforms of the Church in the late eighteenth century, it is pos- sible that Cadalso had limited complaints about the Church. The Catholic kings began to minimize the power of the papacy in Spain with the Concordat of 1753, which gave the crown nearly total control over the most important ecclesiastical benefices. During Charles III’s reign (1759– 88), the State aspired to reform abuses in the Church by eliminating what it perceived as supersti- tion, establishing a more rational ecclesiastical administration, and improving the quality of seminaries. The State also began to see clergy as agents of the State who promoted economic development, improved education, built public works, and generally advanced the utilitarian policies formulated in Madrid. See Callahan 3, 5. 10. In her article “The Quiet Feminism of Josefa Amar y Borbón’s 1790 Book on the Education of Women,” Constance A. Sullivan contends that Josefa Amar y Bor- bón was the only eighteenth-century Spanish woman to engage in the feminist debate. Since the publication of Sullivan’s article in 1993, scholars have identified examples of eighteenth- century feminist writing from Spanish writers such as María de Laborda and Inés Joyes y Blake.

Chapter 2 1. Mónica Bolufer Peruga describes the process by which foreigners judged Spain’s level of civilization by its love customs and the state of its women. See “Civili- zación, costumbres y política en la literatura de viajes a España en el siglo XVIII” 186 O Notes

113– 58. Mor de Fuentes does both by locating the apex of civilization in Serafina as the personification of decorum and his love object. 2. Stanley Payne points out Spanish literary scholar Jesús Torrecilla’s idea that decorum was indicative of traditional Castilian culture and its attendant charac- teristics of seriousness, sobriety, austerity, dark colors, cold realism, objectivity, gravity, and dignity. This was increasingly replaced by a modern “Andalusian” popular culture that emphasized rhetoric, bright colors, frivolity, merry uproar (“la bullanga jaranera”), cheerful irresponsibility, and new marginal forms of behavior and indulgence, aspects of which would continue into the middle of the twentieth century, becoming the culture of “Romantic Spain” (Payne 2011, 139). See Payne, Spain: A Unique History; and Torrecilla, La España exótica: La formación de la imagen española moderna. 3. Hispanists have focused little attention on La Serafina’s depiction of eighteenth- century Spanish society. In the 1980s, critics such as Annick Émieux and Mon- roe Z. Hafter examine the misogyny and development of realism in La Serafina. More recently, Ana Rueda analyzes the costumbrista quality of La Serafina, which she believes makes up for its lack of style and imagination. See Cartas sin lacrar: La novela epistolar y la España ilustrada, 1789– 1840. 4. In her Discurso de la educación física y moral de las mujeres (1790), Josefa Amar y Borbón cites Spanish treatises in which exceptional women are elevated such as De claris selectis que mulieribus (1497) by Fr. Jacobo Felipe de Bergamo, Diálogo en laude de las mujeres: Ginaecepanos (1580) by Juan de Espinosa, and Mulieres philosophantes (1649) by Juan Espergo (vii– x). 5. According to Henry Kamen’s article “The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth?” from the late seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century, French eco- nomic domination of the peninsula was unquestionable, as one third of all non- Spanish goods leaving Cádiz for America in 1670 were French. In 1667, in Alicante, Spain’s second-largest port, more than 37 percent of imports came from France, and in 1675 the total value of textile imports in Aragon from other parts of Spain was only 5.7 percent of the value of textiles brought in from France. In the same year, wool made up 78 percent of Aragon’s exports to France and textiles made up 51.6 percent of imports. Ultimately, Aragon’s economy was more closely tied to that of France than Spain. There were attempts at rebelling against this system, but this pattern of Franco- Spanish trade continued up to the French Revolution. The concept of “dependence” versus “decline” is a better way to describe Spain’s situation (44–45). 6. Theresa Ann Smith profiles what she calls the “emerging female citizen” of Spain in her book The Emerging Female Citizen: Gender and Enlightenment in Spain. Smith traces the process by which Spanish aristocratic women participated in Enlightenment reforms mainly dealing with women’s issues and how men’s insis- tence on their difference kept women from truly becoming citizens in the way that men were. The debate about women’s roles as Spanish citizens surely threat- ened many men’s ideals about women’s submission and created phenomena such as the cult of decorum seen in La Serafina. 7. Since the play was only performed in Lorenza de lo Ríos’s home and not on the public stage, it did not have to be judged by the censors and consequently could Notes O 187

experiment with themes such as love and learning that were normally off limits for women playwrights. 8. Theresa Ann Smith describes the ways in which well- educated aristocratic women like María Lorenza de los Ríos participated meaningfully and actively in construct- ing reforms of education and anticonsumption and in the Sociedad Económica de Madrid. See The Emerging Female Citizen: Gender and Enlightenment in Spain. 9. La Celestina was not actually banned until the end of the eighteenth century (Maetzu 178), thus ensuring that Lorenza de los Ríos would present a morally upstanding casamentera. 10. Kathleen Kish qualifies the limit of spousal choice in her analysis of El sí de las niñas as an example of the daughter’s choice but also the continued need for the father’s approval (199). 11. In Ramiro de Maetzu’s rumination on Spain’s great mythic characters, La Celes- tina represents “el saber” (knowledge), Don Quijote “el amor” (love), and Don Juan “el poder” (power). In La sabia indiscreta, “el saber” is the catalyst that changes perceptions of male–female love relationships; “el poder” is questioned, especially in terms of male power; and “el amor” is redefined and eventually pre- vails at the end, just as it had in many Golden Age comedias. 12. As Catherine Jaffe has astutely shown, La sabia indiscreta does a masterful job of responding to Renaissance Spanish and French plays’ traditions of mocking the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century versions of the indiscreta or mujer esquiva (aloof woman) and the sabia. According to Jaffe, she does this by transforming Laura from indiscreta to discreta while at the same time maintaining her identity as a sabia or learned woman. See “Of Women’s Love, Learning, and (In)Discre- tion: María Lorenza de los Ríos’ La sabia indiscreta (1803)” 283. 13. In La Celestina, the role of the father is usurped by employing what Michael Har- ney has identified as the lack of a traditional, subservient mother through Celes- tina, Melibea, and Alisa’s participation in the underground subversive female culture that operates to break down the taboo of the female making her own marriage in patrilineal society. See “Melibea’s Mother and Celestina” 41.

Chapter 3 1. Alda Blanco notes that the “Spanish woman was positioned as the moral axis upon which society turned and her home was the locus from where she reigned over the kingdom of morality.” The most she could emerge from the home was in the form of the mid- nineteenth-century liberal version of domestic discourse, in which she could open up her mothering role in the public sphere as an educator and socializer of men (92). See “The Moral Imperative for Women Writers” 91–110. 2. See Susan Kirkpatrick’s “Fantasy, Seduction, and the Woman Reader: Rosalía de Castro’s Novels”; Deanna Johnson- Hoffman’s “The Deconstruction of Roman- ticism in Rosalía de Castro’s Flavio and El caballero de las botas azules”; and Wadda C. Ríos- Font’s “From Romantic Irony to Romantic Grotesque: Mariano José de Larra’s and Rosalía de Castro’s Self-Conscious Novels.” 3. This is particularly the case for Castro, as Catherine Davies explains, “By vir- tue of her politically engaged writings, Castro positions herself simultaneously 188 O Notes

at the center (of Galicia) and the margins (of Spain), experiencing at the same time ‘inside- ness’ and ‘outside- ness,’ hence the sense of belonging nowhere.” See “Rosalía de Castro: Cultural Isolation in a Colonial Context” 193. 4. In his cogent analysis of Spanish romantic writers’ demonstration of and pre- occupation with the modern, Properties of Modernity: Romantic Spain, Modern Europe, and the Legacies of Empire, Michael Iarocci points out Charles Baude- laire’s declaration of Northern Europe as indicative of “interiority [and] imagina- tion” and Southern Europe as the “nondesiring, nonmodern locus of creative indolence” (204). 5. Wadda C. Ríos- Font’s analysis of rhetorical irony in Larra’s El doncel de don Enrique Doliente states that Larra exercises Linda Hutcheon’s definition of irony as the implication of a substitution of a hidden level of meaning for a literal meaning in a process where both the said and the unsaid play off against each other with some critical edge (181). Larra employs this same type of rhetoric in his articles, and hyperbole plays a key role in rendering the misrepresentation of Spain. See “From Romantic Irony to Romantic Grotesque: Mariano José de Larra’s and Rosalía de Castro’s Self- Conscious Novels.” 6. In his article “The Decadent Subject,” Charles Bernheimer points out the col- lapse of the dichotomy of civilization and barbarism in Salammbô as a symptom of decadence (53– 62). Castro’s reference to the eponymous character of Flau- bert’s novel in her description of the duke of Glory reinforces his association with the breaking down of binary boundaries. 7. “Dormir como un patriarca” is an idiomatic expression in Spanish meaning to sleep very well and very easily. 8. See The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture 1830–1980 by Elaine Showalter; Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth- Century by Jan Goldstein; and Approaching Hysteria: Disease and Its Interpretations by Mark S. Micale. 9. Paradoxically, Micale notes that between 1875 and 1893 there were 16 dis- sertations on male hysteria at the Paris Medical Faculty and cites Augustin Berjon’s 1886 dissertation: “[Masculine] hysteria is the disorder that engages the medical world the most today” (2008, 180). Despite these studies, the theatrical, crazed, and emotionally charged version of feminine hysteria still dominated the societal conception of hysteria, and the European medical establishment of the late nineteenth century rejected the idea of masculine hys- terical neurosis because its implication of male neurotic vulnerability clashed with millennia of Western medicine theories (193). By the 1880s and 1890s, European and American gynecological texts make reference only to Charcot’s studies on female hysteria (195). 10. As Helena González Fernández and María do Cebreiro Rábade Villar point out in their article “La teoría de la subjetividad en la obra narrativa de Rosalía de Castro: Claves para una nueva política emocional,” Castro’s understanding of subjectivity includes not only that of the creative artist but also “la subjetivi- dad colectiva: la del pueblo que siente— un pueblo identificado con la clase social de los desheredados” (4; the collective subjectivity: that of the people who are affected— a people identified with the social class of the disinherited). Notes O 189

Chapter 4 1. Marianela was one of Galdós’s most disseminated, translated, and well-received works, as there were 13 editions in Spain, 2 Spanish editions abroad, and 13 translations of Marianela in Galdós’s lifetime (1843– 1920). See Eamonn Rod- gers, “Who Read Galdós? The Economics of the Book Trade in Nineteenth- Century Spain” 12, 14. 2. Margaret Pickering points out how Comte’s positivism reinforced the “general law of social evolution” in which women increasingly devoted themselves solely to occupations of the domestic realm. Positivism advocated a sexual division of labor in which women did not participate in the industrialization and science of modern life and instead contributed to the new bourgeois cult of domesticity. See “Angels and Demons in the Moral Vision of Auguste Comte” 17. 3. Susan Kirkpatrick notes that critics praised Caballero as “Spain’s Sir Walter Scott” after reading La Gaviota (1849) and its depictions of traditional Spain, feminine domesticity, and the defense of Catholicism. See “Women as Cultural Agents in Spanish Modernity” 236. 4. Dale J. Pratt notes the similarities between realism and scientific discourse, as realism shifted away from romantic subjectivity to a so-called objective mirror on the world. Realism also occurred during the political and economic pragmatism characteristic of the Restoration and called attention to the resemblance between scientific and literary writing. See Signs of Science: Literature, Science, and Spanish Modernity since 1868, 51. 5. Harriet Turner notes that Marianela’s name derives from two iconic figures, the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalene, and that this contrast guides the structure of the novel in “sus Alturas de sol y ciencia, cielo y visión—y sus honduras—noche, ceguera, mina y muerta” (its Heights of sun and science, sky, and vision—and its depths— night, blindness, mine and death). See “Ciencia e ilusión: la doble dimensión de la metáfora en Marianela” 173. 6. Harriet Turner also astutely identifies the way in which Galdós connects the narrator and all the characters of Marianela with antipositivist discourse. See “Ciencia e ilusión: la doble dimensión de la metáfora en Marianela” 173.

Chapter 5 1. Rita Felski characterizes the decadent mind-set as a “refusal of history and of the concomitant mimetic claims and sociopolitical concerns of realist aesthet- ics [that] manifests itself formally in a spatial and atemporal structure through which literature seeks to approach the condition of painting. Description takes precedence over narration; movement and action give way to an at times claus- trophobic sense of immobility and ahistoricity; and the aestheticist text reveals a self- reflexive preoccupation with the surface of language, with the grain and texture of the word.” See “The Counterdiscourse of the Feminine in Three Texts by Wilde, Huysmans, and Sacher- Masoch” 1098. 2. Noël Valis asserts the importance of the dream in the decadent mind- set, as deca- dent artists sought more profound realities through exploration of the psyche, 190 O Notes

the dream, and the relationship between the arts and life. Decadents and sym- bolists also thought of the dream as a key means of escaping everyday reality in a process that leads to what Valis identifies as the denial of life and the attrition of the will through the rejection of the outside world. See The Decadent Vision in Leopoldo Alas. 3. Alas wrote Su único hijo three years before Spain’s loss of its final colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines in the Spanish– American War of 1898, and Pardo Bazán composed La quimera just five years after what was character- ized by the generation of 1898 writers as the “disaster of Spain.” 4. Another contribution to dream research of the nineteenth century was Mar- quis Hervey de Saint-Denys’s Les rêves et les moyens de les diriger of 1867, which made reference to the “pictoral-hieroglyphic” aspect of dreaming as well. Freud incorporated Saint- Denys’s idea of abstraction, or the process by which the mind transfers the qualities of one subject on to another, into his theory of displacement. Saint-Denys’s contention that there existed a super- imposition of images in dreams also made its way into Freud’s theory of con- densation in dreams. In addition, Saint- Denys advanced the theory of lucid dreaming, in which the dreamer is consciously aware of being in a dream state and can direct the course of an ongoing dream. See Robert L. Van de Castle’s Our Dreaming Mind. 5. Noël Valis analyzes the fetishistic role of the child in Su único hijo. She asserts that there is no child in Su único hijo because both Bonifacio and Emma use the child as a fetish (the substitute that fundamentally signals an absence or loss) to construct the child of their imagination, who ultimately represents death and the elision of feeling by Bonifacio and Emma. See “Death of the Child in Su único hijo” 243, 250, 259, 260. 6. Noël Valis contends that decadent writers like Alas were more interested in the state of reverie than in the dream itself and therefore strayed from psy- chological analysis of the dream. See The Decadent Vision in Leopoldo Alas 136. This avoidance of psychological analysis of the dream contributes to the heightened expression of disillusion by the dreamer who extracts no meaning from dreams. 7. In her article “La conclusión imposible,” Beth Wietelmann Bauer points out Alas’s ultimate expression of disillusion in the form of the suicide of Bonifacio Reyes’s son Antonio in the follow-up novel to Su único hijo, La medianía, which Alas never published and whose ending Alas only spoke and never actually wrote. Bauer also draws attention to the impossibility of a clear-cut conclusion in Su único hijo due to Alas’s wish to communicate the “radical incertidumbre de cual- quier conclusión teológica, filosófica, o literaria” (74, 76; radical uncertainty about any kind of theological, philosophical, or literary conclusion). 8. Íñigo Sánchez-Llama has associated Pardo Bazán’s use of the myth of the qui- mera with the topos of modernity and its role in the exaltation of artistic indi- viduality in the midst of the fin- de- siècle malaise caused by modernization. See “El mito de la Quimera como tropo genérico de la modernidad en Emilia Pardo Bazán.” Notes O 191

Chapter 6 1. Ironically, Agustín’s preoccupation with Lina’s attraction to mysticism and romanticism mimics that of Galdós earlier in the nineteenth century, when he lamented women writers’ overly idealistic literary production. 2. Lina’s flight to the Alhambra for relief is reminiscent of nineteenth- century French romantic Théophile Gautier’s idealized description of Spain as a coun- try he believed to be untouched by the evils of modernization in his travelogue Voyage en Espagne. The fact that Lina’s retreat to the Alhambra is brought on by the commentary of Agustín as a quintessential actor of modernization speaks to Lina’s firm rejection of the forces of modernization that constrain her eventual identity as a mystic. 3. Dale J. Pratt asserts that there were “polemics over positivism and faith” in the later decades of the nineteenth century that followed the previous debate between Krausism and Catholicism. See Signs of Science: Literature, Science, and Spanish Modernity since 1868 9– 10, 51– 52. 4. Labanyi further asserts that Nazarín is Galdós’s most self-reflexive novel after La de Bringas and that the capacity for abstraction required by the modern monetary system actually facilitates Nazarín’s ability to conceive of an abstract entity such as God. See Gender and Modernization in the Spanish Realist Novel 396– 97. 5. Despite the fact that there are many characters in Nazarín who do not think of Nazarín as egotistical, many literary critics of Nazarín find that Nazarín’s char- acter is defined by egotism and self-interest. Alberto Rabago considers Nazarín’s quest for solitude in the country to be guided by egotism (203); Peter Bly con- tends that Nazarín spreads his message as if it were the most just and truthful one on the planet (298); and John H. Sinnigen argues that Nazarín’s desire to help others is motivated more by a desire to satisfy his own needs to set an example rather than to actually lessen others’ suffering (237). The individualistic nature of mysticism can often only be interpreted as selfishness within the modern para- digm. This association of egocentrism with mystics misconstrues the fact that egocentric individuality is actually supplanted by the direct experience of divinity within oneself in mystical experience (MacCurdy 325). 6. As Michel Foucault asserts in Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, the prison exists “between the crime and the return to right and virtue [and] would constitute the ‘space between two worlds’ the place for the individual transfor- mation that would restore to the state the subject it had lost” (123). In a similar fashion, the insane asylum ensures that the person deemed mad adheres to the conventions of society: “In the serene world of mental illness, modern man no longer communicates with the madman: on one hand, the man of reason del- egates the physician to madness, thereby authorizing a relation only through the abstract universality of disease; on the other, the man of madness communi- cates with society only by the intermediary of an equally abstract reason which is order, physical and moral constraint, the anonymous pressure of the group, the requirements of conformity” (x). The prison and the asylum act as ways of controlling and classifying the unfixed epistemology of mysticism. 192 O Notes

7. In this blurring of mysticism and hysteria, Pardo Bazán acknowledges what Cris- tina Mazzoni has identified as the “equally complex and polysemic” nature of both mysticism and hysteria in her book Saint Hysteria: Neurosis, Mysticism, and Gender in European Culture (6). Jo Labanyi points out the same merging of mysticism and hysteria in Nazarín’s Beatriz and contends that Galdós sees mysticism and hysteria “as exceptional experiences (albeit pleasant and unpleasant respectively) of a form- lessness that defies verbal expression. Both stand as reminders of the limits of the representational capacity of language.” See “Representing the Unrepresentable: Monsters, Mystics, and Feminine Men in Galdós’ Nazarín” 230– 31. 8. Lina’s appropriation of mysticism can also be associated with feminism. Mary E. Giles expounds on the feminist mystic: “[T]he woman mystic has to be feminist. For the feminist mystic is she whose flame of Loving sears the edges of life, which edges are only feeble constructs of the human mind anyway. She is bright living in the darkness of Love, the solitary heart, alone but not lonely, she whom we rec- ognize and in whom we recognize ourselves by the clear absoluteness of moving uniquely. She is, and we are, greater than whatever we or others might conceive of and label as ourselves. For we are ourselves paradox, mystery, born and being born out of Mystery itself.” See The Feminist Mystic and Other Essays on Women and Spirituality 36. 9. Domingo Yndurain points out the lack of collectivity and rationalism involved in the rejection of the dominant ideology in Galdós’s Nazarín as well as Miseri- cordia: “The absence of a rational or theoretical base, on which to found a prac- tice, proves obvious in Nazarín and Misericordia, in the characters’ behavior as much as in the novels’ construction. Yet in these two cases, as in that of stoic morality, it is a question of individual solutions and behavior, which neither affect nor impose themselves on society.” See “Galdós and the Generation of 1898” 154. Stoic morality and individualism characterize both Nazarín’s and Lina’s mystic epistemology.

Chapter 7 1. Beatriz Rivera- Barnes characterizes Andrés’s mind- set as “parascientific” and sees Andrés “trying to explain the psychological by means of the mathematical,” resulting in “the mathematical remain[ing] mute and the world becom[ing] a mixture of the insane asylum and hospital.” See “Pío Baroja’s Parascientific Epis- temology” 188. 2. I do not agree with Amalia Iglesias Serna’s contention that Andrés goes through life without any hopes or expectations. I do, however, believe that Andrés strug- gles with what Iglesias Serna categorizes as a loss of illusions and utopias that pervades the work of Baroja. See “Pío Baroja y el tiempo del fin” 333– 38. 3. As Mary Lee Bretz has incisively shown in her book Voices, Silences, and Echoes: A Theory of the Essay and the Critical Reception of Naturalism, one cannot reduce philosophical and literary naturalism to such simplistic analysis, since it is marked by the complex interplay of late nineteenth- century discourses such as nationalism, Catholicism, neo- Catholicism, Krausism, institutionalism, literary and philosophical idealism, antifeminism, feminism, naturalism, and positivism. Notes O 193

Bretz contends that the discussion of naturalism provided an ideal forum for Spaniards to express and resolve “many of the social, political, religious, and artistic tensions that characterized late nineteenth- century society” (130). 4. This idea of mourning symbols from the past comes from Peter Homans’s The Ability to Mourn: Disillusionment and the Social Origins of Psychoanalysis. In this study about the social and cultural origins of psychoanalysis, Homans postulates that psychoanalysis was invented as a means for secularization to mourn the lost symbols and the communal wholeness they organized in the West. Homans believes that psychoanalysis, in addition to literature and modern art, is a mode of creative response to this loss. Homans also contends that modernity’s stress on individualization creates people who are more vulnerable to the chaos of new forms of experiencing and subjectivity. I believe that Andrés personifies this secu- lar mourning, especially because he has never had any real sense of community with his family from the start. 5. According to Elizabeth Munson, newspaper reports, cartoons, and fictional sto- ries exaggerated the dangers of women’s not being discrete and therefore unnec- essarily caused women to be particularly fearful. See “Walking on the Periphery: Gender and the Discourse of Modernization” 67. By including a lone female character in the streets of many European cities who is constantly plagued by the menacing “perseguidor,” El Perseguidor can be considered a part of this literature that exaggerated the dangers for women in public alone. 6. In his book Feminismo (1899), Adolfo Posada identified these three branches of feminism and their differences. Radical feminism espoused complete equality and fought for equal rights, opportunities, and education. Conservative femi- nism fought for more social, economic, and legal rights but did not support full equality. Catholic feminism advocated explicitly for better education for women with the help of clergy. See Geraldine Scanlon’s La Polémica feminista en la España contemporánea (1868– 1974) 198, 199. 7. In a 1931 essay, de Burgos argued for the compatibility of femininity and femi- nism, contending that women’s caregiving duties did not exclude them from strong individuality and legal rights. See Roberta Johnson, “Spanish Feminist Thought of the Modernist Era” 45. 8. In The Subject in Question, C. Christopher Soufas characterizes Andrés’s subjec- tivity as his “desire for expansive understanding and intellectual clarity ced[ing] to progressive disorientation, confusion, and solipsistic despair, which culmi- nates in his suicide” (93). In Mujer, modernismo y vanguardia en España (1898– 1931), Susan Kirkpatrick notes aspects of “feminidad moderna—la capacidad de empatía, el deseo de hacer felices a los demás [y] una integridad racional” (208; modern femininity— the capacity of empathy, the desire to make everyone else happy, [and] a rational integrity) that early twentieth-century women writers like Carmen de Burgos demonstrate. Maryellen Bieder describes male writers’ concern with philosophical questions and de Burgos’s treatment of social issues in “Carmen de Burgos: Modern Spanish Woman” (241– 59). El árbol de la ciencia epitomizes the “narcissistic narratives that chronicle their authors’ own intellec- tual development” that Roberta Johnson has identified in Gender and Nation in the Spanish Modernist Novel (2). Johnson concludes that male modernists 194 O Notes

concentrated on individual consciousness in their work, while women expressed more of a social modernism.

Chapter 8 1. The second part of this chapter is slightly altered from my article “(S)Moth- ering in Miguel de Unamuno’s ‘Dos madres’: The Fatal Repercussions of the Nineteenth- Century Idealization of the Mother,” which appeared in Hispanic Journal 20.2 (Fall 1999): 351–61 under my maiden name Elizabeth Arrington Bruner Smith. 2. In European Feminisms, 1700– 1950: A Political History, Karen Offen explains how Spanish women fought for “relational feminism” as opposed to the fight for individual rights of the Anglo- Saxon countries. 3. Mary Nash contends that “biological essentialism rather than religion became a core feature in the construction of gender difference and the modernization of the notion of femininity in early twentieth-century Spain, and, thus, a key feature in the development of women’s shared cultural identity and their collec- tive definition of identity politics and a woman’s agenda.” See “Un/Contested Identities: Motherhood, Sex Reform, and the Modernization of Gender Identity in Early Twentieth- Century Spain” 25– 26. 4. Nerea Aresti documents only one woman of the 17,287 students at the Escuela Superior de Magisterio y Facultades in 1900– 1901, and this had only increased to fifty women in 1909– 10. See Médicos, donjuanes y mujeres modernas: Los ideales de feminidad y masculinidad en el primer tercerio del siglo XX 46. 5. De los Rios’s varied interpretations of Don Juan imitate those of early twentieth- century doctors like Gregorio Marañón, who explained Don Juan’s degenerate, oversexed state from the standpoint of his womanizing, eternal search for the mother, effeminacy, and homosexuality. See Aresti, Médicos, donjuanes y mujeres modernas 130– 32; and Wright 77, 79. 6. In Ramón Pérez de Ayala’s Tigre Don Juan y el curandero de su honra (1926), the narrator even calls Don Juan a “maldito garañón estéril” (quoted in Wright 54; damned sterile ass). 7. In his book Ruin and Restitution: Reinterpreting Romanticism in Spain, Philip W. Silver traces the development of what he calls a “late nineteenth- century Castile- centric romantic nationalism” of “liberal Falangists, Republicans, and the Spanish left [. . .] [who] were reacting to a threatened national disunity with their own collective sublimation of the myth of a spiritually unifying ‘essentialist,’ Castile” (32). Silver does not include any women writers in his analysis, but Montserrat Alás-Brun highlights Carmen de Burgos, María Mar- tínez Sierra, Sofía Casanova, and Concha Espina as female members of the generation of 1898. Alás- Brun contends that Blanca de lo Ríos’s conservative political and religious views opposed those of the generation of 1898 (51– 52). Sarah Wright considers de los Ríos’s Don Juan to be a representation of the biological, social, historical, and artistic degeneration of Don Juan and her yearning for the regeneration of Spain and the extension of its links with for- mer colonies (24, 29). Notes O 195

8. Blanca de los Ríos’s representation of Concha as the abject mother is in stark contrast to the exaltation of the mother figure in writings of the nineteenth cen- tury by María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, Angela Grassi, and Faustina Sáez de Melgar. Concha is also the opposite of the “civilizing mother” so actively sought and revered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Blanca de los Ríos’s portrayal of Concha as a negligent mother recalls the attitude of doctors like Gerardo González Revilla, who declares in La puericultura (el cuidado de los niños) in 1920, “[P]or desgracia, que como patriotas y Médicos nos duele, la mujer en todas las clases de nuestra sociedad no sabe nada, absolutamente nada, para cumplir con acierto su deber de esposa y madre” (quoted in Aresti 2001, 171; Unfortunately, as patriots and Doctors it hurts us to admit, the woman in every social class of our society knows nothing, absolutely nothing about successfully completing her responsibilities as a wife and mother). 9. Reyes Lázaro interprets the destruction of Don Juan and his daughters as evi- dence of Blanca de los Ríos’s disillusion with the lost values of Donjuanismo in modernity and by extension de los Ríos’s advocacy for the regeneration of Spain based on a program of national romanticism. However, it is the tradition- ally seductive and philandering nature of Don Juan that precipitates his daugh- ters’ lack of respect for him and his and their final downfall. By showcasing the daughters’ knowledge of Don Juan’s transgressions, showing how this knowledge contributes to the daughters’ destruction, and having Don Juan kill himself, de los Ríos shows the extent to which Don Juan’s stereotypical action of seduc- tion negatively affects the nuclear family of the early twentieth century. As Sarah Wright asserts, his attitude also reflects the discourse of degeneration so pervasive in the medical discourse of early twentieth- century Spain (31– 32, 35). 10. After women’s participation in traditionally male jobs during World War I, José Francos Rodríguez contested the inferiority of women in La mujer y la política españolas, 1920 (The Woman and Spanish Politics, 1920): “Después de los actos heroicos realizados por las mujeres, ¿quién se atrevería hoy a asegurar que las mujeres son inferiores a los hombres?” (quoted in Aresti 2001, 94; After all the heroic acts of women, who would dare say today that women are inferior to men?). However, in Tres ensayos sobre la vida sexual (Three Essays on Sexual Life) of 1926, Gregorio Marañón managed to explain away this capacity of women: “Pero el experimento, en realidad, no probaba que el trabajo rudo fuese el papel de la mujer, sino sencillamente que en un momento de inquietud, la mujer [. . .] puede suplantar al hombre” (quoted in Aresti 2001, 164; But the experiment, in reality, did not prove that difficult work would be the purview of the woman, rather that simply in a moment of unrest, the woman [. . .] can take the place of the man). 11. In “Biología y feminismo” (“Biology and Feminism”) in El Siglo Médico 1920 (The Medical Century 1920), Marañón equated the Don Juan archetype with the female suffragate in terms of their dearth of conventionally male and female traits: “[Hay] la paradoja de que biológicamente el ‘tenorio’ sea tan poco varonil, como la sufragista exaltada es poco femenina” (quoted in Aresti 2001, 131; [There is] the paradox that biologically the “Don Juan” would be so nonvirile, just as the exalted suffragette is so nonfeminine). 196 O Notes

12. The notion of Juan’s “ongoing death” coincides with Nietzsche’s idea that “one pays dearly for immortality: one has to die several times while still alive” (quoted in Mandrell 1). Juan as an archetypal figure reminiscent of Don Juan who mir- rors the desires of immortality of Raquel and Berta dies several times figuratively throughout Dos madres, as his sense of will and agency are continually stripped from him by Raquel and Berta in their quest to dominate his and their existence with their constant emphasis on mothering. 13. Dr. Enrique Madrazo expresses this connection between motherhood and the true destiny of a woman in El destino de la mujer. Cartas entre mujeres (1930): “Fracasa la vida de la mujer que no cumple con la maternidad. En este destino están sus anhelos y su alma, y fuera de él pierde el carácter humano, para confundirse con los demás animales” (quoted in Aresti 2001, 185; The life of a woman who fails to carry out motherhood fails. Her deepest desires and her soul reside in this destiny, and outside of this she loses her human character, confusing herself with the rest of the animals). Works Cited

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afrancesamiento (taking on French Azaña, Manuel, 66 characteristics), 21, 55 Azorín, 159 agency female, 3, 38, 82, 83, 172, 173, 179, Baker, Edmund, 68, 198 183 Barash, Carol, 163, 203 lack of, 167, 169 Baring- Gould, Sabine, 90, 198 male, 178, 196 Barnes, Gwendolyn, 119, 198 of modern subject, 2, 153, 154 Baroja, Pío, viii, 9, 13, 137, 138, 141, of the mother, 168 176, 177, 192, 198, 204, 211 Agreda, Sor María de, 184 El barón, 47 Alas, Leopoldo, vii, 13, 99, 103, 104, Baudelaire, Charles, 67, 188, 198, 212 107, 138, 176, 177, 184, 202, 214 Bauer, Beth Wietelmann, 104, 190, 198 Alás- Brun, Montserrat, 194 Bayly, C. A., 4, 198 Aldaraca, Bridget, 75, 76, 164, 197 beauty Amar y Borbón, Josefa, vii, 4, 12, 17– and art, 113, 114 34, 36, 37, 41, 48, 54, 55, 83, 99, and Don Juan, 157 176, 177, 178, 182, 184, 185, 186, female, 96, 108, 114 197 inner, 97 ancien régime, 7, 9, 41, 61, 65, 70, 71, and positivism, 92 175 and psychoanalysis, 93, 209 ángel del hogar (angel of the house), 6, 7, Western conception of, 92, 94, 98 8, 51, 83, 153, 161, 184, 197 Bécquer, Gustavo Adolfo, 60, 86 antiflâneur, 65, 67, 71 Benavente, Duchess of, 41 antipositivist discourse, 75, 125, 189 Benjamin, Jessica, 168, 198 El árbol de la ciencia, viii, 13, 137, 139, Benjamin, Walter, 67 141, 142, 143, 176, 177, 193, 198 Bergamo, Fr. Jacobo Felipe de, 186 Arenal, Concepción, 148 Bergmann, Emilie, 154, 198 Aresti, Nerea, 148, 156, 157, 162, 164, Berman, Marshall, 132, 198 172, 178, 182, 194, 195, 196, 197 Bernheimer, Charles, 188, 198 Arkinstall, Christine, 154, 161, 197 Bestard de la Torre, Viscountess, 146 Arredondo, Christopher Britt, 183, 197 Bieder, Maryellen, 145, 152, 181, 182, Arregi, Ana, 141, 198 193, 198 Arteaga, Esteban de, 21 Bildungsroman, 151 ataraxia, 142 binaries, 5, 11, 74, 75, 84, 151, 177 authenticity, individual, vii, 119, 132 binary Avila, St. Theresa of, 122, 183 boundaries, 188 218 O Index binary (continued) Cartas marruecas, vii, 11, 17– 24, 26– 36, gender, 83 184, 185, 200, 204, 212 oppositions, 5, 10, 11, 62, 82 Carus, Carl, 106 thinking, 72, 77 casamentera (matchmaker), 49, 187 biological essentialism, 155, 194 See also celestina Black Legend, 18, 28, 33, 35, 36, 65, Casanova, Sofía, 194 201 Cascardi, Anthony J., 4, 156, 200 Blanco, Alda, 87, 182, 187, 199, 205 Castells, Ricardo, 70, 200 Blanco White, José María, 18 Castro, Américo, 23 Blinkhorn, Martin, 2, 7, 11, 199 Castro, Rosalía de, vii, 4, 12, 59, 60, 61, Bly, Pedro, 191, 199 177, 178, 182, 187– 88, 200, 201, Bolufer Peruga, Mónica, 6, 13, 38, 40, 203, 205, 206, 211, 213, 214 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 55, 56, 181, and male hysteria, 71– 84 185, 199 Catalina, Saint, 121, 122, 125, 129 Bordo, Susan, 183, 199 Catholicism, 131, 210 Bordonada, Ángela Ena, 142, 155, 199, and the Enlightenment, 40 211 and Fernán Caballero, 87, 99 Bretz, Mary Lee, 3, 138, 142, 192– 93, and the French Revolution, 3 199 and love, 44 Burke, Edmund, 10, 183, 200 and María Lorenza de los Ríos, 55 El burlador de Sevilla, 153, 155, 156, 173 and modernity, 3, 5, 7, 10 and naturalism, 192 caballero (knight), 51 orthodox, 130 Caballero, Fernán (Cecilia Böhl de and positivism, 191 Faber), vii, 4, 12, 60, 85– 92, 98– 99, Spanish, 9, 11, 120, 175, 189 176, 177– 78, 181– 82, 189, 200, and suicide, 144 209 See also Church, the El caballero de las botas azules, 12, 60, 61, Cebreiro Rábade Villar, María do, 60, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 178, 187, 200, 188, 200, 203 205, 211 Cejador y Frauca, Julio, 87 Cabarrús, Francisco de, 20, 21, 41, 43, celestina (matchmaker), modern, 50– 1, 44, 55 54 Cadalso, José, vii, 11– 12, 17– 38, 176, See also casamentera 177, 183, 184, 185, 198, 200, 206, La Celestina, 51, 53, 187, 200, 203, 208 212 censorship, 60, 185 Callahan, William J., 185, 200 Chacel, Rosa, 9 Campomanes, Pedro Rodríguez, 6, 43 Charcot, Jean-Martin, 75, 76, 79, 81, canon, the (canonical writing), 197, 211 188 isabelino, 4, 182 Charles II, 41 Spanish women writers of, 4, 181– 82, Charles III, 185 198, 203, 204, 212 Charles IV, 11, 41 capitalism, 2, 7, 201 child(ren), 6, 20, 21, 24, 25, 28, 29, Carenas, Francisco, 132, 200 31, 32, 46, 91– 92, 103, 104, 105, Carlistas, 64, 69 107– 8, 109, 111, 117, 138, 143, Carlist wars, 6, 65, 69, 71 144, 145, 146, 149, 150, 158, 163, Index O 219

164, 165, 166, 167, 170, 177, 190, individual, 132, 194 209, 214 modern, 132 childcare, 22 and Nietzsche, 123 childhood, 123, 124, 140, 144, 158, 168 self- , 80, 146 Christ, Jesus, 91, 112, 122, 128, 129, contemplative reaction, 13, 103, 105, 131, 150 110, 177 Christian(s), 26, 27, 28, 42, 87, 88, 90, cortejo (courtship), 49, 210 122, 123, 126, 157, 183, 201, 208 cortejo (dandy), 51 Christianity, 23, 27, 39, 87, 88, 122 See also dandy; petimetre Church, the, 2, 6, 7– 8, 17, 20, 27, 59, Costa, Joaquín, 7 84, 86, 105, 119, 126, 127, 131, costumbrismo, 12, 59, 88, 182, 200, 206, 133, 145, 157, 175, 183, 184, 185, 207 200, 207 creative action, 13, 103, 105, 109, 177 See also Catholicism critique(s), vii citizen(s), 6, 23, 28, 32, 34, 61 by Benito Pérez Galdós, 97, 99 of the Enlightenment, 20, 21, 31, 47 in El día de los difuntos de 1836, 69 female, 33, 47, 182, 186, 187, 213 by Fernán Caballero, 88, 89, 91 male, 33, 127 in Las hijas de Don Juan, 157 citizenship, 46, 83 by José Cadalso, 30, 184 city, the, 197, 207, 209, 213 by Josefa Amar y Borbón, 29 and Carmen de Burgos, 151 by José Mariano de Larra, 59, 60, 61, and the flâneur, 67– 68, 71 64 and hysteria, 76, 83 and male subjectivity, 176, 183 and José Mariano de Larra, 66, 67– 70 by Pío Baroja, 139 and Madrid, 12, 66 in La sabia indiscreta, 52 and women, 146– 47 about Spain, 26– 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, civilization(s), 28– 29, 34, 40, 93, 114 61 and barbarism, 62, 188 Cruz, San Juan de la, 122 as a barometer of the state of women, 38, 185 dandy, 51, 215 decadence of, 34 See also cortejo; petimetre and decorum, 38, 186 Darwin, Charles, 96, 122, 204 definition of, 5, 39 Davies, Catherine, 60, 187, 201 and positivism, 95 daydream, 103, 104, 108, 110, 113 as a sacred value, 40 death and women’s role, 38, 39 and El árbol de la ciencia, 138, 140, Clack, Beverley, 200 141, 143, 144, 152 Claramunt, Teresa, 150 and El caballero de las botas azules, 72 La comedia nueva, 47 and decorous women, 45 Comte, Auguste, 85– 86, 95, 96, 189, and Don Juan, viii, 13, 153, 154, 157, 201, 210 160, 161, 170, 171– 72, 177, 178 See also positivism and Dulce Dueño, 124, 128, 130 consciousness and José Mariano de Larra, 64, 68, 84 altered states of, 9, 106 and Marianela, 94, 97, 98 class, 103 and the mother, 163 European, 184 ongoing, 163, 196 220 O Index death (continued) and the Enlightenment, vii, 12, 37 and La quimera, 111, 114, 115, 116, and Josefa Amar y Borbón, 41 117 lack of, 38, 40, 42 regenerative, 177 literary, 39 and Su único hijo, 108, 190, 214 as part of a binary, 177 de Beauvoir, Simone, 170–71 and relationship with traditional Debicki, Andrew P., 14, 201 Castilian culture de Burgos, Carmen, viii, 4, 13, 137, 144, and women, 38, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 148, 150, 151– 52, 176, 177, 181, 51, 53, 55, 56, 86, 176 193, 194, 198, 199, 201, 205, 207, Defensa de las mujeres, 41 215 degeneration, 109, 117, 178 decadence and decadence, 105 of civilization, 114, 188 of Don Juan, 155, 156– 57, 179, 194 cultural, 37 and Madrid, 68 as a literary movement, 105 modernist, 130 and the Orient, 34 and naturalism, 89 of Spain, 1, 5, 33, 70, 201 and Spain, 195 and Su único hijo, 109, 114, 117 See also decadence; decline See also decline; degeneration DeKoven, Marianne, 10, 201 decadent, the de la Cerda, María Isidra Guzmán, 41 character archetypes, 103, 104, 105, Deleuze, Gilles, 2, 201 107, 108, 109, 116 de los Heros, J. A., 21 dandy, 215 de los Ríos, Blanca, viii, 4, 153– 54, definition of, 13, 103, 110, 116– 17, 155– 56, 157, 159– 60, 162, 176, 189– 90, 211, 214 177, 178, 179, 181, 194– 95, 201, and disillusion, 116, 117 207, 210 figures of modernity, 110 desire and Las hijas de Don Juan, 159, 160 and Don Juan, 156, 158, 163, 196 literary style, 104, 184 and illusion, 140 and melancholy, 78 individual, 169 quality of Spain, 1, 32, 35 and José Mariano de Larra, 65, 69, 81 subject, 188, 198, 211 latent, 104, 168 writer, 105 and love, 55, 108, 125 decline and marriage, 151 as a natural part of nations’ lifecycles, maternal, 158, 159, 172, 173, 176, 196 32– 33 and melodrama, 151 physical, 115, 160, 172 mimetic, 163, 166, 179 and women, 31 and modernity, 4, 156, 179 societal, 30, 31 new principles of, 60 of Spain, 1– 2, 7, 11, 18, 25, 27, 30, object of, 166, 167 33, 34, 35, 37, 186, 205 paternal, 108, 117, 163 See also decadence; degeneration and positivism, 86 decorum and Schopenhauer, 123 cult of, 186 sexual, 43 and death, 45 and subjectivity, 166, 176, 193 definition of, 38, 39, 40, 186 unbridled, 173 Index O 221

uncontrollable, 6 and loss, 9 and women, 9, 40, 43, 154, 163, 173, and male hysteria, 61, 77, 83, 84 179, 184 and the male romantic poet, 72 determinism, biological, 142 and María Lorenza de los Ríos, 47 “El día de los difuntos de 1836,” 69 and melancholy, 8 Diogenes, 128 and men, 8, 9, 11– 12, 13, 14, 20, 21, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the 22, 33– 35, 36, 38, 40, 45, 46, Prison, 130– 31, 191, 202 47, 56, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, Discurso de la educación física y moral de 69, 71, 72, 73, 77, 83– 84, 85, las mujeres, vii, 17– 36, 41, 186 99, 103, 110, 111, 113, 114, Discurso en defensa del talento de las 116, 117, 133, 137, 140– 41, mujeres, 41 144, 152, 153, 156, 160, 175, disenchantment, 5, 9, 20, 36, 37, 38, 72, 176, 177, 178 91, 112, 114, 116 modern, 1, 3, 7, 8 See also disillusion(ment) and motherhood, 173 disillusion(ment), vii, viii, 6, 11, 15, 19, and mysticism, 13, 119 37, 112 with positivism, 12, 85, 99 and Agnes Heller’s theory of post- Enlightenment, 8 “disenchantment with the and psychoanalysis, 9 world,” 116 and religious escape, 117, 133 and art, 111, 113, 114 and Rosalía de Castro, 60, 84, 178 and baroque and romantic literature, and La sabia indiscreta, 56 8, 12 with science, 13, 137, 140, 141, 144 and Benito Pérez Galdós, 85, 99, 178 with the state of Spain, 60, 176 and El caballero de las botas azules, 73 and subjectivity, 10, 152, 153 and Catholicism, 10 and suicide, 12, 152, 153, 177 and children of Don Juan, 158, 161 tempered, 12 definition of, 9 and women, 8– 9, 12, 13, 38, 45, 56, and Don Juan, 156, 160, 173 83, 137, 152, 175, 176, 178, and Dos madres, 173 179 and dreams, 103, 104, 110, 111, 117 See also disenchantment and the Enlightenment, 12 disorder, 17– 36, 93, 177 extreme, 12, 114, 175, 176, 178 and decadence, 117 and Fernán Caballero, 85, 87, 92, 99 and Don Juan, 157, 158 and Freud, 9, 138 and the father, 157 gendered, ix, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 83, and masculine hysteria, 188 153, 175– 79 and women, 20, 29, 33, 34, 47 and Las hijas de Don Juan, 173 divorce, 145, 151 and intellectual men, 60 Dolgin, Stacey L., 129, 201 and José Cadalso, 19, 20, 21, 22, 33, domesticity, 3, 4, 41, 59, 97, 137, 157, 34, 36 175, 189, 197 and Josefa Amar y Borbón, 34– 35, 36 domestic space, 4, 76 and José Mariano de Larra, 63– 66, 69, Don Juan, viii, 4, 13, 152, 176, 177– 79, 71, 84 183, 187, 194, 195, 196, 201, 207, and José Mor de Fuentes, 38, 40, 46, 208, 210, 213, 215 47, 56 and Dos madres, 162– 73 222 O Index

Don Juan (continued) definition of, 11, 12, 17, 18, 25, 28, and Las hijas de Don Juan, 153– 62, 211 33, 36 and La sabia indiscreta, 48, 51, 53– 54 European, 19, 23, 40, 184, 202, 210 Donjuanismo, 157, 159, 162– 63, 172, 195 French, 6, 12, 21, 55 Don Juan Tenorio, 154, 156, 183, 210, and modernity, 4, 6, 7, 11, 35 213 post- , 8, 22 Don Quijote, 26, 51, 54, 78, 128, 129, pre- , 22, 185 141, 187, 208 Spanish, 6, 22, 27, 29, 33, 34, 37, 40, Dos madres, viii, ix, 11, 13, 153, 162– 73, 41, 47, 54, 184, 204, 205, 208, 176, 177– 78, 194, 196, 213, 214 212, 214 Douglass, Carrie B., 5, 201 women’s and men’s roles in, 4, 20, 22, dream research, 103– 4, 105– 7, 190, 214 25, 29– 30, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, dreams, 170, 171 41, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, and decadent literary style, vii, 103– 56, 83, 182, 186, 187, 199, 205, 10, 117 207, 209, 211, 213, 214 and Freud, 190, 106 ensueño (dream/illusion/fantasy), 110, and illusion, 9, 13 111, 112, 113, 115 latent, 109– 10, 117 epistemology manifest, 109– 10 mystical, 132, 133, 137, 191, 192 and modernity, 105, 117 parascientific, 192, 211 and La quimera, 110– 17 eruditos (male pedants), 29, 30, 210 and Su único hijo, 103– 10 El Español, 59 and the eighteenth century, 105 Espergo, Juan, 186 and the Enlightenment, 105 Espina, Concha, 194 and the Middle Ages, 105 Espinosa, Juan de, 186 and the nineteenth century, 105 essentialism, 65 and the Renaissance, 105 biological, 155, 194 and the subconscious, 117 and modern episteme, 11 and the unconscious, 105, 106 Establier- Pérez, Helena, 151, 152, 201 See also sueños existential, 78, 137, 144, 178 dream work, 110 El Duende Satírico del Día, 59 faith, 33, 123, 131– 32, 139, 143, 175, Dulce Dueño, vii, 13, 117, 119– 36, 198, 177, 184, 191, 213 200, 206, 208, 210, 211, 212 family, 13, 20, 38, 40, 41, 49, 104, 105, Durkheim, Emile, 144, 152, 201 138, 144, 150, 153, 154, 156, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 166, 172, 173, effeminacy, 24, 25, 31, 194 193, 195 Émieux, Annick, 186, 201 fantasy, 9, 39, 79, 105, 110, 112, 141, Émile ou de l’éducation, 40– 41 168, 187, 206, 211 empiricism, 19, 27, 81, 82, 86, 95, 132 father, 13, 26, 53, 54, 107, 108– 9, 124, Enders, Victoria Lorree, 154, 201, 209, 138, 140, 153– 65, 168, 171– 73, 215 178, 187 Enlightenment, vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 15, 20, 21, Feijóo y Montenegro, Benito Jerónimo, 30, 33, 37, 42, 46, 47, 56, 78, 105, 6, 20, 21, 41 128, 175 Felski, Rita, 2, 5, 11, 189, 202 anti- , 22 feminine writing, 87 Index O 223 femininity, 11, 38, 47, 82, 83, 146, 149, 131, 133, 176, 177, 178, 182, 189, 172, 193 191, 192, 197, 201, 202, 202– 3, modern, 193, 194 205, 206, 208, 211, 215 feminism, viii, 8, 78, 133, 137, 149, 176, Galicia, Spain, 20, 60, 71, 187– 88 193, 195, 200, 201, 202, 204, 209, Gálvez, María Rosa, 55 212 Gasset, Dr. J., 75 anarchist, 147, 152 Gautier, Théophile, 191, 210, 211 anti- , 192 La Gaviota, 87, 88, 90, 189, 206 Catholic, 147, 193 Gay, Peter, 21, 28, 202 conservative, 193 generation of 1898, 2, 66– 67, 190, 192, European, 194, 209 215 and femininity, 193 female members of, 194 and marriage, 150– 51, 152 Germany, ix, 3, 40 and mysticism, 192 Giles, Mary E., 192, 202 quiet, 20, 23, 185, 213 Giorgio, Adalgisa, 154, 197, 203 radical, 193 Golden Age, 8, 23, 51, 155, 203, 213 relational, 194 comedia, 52, 187 Spanish, 145, 149– 50, 154, 175, 194 Goldman, Peter B., 182, 203 femme fatale, 82, 105, 107, 112– 13, 114 Goldstein, Jan, 77, 80, 188, 203 Fernández, González, 60, 203 González Fernández, Helena, 60, 188, Fernando VII, 60, 61 203 fetish, 78, 109, 190 González Posada, Adolfo, 103 First World War, 148 González Revilla, Gerardo, 195 See also the Great War; World War I Gotor de Burbáguena, Pedro, 147– 48 Fischer, Susan L., 14, 198, 201 Goya, Francisco, 49, 113, 203 flâneur, vii, 59, 60, 61, 65– 72, 74, 83, Gracián, Baltasar, 26 84, 146, 205, 209, 215 Grassi de Cuenca, Ángela, 4 Flaquer, María de la Concepción Gimeno Great War, the, 162 de, 4 See also First World War; World War I Flaubert, Gustave, 74, 188 Greenfield, Susan C., 163, 203 Folguera, Pilar, 145, 202 Guattari, Felix, 2, 201 folletín (serial melodrama), 4, 86– 87, 182 Gustavo, Soledad, 150 Fortunata y Jacinta, 66 Guzmán, Flora, 49, 203 Foucault, Michel, 130– 31, 191, 202 France, ix, 3, 11, 12, 21, 23, 26, 36, 40, Habermas, Jürgen, 2, 3, 181, 203 41, 63, 67, 181, 186, 199 Hafter, Monroe Z., 186, 203 Francos Rodríguez, José, 195 Haidt, Rebecca, 69, 203 free will, 142 Halma, 131, 133, 213 French Revolution, 3, 5, 11, 19, 145, Harney, Michael, 51, 187, 203 183, 185, 186 Hazlitt, William, 105 Freud, Sigmund, 9, 78, 106, 109– 10, Hekman, Susan, 10– 11, 204 138, 141, 144, 147, 190, 202, 209 Heller, Agnes, 116, 122, 131– 32, 204 Herr, Richard, 154, 198, 204 Gabilondo, Joseba, 13, 181, 202 Hervey de Saint- Denys, Marquis, 190 Galdós, Benito Pérez, vii, 12, 13, 66, 78, Hibbs, Solange, 10, 183, 204 85, 86, 92, 98– 99, 119, 120, 129, Hickey, Margarita, 44, 48– 49 224 O Index

Las hijas de Don Juan, viii, 13, 153– 62, of the mother, 162, 163, 167, 168, 172– 73, 176, 177, 178– 79, 201, 169– 70, 172, 173, 194 210, 211 over- , 163 Hildebrant, F. W., 106 of science, 143 Homans, Peter, 9, 193, 204 ideology, 44, 67, 169, 192, 206 homosexuality, 194 conservative, 156, 182 Hooper, Kirsty, 181, 204 domestic, 156, 197 hope, viii, 19, 33, 47, 69, 72, 83, 94, gender, 34 109, 113, 114, 131, 139, 140, 142, liberal, 145 153, 158, 169, 175, 176, 177, 192 Iglesias Serna, Amalia, 192, 204 See also optimism Ilie, Paul, 70, 204 hopelessness, 75, 77, 82, 107, 109, 117, illusion, vii, viii, 6, 12–13, 23, 73, 101, 158, 167 103, 104, 110, 111, 112, 115, See also pessimism 117, 135, 138–44, 158, 163, 192, “Horas de invierno,” 66, 70, 207 202 Hore, María Gertrudis, 44, 55 definition of, 9 Huffer, Lynne, 163, 170, 171, 204 immortality, 163, 170, 196 Hume, David, 17, 45 la indiscreta, (indiscrete woman), 49, 50, Hunt, Cornelius G., 96, 204 53, 56, 187 Hutcheon, Linda, 188 individualism hyperbole, 29, 35, 61, 62, 63, 64, 188 deficient, 152, 177 hysteria, 12, 71– 72, 79, 82, 84, 113, excessive, 70, 121, 132, 152, 156, 177 130, 132, 188, 208, 209 liberal, 68 and campesinos (peasants), 76 male, 178 definition of, 73, 75 and modernity, 2, 8, 175, 179 and disillusion, 84 and women, 121, 178 and domesticity, 76 indolence, 27, 61, 62, 63– 64, 65, 67, female, 75– 82, 83, 129, 130, 146, 109, 188 158, 160, 161, 188 inertia, 62, 63, 77, 105, 111 and the flâneur (street stroller), 71 solipsistic, vii, 103 as a gender- neutral disease, 76, 78, Inquisition, the, 1, 17– 19, 26, 27, 61, 79– 80 68, 184, 185, 205 and Jean- Martin Charcot, 75, 79, 81 insane asylum, 76, 128, 129, 130– 31, male, 4, 56, 60, 61, 76– 84, 172, 188 191, 192 and mysticism, 124, 192, 208 insanity, 8, 111, 130– 31, 202 La Institución Libre de Enseñanza, 120 Iarocci, Michael, 3, 22, 65, 69– 70, 188, institutionalism, 192 204 Iriarte, Tomás de, 47 idealism, 98, 110, 114, 127, 129, 204, Irigaray, Luce, 154 213, 214 irony, 60, 188, 211 literary, 120 definition of, 188 philosophical, 192 grotesque, 211 idealization, ix- x, 40, 43– 44, 51, 54, 73, playful, 63, 83 130, 213 romantic, 60, 64, 187 de- , 9 self- conscious, 60 of the father, 138, 161 Isabel II, 61 Index O 225

Isabel and Ferdinand, 23 and irony, 187, 188, 211 Italy, 40, 104, 145, 146 and suicide, 177 La Rubia Prado, Francisco, 22, 23, 33, Jaffe, Catherine, 48, 53, 187, 199, 204– 185, 206, 212 5, 207, 209, 212, 214 Lasarte, Carmen Karr de, 150 Jagoe, Catherine, 120, 205 Lauretis, Teresa de, 11, 201 James, William, 132, 205 Lázaro, Reyes, 157, 159– 60, 195, 207 Jameson, Fredric, 3 laziness, 26, 32, 61, 63 jealousy, 53, 79, 157, 167 See also indolence Jesús, Teresa de, 184 Lejárraga, María, 148 Jiménez de Pedro, Justo, 164 León, Lucrecia de, 105 Johnson, Roberta, 3, 60, 162, 193– 94, Lettres Persanes, 23, 26– 27, 185 205 Lévi- Strauss, Claude, 5 Johnson- Hoffman, Deanna, 60, 187, 205 Lewis, Elizabeth Franklin, 48, 55, 184, Jordanova, Ludmilla, 42, 46, 205 199, 205, 207, 209, 212, 214 Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchor de, 6, 21 liberales (liberals), 60, 64, 69, 70, 89 Joyes y Blake, Inés, 44, 185 liberalism, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 37, 59, 65, 70, Jung, Carl, 163 71, 77, 84, 177, 178 Junta de Damas, 37, 42, 182 literature, institutionalization of, 11, 183 Jusdanis, Gregory, 2, 205 Llanos, Bernadita, 33, 207 London, 34, 70, 71, 149 Kamen, Henry, 1, 186, 205 Lo prohibido, 78, 208 Kant, Immanuel, 10, 17, 23, 45, 183 Lorenza de los Ríos, María (la Marquesa Kercheville, F. M., 70, 205 de Fuerte Híjar), vii, 4, 6, 12, 36– Kirkpatrick, Susan, 3, 60, 66, 67, 69, 87, 37, 38, 47, 49, 55– 56, 83, 99, 176, 88, 116, 183– 84, 187, 189, 193, 177, 182, 187, 204, 207 206 love Kish, Kathleen, 46– 47, 187, 206 and the celestina (matchmaker), 51, 54 knowledge, 8, 11, 20, 25, 40, 41, 47, 54, culture of, 205, 206, 213 86, 97, 106, 109, 114, 125, 127, customs and level of civilization, 185 131, 132, 139, 156, 169, 187, 204 and decorum, vii, 37– 56 See also epistemology and Don Quijote, 187 Kraus, Karl Christian Friedrich, 120, 202 and feminism, 150– 51 Krausism, 191, 192 free, 150, 152 Kristeva, Julia, 160, 206 and the French Enlightenment, 12, Kronik, John, 126, 198, 201, 206 40, 55, 199 and happiness, 164 Labanyi, Jo, 4, 6, 9, 14, 127, 191, 192, and Josefa Amar y Borbón, 55 198, 199, 200, 206– 7 marital, 54 Laborda, María de, 185 maternal, 40, 44, 159, 160, 164 Lannon, Frances, 7, 120, 207 and men, 27, 31, 43, 44, 47– 48, 50, Larra, Mariano José de, vii, 12, 59– 72, 51– 52, 53– 4 176, 198, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206, mystical, 125, 192, 208 207, 208, 210, 211 object, 51, 54, 79, 130, 186, 198 and the flâneur, 65– 71 paternal, 108 and hyperbole, 61– 65 romantic, 51, 54, 55, 164 226 O Index love (continued) Martín, Gregorio C., 60, 208 and science, 141, 143 Martínez Sierra, Gregorio, 148– 49 sexual, 124, 152 Martínez Sierra, María, 148– 49, 150, and the Spanish Enlightenment, 37, 194 40, 44, 47, 54, 55, 199 Marx, Karl, 132 triangle, 50 masculinity, 38, 47, 104, 162, 172, 209 unconditional, 112, 124, 127, 164, Masson de Morvilliers, 11, 19, 35 167 materialism, 4, 5, 116, 129 unreciprocated, 51, 80– 81 Maudsley, Henry, 106 and women, 38, 44, 47, 48– 51, 53, Mazzoni, Cristina, 192, 208 54, 56, 186– 87, 204 McMahon, Darrin M., 122– 23, 208 Lovett, Gabriel H., 60, 66, 207 medical discourse, 7, 132, 156, 163, 164, Lucrecia (by Nicolás Moratín), 47 195 Luis de León, Fray, 27, 48 Mejías- López, Alejandro, 3, 208 Luther, Martin, 105 melancholy, 8, 68, 76, 78, 80, 121– 22, 138, 143, 213 MacCurdy, Grant, 119, 191, 208 Meléndez Valdés, Juan, 21, 43 Macfie, Alexander Lyong, 34, 208 melodrama, 4, 75, 87, 151, 182, 207 Machado, Antonio, 159 men Madrid, 12, 37, 41, 59, 60– 61, 64, 65, decadent, 103– 18 66, 67, 68– 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, and disillusion, 8, 9, 11– 12, 13, 14, 94, 112, 113, 144, 145, 146, 149, 20, 21, 22, 33– 35, 36, 38, 40, 185, 187, 198, 202, 207, 208, 209, 45, 46, 47, 56, 60, 61, 63, 64, 210, 211, 214 65, 66, 69, 71, 72, 73, 77, 83– Maetzu, Ramiro de, 7, 187, 208 84, 85, 99, 103, 110, 111, 113, malaise, 6, 22, 66, 107, 139, 190 114, 116, 117, 133, 137, 140– Malaspina, Alessandro, 11 41, 144, 152, 153, 156, 160, Mangini, Shirley, 147, 208 175, 176, 177, 178 Manier, José- Carlos, 103, 208 hysterical, 208, 71– 84 Marañón, Gregorio, 162, 172, 194, 195 intellectual, 29– 30, 45, 60 (see also Maravall, José Antonio, 21, 22, 208 flâneur) marcialidad, 214 mystical, 119– 34 definition of, 49– 50 positivist, 85– 100 Marianela, vii, 12, 85, 86, 92– 99, 176, and romantic love, 43, 44, 50 189, 202, 214 rural, 60– 61, 74– 84 marriage, 42, 91, 144, 145, 157, 161, and science, 137– 44 164, 166, 187 and sensibility, 43, 45 arranged, 51, 53 sentimental, 39, 44 and the comedia, 52 and subjectivity, 8– 9 and evasion of disillusion, 8, 176, 177 Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino, 86, 183 and feminism, 149– 52 Menocal, María Rosa, 23, 208 and love, 49, 56 metafiction, 60 and respectability, 46 metaphysics, 142 and subjugation of women, 20, 22, Micale, Mark S., 77, 79, 188, 208 46, 53, 128– 30, 148, 150, 155, middle class, 66, 67, 103, 146, 202 175 Miller, Nancy K., 9, 34, 208 Index O 227 mimetic, 189 abject, 13, 159, 161, 162, 173, 195 desire, 163, 166, 179 absent, 153, 160 power, 172 as citizen, 33 rivalry, 166, 168 civilizing, 24, 25, 195 triangle, 167, 168 and civil rights, 6 Mirabeau, 40 - daughter relationship, 153–54, 157, Misericordia (Galdós), 192 160– 62, 197, 198, 203, 204, 209 misogyny, 43, 124, 129, 186, 200 and death, 138, 140, 163 mixité, French, 44 and Don Juan figure, 162–63, 177, modern 194 phenomena, 4 educated, 6, 22 woman, 2, 7, 9, 121, 122, 132, 150, as educator, 6, 28, 29, 33, 46, 187 151, 153, 176, 199, 211 engulfing, 153, 163, 166, 168, 171, modernism (modernismo), 3, 4, 10, 185, 172– 73, 177– 78, 213 193, 199, 200, 201, 202, 204, 206, good, 104– 5 208, 212, 213, 214 hysterical, 154, 172 first use of the word “modernismo” in idealized, 6, 29, 153, 154, 157, 158– Spain, 35, 211 59, 160, 161, 163– 73, 176, 195, social, 193– 94 213 modernity lack of, 53 and binaries, 5, 177 menacing, 170– 71 definition of, 2– 3, 4 negligent, 157– 58, 172, 195 pre- , 122, 131, 132, 183 and subversion, 187 Western movement toward, 2 See also motherhood; mothering; (s) modernization mothering definition of, 2 motherhood, 171, 194, 204, 209 Moebius, P. J., 147, 148 and Enlightenment reform, 182 Molina, Tirso de, 54, 153, 155, 157, 173 and female identity, 155, 162, 176, Monlau, Pedro Felipe, 75 196 Monserdà de Macià, Dolors, 150 and feminism, 151 Montesinos, José, 86, 87, 209 idealization of, 163– 65, 167, 169– 70, Montesquieu, 11, 17, 19, 23, 26– 27, 35, 172, 173 36, 42, 185, 209 and medical discourse, 163, 196 morality, 40, 138, 181, 187 rejection of, 105 spiritual, 98 mothering, 169, 171, 187, 196 stoic, 192 reproduction of, 163 Morant Deusa, Isabel, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, mourning, 9, 138, 143, 193 55, 199, 209 Mujica, Bárbara, 89, 163, 170, 209, 214 Moratín, Leandro Fernández de, 18, Muñoz Puelles, Vicente, 17, 18, 209 46– 47 Munson, Elizabeth, 146, 193, 209 Moratín, Nicolás Fernández de, 47 Murguía, Manuel, 60 Mor de Fuentes, José, vii, 12, 36, 37– 47, muse, 71, 72– 73 49, 55, 56, 177, 186, 209 mystic mother, 19, 30, 33, 53, 90, 108, 148– 49, epistemology, 132, 133, 192 152– 53, 155, 157, 164, 176, 197, female, 121, 122, 123– 24, 128– 30, 203, 214 131– 32, 133 228 O Index mystic (continued) El Observador, 59– 60 feminist, 192, 202 Oedipal complex, 168 male, 121, 125– 28, 130– 31, 132, 133 Offen, Karen, 194, 209 mysticism, 8, 9, 13, 112, 119– 34 optimism, vii, 10, 19, 20, 22, 25, 33, 37, definition of, 119, 132 54, 55, 73, 75, 99, 109, 117, 119, and the flâneur, 67 139, 178, 206 and hysteria, 124 order, vii, 17, 18– 20, 21, 22, 23, 30, as a metaphor, 133 32, 44, 74, 75, 76, 122, 126, 127, stages of, 128 154– 55, 157, 160, 161, 177, 183, 191, 215 Napoleonic Wars, 5– 6 Orientalism, 33– 34, 207, 208 Nash, Elizabeth, 66, 209 Ortega y Gasset, José, 7 Nash, Mary, 145, 155, 194, 209 Nasio, Juan- David, 73, 74, 209 Pacteau, Francette, 93, 209 naturalism, 89– 90, 138, 142, 192– 93, 199 Pagden, Anthony, 11, 36, 210 definition, 89 Pardo Bazán, Emilia, vii, 4, 13, 99, 103, philosophical, 142, 192 110– 11, 116– 17, 119– 20, 129, Navarro, Romera, 147–48 148, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 190, Nazarín, vii, 13, 117, 119– 33 192, 198, 200, 201, 202, 206, 208, negative secularism, viii, 137 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215 definition of, 138– 39 Paris, 34, 67, 70– 71, 75, 112, 113, 114, Nelken, Margarita, 148 123, 188, 214 neo- Aristotelianism, 10 patriarchy, 154, 161– 62, 173, 205 neo- Catholicism, 192 patriotism, 21, 27– 28, 42, 184 Nerlich, Michael, 10, 183, 209 Payne, Stanley G., 5, 6, 181, 185, 186, Nesci, Catherine, 67, 209 210 Nietzsche, 122– 23, 196 Pepita Jiménez, 78, 208 noble savage, the, 142 Pérez de Ayala, Ramón, 194 “La noche buena de 1836,” 69 La Perfecta casada, 27, 48 Nombela, Julio, 60 El Perseguidor, viii, 13, 137, 144– 47, La Nouvelle Héloîse, 40– 41 150– 52, 176, 193, 200, 215 novel, the, 199, 201, 203 pessimism, 8, 61, 72, 74– 75, 77, 83, 84, decadent, 117 117, 141, 143, 151, 183 domestic, 184 See also hopelessness epistolary, 17, 47, 211 La petimetra, (female dandy), 47 masculinization of, 120 petimetre (dandy), 29, 30, 51, 54 melodramatic, 74– 75, 151 See also cortejo; dandy modernist, 3, 162, 193, 205 philosophe, 20, 23, 27, 28, 33, 35, 36, postmodern, 212, 215 42, 105 realist, 4, 6, 87, 88, 92, 182, 191, 205, definition of, 21 206, 207 philosopher, 10, 11, 28, 85, 105, 106, romantic, 77, 215 116, 122, 128, 131, 148 sentimental, 44, 87, 211– 12 Picasso, Pablo, 3 serial, 4, 149, 182 Pickering, Margaret, 189, 210 Spanish, 37 El Pobrecito Hablador, 61 Nuñez de Arce, Gaspar, 86 Posada, Adolfo González, 147– 48, 193 Index O 229 positivism, vii, 4, 8, 12, 84, 85, 88, 90, 142, 143, 144, 157, 175, 178, 182, 91, 94– 95, 96, 97– 98, 99, 119, 183, 194, 197, 214 125– 27, 139, 141, 175, 176, 177, La Revista Española, 59– 60 191, 192, 204, 213, 214 Rich, Adrienne, 154 anti- , 8 Ríos- Font, Wadda C., 60, 187, 188, 211 and Auguste Comte, 85– 86, 189 Rivera- Barnes, Beatriz, 192, 211 definition of, 85– 86 Rivkin, Julie, 104, 211 postmodernism, 8, 10– 11, 202, 204, Rodgers, Eamonn, 189, 211 212, 215 Rodríguez Solís, E., 147– 48 and El caballero de las botas azules, 60 Rojas, Fernando de, 54 and Cartas marruecas, 22, 185 romance, 13, 51 Pratt, Dale J., 86, 144, 189, 191, 210 romanticism, vii, 1, 12, 57, 60, 78, 81, El primer loco, 12, 60, 61, 72, 74– 84, 87, 88, 123, 159, 187, 191, 194, 178, 200 195, 197, 200, 202, 205, 206, 207, procrastination, 61, 64 208, 209, 210, 212, 214 prostitution, 159, 160 Romera Navarro, Miguel, 147– 48 psychoanalysis, 9, 78, 93, 193, 197, 202, Rosenberg, John, 70, 211 203, 204, 209, 212 Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, 17, 40– 41, 43, public space, 68, 146, 202 45– 46 Pulido Fernández, Ángel, 4 Rueda, Ana, x, 41, 45, 46, 186, 211 Ruiz Aguilera, Ventura, 60 Quevedo, 26 La quimera, vii, 13, 99, 103, 110– 17, La sabia indiscreta, vii, 37, 38, 47– 56, 190, 210, 212, 215 187, 202, 204, 207 Sáez de Melgar, Faustina, 195 Rabago, Alberto, 127, 191, 210 Sáez Martínez, Begoña, 181, 212 race, vii, 12, 85, 86, 99, 126, 164 Saint- Denys, Marquis Hervey de, 107, Radcliff, Pamela Beth, 154– 55, 201, 209, 190 215 saint(hood), 13, 90, 91, 121, 123, 125, Ramírez y Góngora, Manuel Antonio, 126, 127– 28, 129, 130, 131, 133, 49, 210 177, 192, 198, 208 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 147 Salammbô, 74, 188 Ramos- Gascón, Antonio, 183, 210 Sánchez- Llama, Íñigo, 4, 190, 212 Rank, Otto, 163 San Martín, A. de, 181 rationalism, 12, 47, 83, 183, 192 Santiáñez, Nil, 4, 212 See also reason Savater, Fernando, 183, 212 realism, vii, 12, 57, 88, 90, 91, 186, 189, Scanlon, Geraldine, 193, 212 199, 200, 203, 204 Scherner, Karl, 106 Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del Schiesari, Juliana, 78, 212 País de Madrid, 41 Schopenhaüer, Arthur, 122– 23, 141, 148 reason, 2, 20, 22, 27, 33, 39, 40, 47, 82, Schor, Naomi, 120 92, 95, 97, 98, 111, 124, 130– 32, Schulman, Ivan A., 6, 211, 212 138, 142, 144, 191, 199, 202 science, viii, 2, 4, 7, 13, 17, 20, 23, 28, religion, vii, 2, 12, 19, 24, 26, 27, 40, 84, 39– 40, 75, 76, 79, 81, 82, 86, 92, 85, 86, 89, 96, 98, 99, 105, 116– 96, 97, 98, 105, 116, 122, 123, 17, 119– 20, 133, 138– 39, 141, 130, 132, 133, 137– 44, 152, 163, 230 O Index science (continued) and chaos, 17, 18, 23, 27, 31, 32, 35, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 189, 66, 84, 172, 176 191, 202– 3, 205, 210, 211 and conflicted relationship with scientific, para- , 192, 211 modernity, 3– 10, 18 Seafield, Frank (a.k.a. Alexander Henley and cult of motherhood, 154– 55 Grant), 106–7 dechristianization of, 7, 183 Sebold, Russell P., 183, 212 decline of, 1– 2, 3, 4, 5– 6, 11, 18, 25, negative, viii, 137, 138– 39 27, 30– 33, 35, 59, 61, 183, 186, secularization, 4, 13, 143, 152, 176, 177, 190, 201, 205 178, 184, 193 and Donjuanismo, 154, 156, 161– 62, self- annihilation, 71, 84, 157, 172, 179 195 See also suicide European consensus of, 1, 19, 175, self- destruction, 8, 61, 66, 69, 70, 71, 184, 212 160, 177 and feminism, 145, 147– 50, 154– 55, See also suicide 213, 214 Sennett, Richard, 132, 212 feminization of, 24– 25, 31, 32 El señorito mimado, 47 fin- de- siècle, 13, 105, 120, 122, 190, sentimentality, 39, 43, 44, 81, 82, 83, 147 206, 210, 214 La Serafina, vii, 186, 203, 209, 37– 39, and France, 26, 37 43– 45, 46, 48, 51, 56 and gender roles, 172 Shaw, Michael Crozier, 19, 184, 212 Golden Age, 51, 105 Shaw, Philip, 2, 212 and José Cadalso, 17– 36 Showalter, Elaine, 75, 76, 77, 188, 212 and José Mariano de Larra, 60, 61– 71 Shubert, Adrian, 7– 8, 119– 20, 183, 212 and level of civilization according to El sí de las niñas, 46– 47, 187 women’s progress, 38, 40, 44, Silver, Philip W., 194, 212 49– 50, 147– 48, 185– 86 Simón Verde, vii, 12, 85– 92, 99, 176, 200 and love customs, 47, 51– 52, 54 Sinnigen, John H., 213 and Moorish ancestry, 23, 24, 35, 185 Sinúes de Marco, María del Pilar, 4, 195 and the Orientalized “other,” 23, 33– Smith, Adam, 46 34, 35 Smith, Elizabeth Arrington Bruner, 194, “as problem,” 2, 66– 67, 177, 199 213 “as project,” 177 Smith, Theresa Ann, 33, 37, 182, 186, and rates of suicide, 144 187, 213 regeneration of, 7, 103, 137, 139, 183, Smith, William Cantwell, 138, 139, 213 194, 195, 206 (s)mothering, ix, 163, 171, 173, 177, romantic, 3, 186, 188, 204, 207, 212 194, 213 and Rosalía de Castro, 81, 83, 84 Sociedad Económica de Madrid, 37, 42, 187 as “synecdoche of Europe,” 3 solitude, 70, 123, 125, 127, 133, 144, transition to modernity of, 4, 6– 7, 9, 145, 149, 150– 51, 152, 191 13, 33, 62, 64, 65, 66, 84, 176 Soufas, C. Christopher, 8– 9, 178, 183, Spanish- American War of 1898, 6, 190 193, 213 Spanish society Soufas, Teresa Scott, x, 8, 213 eighteenth- century, 6, 8, 13, 18, 21, 23, Spain 25, 29, 31–47, 51, 67, 153, 163, according to Montesquieu, 26– 27, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 199, 36, 185 204, 205, 206, 207, 212, 215 Index O 231

nineteenth- century, ix- x, 1, 2, 3, 5– 10, principles of, 2 12, 47, 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 71– romantic, 80, 189 72, 76, 77, 78– 84, 85– 87, 91, sueños (dreams), 111, 113, 115, 116, 170 92, 96– 99, 105– 6, 126, 131– 32, See also dreams 137– 39, 141– 42, 146, 153– 57, suicide, 12, 63, 64, 68, 70, 71, 84, 137– 161, 163– 64, 176, 177, 182, 38, 139, 143, 144, 152, 153, 159, 183– 84, 187, 188, 189, 190, 163, 173, 176, 177, 190, 193, 201 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, Sullivan, Constance, 20, 34, 182, 184, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 206, 185, 213 207, 211, 213, 215 Su único hijo, vii, 13, 99, 103, 104, 107– seventeenth- century, 23, 25, 187 10, 117, 184, 190, 197, 198, 208, sixteenth- century, 23, 25, 27, 40 214, 215 twentieth- century, viii, 1– 8, 13, 66, 119, 135, 137, 138, 145– 48, Tolliver, Joyce, 149, 213 151, 152, 153– 56, 159, 161– 64, Tomlinson, Janis A., 49– 50, 214 169, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, Torrecilla, Jesús, 35, 186, 206, 212, 214 179, 182, 186, 193, 194, 195, transcendentalism, 8, 177 198, 199, 209 Turner, Harriet, 189, 214 Starobinski, Jean, 39, 40, 213 Stockwall, Peter, 2, 212 Ulecia y Cardoña, Dr. Rafael, 164 subject, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 8, 11, 65, 69, 75, Unamuno, Miguel de, viii, ix- x, 7, 11, 76, 77, 131, 137, 144, 153, 169, 13, 153, 159, 162– 72, 176, 177– 175, 181, 184, 188, 191, 193, 198, 79, 194, 206, 213, 214 200, 213 uncertainty, 22, 23, 64, 70, 72, 83, 110, autonomous, 8– 9, 178 137, 190 Cartesian, 8, 199 utilitarianism, 119, 121, 122– 23, 125 desiring, 166, 172– 73 and Don Juan, 156, 160 Valenti, Eduard, 35, 214 female, 2– 3, 4, 8, 10, 13, 14, 45, 76, Valera, Juan, 78, 142 83, 146, 175– 79, 184, 197 Valis, Noël, 13, 104– 5, 108, 109, 117, male, 3, 4, 8, 13, 14, 45, 175– 79 184, 189– 90, 214 Oriental, 33– 35 Van de Castle, Robert L., 105– 7, 190, 214 subjectivity, 2, 7, 69, 122, 132, 152, 154, Velázquez, Dr., 76 172, 173, 193, 201, 212 Vives, Juan Luis, 40 collective, 188 Voltaire, 17, 19, 35, 36, 183, 209 enhanced, 83 Von Hartmann, Eduard, 106 female, 2– 3, 8, 9, 11, 61, 133, 152, Von Schubert, Gotthilf, 106 173, 179, 184 “Vuelva usted mañana,” 12, 61– 64, 83 gendered, 11, 176 historical events spurring, 3 Wagschal, Steven, 108, 215 male, 8, 11, 61, 79, 133, 152, 153, Waller, Margaret, 77, 80, 215 167, 179 Wealth of Nations, 46 maternal, 168 Wilson, Elizabeth, 66, 70– 71, 215 modern, 2, 10, 46, 117, 173, 181 women monstrous, 8– 9 and angel/devil dichotomy, 2, 87, 91, and mysticism, 132 168 232 O Index women (continued) learned, 28, 29, 37, 42, 49– 56, 181, and the beautiful vs. the sublime, 10– 187, 194, 198, 199, 202, 204 11, 183 and literature of idealism, 191 and body language, 146 and love customs, 38, 44, 48– 56, 185, and the canon, 4, 6, 10, 13, 181– 82 199, 204 and the canon isabelino, 4, 184 as mothers, 24, 25, 28, 33, 155, 157, changing roles of, 4, 6, 8, 11, 36, 38, 162– 71, 172– 73, 187, 197, 203 40– 41, 46, 47, 104, 148– 50, and mysticism, 192, 202, 213 152, 154, 162, 175, 176, 179, and overconsumption, 42–43 195 and positivism, 85, 86, 99, 189 and chastity, 45 and private and public space, 39, 51, and the Church, 175, 182 146, 155, 187, 193, 202 and citizenship, 31, 33, 186 and rationality, 11, 44 and cultural decadence, 37 and romanticism, 3, 60, 194 and decorum, 37– 41, 43– 47, 53, 55 and sexuality, 44 and the discourse of science, 137, 155, and stoicism, 45 175, 182, 189, 194 and subjectivity, 2– 3, 8, 9, 11, 61, and disillusion, 8– 9, 12, 13, 38, 45, 133, 152, 173, 179, 184 56, 83, 137, 152, 175, 176, 178, and suicide, 144, 177 179 and the two Spains, 178 and divorce, 145 upper- class, 6, 8, 21, 46, 51, 53, 155, and domesticity, 4, 6, 27, 29, 32, 33, 186, 187 34, 36, 40– 41, 46, 51, 59, 98, and vanity, 30 148, 155, 187, 189, 206 World War I, 148, 195 education of, 17, 19– 34, 55, 148– 49, See also First World War; the Great 199 War as educators, 17, 19, 28, 31, 33, 46, Wright, Sarah, x, 155, 157, 194, 195, 187 215 exceptional, 42, 181, 186 and feminism, 34, 145, 147– 52, 154, Yndurain, Domingo, 9– 10, 192, 215 185, 193, 194, 213 and happiness, 20, 48, 184, 207 Zavala, Iris M., 23, 184, 198, 199, 215 and hysteria, 72, 75– 81, 84, 146, 188, Zayas, María de, 184 212 Zubiaurre- Wagner, María Teresa, 151, independent, 145, 149, 150– 51 215 and lack of subjectivity, 2, 4, 9 Zúñiga y Castro, Josefa, 6