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approfondir ce principe et contribuer à sa In Pursuit of réalisation par des actions et une prise de Harmony between parole dans le discours contemporain. Science and Resumen La desintegración del viejo orden mun- Religion dial se está acelerando, fomentado por el fanatismo religioso, la irreligión, y una incapacidad de lograr suficiente consenso PAUL LAMPLE de pensamiento y acción para sistemáti- camente atender los males afligiendo a la Abstract humanidad. La capacidad de unirse en la The disintegration of the old world or- investigación de la verdad para el avance der is accelerating, driven by religious de la civilización requiere de la armonía fanaticism, irreligion, and an inability to entre la ciencia y la religión, en la cual, achieve sufficient consensus of thought como ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explica, la ciencia es and action to systematically address the liberada del materialismo y la religión de ills afflicting humanity. The capacity to la superstición. Este ensayo reflexiona so- unite in the investigation of truth for the bre cómo los bahá’ís pueden entender y advancement of civilization requires the contribuir cada vez más a la efectuación de harmony of science and religion, in which, este principio a través de la acción y la par- as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, science is freed ticipación en el discurso contemporáneo. from ma terialism and religion from super- stition. This paper looks at how Bahá’ís might understand and increasingly con- When we look at the world around us, tribute to the effectuation of this principle especially as reflected in news reports through action and involvement in con- and social media, we increasingly see temporary discourse. evidence everywhere that the under- standings and structures of human Resumé society are frayed and unable to ade- La désintégration de l’ancien ordre mon- quately address the pressing problems dial s’accélère, sous l’impulsion du fa- of humanity. Terrorism and fanati- natisme religieux, de l’irréligion et d’une cism, oppression and war, prejudice incapacité à établir un consensus de pensée and demagoguery, the aggregation et d’action suffisant pour enrayer de façon of the vindication of extreme wealth systématique les maux dont souffre l’hu- and superficial response to poverty, manité. Pour pouvoir s’unir dans une quête de vérité qui favorisera le progrès de the glorification of opinion over fact, la civilisation, il faut que la science et la re- the conflation of morality with per- ligion soient en harmonie, ce qui – comme sonal preference, the advancement of l’explique ‘Abdu’l-Bahá – signifie que la a materialistic worldview, and the re- science doit être exempte de matérialisme duction of what it means to be human, et la religion, de superstitions. L’auteur assault our consciousness and our per- examine comment les bahá’ís pourraient ception of reality every day. The evil 24 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 tendencies of corruption, moral laxity, control and extraction of wealth for a and ingrained prejudice mentioned by few at the expense of the masses; the Shoghi Effendi so long ago have vastly prostitution of science in service to expanded their reach and impact. The food engineering, which makes harm- hope for a world of peace and progress ful products addictive and ushers in a that shone briefly but brightly as the self-inflicted health crisis; the perpet- previous century drew to a close has uation of hunger among more than been overtaken by a fog of disorienta- ten percent of the world’s population, tion and despair, rendering humanity including some one hundred million unable or unwilling to agree on the children; and systems of production nature of its problems and how to re- and distribution at war with the envi- solve them. As the Universal House of ronment (Hanley). Justice explained, “in different nations Thus, human beings live in a social in different ways, the social consensus reality of their own creation, derived around ideals that have traditionally from a limited consciousness of real- united and bound together a people is ity, and the world we see around us increasingly worn and spent,” recall- is the result. If we want a different ing “the unequivocal verdict from the world, we must think and act differ- Supreme Pen: ‘They hasten forward ently. Distracted and nearsighted, to Hell Fire, and mistake it for light’” humanity has unwittingly loosed the (Ridván Message 2015). reins of reason and right conduct, The world we inhabit is the social allowing the steed of social order to reality that reflects our understanding deviate increasingly from the path of and action; as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, civilization. The consequence is an ac- “[t]he reality of man is his thought” celeration of the disintegration of the (Paris Talks 17). A sound social real- social order; facilitating the rolling out ity requires a sound grasp of reality, of a new order in its stead requires a an outlook that should be facilitated tightening of the grip on these reins by the knowledge systems of science based on Bahá’u’lláh’s conception of and religion (Lample). Consider the the harmony of science and religion. nature of food systems as one exam- The relationship between science, ple of the extreme irrationality that or reason, and religion is widely and permeates the structure of global often hotly debated, and the elusive society. One might imagine a reason- harmony on which civilization de- able aim for such systems would be to pends will not be suddenly manifested provide all the world’s people with a (Arbab). The purpose of this article is sufficient and healthy diet produced to explore how the harmony of sci- by sustainable methods and efficient ence and religion might be realized. delivery systems in harmony with the It is derived from aspects of a talk ecosystem. What we witness, instead, given in May 2016 in Wilmette, Illi- is a bizarre arrangement centered on nois, and elaborates upon points that In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 25 were necessarily touched upon indi- The fundamental purpose animat- rectly and very generally at that time. ing the Faith of God and His Re- The thoughts presented here are, of ligion is to safeguard the interests course, the personal perspectives of and promote the unity of the hu- one individual. man race, and to foster the spirit of love and fellowship amongst men. Suffer it not to become a DIAGNOSIS OF THE FORCES source of dissension and discord, AFFLICTING HUMANITY of hate and enmity. This is the straight Path, the fixed and im- In His Writings, Bahá’u’lláh offers an movable foundation. Whatsoever analysis of the forces afflicting so- is raised on this foundation, the ciety as it struggles to deal with the changes and chances of the world transition toward a stable global or- can never impair its strength, nor der. At the heart of this turmoil, He will the revolution of countless explains, is the decline of religion. centuries undermine its struc- Religion, He writes, “is a radiant ture. Our hope is that the world’s light and an impregnable stronghold religious leaders and the rulers for the protection and welfare of the thereof will unitedly arise for peoples of the world,” and He warns the reformation of this age and that “[s]hould the lamp of religion the rehabilitation of its fortunes. be obscured, chaos and confusion will (Gleanings 215–16) ensue, and the lights of fairness and justice, of tranquility and peace cease In His analysis these concepts, to shine” (Tablets 125). As the light of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states: “The greatest true religion dims—that is, religious cause of human alienation has been thought and practice consistent with religion because each party has the original teachings set forth by the considered the belief of the other as Manifestation of God—two virulent anathema and deprived of the mercy forces intensify. One is religious fanat- of God.” The purpose of religion icism, which Bahá’u’lláh likens to “a is to contribute to the advancement world-devouring fire, whose violence of civilization and the wellbeing none can quench” (Gleanings 288). The of humanity. Over the centuries, second is the “corrosion of ungodli- however, the practice of religion ness” that is “eating into the vitals of departs from the essential truths human society” (200). In both instanc- of its sacred scriptures. Eventually, es, Bahá’u’lláh explains that the anti- ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, “each system of dote to these destructive forces is true religious belief has boasted of its own religion, and He calls upon the leaders superiority and excellence, abasing and of the world to safeguard religion and scorning the validity of all others.” rehabilitate society: Leaders of religion, He adds, come 26 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 to consider “the world of humanity its degradation. Therefore, the as two trees: one divine and merciful, realm of the religionist has grad- the other satanic; they themselves the ually narrowed and darkened, and branches, leaves and fruit of the divine the sphere of the materialist has tree and all others who differ from widened and advanced; for the them in belief the product of the tree religionist has held to imitation which is satanic. Therefore, sedition and counterfeit, neglecting and and warfare, bloodshed and strife discarding holiness and the sacred have been continuous among them” reality of religion. (Promulgation (Promulgation 230). 179) When the teachings of religion are distorted in this way, religions depart In the clash between religious fana- from what is true, what is good, and ticism and a materialistic worldview what is right, to become the imposi- that rejects religion, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá tion of ideology and the exercise of unhesitatingly sides with materialists. power over others. They degenerate He observes that if religion “is made into superstition and lose the meaning the cause of darkness through human originally conveyed by their Founders, misunderstanding and ignorance, it the Manifestations of God. And when would be better to do without it” religious leaders associate supersti- (Promulgation 287). But of course, tious concepts with religion, it is no ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also finds a mere mate- wonder that rational and scientific rialistic perspective of reality to be minds consider religion to be supersti- inadequate and the source of deep tion. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá observes: problems in itself, and calls upon us to rekindle the light of religion. He True religion is the source of love explains: “All the Prophets have come and agreement amongst men, to promote divine bestowals, to found the cause of the development of the spiritual civilization and teach the praiseworthy qualities, but the principles of morality. Therefore, we people are holding to the coun- must strive with all our powers so terfeit and imitation, negligent of that spiritual influences may gain the the reality which unifies, so they victory” (12). It is the harmony of are bereft and deprived of the ra- science and religion that must guide diance of religion. . . . That which human progress: was meant to be conducive to life has become the cause of death; Religion and science are the two that which should have been an wings upon which man’s intelli- evidence of knowledge is now a gence can soar into the heights, proof of ignorance; that which with which the human soul can was a factor in the sublimity of progress. It is not possible to fly human nature has proved to be with one wing alone! Should a In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 27

man try to fly with the wing of between science and religion is the religion alone he would quickly way in which, in the modern world, fall into the quagmire of super- scientific thought has become undif- stition, whilst on the other hand, ferentiated from the reductionistic, with the wing of science alone materialistic philosophical perspective he would also make no prog- that interprets its findings. Propelled ress, but fall into the despairing especially by scientific advances and slough of materialism. (Paris the explanatory power of evolution- Talks 143) ary theory, materialistic philosophy proposes that everything about the existence of the universe can be re- At the heart of forces driving the duced to matter and be known in disequilibrium of the world, then, is terms of physics and chemistry, and, a discordant relationship between sci- perhaps, biology. This does not mean ence and religion, where science is too that science simply confines itself to often constrained or interpreted by questions of the material realm, or materialism, and religion is pervaded that scientific findings might well be by superstition. Bahá’u’lláh calls for interpreted in a manner consistent the harmony of science and religion with a religious conception of reality so that human beings can grasp re- without resorting to awkward imposi- ality as accurately as possible and act tions of religion on science—such as effectively to change society for the the theory of intelligent design. Rath- better. And Shoghi Effendi anticipates er, science and its materialistic philo- a future in which “science and religion, sophical interpretation have become the two most potent forces in human inseparable, predetermining ideolog- life, will be reconciled, will cooper- ically that no reality exists outside ate, and will harmoniously develop” the material, and that all phenomena, (World Order 204). The quest to grad- including consciousness and mental ually understand and act in a manner capacity, can be reduced to material in- that upholds the relationship between teractions. As set forth in one text on science and religion is essential for science and religion: transforming social reality. It requires a progressive effort to expose and dis- Materialism is a philosophical associate science from its materialistic system that regards matter as the interpretation and religion from its only reality in the world. It at- superstitious entanglements. tempts to explain every event in the universe as resulting from the A MATERIALISTIC PHILOSOPHICAL conditions and activity of matter, PERSPECTIVE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES and thus denies the existence of God and the immaterial soul. . . . One of the most significant obstacles Materialism is a set of related to an appreciation of the harmony theories that holds that all entities 28 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

and processes are composed of— tool for investigating physical reality and so are reducible to—matter, through scientific inquiry, is assumed material forces, or physical pro- from the outset to be the only way to cesses. All events and facts are view reality as a whole. explainable, actually or in prin- Among some contemporary con- ciple, in terms of body, material clusions drawn from a materialist per- objects, or changes or movements. spective on reality are the following: In general, the metaphysical the- ory of materialism entails the • That human beings are in- denial of the reality of spiritual significant, a mere speck in an ar- beings, consciousness, and men- bitrary part of universe. tal or psychic states or processes, • That science is the only way as ontologically distinct from or to know; what it cannot know is independent of material changes not real. or processes. (Campbell and Looy • That human life is an acci- 139) dent of evolution and that if the process were to be repeated in- A materialistic philosophical inter- definitely, intelligent human life pretation of the findings of science would not appear; the concept pertaining to cosmology and evolution of a multiverse is used to try has fueled the neo-atheist movement to rationalize how this accident to attack religion in a host of books of consciousness appeared once and public debates. From this perspec- among countless universes. tive, science, conceived to be insepara- • That human beings are no ble from materialistic interpretations, more than animals. is set in opposition to a conception of • That there is no possibility religion imbued with superstitious and of life after death, since the per- anti-scientific notions. This stance, in son ends when the body ends. turn, is contested by a range of oth- • That if you are intelligent, er views, some thoughtful and some you cannot be religious. dogmatic, on the relationship between • That belief in God is a science and religion. What is perhaps dangerous delusion, an intracta- more significant than these points of ble form of superstition that has debate, however, is the extent to which, caused inestimable harm, and that for many, religious ideas are simply humanity must dispense with irrelevant to an understanding of religion. the world, which is to be understood • That humans are chemical solely in terms of basic physical laws scum on a moderate-sized planet. and forces. Such a reductionist materi- • That consciousness is not alistic perspective, rather than simply real; it is an artifact or illusion of being adopted as a methodological the brain. In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 29

• That there is no purpose or Biologist Edward O. Wilson concludes meaning to the universe and that that in a universe bereft of meaning, people are therefore obliged to human beings should simply create make up their own meanings. their own. He calls for an embrace of science and the humanities that While the majority of the world’s will lead to a new Enlightenment people do not hold such views, they and cooperation among a humanity are presumed to be obvious to many, that embraces its material reality and, and are propagated as a clear-eyed em- somehow, successfully navigates its brace of the reality of the universe. future place on the planet (Meaning Yet the potential implications of such of Human Existence). But there is no conclusions for social reality are inad- reason to expect or even hope for such equately considered. If what happens an outcome. If social ideas are merely from the perspective of physics is only “memes” that compete in a Darwinian the result of forces associated with manner for acceptance and survival matter or space-time, and from the among human cultures, there is noth- perspective of biology what is desir- ing but sophistry in advocating the su- able is only that which survives and periority of rational materialism over, reproduces, then it is not merely God say, religious fanaticism, while plenty that is a delusion, but also social reali- of evidence suggests that fanatics will ty—which becomes disassociated from reproduce and win out. The battle of truth and meaning. Are life and civi- ideologies throughout the twentieth lization effectively nothing more than century and into the start of the twen- the way we amuse ourselves while our ty-first is sufficient evidence. And, genes reproduce? Are we trapped in indeed, from such a perspective there an endless struggle for existence and is no justifiable way to say that one dominance? And is there no cause for outcome matters more than any oth- concern if we make a mess of it and er. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá notes: “Progress precipitate our own extinction—for and barbarism go hand in hand, unless the universe goes on? material civilization be confirmed by In the past, when materialistic per- Divine Guidance” (Selections 284). spectives and their implications were It is evident that even science can weighed by philosophers, thinkers become the victim of forces unleashed such as Nietzsche and Camus rec- by a material worldview, serving as a ognized the stark crisis that befell tool wielded by those who hold wealth a humanity deprived of the shared and power. Thus, to cite only a few purpose upon which the very delicate examples, science is used to cover up fabric of society depends. Today, the the ill effects of sugar for the sugar radical implications inherent in such industry and of smoking for the to- a posture appear to be unappreciated bacco industry, to make unspeakable or naively embraced as opportunity. weapons of mass destruction for the 30 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

military-industrial complex, to pro- anyway? The conviction that human duce medical breakthroughs that are beings must hold themselves account- reserved for the wealthiest on the able to particular values, principles or planet, while ignoring the well-being imperatives has been overtaken by a of the masses, and is subject to the moral relativism that reduces morality influence of social ills such as racial to individual choices. Morality bends prejudice or the inequality of wom- to personal preference, rather than en and men.1 Political forces, no less personal behavior bending to moral- than fundamentalist religion, can be ity. Although some argue that one is mobilized to obscure or deny sound free to choose so long as another is not scientific findings in the pursuit of hurt, this limitation proves illusory in sectarian interests. The harm inflicted the face of evolving arguments that by religious fanaticism can be opposed constantly challenge whether previ- without advocating its replacement ously held beliefs are truly harmful by an atheistic materialism that is no to others. The consequent erosion of shield against an equal measure of moral standards within a society pro- abuse perpetuated in its name. ceeds gradually as clear and mutually Along with loss of meaning and agreed upon standards of an earlier distortion of truth, a materialistic period are called into question or set perspective on human nature under- aside. This decline is evident, for ex- mines the basis for human morality. ample, in the change from the promo- It is not that atheists cannot be mor- tion of sexual abstinence before mar- al. The more foundational question riage to a belief that such restraint for is why should an atheist—or any- young people is impossible, unnatural, one—be moral. And what is morality or unwise; also in the change from the 1 Some might say that this characteri- recognition of the importance of mo- zation is not ‘science’ but the manipulation nogamy for the stability of the fami- or hijacking of science by a few corrupt ly—even if only held as an ideal—to interests. Any fair-minded assessment, arguments that monogamy is impossi- however, would readily demonstrate the ble. Even a practice widely held to be distinction between an ideal conception damaging such as pornography begins of science and its obvious challenges in to find arguments in its favor, as in practice, especially the influence of money. some examples from sex-positive fem- My intent here is not to call science into inism, among others. As philosopher question, but to expose the often unspoken Thomas Nagel observes, reducing hu- assumption and simplistic generalization manity to a mere evolutionary byprod- that science is good and religion is bad. As uct undermines the basis for morality: we stand on the threshold of engineering the human genome, for example, surely the use to which science is influenced by The evolutionary story leaves the a materialistic, or any other, worldview is authority of reason in a much profoundly relevant. weaker position. This is even more In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 31

clearly true of our moral and being, not any other part of the earth- other normative capacities—on ly biosphere, that the universe exhibits which we often rely to correct our consciousness of itself. The conse- instincts. . . . [A]n evolutionary quence of conceiving human beings to self-understanding would almost be merely animals and turning away certainly require us to give up from the uniquely human capacities, moral realism—the natural con- ‘Abdu’l-Bahá concluded, is failure to viction that our moral judgments attend to those things that would lift are true or false independent of humanity beyond its imperfections our beliefs. Evolutionary natural- such as jealousy, revenge, ferocity, hy- ism implies that we shouldn’t take pocrisy, greed, injustice, tyranny, war, any of our convictions seriously, prejudice, self-interest and the strug- including the scientific world pic- gle for power. In assessing the impact ture on which evolutionary natu- of such a perspective in the social ralism depends. (Mind and Cosmos realm, Shoghi Effendi warned against 26–27) crass materialism, which lays At the heart of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s cri- excessive and ever-increasing tique of materialistic philosophy is emphasis on material well-being precisely the way in which such re- forgetful of those things of the ductionism uproots the essential defi- spirit on which alone a sure and nition of what it means to be human, stable foundation can be laid for for it imprisons humanity in an eternal human society. It is this same struggle for existence—the survival cancerous materialism, born orig- of the fittest, the theory that lies at the inally in Europe, carried to excess heart of the evolutionary process gov- in the North American continent, erning biological creation. “This mat- contaminating the Asiatic peoples ter of the struggle for existence is the and nations, spreading its omi- fountain-head of all calamities and is nous tentacles to the borders of the supreme affliction,” He states (Se- Africa, and now invading its very lections 302). In His talks in the West, heart, which Bahá’u’lláh in un- ‘Abdu’l-Bahá observed that the people equivocal and emphatic language were “submerged and drowning in denounced in His Writings, com- a sea of materialism” (Promulgation paring it to a devouring flame and 16). Although material civilization ad- regarding it as the chief factor in vanced, spiritual civilization was left precipitating the dire ordeals and behind. He was astonished that indi- world-shaking crises that must viduals of great learning considered necessarily involve the burning themselves to be no more than animals of cities and the spread of terror and disregarded human intelligence and consternation in the hearts of and distinction (17). It is in the human men. (Citadel 125) 32 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

BEYOND A REDUCTIONISTIC level by the physical sciences, ex- PERSPECTIVE ON SCIENCE tended to include biology. On the other side there are doubts about There are philosophical alternatives to whether the reality of such fea- reductionism that do not compromise tures of our world as conscious- science and reason, which allows for ness, intentionality, meaning, broader possibilities in the investiga- purpose, thought and value can tion of reality. In Mind and Cosmos: be accommodated in a universe Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian consisting of the most basic level Conception of Nature is Almost Certain- only of physical facts—facts how- ly Wrong, Thomas Nagel asserts that ever sophisticated, of the kind “it is prima facie highly implausible revealed by the physical sciences. that life as we know it is the result of (Mind and Cosmos 12) a sequence of physical accidents to- gether with the mechanism of natural Nagel acknowledges that there selection” (5). In his view, materialism must be a worldview which provides simply does not adequately explain the an explanation for the workings of nature of consciousness, which is all the universe through biology, chem- too obviously part of the universe. He istry, and physics and their hierarchi- finds the reductive materialism under- cal relation, but he seeks a worldview lying neo-Darwinian explanations of whose acceptance or rejection would life and mind to be “antecedently un- have no effect on the practice of these believable—a triumph of ideological fields individually, such as we find in theory over common sense” (122). Na- reductionism (Mind and Cosmos 3–4). gel asserts that its failure to adequate- While he frankly recognizes that a ly explain consciousness is a major call to move beyond a purely materi- obstacle to the materialist’s objective al worldview opens possibilities for to provide a comprehensive physical theistic explanations, he stops short description of the universe. The exis- of such a conclusion, looking instead tence of consciousness, he states, im- for the territory between these per- plies that “the natural order is far less spectives. The purpose of his book, austere than it would be if physics and Nagel argues, is not to offer solutions, chemistry accounted for everything” but rather to recognize the problem, (32). He argues: since clinging to reductionistic mate- rial explanations, often out a fear of The conflict between scientific a revitalization of religious perspec- naturalism and various forms of tives, is an obstacle to a more robust antireductionism is a staple of re- understanding of reality. He states: cent philosophy. On one side there “The priority given to evolutionary is the hope that everything can be naturalism in the face of its implausi- accounted for at the most basic ble conclusions about other subjects is In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 33

due, I think, to the secular consensus be wanting. After reviewing a number that this is the only form of external of forms of materialism, he observes understanding of ourselves that pro- that each of them tries to exclude vides an alternative to theism—which mental phenomena by demoting them is to be rejected as a mere projection to the physical or material realm. He of our internal self-conception onto writes: “Materialism seems obviously the universe, without evidence” (28). false: it ends up denying the existence Rather than chance, creationism, or di- of consciousness and thus denying rectionless physical law, Nagel instead the existence of the phenomenon that leans toward a “natural teleology” or a gives rise to the question in the first “teleological bias,” a view that, in addi- place” (47). And he concludes: tion to physical laws of nature, there are other laws of nature that would Materialists, after a lot of beating account for consciousness and reason. around the bush, do typically end Although consciousness and reason up by denying the existence of are irreducible parts of the natural or- consciousness, even though most der, they are not, in his view, due to an of them are too embarrassed to outside purposeful influence (90). He come right out and say: “Con- explains: sciousness does not exist. No human or animal has ever been Since any adequate form of conscious.” Instead, they rede- self-understanding would be fine “consciousness” so that it no an alternative to materialism, it longer refers to inner, qualitative, would have to include mentalistic subjective mental states but rath- and rational elements of some er to some third-person phenom- kind. . . . A satisfying explanation ena, phenomena that are neither would show that the realization inner, qualitative, nor subjective of these possibilities was not in the senses I have explained. vanishingly improbable but a sig- Consciousness is reduced to the nificant likelihood given the laws behavior of the body, to com- of nature and the composition of putational states of the brain, the universe. It would reveal mind information processing, or func- and reason as basic aspects of a tional states of a physical system. nonmaterialistic natural order. Daniel Dennett is typical of ma- (Mind and Cosmos 31–32) terialists in this regard. Does con- sciousness exist for Dennett? He Another challenge to the limiting would never deny it. And what is perspective of reductionistic material- it? Well, it is a certain bunch of ism comes from philosopher John Sear- computer programs implemented le, who also finds a strictly materialis- in the brain. tic understanding of consciousness to 34 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

Such answers, I am afraid, understanding of reality. According will not do. Consciousness is an to Searle: inner, subjective, first-person, qualitative phenomenon. Any Once we see that consciousness account of consciousness that is a biological phenomenon like leaves out these features is not an any other, then we can see that, account of consciousness but of of course, in some sense it is com- something else. (Searle 50) pletely “material.” It is part of our biology. On the other hand, con- Despite the limitations he finds in sciousness is not reducible to any a reductionistic materialism, however, process that consists of physical Searle also strongly rejects any form phenomena describable exclusive- of dualism of mind and body (47); ly in third-person physical terms. he seeks an explanation within the Therefore, it looks like we have to bounds of nature—a “biological nat- reject materialism. The solution uralism”—that can account for both.2 is not to deny any of the obvious He believes that consciousness, with facts, but to shift the categories all its subjectivity, is caused by pro- around so we recognize that con- cesses within the brain and that con- sciousness is at one and the same scious states are high-level features of time completely material and ir- the brain. Consciousness cannot be re- reducibly mental. And that means duced to the brain’s lowest functions; we should simply abandon the it is not an illusion or mere artifact of traditional categories of “materi- electrical or chemical processes. On al” and “mental” as they have been the contrary, such a materialistic ap- used in the Cartesian tradition. (69) proach is itself an obstacle to a better Interestingly, unlike Nagel, who 2 Note that Nagel and Searle see the reserves for others the possibility term “biological naturalism” diff erently. It of a theistic approach for the expla- is not possible here to reconcile the use of nation of mind and consciousness, the terms reductionism, materialism, natu- Searle does not. But he does not ar- ralism, and so on by the authors cited here. gue against such a possibility so much Each, however, off ers a contrast between as set it aside as irrelevant. Nobody a restrictive and a more expansive philo- bothers with such arguments, he ex- sophical perspective on reality. These are plains, “and it is considered in slightly presented here in terms of the distinction bad taste to even raise the question of between an atheistic, reductionistic, mate- God’s existence” (35). He continues: rialistic perspective that denies any reality beyond the material, and an agnostic, “soft” What has happened? . . . I believe naturalism, open to broader possibilities. that something much more radi- cal than a decline in religious faith In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 35

has taken place. For us, the educat- One question that often arises is ed members of society, the world whether the truth of religious beliefs has become demystified. Or rath- can be weighed in the light of sci- er, to put the point more precisely, ence. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has insisted that we no longer take the mysteries it can and, indeed, it must if religion we see in the world as expressions is not to succumb to superstition of supernatural meaning. . . . The (Promulgation 374).3 However, this result of this demystification is does not mean that religious beliefs that we have gone beyond athe- must be weighed against materialis- ism to a point where the issue no tic philosophical interpretations of longer matters in the way it did the findings of science. Here Sear- to earlier generations. For us, if le’s naturalism, as opposed to ma- it should turn out that God ex- terialism, makes an important dis- ists, that would have to be a fact tinction. To the extent that science of nature like any other. To the can explore reality, religion must be four basic forces in the universe— compatible with scientific findings. gravity, electromagnetism, weak What we can know through science and strong nuclear forces—we about that aspect of reality Bahá’ís would add a fifth, the divine force. consider to be spiritual reality would Or more likely, we would see the indeed, as Searle suggests, be “a fact other forces as forms of the di- of nature like any other.” vine force. But it would still be Perhaps here it is important to all physics, albeit divine physics. note that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá does not de- If the supernatural existed, it too scribe religion in terms of super- would have to be natural. (35) natural forces that are imperceptible and must, therefore, be accepted on Of course, the approaches taken by the basis of blind faith. For Him, the Nagel and Searle to address the ques- “supernatural” begins where materi- tion of human consciousness are very al reductionism ends: “All the powers different from the Bahá’í perspective. and attributes of man are human and Yet, their views, and those of others hereditary in origin—outcomes of like them, are a critical step in sepa- nature’s processes—except the intel- rating science from the limiting ortho- lect, which is supernatural” (Foun- doxy of materialistic philosophy. By dations 60). And in another instance: rejecting materialism, an obstacle to 3 Of course, to weigh religious beliefs the investigation of reality is removed in the light of science does not mean to that allows humanity to see how far weigh the Revelation itself. For more de- such an exploration can advance. It tailed comments see my book, Revelation creates new possibilities for under- and Social Reality: Learning to Translate standing the harmony of science and What Is Written into Reality, chapters 2 religion. and 4. 36 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

“We have already stated that science of men” (Gleanings 158). But these, or the attribute of scientific pene- the true teachings of religion, are tration is supernatural and that all not religious beliefs encumbered by other blessings of God are within superstition. the boundary of nature” (Promulga- tion 50). For ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the ideal SOME INSIGHTS FROM NATURALISTIC and distinctive faculties of human INQUIRY INTO RELIGION beings—the virtues and the powers of the mind, including the capacity The question of reductionism in- for scientific acquisition—are prop- volves the perspective from which erties of which nature is bereft, in- reality is viewed. From the subjective, dicating that there must be more to first person perspective, as well as the the universe than can be understood intersubjective, second person per- by reductionistic materialism (Prom- spective in which different individuals ulgation 80–81). recognize one another and consider Thus, there is an appreciable over- each other’s subjective views, human lap between a naturalistic perspec- beings contribute to the creation of tive that goes beyond materialism to a social reality of institutional facts encompass consciousness and what and culture. Through science and can be known about the universe, on reason, they strive for objectivity—a one hand and, on the other, the con- third person perspective seeking to cept of the “supernatural” aspects of know the world as it is—and this reality, as proposed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. tempers the extremes of subjectivity Science, freed from a reductionis- while strengthening intersubjective tic lens, can go far in exploring the understanding. But such striving in expression of such potentialities. itself does not justify materialistic re- Yet, for Bahá’ís, science and reason ductionism, which relegates personal alone cannot fully exhaust such consciousness and the subjective self possibilities; this is where religion to irrelevance and, thereby, creates the is needed, to address and cultivate illusion of complete objectivity. Rath- certain capacities with which the hu- er, it is in appreciating the relationship man being is endowed. In this sense, among the objective, the subjective, Bahá’u’lláh observes, “Even the and the intersubjective viewpoints, materialists have testified in their and they way that together they cre- writings to the wisdom of these di- ate a reliable perspective for the sound vinely-appointed Messengers, and evolution of social reality, that the have regarded the references made limitations of a reductionistic mate- by the Prophets to Paradise, to hell rialist approach become apparent. An fire, to future reward and punish- understanding of reality must ade- ment, to have been actuated by a de- quately encompass the objective, the sire to educate and uplift the souls subjective, and the intersubjective. In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 37

Such concepts are explored by Jürgen adds: “The reciprocally interchange- Habermas (Between Naturalism and able roles of the first, second and third Religion) and Nagel (The View from person also facilitate the individuating Nowhere and Equality and Partiality), embedding of the single organism in among others. the public ‘space of reasons,’ where Similar to the way in which Nagel socialized individuals take stances on and Searle sought an alternative to re- validity claims and can act deliberate- ductionism, so Habermas, on the basis ly, and thus freely, as the responsible of anthropological findings, identi- authors of their own actions” (180). fies what he calls a “methodologically Such a relationship among the ob- grounded dualism in the form of a jective, subjective, and intersubjective, ‘soft’ naturalism” (166). He observes Habermas concludes, creates the possi- that attempting to translate ideas that bility of considering the contribution can or should be addressed in terms of of religion and religious individuals to the working of the mind in exclusive- matters affecting the common good, ly empirical language directed toward without contradicting a naturalistic perspective. He thus rejects the ex- things and events results in a loss of clusive third person perspective of re- meaning. It is not possible to subsume ductionism or scientism, “the opposite the subjective into the objective. The pole to this rational reconstruction of materialistic reduction of the internal the contents of faith,” which finds reli- subjective dimension of the human gious convictions to be “false, illusory, mind to principles of physics and or meaningless per se” (244). chemistry is a chimera. Only from a In identifying limitations of ma- first-person subjective standpoint, terialism, the intent of these philos- engaged with other similar actors in ophers is not to force science into a social reality, are choice and human theistic worldview alien to its nature. freedom evident, within, of course, the It is to replace an ideological and nar- fixed parameters of objective reality. row atheistic reductionism with what Habermas notes that neurobiolo- might be considered to be an agnostic gy cannot locate a center in the brain naturalism that is open to all aspects that coordinates everything and with of what exists, including conscious- which the subjective “I” can be cor- ness, and can account for a reality that related; yet while that “I” can be con- is more complex than the material. sidered a social construction, it is not It is impossible, in this brief space, an illusion. “Clearly,” he writes, “the to provide an extensive overview of observer perspective, to which the em- naturalism and religion. Yet, a few piricist perspective limits us, must be insights drawn from different fields combined with that of participants in suggest how, freed from the shackles communicative and social practices in of a dogmatic materialism, scientific order to give socialized subjects like us findings give rise to a very different cognitive access to the world” (68). He perspective on religion. 38 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

An example of reductionistic a pri- Wilson fails to consider the possible ori assumptions about religion may evolutionary advantage of religion be found in Edward O. Wilson’s The and poses the matter only in the con- Social Conquest of the Earth. Wilson text of a conflict between science and explores how human beings have, like religion. For him, religion is mere only a small number of other species tribalism, an “unseen trap unavoidable such as some ants and wasps, evolved during the biological age of our spe- to be a social—or more particularly, a cies” (267). eusocial—species, with characteristics A much different perspective on such as multigenerational communi- religion emerges in the work of re- ties, division of labor, and altruism. searchers across a variety of fields The evolution of a eusocial species is who have, through a range of different not driven by the competitive fitness of approaches, associated religion with individual organisms, but rather by the the evolution of the human brain, rec- degree of internal cooperation within ognized the contribution of religion social groups, which enables them com- to cultural change especially since set- pete successfully against other groups. tlement in agricultural villages began According to Wilson, the result of this some 10-12,000 years ago, and even evolutionary path that resulted in the proposed that religion has contribut- dominance of the human species is that ed to shaping the environment which what have come to be called “virtues” influenced further human evolution. are those characteristics that helped While the explorations into the evo- humanity to cooperate in groups; what lutionary roots of human psychology have come to be called “vices” are those and cultural change have taken place behaviors, seen to be egotistical and largely in separate fields that did not self-serving, that advance one person interact regularly—except perhaps in an evolutionary competition over in some exchanges that reframed old another, but which weaken groups, and nature verses nurture debates—the thus weaken their evolutionary edge possibility of a more collaborative over other groups. Wilson examines exchange has opened in recent years the implications of evolution for hu- (Schaller et. al.). man nature, including language, moral In God is Watching You: How the development, the arts, and so on, and Fear of God Makes Us Human, Dominic finds, almost everywhere, value in the Johnson draws upon a growing body fruits of what survived from and con- of evidence from anthropology and tributed to humanity’s evolutionary experimental psychology to demon- journey. He concludes that “in many strate that belief in supernatural re- cases, perhaps the great majority, the ward and punishment is a ubiquitous precepts shared by most societies today phenomenon of human nature, even will stand the test of biology-based among atheists. This tendency of hu- realism” (Social Conquest 254). Yet, man beings to anticipate rewards and In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 39 punishments, especially supernatural been the key factor driving this cooper- punishments, is, he argues, an evolu- ation. He observes that while history tionary adaption favored by natural shows a range of religious ideas that selection. Fear of divine or supernatu- are constantly “multiplying, growing, ral punishment makes us question our and mutating at a brisk pace,” “most selfish desires, deters self-interested religious people living on the planet action, and is a motivating factor for today are the cultural descendants of moral behavior and trustworthiness just a few outlier religious movements that allows for human cooperation. It that won in the cultural marketplace” was a factor in enabling human social (2). Norenzayan sees his approach as organization to move beyond the level an integration of a perspective that of small bands of closely related in- places the social functions of religion dividuals, where everyone could know in a Darwinian framework, as well as others’ behavior directly. “The expec- a cognitive perspective, traced as far tation of reward and punishment is back as Hume, that considers religious not an invention of human culture; belief to be an accidental side-effect it seems to be a fundamental element of human cognition. Evidence from of human psychology,” Johnson notes. the evolutionary, cognitive, and social Humans “cannot help but search for sciences, he indicates, shows that a meaning in the randomness of life” (3, powerful combination of genetic and 4). Johnson’s approach is representa- cultural evolution has contributed to tive of a number of researchers who the origin of religion. “Seen in this seek to understand human psychology light,” he states, “it is not surprising from the study of human evolution. In that prosocial religions have been a this perspective, the workings of the major force shaping human history. human mind are the product of evo- When intergroup rivalries are strong, lution, and the basis of religious con- prosocial religious groups, with their ceptions is inherent in the workings Big Gods and loyalty practices that of the mind. promote social solidarity, could have A different attempt to understand a competitive edge over rival groups. humanity and the nature of religion And when prosocial religions out- comes from the study of cultural compete or absorb other rival groups, evolution. In Big Gods: How Religion their beliefs and practices proliferate, Transformed Cooperation and Conflict, explaining why most people today are Ara Norenzayan proposes that human descendants of such groups” (143). society has evolved through com- Likewise, from a historical and an- petition between societies, and that thropological perspective, Peter Turchin the societies that proved to be most argues instead that the main driver of successful were those that learned to human social evolution is war as a de- cooperate internally at an ever larger structive and creative force, rather than scale. For Norenzayan, religion has religion (21-22); however, Turchin 40 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 positively acknowledges the contribu- the only way that ideas can rein- tion of Norenzayan and this difference force group solidarity—today we may, effectively, be one of emphasis. In have nationalism and secular ide- an analogy to biological evolution in ologies like Marxism as well—but which natural selection involves both in early societies it played a criti- mutation and competitive selection, it cal role in making possible more is possible to envision religious ideas complex forms of social organiza- that contribute to greater unity, there- tion. It is hard to see how human by demonstrating their viability in an beings could have evolved beyond environment where conflict and war- small band-level societies without fare between groups is common. it. (Fukuyama 38) The role of religion in contrib- uting to the evolution of society is These few insights into the effort to also explored in the work of Francis explain the nature of religion suggest Fukuyama. In The Origins of Political that, far from being easily dismissed Order: From Prehuman Times to the by a materialistic ideological perspec- French Revolution, he examines how tive, the impulse toward religion is religion influenced the shaping of the hardwired by evolutionary forces into political order as it traversed the stag- the very essence of a human being es from small groups to the modern and has been a vital factor in the civi- state, including the emergence of the lizing process of cultural change that state, the rule of law, and accountabili- lifted humanity from small bands of ty. While noting that some contempo- hunter-gatherers to the cusp of global rary voices claim that religion is pri- order. Indeed, some of these authors marily a source of violence, conflict, take the case further, suggesting that it and social discord, Fukuyama states is evident that religion has contributed that religion has historically played the to those conditions of culture and en- opposite role, serving as a source of vironment in which natural selection cooperation and social cohesion that operates to further shape human evo- would not be possible if human beings lution and, thus, to reinforce those ca- were merely the rational, self-inter- pacities that make human beings more ested agents described by economists religious. This type of social influence (37). Further, he adds: on evolutionary forces is similar to the manner in which humans developed a Indeed, some evolutionary psy- capacity to digest lactose after creat- chologists have argued that the ing cultural settings that relied upon survival benefits conferred by en- herding cattle (Norenzayan 154, Bel- hanced social cohesion is the rea- lah 60, Fukuyama 37). son that a propensity for religious Thus, from a material and a so- belief seems to be hardwired into cial perspective, setting aside strictly the human brain. Religion is not spiritual or supernatural claims, the In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 41 constructive influence of religion and of human beings in the universe, is its association with capacities that are religious naturalism. Some thinkers, intimately intertwined with what it while confining their vision to the means to be human is demonstrated natural world, discover in the findings by science. What, then, does the future of science possibilities for a spiritual hold? For Norenzayan, the possibility or transcendent worldview, includ- that religion has served its purpose ing hope for a global ethic that can and can now be discarded can be en- guide humanity (Bellah, Kauffman, tertained, even though he finds it far Abrams). Science and religion are, in from clear whether secular society will this context, two cultural systems; win out (192). He writes: values and possibilities for meaning appear as emergent properties of Only recently, and only in some the universe and consciousness. One places, some societies have suc- such argument is offered by Nancy ceeded in sustaining large-scale Ellen Abrams in A God That Could Be cooperation with institutions such Real: Spirituality, Science, and the Future as courts, police, and mechanisms of Our Planet, a study that illustrates for enforcing contracts. In some how far a naturalistic perspective can parts of the world such as North- extend. Abrams begins by reviewing ern Europe, especially Scandi- various narratives of ancient cul- navia, these institutions have tures about the origin and nature of precipitated religion’s decline by the universe and compares these with usurping its community-building the contemporary narrative present- functions. These societies with ed by science. In seeking how human atheist majorities—some of the beings should understand themselves most cooperative, peaceful, and in light of the facts about the histo- prosperous in the world—climbed ry of the universe and the evolution religion’s ladder, and then kicked of life, she proposes that the human it away. (Norenzayan 8–9) inclination toward God is a product of our evolution that is necessary for For Johnson, however, such a pro- survival and continued advancement. posal raises doubt: “The New Atheists’ “God persists and always will because mission of creating a godless world is it’s a fundamental characteristic of the an untested experiment that is likely connection between ourselves and the to have negative as well as positive universe,” she writes (19). Yet, Abrams consequences. But we have little idea is convinced that God as a being who yet what any of them might be. Are is creator of the universe cannot exist. we playing with fire?” (233). She proposes instead that we see God One alternative to a reduction- as a kind of emergent property of istic approach to religion, with its the complexity of human conscious- often pessimistic view of the place ness—a product of the human mind 42 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 and human society. Just as emergent showing us how we fit into it, properties such as temperature and millions of us can’t tap into our pressure can be real, so can a God that smoldering potential because we emerged from humanity. By accepting remain confused about what to the reality of the universe given to us commit ourselves to or how. . . . by science, Abrams states that we can We need a coherent big picture have a concept of God that is compat- that is equally true for every hu- ible with our capacity for knowledge, man being and gives us a convinc- morality and virtue cultivated with- ing and inspiring God that is con- in us as a result of natural selection. sistent with everything we know Rather than various images of God and every truth we will learn. that divide human beings and cre- (147–48) ate suspicion about science, “We can reclaim the good that has been lost The spiritual challenge for us is to without compromising the good that accept the scientific picture of the has been found in this age of science,” universe and with the real help of she argues. “We can understand God a real God figure out how to act ac- in a way that serves us in the world cordingly—in every way, not just we actually live in” (4). With such an technologically but sociologically, approach, she indicates, “[w]e will psychologically, spiritually, edu- see all humans, including ourselves, as cationally, politically, and every flowers on the same great tree” (161). other way. It may not be obvious From this naturalistic perspective, how to become this coherent, but Abrams proposes a concept of God for the first time it’s possible, and as a product of our own creation, as focusing on it as a goal could re- it would serve humanity and enable energize our civilization. (150) it to establish unity and cooperation on a global scale. The contribution We need our god-capacity to gen- required from a God of our own mak- erate the spiritual power—the ing—as set forth by an individual who motivation, trust, and faith in rejects God as a real essence, the Cre- each other—to bring good about. ator of the universe—is nevertheless How we conceive of God will the kind of contribution Bahá’ís would have enormous impact on how we readily appreciate based on the Bahá’í behave toward each other, how we teachings. In countless passages, such justify our actions, what we be- as those that follow, Abrams indicates lieve is possible, and what we find how a conception of God is essential sacred and are therefore willing for humanity in this day: to sacrifice to protect. (147)

Without a story that makes sense The purpose of moving beyond of our many-leveled world by a mere reductionistic perspective of In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 43 reality in which religion has no place, Bahá’ís clearly reject the material- is not to superimpose preconceived re- istic interpretations of the methods ligious ideas upon reality, but rather to of science and scientific findings that set aside unjustified limitations on hu- assume a priori that religion, in itself, man thought in order to obtain a better is false or even pathological and det- picture of reality. Materialistic philos- rimental. But setting aside this ex- ophy too often passes unquestioned, treme does not mean that science must becoming indistinguishable from sci- be silent or has nothing to say about ence itself, and then serves to filter the truth claims of religion. From a ideas and ultimately to fit reality into Bahá’í perspective, science and reason an ideological framework. A rejection are essential for weighing the reli- of reductionism is not a rejection of gious understandings and interpreta- science. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá indicates that sci- tions of individuals—their religious ence is among the greatest expressions beliefs. The question of the scientific of the human mind: “All blessings are exploration of the truth of religion divine in origin, but none can be com- was examined in an article by John- pared with this power of intellectual son et al. After setting aside extreme investigation and research, which is an presumptions and exploring various eternal gift producing fruits of unend- nuances—including the danger of a ing delight.” And, He continues, “[a] too-ready consilience between science scientific man is a true index and rep- and religion—the authors observe that resentative of humanity, for through several scientists, religious scholars, processes of inductive reasoning and philosophers, and theologians are con- research he is informed of all that ap- tributing to new scholarly insights on pertains to humanity, its status, condi- the scientific inquiry into religion and tions and happenings. He studies the religion’s role in human progress. In human body politic, understands social this light, they argue, the question of problems and weaves the web and tex- science’s role in weighing religious be- ture of civilization” (Promulgation 50). liefs must be appreciated: ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is referring to science as we know it now, a science that natural- If science is going to investigate ly evolves over time on the basis of its religious beliefs . . . then it is go- own principles and methods. He is not ing to have to move beyond the referring to an imagined science of the ‘politeness’ of refusing to render future that will conform to religious judgments about the truth or fal- preconceptions: “Whatever the intel- sity in some kinds of religious ligence of man cannot understand, beliefs. However, the epistemic religion ought not to accept. Religion sword must cut all ways (Schloss and science walk hand in hand, and any 2009). Some beliefs are not adjudi- religion contrary to science is not the catable by science, not because of truth” (Paris Talks 131). a commitment to remain neutral 44 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

but because science lacks the tools and philosophy find a way, through to make judgment. Others may their own devices, beyond reductionis- be demonstrably false. But in the tic materialism and scientism, so too, case of a belief that science can religion is responsible for finding a in principle illuminate as false, it way beyond superstition. Eliminating may also be worthwhile to consid- superstition from religion is ultimately er empirical or logical evidence for a problem for each religious tradition. its truth. By some accounts, any The perspective presented here—first alternative stance would not con- for the definition of true religion and stitute a scientific approach. (225) then its practice—is based upon the Bahá’í teachings. The authors conclude that “scientif- There is a range of views concern- ic neutrality regarding religious beliefs ing the assumptions surrounding the should, at least with particular kinds materialist perspective on science and of beliefs, involve not so much refus- the cultural debate surrounding sci- ing to render judgment as willingness ence and religion. Of interest in such to render it either way” and that cer- discussions is the question of what it is tain beliefs “may be true in ways that that actually constitutes religion. For science should be open to considering” many, religion is taken to be a belief (Johnson et al. 223). In particular, the in unseen things, a leap of faith to ac- authors point to the possible validity cept what is unknown or even incom- of religious understandings of human prehensible. Indeed for some, belief in nature and the attributions of sacred God is indistinguishable from belief significance to historical events, both in any “supernatural” forces such as of which could be empirically as- ghosts, witches, or a vague sense of sessed. In this way, religion can be seen karma. Religion and superstition are to legitimately contribute to the inves- too often indistinguishable—whether tigation of truth. The understanding because those who hold reason dear of what constitutes the natural, they find no cause to make a distinction, or argue, is always tentative, ambiguous whether those who champion religious and malleable. While “novel proposals ideas cannot separate the two. that seem to involve the supernatural, Even in its most favorable sense, if evidentially supported, do not man- religion, viewed through a naturalistic date the inclusion of the supernatu- lens, begins and ends with human be- ral,” nevertheless, they “may expand ings. Robert Bellah employs what he construal of the natural” (225). calls a “Durkheimian definition” of re- ligion as “a system of beliefs and prac- DEFINING TRUE RELIGION tices relative to the sacred that unite those who adhere to them in a moral Just as attaining the harmony of sci- community” (1), or, paraphrasing Clif- ence and religion requires that science ford Geertz, “religion is a system of In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 45 symbols that, when enacted by human “the teachings of the Lord God, teach- beings, establishes powerful, pervasive, ings which constitute the very life of and long-standing moods and motiva- humankind, which urge high thoughts tions that make sense in terms of an upon the mind, refine the character, idea of a general order of existence” and lay the groundwork for man’s ev- (xiv). In these definitions, there is no erlasting honor” (Selections 52–53). mention of belief in supernatural be- Thus, the knowledge of God can- ings or belief in God, for while such not be achieved through humanity’s beliefs may well be present, according own unaided efforts, and every at- to Bellah they are not the defining as- tempt to do so leads to superstitious pect of religion (1). ideas being inseparably intertwined Bahá’u’lláh has provided a defini- with any fragments of truth uncov- tion of religion that stands at variance ered. Indeed, whenever religious prac- with what has been generally con- tice veers too far from this revelatory ceived. Among His many statements impulse, the tares of superstition, of in this regard, the following closely idle fancies and vain imaginings take related points shed particular light on root in human hearts, while through what is necessary to distinguish true the Manifestation of God and His religion from its amalgamation with teachings, the knowledge of God and superstition, which ushers in fanati- of spiritual reality is readily accessi- cism and ungodliness. ble. Of course, a naturalistic approach First, Bahá’u’lláh makes it clear could not extend to fully embrace that the starting point for religion is Bahá’u’lláh’s perspective. However, it God, through an act of revelation of could well begin its exploration of divine teachings conveyed by a se- religions by considering the creative ries of Manifestations, the Founders impulse provided by their Founders to of the great religious systems. Re- transform the individual and society in ligion is not initiated in the human the age in which They appeared, and impulse toward transcendence, even the response of humanity to each of though such an impulse is indeed a these interventions. fundamental aspect of human nature. Second, Bahá’u’lláh indicates that Bahá’u’lláh states that since “there can the “religion of God is for love and be no tie of direct intercourse to bind unity” (Tablets 220); it is “the chief the one true God with His creation,” instrument for the establishment of “He hath ordained that in every age order in the world and of tranquility and dispensation a pure and stainless amongst its peoples” (Tablets 63–64). Soul be made manifest” in every age In this regard, the Bahá’í teachings to serve as a divinely guided inter- affirm the conception set forth by the mediary (Gleanings 27:4). Religion, scientists and philosophers mentioned ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further explains, “is not a earlier in their conclusion that, his- series of beliefs, a set of customs,” but torically, religion has contributed to 46 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 human cooperation and progress at omnipotent will and manifesta- ever higher levels of social complex- tions of His good pleasure. ity. While, owing to circumstances, Even though we find a defec- the unity of the entire human race tive branch or leaf upon this could not be established in the past, tree of humanity or an imperfect religion contributed to unity at pro- blossom, it, nevertheless, belongs gressive stages of social development, to this tree and not to another. . “starting with the family” and calling . . There are souls in the human “successively into being the tribe, the world who are ignorant; we must city-state, and the nation,” until this make them knowing. Some grow- day, when global order and the unity ing upon the tree are weak and of the human race is possible. “It is ailing; we must assist them to- the creative energies which His Rev- ward health and recovery. If they elation has released,” Shoghi Effendi are as infants in development, we explains in relation to Bahá’u’lláh’s must minister to them until they call for a united and peaceful world or- attain maturity. We should never der, “that have instilled into humanity detest and shun them as objec- the capacity to attain this final stage tionable and unworthy. (Promul- in its organic and collective evolution” gation 230–31) (Promised Day 117–18). As noted earlier, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá ex- As a source of unity and love, reli- plains that superstition prevailed as gion is not to be a source of conflict, religious leaders divided humanity especially contention between reli- into two trees, one divine and the gious traditions. Indeed, Bahá’u’lláh other satanic. Bahá’u’lláh, however, explains that religion is one. The declares that humanity, as the creation Manifestations of God taught the of God, is one, undermining the jus- same fundamental moral truths as tification for any division. “Regard well as provided certain social laws ye not one another as strangers,” He that varied according to the exigen- states, “Ye are the fruits of one tree, cies of the time and the limitations of and the leaves of one branch” (Glean- the particular developmental stage of ings 112:1). As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further humanity. The perception that these explains: various religions are irreconcilably different, the Bahá’í writings explain, He has declared that . . . all are is to some extent owing to these dif- the children of God, fruit upon fering social teachings, but is mostly a the one tree of His love. . . . result of the accumulation of centu- Therefore, we must love mankind ries of man-made interpretations and as His creatures, realizing that interpolations within each tradition. all are growing upon the tree For example, if, as is obvious, Chris- of His mercy, servants of His tianity is not united as one, it is not In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 47

because of what Christ taught, but laws allow for the free and safe collec- because of what human beings added tive flow of vehicles. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá or misinterpreted. Bahá’u’lláh enjoins states: His followers to share the precious gift of His teachings with others, but then And among the teachings of to accept whatever the response might Bahá’u’lláh is man’s freedom, that be, whether positive or negative, while through the ideal Power he should continuing to demonstrate love and be free and emancipated from the affection and to work in harmony with captivity of the world of nature; other faith traditions for the better- for as long as man is captive to ment of the world (Tabernacle 41). nature he is a ferocious animal, as Yet another point raised by the struggle for existence is one Bahá’u’lláh that distinguishes true of the exigencies of the world of religion from superstition is that re- nature. This matter of the strug- ligion is concerned with that which gle for existence is the fountain- is true and that which is right. The head of all calamities and is the independent investigation of truth is supreme affliction. (Selections 302) enjoined upon all. Faith is not a matter of unthinking acceptance of unseen If religion is concerned with truth, things and irrational ideas, or a body then it must be in accord with science of immutable and untenable super- and reason. “Religion must be reason- natural concepts. Rather, faith is con- able,” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, and “if it scious knowledge and its translation does not square with reason, it is su- into practice though good deeds. Re- perstition and without foundation.” ligious laws and exhortations are not “If we insist that such and such a sub- a matter of blind obedience by weak ject is not to be reasoned out and test- individuals conforming to an arbitrary ed according to the established logical set of rules enforced by a controlling modes of the intellect,” He adds, “what religious authority. Bahá’u’lláh indi- is the use of the reason which God has cates the law of God is not “a mere given man?” (Promulgation 63). code of laws” (Kitáb-i-Aqdas ¶ 5) but Ultimately, the truth of religion “the breath of life unto all created is not just rational but empirical—it things,” “the highest means for the must be demonstrated through pro- maintenance of order in the world and ductive results in the world. As Jesus the security of its peoples” (¶ 2) that stated, “Ye shall know them by their is intended to cultivate human poten- fruits. . . . A good tree cannot bring tialities and virtues. The aim of such forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt laws—whose binding claims are con- tree bring forth good fruit” (Mat- sciously assessed, embraced, and ap- thew 7:16, 18). This principle is also plied by individual choice—is human affirmed by Bahá’u’lláh: “[I]s not the freedom, in the same way that traffic object of every Revelation to effect a 48 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 transformation in the whole charac- has never attained to so much as a ter of mankind, a transformation that drop out of the fathomless river shall manifest itself both outwardly of the waters of life that flows and inwardly, that shall affect both its through the teachings of the Holy inner life and external conditions? For Books. . . . (Secret 98) if the character of mankind be not changed, the futility of God’s univer- Science is a powerful system of sal Manifestations would be apparent” knowledge because ideas about real- (Kitáb-i-Íqán 240–41). If certain prac- ity can be tested against the facts of tices in the name of religion produce physical world, allowing humanity to harmful results—war, hate, oppres- gain a better understanding of reality sion, prejudice, injustice, and so on— and a mastery over aspects of phys- then this is not the practice of true ical reality. Thus, it is not a “belief ” religion, whose results should be love, that a particular cure heals a disease; unity, education, cooperation, and per- a treatment is a cure only if its result sonal and collective upliftment. This is can be demonstrated as an empirical a definitive test that separates true re- fact. If religion is to be treated accord- ligion from superstition presented in ing to its claim to be a valid system the guise of religion. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá of thought and action that contributes states: to human well-being, it must meet an empirical test—and this standard is Universal benefits derive from required not only by reason but by ex- the grace of the Divine religions, plicit religious texts. for they lead their true followers When religion has been warped by to sincerity of intent, to high superstition, and fails to bring forth purpose, to purity and spotless good fruits, it must be reformed. His- honor, to surpassing kindness tory is filled with examples of reli- and compassion, to the keeping gious reformers who have clarified the of their covenants when they essential principles of their religion have covenanted, to concern for and have uplifted its practice. Each re- the rights of others, to liberality, ligious tradition has within it the fire to justice in every aspect of life, of divine truth, and each can strive to humanity and philanthropy, to to find, in its own ways and within valor and to unflagging efforts in its body of beliefs, principles such as the service of mankind. It is reli- those discussed here that can rekindle gion, to sum up, which produces and refine religious practice, purify it all human virtues, and it is these from superstition, and, thereby, cause virtues which are the bright can- it to be in harmony with science and dles of civilization. If a man is reason. Ultimately, however, it may be not characterized by these excel- found that it is God Who reforms re- lent qualities, it is certain that he ligion by reigniting the divine flame; In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 49 the divine forces introduced at the protection and the regeneration of the start of any religion are manifested peoples of the earth have been clear- again in a process of progressive reve- ly set forth” in His Teachings (Tablets lation that is the ultimate safeguard of 130), thus anticipating Abrams call for true religion. “a real God” to help “figure out how to Finally, according to Bahá’u’lláh, act . . . in every way” (150). true religion is intended to assist hu- The meaning and purpose for hu- man beings to understand their true manity set forth by true religion as nature and purpose, and the larger described by Bahá’u’lláh is coherent meaningful story of which they are a with the naturalistic premise that part. He states that “man should know consciousness in the universe is not his own self and recognize that which accidental but inevitable, based on the leadeth unto loftiness or lowliness, laws governing the universe from the glory or abasement, wealth or poverty. moment of the Big Bang. And it pro- . . . The straight path is the one which vides a more robust perspective for all guideth man to the dayspring of per- of us, whatever our personal beliefs, ception and to the dawning-place of to investigate a meaning of life more true understanding and leadeth him to worthy of human beings, individually that which will redound to glory, hon- and collectively, than the materialists’ our and greatness” (Tablets 35). appeal to create one’s own. Inasmuch Religion, for Bahá’u’lláh, serves as the latter can never escape the shad- a twofold moral purpose: to foster ow of relativism, it can never take hu- human capacity for personal devel- manity beyond conflict and the contest opment and to contribute to the bet- for power—the animalistic struggle terment of society. The particular of the survival of the fittest. challenge of this age is to transform This story of meaning and pur- the spiritual principle of the oneness pose told by true religion, according of humanity into a practical global to the Bahá’í Teachings, is also coher- social order that reflects the unity of ent with the contemporary scientific the human race. He calls for humani- understanding of the cosmos, of the ty to overcome prejudices of all kinds appearance of humanity, and of the and arrange its affairs for unity among unfoldment of human culture, where- nations and peoples, finally achieving by the known universe has existed for the Great Peace anticipated by seers nearly fourteen billion years, modern and poets since antiquity—a level human beings around two hundred of cooperation at the global scale to thousand years ago, and the beginning crown the prior levels of cooperation of agricultural society—and thus the religion created in the past to advance roots of civilization—only some ten the social order. He promises that to twelve thousand years ago. This “such means as lead to the elevation, support for the prevailing scientif- the advancement, the education, the ic worldview is evident in a host of 50 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 passages, including the acknowledge- LEARNING ABOUT THE PRACTICE ment that creation is “not one or two OF TRUE RELIGION hundred thousand, or even one or two million years old” but “very an- For the Bahá’í community, the prac- cient” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered tice of true religion requires grow- Questions 41:3); in the recognition ing in capacity over time to translate that from “the mineral kingdom,” the Bahá’u’lláh’s Teachings—His concept human body “traversed the vegetable of religion—into systematic action as kingdom and its constituent substanc- a remedy for the ills afflicting human- es” and from there “has risen by evo- ity. Bahá’ís are increasingly coming to lution into the kingdom of the animal understand their current efforts in this and from thence attained the kingdom light. There is, of course, a personal of man” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation dimension to transformation, involv- 307), where, although possessing “all ing a daily discipline of study, prayer, the virtues of the lower kingdoms . . meditation, and reflection to improve . is further endowed with the spiritual moral behavior, but the focus here is faculty, the heavenly gift of conscious- on the collective. ness” (258); in the appearance of re- The vision of how the Bahá’í ligious and moral guidance from age community is to move gradually to age through progressive revelation, from its earliest stages to realize its demonstrating that religious truth is society-building power, as well as relative and not absolute, and that even the means for its initial systematic universal principles must be applied to development, were set forth in the changing contexts; in the understand- writings of Shoghi Effendi over the ing that society has evolved through a course of his ministry. Briefly, he de- series of social stages that witnessed scribed three ages: Heroic, Formative, an expanding circle of cooperation and Golden (Citadel 4–5). The current and will continue “until it culminates one, the Formative Age, which began in the unification of the whole world, with the passing of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in- the final object and the crowning glo- volves “the crystallization and shaping ry of human evolution on this planet” of the creative energies released” by (Shoghi Effendi, Promised Day 117–18); Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation (God Passes By in “the coming of age of the entire xiii). It is the age in which the local, human race,” which will witness the national and international institu- “emergence of a world community, the tions of the Faith are to “take shape, consciousness of world citizenship, the develop and become fully consolidat- founding of a world civilization and cul- ed” (324). It involves the systematic ture” (Shoghi Effendi, World Order 163); spread and consolidation of the Faith, and in the anticipation of a cycle of ma- encompassing the many stages of the ture human development lasting at least unfoldment of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Divine five hundred thousand years (102). Plan. It is the period that will witness In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 51

the establishment of the Great, or a mass conversion of these same na- Lesser, Peace and the unity of man- tions and races, “as a direct result of a kind. It will also experience the eman- chain of events” which will “suddenly cipation of the Faith and the recogni- revolutionize the fortunes of the Faith, tion of its status and an independent derange the equilibrium of the world, religion, setting the stage for the con- and reinforce a thousandfold the nu- summation of the Dispensation in the merical strength as well as the materi- Golden Age, the spiritualization of al power and the spiritual authority of the world, the realization of the Most the Faith of Bahá’u’lláh” (Citadel 117). Great Peace, and “the birth and efflo- The Bahá’í community is currently rescence of a world civilization, the involved in learning and disseminat- child of that Peace” (Citadel 6). ing the capacity to deal systematically The efforts unfolding during the with the second of these, advancing Formative Age can be understood the process of entry by troops. against a backdrop of what Shoghi The Golden Age of the Bahá’í Effendi described as the processes of Faith offers the promise of the full integration and disintegration, “with realization of Bahá’u’lláh’s Teachings their continuous and reciprocal reac- for humanity. Yet, the Formative Age tions on each other” (Advent 72–73), clearly implies the limited capacity which are “associated respectively of the Bahá’ís in the early part of the with the rising fortunes of God’s in- Dispensation and the critical chal- fant Faith and the sinking fortunes lenge of learning to put the teachings of the institutions of a declining civ- into action with growing effectiveness ilization” (Messages to the Bahá’í World over time. For example, at its start 102). A lamentably defective old world in 1921, the Bahá’í community was order has witnessed, since the dawn simply too small to have an impact on of Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation, “the omi- social order. Shoghi Effendi urged the nous manifestations of acute political believers to make efforts to spread the conflict, of social unrest, of racial ani- Faith, raise institutions, and transform mosity, of class antagonism, of immo- themselves, in anticipation of the time rality and of irreligion, proclaiming, when they would be called upon to in no uncertain terms, the corruption work to eradicate evil tendencies such and obsolescence of the institutions as political corruption, moral laxity, of a bankrupt Order” (103). The prog- and extreme prejudice from the wider ress of the Faith which marks the in- society. For, as he explained, the world tegrative process will advance, Shoghi order of Bahá’u’lláh, whose “first Effendi explained, through three great stirrings” would occur in the second phases: a steady flow of new believers, Bahá’í century which ends in 2044 followed by the entry by troops of peo- (Messages to America 96), “can never be ples of diverse nations and races into reared unless and until the generality the Bahá’í community, and, ultimately, of the people to which they belong has 52 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 been already purged from the divers Bahá’u’lláh, that creates such mental ills, whether social or political, that tests. As Shoghi Effendi warned, in a now so severely afflict it” (Advent 21). letter written on his behalf: In light of this panorama of the un- foldment of the Bahá’í Faith provided The friends must, at all times, bear by Shoghi Effendi, the relevance of the in mind that they are, in a way, like activities in which Bahá’ís are current- soldiers under attack. The world ly engaged for a world that has lost is at present in an exceedingly its direction—and is witnessing daily dark condition spiritually; hatred the steady erosion of the consensus and prejudice of every sort are lit- on which the social order depends— erally tearing it to pieces. We, on becomes starkly apparent. As the the other hand, are the custodians process of disintegration accelerates, of the opposite forces, the forces the efforts of the Bahá’í community of love, of unity, of peace and as it pursues an integrative process integration, and we must contin- through the systematic execution of ually be on our guard, whether as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Divine Plan must like- individuals or as an Assembly or wise intensify. The Plan which embod- Community, lest through us these ies the Master’s hopes, Shoghi Effendi destructive, negative forces enter wrote, “must be pursued, relentlessly into our midst. In other words, pursued, whatever may befall them in we must beware lest the darkness the future, however distracting the cri- of society become reflected in our ses that may agitate their country or acts and attitudes, perhaps all un- the world,” for “the synchronization consciously. Love for each other, of such world-shaking crises with the the deep sense that we are a new progressive unfoldment and fruition organism, the dawn-breakers of of their divinely appointed task is it- a new World Order, must con- self the work of Providence” (Advent 72). stantly animate our Bahá’í lives, To seize upon the opportunities and we must pray to be protected presented to become protagonists of from the contamination of society which is so diseased with preju- change, Bahá’ís must guard against dice. (Directives 41) being drawn to accept the debates, assumptions, social conventions, and The efforts of the Bahá’í world at contests provoked by the forces of its current stage of development, as it disintegration. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá foretold brings to fruition the stage of entry that the Bahá’ís would face severe by troops and establishes a conscious mental tests, and it is the tension be- capacity for learning how to put the tween what the mind perceives to be teachings into action in country after real—the idle fancies and vain imag- country and cluster4 after cluster, are inings of a disintegrating world or- der—and a new reality as presented by 4 A geographic unit defined for the In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 53 described in detail in the messages of through a range of elevated conver- the Universal House of Justice (espe- sations that meaningfully present the cially since 1996) and in other materi- Teachings in both direct and indirect als, such as the analysis and summary manner; the multiplication and sup- of achievements prepared for each port by more and more individuals stage of the Divine Plan. A brief sum- of efficacious core activities—study mary here must suffice. circles, devotional meetings, children’s classes, and junior youth groups—that COMMUNITY BUILDING AND GROWTH serve as social spaces for the partici- pation of the growing number of at- Since the Five Year Plan that began in tracted souls; the ability to engage in 2001, the Bahá’í world has concerned a learning mode within clusters from itself with two essential movements which purposeful action is pursued; that have driven the process of expan- continual enhancement of the spiritu- sion and consolidation: the movement al life of Bahá’í communities; greater of individuals through the sequence involvement in the life of society; and of courses of the training institute, growing recognition among govern- and the movement of clusters to ment agencies and leaders of thought ever greater degrees of complexity about the efficacy of Bahá’í efforts for in community building. In the most the betterment of society. The aims recent Plan, community building has of the current Plan include the effort been described in terms of prog- to move no less than 5,000 clusters ress along a path distinguished by a to an intensive program of growth number of milestones. Currently, the where scores engage hundreds, along most advanced clusters have reached with advancing several hundred of the capacity to raise one hundred, or these clusters to further frontiers of perhaps several hundreds of capable development. individuals to create a pattern of com- munity life that can engage a thousand SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT or more. Yet progress is marked not just through quantitative change, but As part of a Bahá’í life, and in ac- also a number of distinctive quali- cordance with the example set by tative achievements derived by the ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, a large number of indi- strengthening of the capabilities of vidual believers draws insights from individuals, communities, and institu- Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings and contrib- tions. These include: attracting people utes in diverse ways, through vol- to engage in Bahá’í community life untary efforts or occupations, to the social and economic progress of their purpose of community-building that en- localities and nations. Beyond this, as compasses a number of cities, towns or the community building process has villages. accelerated, involvement in Bahá’í and 54 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016

Bahá’í-inspired activities for social and and the Pacific. Currently, twenty-six economic development has grown sys- Bahá’í-inspired agencies are working tematically in size and influence. In its with 427 schools, over 1325 teachers Ridván. 2010 message, the Universal and 27,850 students in 175 clusters in House of Justice called on the world- 20 countries. Details of these and oth- wide Bahá’í community to reflect on er endeavors may be found in various the contributions that its growing, reports and documents prepared by vibrant communities will make “to the Office of Social and Economic De- improve some aspect of the social or velopment at the Bahá’í World Centre. economic life of a population, how- ever modestly.” “Most appropriately INVOLVEMENT IN THE DISCOURSES conceived in terms of a spectrum,” it OF SOCIETY stated, “social action can range from fairly informal efforts of limited du- Yet another area of endeavor of the ration undertaken by individuals or Bahá’í community is a greater involve- small groups of friends to programs ment in the discourses of society. This of social and economic develop- area of work has a long history—as ment with a high level of complexity evident in ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s own inter- and sophistication implemented by actions with groups and prominent Bahá’í-inspired organizations.” The individuals—and has become more number of grassroots activities, many systematic in recent years. One feature of fixed duration, have now passed ten of the old world order as it disinte- thousand annually. Sustained projects, grates is that the discourses among in- many educational in nature, number dividuals and groups has become riven more than one thousand. Meanwhile with dichotomies that pit “us” against more complex agencies, including a “them”; the challenge for Bahá’ís is number of Bahá’í-inspired develop- to assist in recasting these conversa- ment organizations, are now more tions, through insights drawn from than one hundred. Learning how to Bahá’u’lláh’s Teachings, to elevate and expand the scope of certain programs frame the subjects for discourse in a of proven effectiveness within and manner that creates the conditions for across countries has also rapidly accel- united action, and to rise above the erated. For example, the junior youth points of discord to find agreement in program, initiated more than a decade the search for solutions through con- ago, now includes more than 17,000 sultation and learning. Individual be- groups and over 155,000 participants lievers participate in a variety of social worldwide. The community schools spaces and everyday conversations, program, established more recently, including in their professions, where involving the establishment of com- they can bring to bear relevant in- munity-based primary schools, has ex- sights from the Teachings. The prog- panded in Africa, Latin America, Asia, ress of community building activities In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 55 at the cluster level has accelerated, and spread worldwide of endeavors thereby opening increased opportuni- that have been proven by experience to ties for both Bahá’ís and other partici- be effective. This does not mean that pants from the wider society to engage there are no challenges or even out- together on relevant themes of social right problems, but that, with unity of concern in villages and neighborhoods. thought and action, through the reflec- At the international level, the United tive practice of religion, scientific in Nations Office of the Bahá’í Interna- its method, solutions can be found and tional Community and other agencies progressively implemented. As such are expanding the scope of their en- systematic endeavors are sustained in deavors to engage governments and the decades ahead, a different example organizations of civil society through of religion and a greater demonstra- various published statements and tion of its civilizing force will become participation in international and re- evident. The Bahá’í world at the end gional fora. And at the national level, of its second century will be signifi- agencies of National Assemblies, with cantly transformed and its capacities the support of the Office of Public enhanced to play the vital role antic- Discourse at the Bahá’í World Centre, ipated and outlined by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá are learning to select and strengthen and Shoghi Effendi. The forces of dis- their participation in discourses of integration will only continue to in- particular relevance to their countries. tensify, and thus, as the world staggers Some noteworthy recent interactions toward a global order of peace among include the engagement of the Bahá’í nations as anticipated by Bahá’u’lláh, communities in certain Arab coun- the forces of integration must equally tries directly with their governments, build to touch as wide a circle of hu- and the involvement of the Bahá’ís of manity as possible. Germany in the national discourse on immigration, the Bahá’ís of Colombia CONCLUSION on peace and reconciliation, the Bahá’ís of Canada on the role of religion in At the heart of the assumptions on society, and the Bahá’ís of Turkey on which science rests is the belief that the involvement of women in society. the universe operates in a lawful man- In all these and in others areas as ner which the mind is capable of ob- well, Bahá’ís are collectively learning jectively discerning in a reliable, if fal- about the practice of true religion libilistic, way. The demonstrable value and its society-building power. The of science strengthens our faith in recent series of Five Year Plans have such capacities. At the same time, we illustrated how the process of study, have increasingly come to view with consultation, action and reflection suspicion and doubt those capacities gradually refines effective approaches of the mind that provide us with per- and ensures a steady multiplication spectives on subjective and normative 56 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.4 2016 dimensions of reality, capacities that the occasion in question, we all are perhaps no less essential for our went up to London and had din- survival and flourishing. Perhaps we ner with Russell at a restaurant. can learn to trust both, so long as He was then in his mideighties, these inherent capacities are properly and had a reputation as a famous channeled. atheist. To many of us, the ques- The path that ultimately leads to tion seemed pressing as to what the understanding and practice of sort of prospects for immortality Bahá’u’lláh’s principle of the harmo- Russell entertained, and we put ny between science and religion may it to him: Suppose you have been be a long one, but the horizon that can wrong about the existence of guide the next steps in its realization God. Suppose that the whole sto- is already somewhat apparent. For sci- ry were true, and that you arrived ence and philosophy, the path requires at the Pearly Gates to be admit- a move from an atheistic, reductionis- ted by Saint Peter. Having denied tic materialism to a kind of agnostic, God’s existence all your life, what biological naturalism that better ac- would you say to . . . Him? Rus- commodates the reality of the mind sell answered without a moment’s and consciousness as it exists in the hesitation. “Well, I would go up to universe. For religion, the challenge is Him, and I would say, ‘You didn’t infinitely harder. For while humanity give us enough evidence!’” (36) has made its scientific turn centuries ago, crossing a threshold to rational Science from various fields, freed maturity that is well substantiated and from reductionistic interpretations, continually refined, religion has not increasingly sheds light on the ways yet been similarly transformed, and in which religion has contributed to remains in a quagmire of superstition, human survival and evolution of cul- prejudice and immaturity that is too ture, but true religion cannot emerge often detached from truth and from in the form of an effective knowledge proven worth in engendering justice system in harmony with science until and human well-being. it becomes translated into a systematic Searle tells the story of his time as form of reliable and proven practice. a student with the eminent philoso- It must be fully compatible with the pher Bertrand Russell: truths that emerge from science and philosophy, shed additional light on Periodically, every two years or aspects of reality that stand outside so, the Voltaire Society, a society their reach, and contribute to a norma- of intellectually inclined under- tive framework that distinguishes mo- graduates at Oxford, held a ban- rality from personal inclination. The quet with Bertrand Russell—the redefinition of religion for the age of official patron of the society. On human maturity by Bahá’u’lláh implies In Pursuit of Harmony between Science and Religion 57

no less a revolution in the behavior of humanity and the evolution of culture than the creation of science from the late 1500s to the dawn of the 1700s. It is therefore necessary to prove true religion like true science—to act and demon- strate that it works. As Shoghi Effendi explained at the start of the systematic execution of the Divine Plan: “Let the doubter arise and himself verify the truth of such assertions” (Messages to America 17).

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