Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (Jbmd)

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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT DYNAMICS (JBMD)

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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT DYNAMICS (JBMD)

Faculty of Business Cape Peninsula University of Technology JOBNAME: JBMD Part2 PAGE: 2 SESS: 30 OUTPUT: Thu Aug 21 14:08:46 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/JBMD−08part2/000prelims

Journal of Business and Management Dynamics

First published 2008

ISSN No: 2070-0156

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. See Section 12(1)(a) of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978.

Project Manager: Marlinee Chetty Editor: David Merrington Design and typesetting: Helanna Typesetting Cover design: Jacques Nel Printed and bound in South Africa by Megadigital

The authors and the publisher have made every effort to obtain permission for and to acknowledge the use of copyright material. Should any infringement of copyright have occurred, please contact the publisher, and every effort will be made to rectify omissions or errors in the event of a reprint or new edition. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 24 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT DYNAMICS (JBMD)

CONTENTS Page FOREWORDS

Professor MS Bayat v Dr MS Hartley vi Professor A Slabbert vi

JOURNAL POLICIES vii

ARTICLES

‘‘A ROSE IS A ROSE: PR IS PR AND MARKETING IS MARKETING: OR IS IT?’’ J van der Merwe and BP Venter 1

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT STYLE ON THE PROPENSITY FOR LOAN DEFAULT BY SMALL BUSINESSES COK Allen-Ile and CE Eresia-Eke 14

THE ROLE OF CO-OPERATION BETWEEN STAKEHOLDERS IN THE EFFECTIVE DELIVERY OF EDUCATION IN KWAZULU-NATAL BR Mngomezulu 28

DIVISION OF LABOUR AS EXPLOITATIVE MECHANISM OF WORKERS WI Ukpere and AD Slabbert 40

A BRIEF TAXONOMY OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE RESEARCH PROPOSALAT THE CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (CPUT) MS Bayat 45

SCALE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR EMAILAND WEB-BASED SURVEYS S Pather and CS Strümpfer 57

THE ROLE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN THE GOVERNANCE OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE WITH REFERENCE TO SOUTH AFRICA RS Masango 67

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND DIVERSITY KK Tummala 77

SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH AND MOBILE TECHNOLOGY IMPACT: THE MXIT PHENOMENON E Francke and M Weideman 81

A CONCEPTUALANALYSIS OF CULTURALAND HERITAGE TOURISM DEFINITIONS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE CAPE FLATS IN CAPE TOWN R Ismail 95 iii JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 24 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

iv Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD)

CHALLENGING PARADIGMS: WHY WARM UP PRIOR TO EXERCISE? D Strout and SEH Davies 101

EXTRAPOLATING RELATIVITY THEORY TO DETERMINE PARTICULAR NORMATIVE CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IW Ferreira 108

THE IMPACT OF THE SINGLE PUBLIC SERVICE INITIATIVE FROM A LOCAL GOVERNMENT PERSPECTIVE HH Ballard 112 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 24 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

Foreword 1 v

INTRODUCTION TO FOREWORDS This, ﬁrst edition of the Journal of Business and Management Dynamics of the Faculty of Business of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) carries three forewords as an introduction to the newly-established journal. Subsequent editions will have only one foreword. Foreword 1 is by the Dean of the Faculty of Business and Editor-in-Chief of the journal, Professor MS Bayat. Foreword 2 is by the Acting Dean of Research of CPUT, Dr MS Hartley. Foreword 3 is by the Head of Department of Research in the Faculty, Professor A Slabbert. A special word of thanks to the Dean of the Faculty of Business and Editor-in-Chief of the journal, Professor MS Bayat, for his research leadership by initiating and supporting the journal. Dr IW Ferreira, Editor

FOREWORD 1 BY PROFESSOR MS BAYAT, DEAN, FACULTY OF BUSINESS, CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY As Dean of the Faculty of Business of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology and Chief Editor of the Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD), I am proud to be able to write this foreword for the first edition of this faculty academic journal as this will provide space for academics and practitioners to generate stimulating debate and intellectual discourse on a variety of theoretical and practical focus areas. It is a pleasure for me to introduce this first edition of the Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD) of the Faculty of Business of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. As an academic research journal, its presence will fill a void in the faculty and it will serve as a vehicle to promote academic discourse, higher education enthusiasm as well as valuable research outputs. It should be borne in mind that due to the nature of our work, all of us are most of the time to a greater or lesser extent involved in some form of research. This could be when we are updating our lecture notes and presentations in class, when we research to present papers at conferences or when research has to be undertaken for personal studies, writing of journal articles or joint or individual ad hoc and/or contracted research. The Faculty of Business is committed to the mission of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, which states: ‘‘. . . our mission is to develop and sustain an empowering environment where, through teaching, learning, research and scholarship our students and staff, in partnership with the community and industry are able to create and apply knowledge that contributes to development . . .’’ In the quest to achieve the institutional mission, the faculty has identified three pillars according to which educational goals have to be achieved, in line with the institutional vision and mission. Those are Teaching and Learning, Research, and Community Engagement. Of these three pillars guiding our faculty efforts, the research pillar is particularly relevant and without it the faculty will not be able to achieve the vision, mission and educational goals of the institution. This journal will hopefully contribute to promoting a research culture among staff and students in the faculty, a status that will benefit us all. Research output is often the yardstick of best practice in terms of which universities are ranked and which determines donor attitudes, employment of graduates in industry as well as determining the institutional image locally, nationally and internationally. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 23 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

vi Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD)

All efforts to increase our research output should therefore be supported, for example, the articles that will be published in this journal, which will be published bi-annually. This approach is seen against the background of Research being a key pillar of the institutional and faculty promotion strategy, in conjunction with the other two pillars, which are Teaching and Learning, and Community Engagement, while the Research pillar, in light of the high premium placed on it, will need to be particularly nurtured to ensure that CPUT can take its rightful place as a world class university of technology. As Dean of the faculty, I take this opportunity to thank the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic), Professor Anthony Staak and the Vice-Chancellor, Professor Vuyisa Mazwi-Tanga, as well as the former Acting Dean of Research, Dr Shaheed Hartley, for their ongoing support and assistance with research in the faculty. Finally the intention with this journal is that it will eventually become an accredited journal.

FOREWORD 2 BY DR MS HARTLEY, ACTING DEAN OF RESEARCH CAPE PENINSULA UNIVER- SITY OF TECHNOLOGY The Cape Peninsula University of Technology is entering exciting times. With the merger now almost firmly behind us, researchers, and especially young researchers, are settling down to the academic task. A number of initiatives have been launched to build out research at the CPUT adding to the concerted effort in living out our vision, which is to become the heart of technology in Africa. The establishment of the Faculty of Business Journal of Business and Management Dynamics is one such milestone in our mission to firmly root the CPUT as a research-oriented institution. This journal provides young aspiring researchers as well as established academics at CPUT firstly, and secondly regional, national and international colleagues an opportunity to share their research in a medium that conveys and maintains the intense academic rigour and high standard expected of their disciplines. It also creates a domain where research in the South African context, more especially CPUT research projects and initiatives, can be showcased and bench-marked against international research indicators and also add value to current debates in business and management. The Faculty of Business is to be congratulated on the establishment of this journal and the visionary step to provide a vehicle through which we can develop and enhance the research agenda at CPUT. The University’s research fraternity wishes the faculty and the editorial board all the success with this endeavour.

FOREWORD 3 BY PROFESSOR A SLABBERT, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH, FACULTY OF BUSINESS, CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY The Journal of Business and Management Dynamics is a welcome initiative, and hopes to contribute to the vast body of knowledge which exists in this particular focus ﬁeld. It should be noted that the journal has its academic home in the Business Faculty of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, which accommodates thirteen departments: Human Resource Manage- ment, Management and Project Management, Public Relations, Retail Business Management, Sport Management, Public Management, Marketing, Accounting, Office Management and Technology, Tourism Management, the Graduate Centre for Management, and a Hotel School. With such a variety of ﬁelds of knowledge, it becomes imperative to expand existing knowledge, and to disseminate acquired knowledge to as many role players as possible. The quest for knowledge is at the basis of all academic endeavour, and, in keeping with the university mission, the journal will strive to utilise research as a platform to create and apply knowledge that contributes to development. In this context, it is visualised that the journal will not remain within the ambit of academic debate only, but it will involve practitioners and communities, so that the end product will lead to a better life for all South Africans, as well as any and all other humans on JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 22 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

Journal policies vii

this planet. The world, with its people, is desperately in need of knowledge which can be used to improve quality of life in all its spheres, and as editors it is our fervent wish that the contribution of this journal will contribute in this quest. The truism of: to investigate is to know, to know is to predict, and to predict is to control, will remain the credo of the journal. It is an honour to be associated with this venture.

JOURNAL POLICIES The Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD) is a peer-reviewed journal of the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology in Cape Town, South Africa. This journal is aimed at providing practical guidance and empirical evidence to researchers and practitioners specialising in business, management and humanities ﬁelds. The journal provides a communication forum to advance entrepreneurship, innovation, small business management and various disciplines, as well as the application of the disciplines in practice. Its aim is the improvement and further development of these ﬁelds and it is designed to appeal to both practitioners and academics. A double-blind review process is followed, supported by a national and international Editorial Review Board. Full academic accreditation will be applied for when the requirements have been met. The mission of the Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD) is to publish empirical and theoretical contributions in the form of conceptual articles, that could include case studies. It is envisaged that the JBMD will serve as a platform for presenting information central to the concerns of practitioners and academics. In this manner, research will grow and simultaneously shape theories for future application. The Journal is produced bi-annually in June and December by members of the Faculty of Business of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. The views expressed in this journal are those of the respective authors. Correspondence should be addressed to: Dr IW Ferreira Editor JBMD Faculty of Business Cape Peninsula University of Technology PO Box 652 CAPE TOWN 8000 Email address: [email protected] Phone number: +27 21 460 3932 Fax number: +27 21 460 3716 Cellular phone: 0846073878 Journal of Business and Management Dynamics of the Faculty of Business (JBMD) Editorial Board: Editor-in-Chief and Chairperson: Professor MS Bayat, Dean, Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Editor: Dr IW Ferreira. Consulting Editors Consulting Editor (Research): Professor A Slabbert. Consulting Editor (Philology and language): Mrs S Sulayman. Consulting Editor (Multi-disciplinary): Dr HH Ballard and Ms A du Toit. Consulting Editor (Ethics): Dr S Davies. Consulting Editors (Research Methodology): Dr B Mngomezulu and Mr COK Allen-Ile. Editorial Assistants: Ms T Daniels and Ms T Makda. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 25 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

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Editorial Review Board Professor LVM Tanga, Vice Chancellor, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. Professor A Staak — Deputy Vice Chancellor: Academic, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. Professor Y Jeffri — Prince Sultan College of Tourism and Business, Saudi Arabia. Professor KK Tummala — Kansas State University, United States of America. Professor S Moodley — University of Zululand, South Africa. Professor Dr R Thakathi — University of Fort Hare, South Africa. Professor P Singh — Nelson Mandela University of Technology, South Africa. Dr N Ismail — Parliament, Cape Town, South Africa. Professor R Cameron — University of Cape Town, South Africa. Dr IH Meyer — University of Stellenbosch, South Africa. Professor TD Lynch — Louisiana State University, USA. Mr BMC Nyirenda — Mzuzu University, Malawi. Professor CE Lynch — University of Texas, USA. Professor CK Chen — National Taipei University, Taiwan. Professor W Fox — Honorary Professor, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. Professor V Clapper — Tswane University of Technology, South Africa. Dr OI Okoro — University of Nigeria, Nigeria. Professor L Naylor — University of Baltimore, USA. Dr LD Naidoo — United Cricket Board of South Africa. Professor M Esau — University of the Western Cape, South Africa. Professor P Boorsma — University of Twente, The Netherlands. Dr S Pillay — University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Professor M Kumaran — College of Social Sciences, Hawaii. Mr S Tsoabisi — University of South Africa, South Africa. Professor D Noon — Conventry University, United Kingdom.

Information for contributors of manuscripts Editorial policy The primary purpose of the journal is to publish research articles in various fields, including entrepreneurship, innovation, business management, finance and humanities. Practical papers, empirical papers, new approaches and techniques, case studies, and conceptual papers will be considered for publication. The Journal serves as a multi-disciplinary communication forum for advancing entrepreneurship and business management theory and practice in South and Southern Africa as well as elsewhere. Its aim is the improvement and further development of relevant academic fields of study, relevant areas in practice, aimed at both practitioners and academics.

Review process and proofing The decision of the editorial committee to publish a manuscript is based on the judgement of the reviewers, who are all knowledgeable in their respective ﬁelds. Authors will be informed of the decision, including any relevant comments, after the paper had been reviewed. Neither authors nor reviewers are identiﬁed in the review process.

What to submit Academic manuscripts of either a research, conceptual or empirical nature which contribute to the aims of the journal will be considered. Book reviews as well as well as opinion/viewpoint columns will also be published. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 19 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

Journal policies ix

Submission requirements When submitting, authors must agree that: • They have not submitted and will not submit their manuscript to another entity while the manuscript is under review at JMBD. • They will only submit manuscripts and empirical reports that have not been published previously. • Their manuscripts are prepared according to the prescribed style of JMBD. Manuscripts that have not been appropriately prepared will be returned to the authors prior to peer-reviewing.

Format Font and font size: Arial 12 point. Abstract: The abstract should consist of approximately 100 words or less. Key words: Authors should identify up to five key words that characterise the principal themes covered by the paper on the title page. Language: Papers should be written in English. Title page: This page should contain the title of the manuscript and the name, affiliation, full address and contact information of every author. The name of the author to whom correspondence should be sent should be marked with an asterisk (*). Body: The manuscript must be typed on one side of the page only in 1.5 spacing. Appropriate headings and sub-headings should be used to segment the manuscript to enhance readability. The length of the manuscript should not exceed 10 000 words of typed text. Headings: Headings and sub-headings should not be numbered. Headings must be formatted in Arial 12 bold upper case, and subheadings in Arial 12 bold lower title case (i.e. using significant initial capitals and the rest lower case). Sub-sub-headings should be lower case, not bolded. Papers, especially research papers, should where applicable include: abstract, introduction, identification of problem, aim of the study, method, sampling, measuring instruments, procedure, results and a discussion. Finally, a conclusion should round off the article. Footnotes: Footnotes or endnotes should be avoided where possible and should not be used for reference purposes. They should be used for clarification that is not appropriate in the body of the manuscript. If used, they should be numbered consecutively and placed on a separate page. Tables and figures: Tables and Figures should be applied in the text, as close as possible to the appropriate discussion. They should be numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals. Summary: A 1 000–1 500 word summary of the article should be included for publishing in a popular magazine, newspaper or newsletter. References: The Harvard Style of reference is used (see below). All text references cited in the text should be listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author in the bibliography at the end of the paper. A bibliography (alphabetical, by author’s last name, including initials) should be placed at the end of the manuscript. Authors should ensure that there is a bibliographical entry for every reference in the text and that the cited dates and the spelling of authors’ names in the text, references and in the bibliography correlate. For a complete guideline for referencing, contact the Editor, Dr IW Ferreira, [email protected]. Text references: Preferably, the most recent publications on the discussed topic should be cited, particularly those of the last 5–10 years. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 19 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/000prelims

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Where and how to submit: Papers consisting of no more than 10 000 words must be submitted in MS Word format (Arial font, 12 point, 1.5 line spacing), by email. The abstract should be in single line spacing. Articles can be sent to the following email address: [email protected]. Or CDs/diskettes can be mailed to: Dr IW Ferreira Editor Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD) Faculty of Business Cape Peninsula University of Technology PO Box 652 CAPE TOWN 8000 Email: [email protected] JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 22 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

‘‘A ROSE IS A ROSE: PR IS PR AND MARKETING IS MARKETING: OR IS IT?’’ By J van der Merwe* & BP Venter†

ABSTRACT Public relations is often hailed as a profession that has had a meteoric rise in proﬁle and stature over the last few years, while textbook writers have joined in the celebrations. But do public relations professionals really know what value they can add to emergent African economies? Are they not perhaps too busy trying to impress everyone with the latest revelation that there has been a shift towards public relations as a cost-effective image building and reputation management tool, as opposed to advertising which has become prohibitively expensive, whilst advertising budgets are globally cut? Do public relations practitioners really understand their role? William Shakepeare, in Romeo and Juliet, poses the question: ‘‘What’s in a name? That which we call a rose/By any other name would smell as sweet’’. While public relations practitioners and, particularly, those who are more academically inclined, debate the name issue whether their occupation should be called ‘‘corporate relations’’, ‘‘public affairs’’ or ‘‘corporate communication’’ with ﬂair and panache, an even bigger debate remains unresolved. This is the issue of the relationship between public relations and marketing. While not wanting to simplify these moments of confusion that some public relations practitioners may experience by limiting it to the public relations/marketing debacle only, it is also pointed out in this paper that much has been written (and said) regarding public relations’ relationship with management, communication and advertising too. However, this paper deals exclusively with the juxtapositioning of public relations and marketing within the South African context.

INTRODUCTION ‘‘Advertising is dead. Long live PR,’’ write Al and Laura Ries (2002: X11) in The Fall of advertising and the rise of PR. The publication of this volume sparked a debate in (especially) public relations circles, and was used by some to justify the value of public relations within the organisation. Subsequent discussion of its contents, in a number of articles, has once again brought to the fore a debate that has been prevalent in public relations circles for a number of years: public relations should not be a function that is subservient to marketing or advertising – it can and should make a strategically vital contribution to the success of organisations. In South Africa, PRISA (the Institute for Public Relations and Communication Management of Southern Africa) moved, during 2003, from the Marketing Chamber to the Business Chamber of the Services SETA (Sectoral Education and Training Authority). The reason for this move was explained in an email to its members by PRISA on 10 December 2002, and reads as follows: The public relations and communication activities, which fall within the marketing sphere, are small (i.e. promotions, marketing communication etc.) and PRISA members have made it clear that they are not ‘part of marketing’ but rather contribute to the business management function . . . members indicated that they would be delighted to the have public relations and communication management positioned within business, rather than marketing as it ‘was good for their own positioning of the function within their organisations (Richardson, 2002). 1 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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Not subservient to advertising. Not part of marketing. Management function. We began to wonder whether these members of PRISA, who so enthusiastically embraced the move of their discipline from marketing, actually understood their function within an organisation, or whether there might be some confusion with regard to their role. We decided to turn back the pages . . .

BACKGROUND The awkward relationship between public relations and marketing is not new. As far back as 1977, public relations practitioners in South Africa sought to clarify the contribution of public relations within the organisation: In fact, public relations is nothing but a branch of management, which had to be developed, under the pressure of growth, together with other present-day specialized branches of management such as sales promotion, marketing survey, organisation and methods, personnel relations and financial control. (Malan & L’Estrange, 1977:3) These authors were of the opinion that certain professions such as advertising and sales promotion are so closely linked with public relations that confusion exists (sic) in the minds of the uninitiated. ‘‘This confusion is apparently compounded by the fact that in South Africa public relations is often expected to carry on an additional responsibility, usually of sales promotion or advertising manager’’ (Malan & ‘Estrange, 1977:19). Other South African authors such as Krause (1977), agreed. Moving on by about two decades, these themes are echoed by the South African authors Skinner, Von Essen and Mersham (2001:6) as well as Cronjè, Du Toit and Motlatla (1994:394) who advocate that public relations is a management function. Although removed geographically, these South African authors do not find themselves in academic isolation, as there is support for their viewpoints abroad. Cutler, Center and Broom (2000:6) declare: ‘‘Many people confuse public relations with another management function – marketing’’. Marketers, however, find less of a problem with this relationship. Public relations is a sub-field of marketing and is an important marketing tool and that –tothem–isthat. For example, Kotler and Armstrong (2004:515) state: Another mass-promotion tool is public relations – building good relations with the company’s various publics by obtaining favourable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavourable rumors, stories, and events. Other standard marketing textbooks, such as Perreault and McCarthy (2002:393) also regard public relations as a function that obtains favourable publicity for a product or service. In addition to marketers, advertising specialists also take a narrow view of public relations. Wells, Burnett and Moriarty (2003:81) state that public relations ‘‘seeks to enhance the company’s image, and includes publicity . . . news conferences company-sponsored events, open houses, plant tours, and donations’’. Russell and Lane (2002:27) add that ‘‘some marketing executives view public relations as useful to set the stage for advertising, especially for new product introductions’’. We began to suspect that public relations practitioners in South Africa might disagree with some of the sentiments expressed by authors they were exposed to during their education (assuming that they were indeed educated in the field) and wondered about their own role perceptions. That is why we turned to

THE CURRENT SITUATION It becomes apparent that, reading the textbooks and articles that deal with the issue, there is, at present, a situation in which public relations practitioners (but not marketers) are trying to carve a JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

‘‘ A Rose is a Rose: PR is PR and Marketing is Margeting: Or is it?’’ 3

niche for themselves in the corporate world – a role that is broader than ‘‘mere’’ marketing, and sufficiently strategic in nature to warrant representation at the top of the corporate ladder. In the USA, the problem was succinctly stated as follows by Wilcox, Ault, Agee and Cameron (2000:29): In many organisations, marketing is the dominant voice. Public relations has historically been relegated to a market-support function, concentrating on techniques instead of strategy . . . This debate about the role of public relations is important because, if a discipline makes a strategically signiﬁcant contribution to the success of the organisation, its practitioners should understand – clearly – what the contribution is that their discipline makes. The above sentiment leads to the research questions.

THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS It has become increasingly apparent that there is a fundamental disagreement on the contribution that public relations can make to the success of the organisation, and, in addition, we suspected that there exists some confusion amongst South African practitioners about their role in this process. Essentially, the issues could include the following: • Is there a direct relationship between public relations and marketing, and what is the nature of this relationship? • Is there a link between public relations and marketing communication, and what is the nature of this link? • Should public relations be seen as a strategic management function? and what is the nature of this function? Perhaps most important is the question: do South African public relations practitioners understand the relationship between public relations and these functions? For the purposes of this paper, however, the ﬁndings of the research were limited to the perceived relationship between public relations and marketing, according to the South African public relations practitioners.

METHODOLOGY The research design required two phases: • Literature study; and • Surveys (quantitative research). This enabled us to ﬁrst read all current material on the topic at hand, which assisted us to compile a questionnaire to survey existing opinions of public relations practitioners in South Africa.

Literature study An exhaustive study was undertaken of the latest available literature in books, as well as recent articles in industry-related publications. The review on this literature focused mainly on the three major topics of: • Public relations and marketing; • Public relations and marketing communication; and • Public relations and management. In each instance, the theme determined the search that was initiated from textbooks, relevant journals, and Internet articles that are relevant to the themes under discussion.

Empirical research Based on the results from the literature review, a questionnaire was compiled and sent to members of PRISA who are actively involved in public relations activities. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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The questionnaire was designed to establish: • Whether public relations practitioners are clear about the role that public relations fulfils in an organisation’s strategic success. • Whether public relations practitioners feel that their function contributes to organisational success, and what can be done to enhance this contribution. • Whether professionalism of public relations practitioners is called into disrepute owing to the ‘‘misunderstanding’’ of the contribution that public relations can make. • What ‘‘business skills’’ are required from public relations practitioners in order for them to be regarded as part of the organisation’s performance measurement. The sample for the empirical study was drawn from the database of PRISA’s membership roll. The sampling element required for this research project was South African public relations practitioners. PRISA, established in 1957, has in excess of 5 000 members who are involved in the profession of public relations in one way or another. Academic qualifications and experience are the basis on which PRISA manages a registration level of members, ranking from Affiliate (lowest level) to Accredited in Public Relations (highest level) (Skinner et al., 2001:22). In order to qualify for the registration level of Public Relations Practitioner (PRP) and higher, members need at least three years of full-time public relations experience and a tertiary qualification (not necessarily in public relations). Considering the nature of this research project, respondents who have a number of years’ experience in the field of public relations would be in a better position to comment on certain of the issues than, for example, a student member. For this reason, it was decided to implement a random stratified sample by type of membership. The questionnaire sought answers to the following questions (in addition to obtaining demographic data): • Are South African public relations practitioners also confused about the link between public relations and marketing? • How do South African public relations practitioners view the link between public relations and marketing? • How do South African public relations practitioners view the strategic management role of public relations? • Are South African public relations practitioners aware of the strategic role that public relations plays within an organisation? The questionnaire also sought to obtain information on the profile of PRISA members, namely, to establish what percentage of public relations officers are involved on the corporate and academic sides. This is important, since it is feasible that practitioners from these various fields may have differing views on the practice of public relations in South Africa. It will also be important to establish the percentages of practitioners who are involved in charity work, services, public relations, and marketing organisations, for the same reason as quoted in the above paragraph. As stated in the previous paragraph (THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS), only some results that are relevant to the question of the relationship between public relations and marketing, as perceived by the South African public relations practitioner, are addressed in this paper. In summary, the methodology for the purposes of this paper comprised a literature review, a questionnaire and an analysis thereof.

LITERATURE REVIEW: PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MARKETING

MARKETING AS SEEN BY MARKETERS A brief look at a number of marketing textbooks reveals that marketing is a process that harnesses all activities within a business in such a way that individuals’ needs are identiﬁed, and then satisﬁed through the creation of products/services that are aimed at those needs. This satisfaction JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

‘‘ A Rose is a Rose: PR is PR and Marketing is Margeting: Or is it?’’ 5

is obtained by the individual through an exchange of value with the organisation (Boyd et al., 2002:6; Kotler & Armstrong, 2004:5; Perreault & McCarthy, 2002:4–5). At its most basic level, marketing is seen as ‘‘managing proﬁtable customer relationships’’ (Kotler & Armstrong, 2004:5). Of great importance is the role that marketing plays in society and the organisation. Marketing is seen as an engine for economic growth (Perreault & McCarthy, 2002:18); a philosophy for business (Doyle, 2002:59); contributes directly to the organisation’s objectives for survival, proﬁts, and growth (Lamb et al., 2000:22); and provides value to customers (Cant et al., 2002:32).

PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MARKETING Reference to the fact that ‘‘many people confuse public relations with marketing’’ is found in a surprisingly large number of textbooks. Cutlip et al. (2000:6), Lubbe and Puth (1994:10) and Newsom, Scott and Turk (1989:5) all agree that public relations may be confused with other activities, including marketing, while Skinner et al (2001:43) and Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg (2000) contrast the functions of public relations and marketing. However, public relations is not marketing, say leading public relations authors (Skinner et al., 2001:43; Newsom et al., 1989:9: Wilcox et al., 2000:15; Cutlip et al., 2000:6). However: I place PR in the context of marketing . . . Business is marketing and marketing is business. Without the creation of demand (through marketing/PR), there is no business (Gibbons, in Marsland, 2003). This rather broad statement may reﬂect the way in which public relations people confuse marketing with other business functions, including public relations. It seems to indicate that people – including public relations practitioners – have difficulty in understanding the relationship between public relations and marketing.

MARKETING AS SEEN BY PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS According to public relations practitioners (at least, leading South African textbooks), marketing is a ‘‘coordinated programme of research, product design, packaging, pricing, promotion, and distribution . . . to attract and satisfy customers . . . in order to achieve an organisation’s economic objectives’’ (Skinner et al., 2001:43). In the USA, Cutlip et al (2000:7) supply a similar definition, which emphasises products, services and demands, while the definition in Wilcox et al also supports this view. Public relations techniques, while not marketing, can fulfil a certain support role to the marketing function. Several authors agree that marketing can and should be supported by public relations activities such as endorsements, building the organisation’s credibility, demonstrating social responsibility, and so on (Cutlip et al., Skinner et al., Wilcox et al). The relationship is further clarified by Skinner et al (2001:45) who suggest that the public relations practitioner should, when engaged in corporate activities, report to the top management, while, when involved in ‘‘purely’’ marketing, he/she should work in a cross-functional team with the marketing department (among others). Fritelli (2002:8) goes so far as lobbying public relations practitioners to cease their search for differences between marketing and public relations, and to find the synergy between the two disciplines, stating that public relations finds itself in a position where it is fighting for survival. Public relations is seen only as a cost centre, ‘‘wheeled out if there needs to be any dialogue with the press, or disaster’’. Lubbe (in Lubbe & Puth, 1994:0–11) also refers to the confusion between public relations and marketing, citing the fact that the one uses the tools of the other (and vice versa) as a root of this confusion. A major difference between the two functions lies in the fact that marketing concentrates on the ‘‘quid pro quo relationships with customers, public relations deals with all publics vital to an organisation’s mission’’. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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Seitel (1998:5) maintains that marketing focuses on selling the product, while public relations sells the organisation as a whole. In his view, Seitel is supported by most authors such as Cutlip et al (2000), Skinner et al (2001) and Beard (2002). Public relations authors, therefore, agree that public relations does provide some form of support function to marketing. Beard (2002:13) feels that the public relations manager is also responsible for ‘‘carrying out those marketing support functions which are also used in public relations such as media relationships and sponsorships’’. While these approaches to marketing by public relations people encapsulate the essence of marketing, they may not reﬂect on the strategic nature and importance of marketing though.

PUBLIC RELATIONS AS SEEN BY MARKETERS Marketers, however, seem to have a clear picture of what public relations is. It is communication that is not paid for, and ‘‘should be seen as a potentially highly effective marketing tool’’ (Doyle 2003:273) or is simply relegated to the role of publicity (by Cant, Strydom and Jooste 2002:213). Lamb et al (2000:309) believe that public relations is: the marketing function that evaluates public attitudes, identifies areas within the firm that the public may be interested in, and executes a programme of action to earn understanding and acceptance Ries and Ries (2002:XV11) have added fuel to the fire by stating that ‘‘[t]he emphasis in most corporations is on advertising, with public relations considered a secondary discipline, if considered at all’’. Furthermore, ‘‘for many corporate managers, it’s true that marketing is synonymous with advertising – not PR’’. Could it be that public relations practitioners have (unwittingly) contributed to the formation of this view because they themselves are not always certain about the nature of their contribution to the organisation’s success?

LITERATURE REVIEW CONCLUSION The literature review has indicated the following: • There is confusion between public relations and marketing mainly because the two disciplines use similar tools. • This confusion leads to organisations not giving sufficient stature to the function of public relations. • Public relations practitioners try to deﬁne their contribution to the organisation by stating that it is not marketing, which is not helping to provide a clear focus on what it is that public relations does for an organisation. • There is certainly synergy between public relations and marketing.

QUESTIONNAIRE A questionnaire was designed in such a way that information was obtained on the profile of members of PRISA (the Institute for Public Relations and Communication Management in Southern Africa) in order to establish what percentage of public relations professionals are involved on the corporate, agency and academic sides. For the purposes of this paper, it was also necessary to distinguish between the private sector and government, as well as non-government (NGO) sectors and public relations consultants. This was important, as it is feasible that practitioners from these various fields may have differing views on public relations practices in South Africa. On 9 December 2003 a total of 540 questionnaires were mass emailed, with the assistance of PRISA, to all members of the study population. Respondents were asked to complete the questionnaire electronically and to return them to a specially created email address at [email protected]. The response was surprisingly swift. After the first three days, nearly a hundred completed surveys were received. By the cut-off date (15 December), 112 completed questionnaires were received. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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The data contained in the questionnaires were ﬁeld edited, as well as computer edited in order to ensure their accuracy. Given the sample of 112, and the study population of 540, the margin of error was calculated at approximately 8.25%, with a conﬁdence level of 95%. For the purposes of this paper, only the responses that were designed to answer the following questions were analysed: • Is there a relationship between public relations and marketing? • What is the nature of this relationship? • Is one discipline subservient to the other? Another question was linked to these three: • Do public relations practitioners in South Africa understand the relationship between public relations and marketing?

ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSES RELATING TO PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MARKETING Regarding the question • Is there a relationship between public relations and marketing? Respondents indicated that there is, indeed, such a relationship in the sense that public relations is a necessary part of marketing. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement/ disagreement with the statement that ‘‘Public relations is a necessary part of marketing’’. This intended to establish whether respondents agree that there is, at least, a necessary link or relationship between public relations and marketing. The following responses, per sector, are indicated below:

Category Government Non- Private PR Consultancy government Sector Strongly agree 45.9% 70.8% 53.3% Agree 35.1% 25.0% 40.0% As far as the question • What is the nature of this relationship? is concerned, the results were not as clear-cut. In trying to ascertain whether South African public relations practitioners understood the nature of this relationship, the question ‘’Public relations is a marketing discipline’’ was included. Here are the results per category:

Government/non0government Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree Public relations is a marketing 36 6 7 7 12 4 discipline 100% 16.7% 19.4% 19.4% 33.3% 11.1% Strongly agree/agree: 36.1% versus Disagree/Strongly disagree: 44 .4%. A further 19.4% neither agreed nor disagreed with this statement. Could this point to uncertainty over the role of public relations regarding marketing? It certainly seems to be the case: either public relations is a marketing discipline, or it is not.

Private sector Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree Public relations is a marketing 24 4 4 6 9 1 discipline 100% 16.7% 16.7% 25% 37.5% 4.2% Strongly agree/agree: 33 .4% versus Disagree/Strongly disagree: 41.7%. Again, as with the respondents in the government/non-government sectors, there is a fairly even split. This certainly does not help to prove that public relations practitioners in South Africa are clear, in their minds, about the link between public relations and marketing. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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However, for the last category . . .

PR consultancies Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree Public relations is a marketing 29 6 12 5 5 1 discipline 100% 20.7% 41.6% 17.2% 17.2% 3.4%

Public relations consultants clearly regard themselves as part of the marketing discipline (62.3%). Does this anomaly indicate a misunderstanding on the part of these sectors about the role of public relations? There seems to be a measure of confusion in the ranks of South African public relations practitioners regarding the nature of the relationship with marketing. However, this confusion becomes more apparent when an answer is sought to the question • is one discipline subservient to the other? Two questions that could possibly cast some light on this issue were asked: ‘‘Public relations is an important support function of marketing, but should not be managed by marketers’’, as well as ‘‘Public relations sometimes should manage marketing’’. Here are the answers, once more per category:

Government/non-Government Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree Public relations is an important sup- 38 22 13 2 1 0 port function to marketing, but should 100% 57.9% 34.2% 5.3% 2.6% 0.0% not be managed by marketers Public relations sometimes should 36 6 14 7 7 2 manage marketing 100% 16.7% 38.9% 19.4% 19.4% 5.6% Public relations is an important function of marketing but should not be managed by marketing (92.1%); however, at the same time, public relations should sometimes manage marketing (sic), seems the clear sentiment here (55.6%). Let us consider the reaction of respondents from the private sector. . .

Private sector Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree Public relations is an important sup- 23 9 8 5 0 2 port function to marketing, but should 100% 39.9% 34.8% 21.7% 0.0% 9.1% not be managed by marketers Public relations sometimes should 22 5 8 3 4 2 manage marketing 100% 22.7% 36.4% 13.6% 18.2% 9.1% The private sector seems to believe, too, that public relations is an important function of marketing, but should not be managed by marketers (74.7%); however, it should sometimes manage marketing (59.1%). Now for the reaction from public relations consultants . . .

PR consultancies Total Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree or disagree disagree Public relations is an important sup- 28 9 15 3 0 1 port function to marketing, but should 100% 32.1% 53.6% 10.7% 0.0% 3.6% not be managed by marketers Public relations sometimes should 28 6 6 8 8 0 manage marketing 100% 21.4% 21.4% 28.6% 28.6% 0.0% Here comes the surprise: public relations consultants felt less strongly (42.8%) than government/non- government and the private sector that public relations should sometimes manage marketing. Their overwhelming support for the statement that public relations is an important support function of marketing, but that it should not be managed by marketing (85.7%) stand in stark contrast with their JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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support expressed in answer to the question that public relations is a marketing discipline (62.3%) – see p.8 above. The last question • Do public relations practitioners in South Africa understand the relationship between public relations and marketing? may be approached by considering the public relations practitioners’ answer to the question ‘’Public relations practitioners should be trained in marketing and advertising, since they will need to interact with these disciplines on a daily basis’’. Their reactions were recorded as follows:

Category Question Strongly agree Agree Percentage Government/non-government PR practitioners should be trained in 52.8% 38.9% 91.7% marketing & advertising Private sector PR practitioners should be trained in 41.7% 58.3% 100% marketing & advertising PR consultancies PR practitioners should be trained in 36.7% 63.3% 100% marketing & advertising One cannot simply assume that these practitioners were not trained in marketing and advertising themselves, but the overwhelming need for training in these spheres, as demonstrated by the responses, might indicate a possible lack thereof, which, in turn, explains the confusion. ‘‘Confusion now hath made his masterpiece’’ proclaims MacDuff (Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act 2, Scene 3).

A ROSE IS A ROSE Speaking about confusion, in this research, (which, for the purposes of this paper, focuses on public relations and marketing), we also asked respondents who were not working for consultancies to indicate what their respective departments were called. It may be useful to consider this, since the broader research project focuses on the role perception of public relations practitioners and the assumption that there exists some confusion within the ranks of practitioners. The results are illustrated below.

Name of department Percentage of respondents Advertising/sales promotion 1% Public affairs 3% Marketing communication 6% Corporate affairs 6% Marketing 10% Corporate communication 10% Public relations 11% Communication 26% Other 27% Steyn and Puth (2000:5–6) touch upon the name debate by speciﬁcally referring to the confusion that often exists between related terms such as corporate communication, business communication, organisational communication, management communication, and communication management. They conclude their discussion by saying that ‘‘recent trends indicate a clear shift in preference in using the term corporate communication rather than the traditional public relations’’. A main reason for this is ‘‘negative associations with the way in which the function was practiced in the past’’. The confusion referred to by Steyn and Puth is borne out by the reality that is reﬂected in the research results included above. These public relations practitioners work in departments with different names. Is it any wonder that there is a possible confusion over the nature and role of public relations? JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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This ‘‘name issue’’ is mentioned here in the context of the perceived relationship of public relations and marketing in the eyes of public relations practitioners simply because it is important to understand that the name of the discipline – public relations – is also closely linked to how it is seen to interact with other functions in the organisation: such as marketing. Cutlip et al (2000:23–24) have introduced the discussion about a possible confusion of terms, stating that the function of public relations is oftentimes labelled as ‘‘corporate relations, corporate communications . . . public affairs, and public information’’. In spite of this confusion, the authors state that the ‘‘basic concept and function of public relations are similar from one organisation to the next’’ (Cutlip et al., 2000:23). ‘‘What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’’ laments Juliet (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2). By the same token, the question could be posed here: is it really necessary to debate the name of the discipline? If the discipline itself is in a state of confusion, and if it does not understand its contribution, it could be called anything and be as ineffectual (that is to say, if it were proven to be ineffectual) or be as effectual (if it were proven to be effectual). Rather than waste energy on debating a name change, more might be gained by an effort that is aimed at ensuring that the term ‘‘public relations’’ is clearly deﬁned and delineated, and that it is explained in language that marketers and other functional managers (including top management) can understand.

CONCLUSION The results from the questionnaire relating to the three broad issues that we considered to be at the heart of the matter (mentioned in paragraph THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS above), could not support the hypothesis that public relations practitioners in South Africa understand the role of their function within the organisation. Specifically, respondents were confused about the question: • Is there a direct relationship between public relations and marketing? (and what is the nature of this relationship?) While agreeing that there is a relationship between the two functions, respondents indicated that they wanted public relations to control marketing, or that public relations should guide marketing, while disagreeing with conventional (marketing) wisdom that public relations should provide a tactical support to marketing. Confusion also became apparent in addressing the next question: • Is there a link between public relations and marketing communication. and what is the nature of this link? Respondents indicated that there is a link, but again expressed a wish for public relations to rule, as it were, the roost. What was disturbing was that these same respondents indicated a need for education in marketing communication functions such as advertising. Finally, we reached a similar conclusion when it came to answering the question: • Should public relations be seen as a strategic management function, and what is the nature of this function? Respondents’ confusion became most acute here, since few of them could cogently indicate an understanding of the role of public relations in strategic management. Broadly speaking, therefore, this confusion is apparent in most registered professional practitioners of public relations in South Africa – a confusion that most certainly does not assist in constructing good PR for public relations. Other significant results from the research project include: • Public relations practitioners in South Africa are not always qualified in public relations, but have qualifications in other fields. • The relationship between public relations and marketing communication should be clarified. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 11 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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• The relationship between public relations and management should be clarified. • There is a measure of confusion amongst public relations practitioners regarding the meaning of strategy. • Public relations departments in South Africa have a variety of names. • Public relations does not always get the recognition that it deserves from top management in South African organisations. • Conversely, dissatisfaction with top management recognition, as a result of an inability to make a strategic contribution to the organisation, may indicate that South African public relations practitioners do not fully understand their contribution to organisational success. The findings of this research have some interesting implications and challenges for public relations as a function. While public relations seems poised on the brink of greatness as a strategic organisational function (if the Rieses are to be believed), it also seems a precarious step away from the organisational graveyard (if South African top management is to be believed). What, then, should be done by the custodians of public relations, (which would include professional organisations and academic institutions that offer public relations training) to ensure that this management function (public relations) achieves, once and for all, a firm footing for itself in the firmament of top management functions? The following suggestions may point the way: • Accepting that South African public relations curricula tend to focus on those areas of public relations that deal with communication, public relations techniques, media studies, and news writing, the first – and most logical – step seems to be to restructure curricula, which would include a focus on business management (including financial management) and strategic management as joint foundation stones of a solid grounding in public relations and management. • Accepting that public relations has a relationship with marketing in the way that advertising has a relationship with marketing, and calling a halt to the ongoing turf war between public relations and marketing. This would require training in marketing. • Deciding on a name for the public relations function in an organisation, and insisting on the function being called that: public relations (this name, although tainted by spin doctors, describes what public relations practitioners do – build and maintain relationships with the organisation’s strategic publics). • Ensuring that all who practise public relations have training in the field of public relations (through, for example, bridging courses for those migrating to public relations from other fields). If these concerns are not addressed, the turf war between marketing, public relations, and other organisational functions will be perpetuated, while public relations itself, as a management function, as well as an academic field, will suffer a potentially ignominious death. It is up to us – practitioners and academics – to provide the guidance that is needed to steer public relations on this new course, so that this function can deliver the potential value to organisations on a technical, management, and strategic level, because: ‘‘[t]hat which we are, we are, One equal temper of heroic hearts, Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.’’ (Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Ulysses) JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 12 SESS: 24 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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LIST OF REFERENCES Note: Mouton (2001) differentiates between a bibliography (‘‘a complete list of all sources consulted’’) and a list of references, which he describes as a list that ‘‘includes only those sources that you explicitly refer to (and quote) in your text’’. The list of references provided here is exactly that: a list of references and not a bibliography. Beard, M. 2002. Running a public relations department. 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page. Boyd, H.W., Walker, O.C., Mullins, J. & Larrèchè, J.C. 2002. Marketing management: A strategic decision-making approach. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Cant, M.C., Strydom, J.W. & Jooste, C.J. 2002. Essentials of marketing. Lansdowne: Juta. Cronjè, G.J., Du Toit, G.S. & Motlatla, M.D.C. (eds). 2000. Introduction to business management. 5th ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Cutlip, S.M., Center, A.H. & Broom, G.M. 2000. Effective public relations. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Doyle, P. 2002. Marketing management and strategy. 3rd ed. Harlow: Prentice-Hall. Fritelli, V. 2002. PR practitioners must lead from the front. Communika: 8 August. Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. 2004. Principles of marketing. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Krause, R.C. 1977. Understanding public relations. Cape Town: David Philip. Lamb, C.W., Hair, J.F., McDaniel, C., Boshoff, C. & Terblanchè, N.S. 2000. Marketing. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Lubbe, B.A. & Puth, G. (eds). 1994. Public relations in South Africa: A management reader. Durban: Butterworths. Malan, J.P. & L’Estrange, J.A. 1977. Public relations practice in South Africa. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Juta. Marsland, L. 2003. Power PR. (Online). Available: www.biz-community.com/Article/196/18/2017.html [16 June 2003] Mouton, J. 2001. How to succeed in your master’s and doctoral studies: A South African guide and resource book. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Newsom, D., Turk, J.V. & Kruckeberg, D. 2000. This is PR: The realities of public relations. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Perreault, W.D. & McCarthy, E.J. 2002. Basic marketing: A global-managerial approach. 14th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Ries, A. & Ries, L. 2002 The fall of advertising and the rise of PR. New York: HarperCollins. Richardson, S. ([email protected]). PRISA board newsﬂash – positioning of public relations and communication management in business. Email to BenPiet Venter, 10 December 2002. Russell, J.T. & Lane, W.R. 2002. Kleppner’s advertising procedure. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Seitel, F.P. 1998. The practice of public relations. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Shakespeare, W. The complete works of William Shakespeare. 1975. London & Glasgow: Collins. Skinner, C., Von Essen, L & Mersham, G. 2001. Handbook of public relations. 6th ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Steyn, B. & Puth, G. 2000. Corporate communication strategy. Santon: Heinemann. Wells, W., Burnett, J. & Moriarty, S. 2003. Advertising: Principles and practice. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Wilcox, D.L., Ault, P.H., Agee, W.K. & Cameron, G.T. 2000. Public relations: Strategies and tactics. 6th ed. New York, NY: Longman. * Dr Johann van der Merwe is Head of the Department of Public Relations Management in the Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 13 SESS: 21 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/01article

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† Ben-Piet Venter was a part-time lecturer in Public Relations and Marketing at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology until November 2006. He currently lectures in South Korea and is completing his D Tech degree studies under the supervision of his co-author. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT STYLE ON THE PROPENSITY FOR LOAN DEFAULT BY SMALL BUSINESSES By COK Allen-Ile* & CE Eresia-Eke†

ABSTRACT The potential of small businesses to contribute to economic development has been reduced by a cocktail of problems of which inaccessibility to finance in the form of institutional loans is pre-eminent. This problem is linked to lenders’ perception that small businesses are high-risk investments; a perception which is based on an estimation of small businesses’ ability to repay loans. Such estimates are quite often, reliant on financial indicators, which small businesses are not adept at using to signal their performance ability. As a means to redress the situation, recourse to the use of non-financial indicators to complement loan decision techniques of lenders seems imperative. This study investigated the existence of a relationship between management style, an important non-financial variable and a small business’s propensity to default on loans. Generally, the manner in which a business is managed impacts on organisational outcomes. With regard to the outcome of a small business’s propensity to default on loans, therefore, the role of management is expected to be pivotal. The study empirically analysed quantitative and cross-sectional primary data collected from small businesses in the Durban metropolis of South Africa. Results point to the existence of a strong relationship between management style and propensity to default. This identified relationship should complement lenders’ ability to estimate loan default propensity, which should, in turn, ease the problem of inaccessibility to finance.

INTRODUCTION The importance of the small business sector to the development of the economies of most countries in the world has become widely acknowledged (Ladzani & Vuuren, 2000). This, according to Liedholm (2002), can be attributed to the general recognition of the potential contribution of small businesses to economies; the result of which has made them a significant feature of the economic landscape of the world. On this basis, it seems that the role that these businesses can play in the overall development of a nation would be even more critical in Africa, owing to its under-development. The case of South Africa is no different, as the obstacles of the past, slow growth of employment and restructuring of the economy lend further impetus to the development and sustenance of a virile small business sector (Department of Trade & Industry, 1998). In reality though, this much touted potential remains inert as contributions made by the small business sector continue to fail to reflect it. For instance, while the sector employs more than half of the working population, it accounts for less than only one-third of the GDP in South Africa (Diedrichs, in Nieman, Hough & Nieuwenhuizen, 2003). The reason why this kind of situation subsists,can be attributed to a number of constraints that beleaguer the sector. Research efforts in small business have, therefore, been mainly pre-occupied with the identification of the factors that constrain the growth of the sector. Academic researches point to managerial ineptitude, organisational ineffectiveness (Dodge, Fuller & Robbins, 1994), inaccessibility to finance, poor infrastructure, weak policy support, low demand for products and difficulties in procuring materials for production purposes (Mambula, 2002; Mead & Liedholm, 1998) as some of these constraints. Among these constraints, the issue of inaccessibility to finance remains pre-eminent (Eyiah 2001; Ojo, 1995; Rogerson, 1995). 14 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 15

In spite of this, the general tendency of small business research in a specifically South African context continues to be that most studies take a wide-angle focus of the problems that are associated with the sector. This, in itself, means that studies concentrating on single constraints are scarce. Research, for instance, directly focusing on the tendency for loan default that small businesses exhibit, and which exacerbates their problem of inaccessibility to finance, is lacking. In precise terms, this finance problem is essentially one of inaccessibility to institutional credit (Eyiah, 2001; Kotey, 1999; Mambula, 2002) and can be attributed to the perception that investments in the sector are of a high-risk nature (Bridge, O’Neill & Cromie, 1998; Hughes, 1997); meaning that such investments portend a high probability of default. In South Africa, the risk of default is central to the reluctance of formal financial institutions (like banks) to lend to the small business sector (Department of Trade & Industry, 1998). From banks’ or lenders’ viewpoints, this high-risk notion emanates from a predictive estimation of the default risk that small businesses embody in the debt-financing relationship (Kolori, Berney & Ou, 1997; Levitsky, in Eyiah, 2001; Ovadje, 2003). Such estimates often depend on historical and projected financial information, which small businesses are not known to be good at using to signal their performance ability (Keasey & Watson, 1991; McConnel & Pettit, 1984). This, therefore, makes it pertinent to explore complementary non-financial ways by which default risk may be estimated in a bid to reduce the problem of inaccessibility to finance. Central to the notion of risk associated with the sector is the manner in which the small business is managed. Management is critical to the success or failure of businesses because it is concerned with the achievement of goals, through the use of human and other resources. In other words, the manner or style by which a business is managed would be expected to impact upon its performance. Furthermore, the performance or non-performance of a small business enterprise that has obtained a loan is likely to impact upon the firm’s ability to repay or default on its loan repayment obligations. Along this line of argument, therefore, the thesis of this paper is that management style (by the contributory role it plays in the performance of a business), would impact upon the business’s loan repayment ability and, if so, can be relied upon to predict loan default propensity. This study aims to identify the style of management in small business organisations and empirically investigates the relationship between style of management and the organisation’s propensity to default on financial loans that are obtained from a bank. This should help the study find an answer to the question: ‘‘What is the relationship between management style and propensity for bank financial loan default in a small business?’’ Towards this end, this research is driven by the following objectives: 1. To determine the management style employed in running the affairs of the business; 2. To investigate the nature of association, if any, that exists between management style and propensity to default; and 3. To relate the loan default propensity category to which a business belongs to records of actual loan default incident(s). Generally, there is a dearth of studies that are aimed at identifying the management style applied in a small business with a view to establishing its relationship with the propensity of the small business to default on a loan and, particularly, to determine strategies for overcoming the incessant problem of inaccessibility to finance. This kind of study is especially important because the findings would have important practical implications for both parties in the debt-financing equation for two reasons. First, it would complement existing methods of estimating small business loan default risk potential and improve the ability of the bank (or lender) to separate the borrower with a high potential for default from that which would meet its loan obligations. Second, it would provide an indication to small business owners or managers as to what style of management may place them in a better position to meet loan repayment obligations. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

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This paper comprises four sections and is structured as follows: The extant literature that is relevant to the inaccessibility to ﬁnance problem, as well as management style, is reviewed. This section is succeeded by a presentation of the research methodology and includes a discussion of the data collection and analysis techniques that were utilised. The penultimate section focuses on the results of the enquiry and the paper concludes with a discussion of theoretical and practical implications of the ﬁndings of the study, while recommending probable strands of future research.

SMALL BUSINESSES: ACCESS TO FINANCE AND DEFAULT IN LOAN REPAYMENT A prime objective of a bank’s screening of the loan application of a small business is the identification of problem borrowers (Sinkey, 1992) with a view to denying them access to the loan sought. From a lender’s perspective, therefore, the primary concern of lending, according to Coleman (2000), is capital recovery, ideally within the desired time frame. While this is desired, it is not, in practice, always the case. For the purpose of this study, therefore, a default refers to a situation where a borrower fails to make a repayment towards a loan when it is due. Quite often, such incidents pose a concern for lenders owing to the time value of money. Similarly, there are concerns that the criteria used by lenders to estimate the loan default risk of a small business might themselves constitute obstacles to accessibility to finance. There appears to be a dearth of research focusing on issues of default in the repayment of institutional loans received by small businesses. The difficulty in studying this phenomenon may be owing to the statutory duty of non-disclosure placed upon institutional lenders such as banks and the difficulty of accessing information on loan default from defaulters. The consequence of this situation has been the shift of most research interest toward broadly examining small business performance failure and success factors. Nevertheless, a number of contributory factors to loan default by small business have been noted. Writers (Baumback, 1983; Hempel & Simonson, 1990) agree that high interest rates can bring about an incidence of default in repayment by the borrower. This view rests upon the fact that the profit made from operations by a small business may not be sufficient to make repayments based on the high interest rates on loans secured. Consequently, small businesses are unable to promptly and sufficiently meet their loan repayment obligations when they are due. High transaction costs also pose a problem (Bhatt & Tang, 1998) and may effectively limit the ability of the small business firm to repay its loan. This, as is the case with high interest rates, may increase the amount of money that should be repaid for a loan obtained, which the small business may be unable to accommodate within the low-profit environment that they operate in. Low profits, which characterise the small business sector, can be attributed to stiff competition arising from the large number of businesses that operate in the sector. Quite often, the extent of competition is not properly articulated by small business owner/managers. It is against this background that Baumback (1983) proffers that under-estimation or inability to compete successfully can constitute an impediment to loans repayment, given that it impacts negatively on business performance. This inability to compete within a chosen environment appears to be a consequence of organisational decisions, which are products of the way the business is managed. Owualah (1999) identified the incidence of provision of insufficient capital as another problem in the small business loan-financing arrangement. This leads to a situation of under-capitalisation of the enterprise (Baumback, 1983; Ojo, 1992), which invariably does not augur well for the performance of the small business. Such a situation may arise in cases where the bank estimates that the small business requires a lower value of loan than has been applied for in order to meet particular needs. On these grounds, the bank approves a lower loan amount based upon its own evaluation of the need to which the loan would be directed. Due to the insufficiency of the approved or disbursed amounts to the small business applicant, the enterprise may be unable to JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 17

achieve planned levels of performance. This under-performance negatively impacts upon the ﬁrm’s ﬁnancial projections and its ability to meet its loan repayment obligations. Loan repayment difficulties may also be attributed to unexpected delays in disbursement of the loan. Obitayo (2001) opines that unanticipated time lags between loan-request and loan- disbursements can create repayment problems for the small business enterprise. The dynamic and competitive nature of the small business environment makes timing an important factor of success. The value of opportunities are time-dependent and so delayed disbursement of loans can possibly have far-reaching effects on the opportunity targeted for exploitation by the small business, the result of which may manifest as problems in loan repayment. Sometimes, the small business is faced with a dilemma of choosing between opportunities to which approved loans can be applied. This dilemma may arise from a scenario where loans have been disbursed at a time when the opportunity targeted has been overtaken by events or other opportunities have become more attractive. Such situations can often lead the small business to divert loaned funds to these other ‘‘attractive’’ opportunities. The incidence of diversion of funds (Hempel & Simomson, 1990) is not uncommon amongst small businesses and potentially affects the ability for loans repayment. This problem leads to default in repayment of loans owing to the fact that, in most cases, by diversion, the loans are often misapplied (Ozigbo, 2000). While the use of collaterals is common among lenders, worldwide, as a means of securing loans, it can effectively exclude a good number of small businesses from the loan market. For those who are able to provide some form of collateral, legal constraints that are associated with recovering loans by attaching collateral assets may provide impetus for loan default. Eyiah (2001) contends that collateral enforcement difficulties are a major concern of lenders. The legal bottlenecks in the framework for enforcement sometimes work in favour of the defaulting borrower rather than the lender. This is because the legal process is usually time-consuming and complex. Even though this appears inadvertent, it can contribute to loan default amongst borrowers.

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN LOAN REPAYMENT Different as the causes of default may be among small businesses, the central role of management who request, obtain and control the loan funds is critical. The success or failure of small businesses is, in most cases, down to the manner in which the business is managed. Along this stream of thought, therefore, the style of management as a determinant of the performance of small businesses should make it a key consideration in the lenders’ effort to estimate the loan default propensity of a borrower. This consideration contributes to the decision as to whether or not to incur the risk of lending to a particular small business. It is, therefore, suggested that in the process of deciding to lend, indicators of business success can and often do serve as veritable proxies for the ability to repay the loan (Altman, 1983). This argument provides a major thrust of this study and influences the theoretical framework. The expected tendency is that a lender would opt to lend to a potential business success rather than a potential business failure. Why? One answer would be that, while success improves the ability of an organisation to meet its obligations to the lender, business failure inhibits it. Business prosperity is, therefore, expected to bear an inverse relationship with loan default propensity. Therefore, the paucity of literature specific to small business loan default is overcome by relying on studies that have investigated business performance. The central and influential role that the owner/manager plays in the success or performance of the firm has been established (Roper, 1999). Herron and Robinson (1993) opine that he/she is the major determinant of the performance of a firm. On a similar note, Hambrick and Mason (1984) suggest by their ‘‘upper echelons’’ theory that organisational outcomes are dependent upon managerial characteristics of top management. Common to these viewpoints is the fact that the JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

18 Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD)

performance of small businesses or their organisational outcomes are inextricably tied to management. Over and above the role or characteristics of the owner/manager, what may be of even more importance is how these eventually manifest in organisational outcomes. In other words, it is the manner in which business operations are guided and decisions made by management, which is key to such outcomes. In identifying the central explanatory element for the performance of the small business, attention, therefore, deserves to be paid to the style of management employed in running the organisation. Scholars (Chandlier & Hanks, 1994; Child, 1973; Daft, 2005; Kallberg & Leicht, 1991) support the argument that management is central to performance and success/failure of a business organisation. This is even truer for small businesses where the role of management is often a domineering one. On the strength of the positions advanced by some of the scholars referred to, this study argues that the propensity of a small business to default, which, in itself, is an outcome of choices or decisions made by its management — much like organisational performance — can be estimated from knowledge of the style of management employed for running the business. While there may be other organisational characteristics that contribute to the success of a business enterprise, of interest to this study is management style because of its pervasive nature especially in small businesses. This study is specifically focused on the extent to which management is participative and involves employees within the organisation as opposed to an autocratic management style. The belief is that the participatory approach should augur well for small businesses because of the notion that management is about getting things done through others in pursuit of the attainment of organisational objectives (Mullins, 1999). This may be because it creates a sense of importance in the employee by allowing him/her contribute to decision-making. Similarly, it avails management of a diverse range of ideas from different viewpoints. Generally, therefore, to secure a desirable level of commitment to the pursuit of organisational objectives, a participatory approach to management is thought to be more suitable. Management theories are mostly concerned with the degree of focus and extent of concern that management has for tasks as opposed to employees. These task-centred and employee-centred dimensions of management also find a corollary in leadership literature (Bartolome & Laurent, 1989). The concepts of leadership and management seem closely related as it is increasingly difficult to separate them as distinct activities (Mullins, 1999) especially within a business organisation. Therefore, the managerial style dimensions which focus on task or people can be aligned with the behavioural leadership propositions of structure and consideration of the Ohio State studies, production-centred and employee-centred propositions of the University of Michigan studies, as well as McGregor’s theories X and Y whose basis is task-behaviour and relationship-behaviour among others. Along similar lines, Martin (2001) notes that Likert’s four-fold model of management systems designates different management styles by numbers: • System 1 Exploitative Autocratic: where there is no confidence or trust in subordinates • System 2 Benevolent Autocratic: where there is little confidence and trust in subordinates • System 3 Participative: where there is significant confidence and trust in subordinates • System 4 Democratic: where there is complete confidence and trust in subordinates While systems 1 and 2 are closely related with a task-focus, systems 3 and 4 are relationship or employee-centred. Martin (2001) suggests that the trend from the results of the research, which was conducted by Likert, indicate that more success seemed to be attained by the application of systems 3 and 4 in comparison to systems 1 and 2. While acknowledging this opinion, research into the most effective styles of management in the work organisation is hardly conclusive as much depends upon contingent variables in each situation. Nevertheless, according to Mullins (1999), works of Likert and McGregor as well as Blake and Mouton suggest that an organisation is more likely to effectively harness its human resources by the application of a participative style of JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 19

management. This observation bears the connotation that such organisations stand a better chance to attain higher performance levels, which invariably lead to successful operations. This, in the reckoning of this study, would reduce the propensity for loan default that the business embodies. Relying on this perspective, therefore, it is this study’s proposition that small businesses with a participative style of management will exhibit a lower propensity for financial loan-default. Going by Likert’s findings (see Martin, 2001), an environment that promotes participation of employees will have higher levels of commitment to the pursuit of the goals of the organisation (given that all parties were involved in formulating such goals/objectives). This is likely to result in improved chances of business success and, consequently, a lower propensity for financial loan default.

METHODOLOGY The central aim of this study was to establish if a relationship exists between management style and a small business’s propensity to default. Furthermore, the study sought to determine the extent of this relationship between default categories and incidents of actual loan default experienced by the small business. In order to achieve these, the study adopted a cross-sectional approach in which the survey method of gathering data was utilised. Though the study was a primary research, it was one of an applied nature, since it is problem-oriented and directed towards solving particular intellectual puzzles with practical implications. The original data collected were empirically analysed in accordance with the requirements of primary research. The study population comprised enterprises in the small business sector operating in the Durban area of South Africa. Even though the study focused on a single location, the number of small businesses was still quite large. The population was, however, delimited to exclude those operating in the informal sector, as these businesses were unlikely to have any meaningful banking relationships that would have qualified them for bank loans. Only registered small businesses that had bank accounts were, therefore, considered for the study. While it was desirable to reach all elements that met the study population criteria, it was impracticable and this made the utilisation of a sample imperative. It is acknowledged that there is an inherent risk in utilising a sample for research purposes because it presents a problem for generalisation of results (Zikmund, 2000) and the drawing of inferences about population elements outside of the sample. Against this background, the choice of trading-off the generalisation benefits of an all-inclusive respondent base with those of a better and detailed focus on study elements contained in the sample was irresistible. Moreover, the absence of a comprehensive compendium of businesses in the Durban/South African small business sector gave impetus for the use of a sample in this instance. A sampling frame was constructed from information that was obtained from the Durban Chamber of Commerce, an organisation whose membership is drawn widely from businesses operating in the formal sector. From this sampling frame, a simple random sample of 120 businesses was drawn. All members of the 120-group sample were contacted for the purpose of the study. The valid response rate attained was 30.8% (37 out of 120 businesses), which was satisfactory given the normally low response rates that are typical of small business research (Curran & Blackburn, 2001). Questionnaires were utilised as instruments of data collection. Two types of questionnaire were developed and personally administered. Questionnaire 1 was administered to the owner/manager primarily to elicit responses relating to demographics of the organisation, as well as bank loans. The other, Questionnaire 2, was an adaptation of Likert’s instrument for determining management style and was administered to a few randomly selected employees within the small business organisation, which is a sample element. Both questionnaires were largely structured in composition as most questions took the form of a Likert 5-point scale. The questionnaires showed good test-retest reliability after being administered to a pilot group of five businesses prior to being administered to members of the final sample. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

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Data collected was coded and quantitatively analysed using SPSS package. Given that the number of valid responses received was small and that an assumption of normality was not made about the distribution, the study relied upon the use of non-parametric statistical methods. A correlation analysis that seeks to estimate the strength of association between the dependent variable of propensity to default and the independent variable of management style was undertaken. Cross tabulation of propensity to default categories with records of actual loan default further enhances the value of the ﬁndings of the study.

RESULTS The results of the study are presented in three parts. The results of the validity and reliability tests on the management style and propensity to default scales used in the survey instrument are presented, followed by descriptive statistics pertaining to members of the sample group and loan-related matters. The ﬁnal part of the results section reports the analysis of the association between the dependent variable of propensity to default and the independent variable of management style. The management style scale and the propensity to default scale used in the questionnaires were subjected to reliability and validity tests. In this particular case, the reliability tests undertaken were to determine internal consistency based on the average inter-item correlation. An acceptable level of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.97) and validity (KMO = 0.888) was realised for the 18-item management style scale. Similar results were also obtained for the 10-item propensity to default scale (Cronbach alpha value of 0.957 and KMO value of 0.914). Both results suggest that the scales were of satisfactory reliability and validity. The small business respondents represented the entire spectrum of micro, very small, small and medium enterprises. The current state of employment of these companies suggests that 16.2% were in the ‘‘micro business’’ band and had less than ﬁve employees, 24.3% had 6–10 employees and, therefore, belonged in the ‘‘very small business’’ category. 45.9% belong in the ‘‘small business’’ category with a workforce of 11–50 employees, while 13.5% were made up of ‘‘medium businesses’’, which employed between 51–100 persons (Department of Trade & Industry, 1998; South African Institute of Race Relations, 2004).

Figure 1: Sample Demographics

13.50% 16.20%

24.30% 45.90%

Micro (1-5 employes) Small (11-50 employees) Very small (6-10 employees) Medium (51-100 employees) All the respondents had applied for loans more than once in the past. Between them, the 37 respondents had made 321 applications for bank loans in the past (an indication of the level of bank loan demand among small businesses). However, these applications had been successful only 109 times. All respondents indicated that they had obtained loans at least once in the past. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 21

Table 1 below shows that over 94% of the respondents had obtained bank loans 1–5 times in the past. This percentage is expectedly high because it was a precondition for belonging in the study population. The greatest percentage of respondents (40.5%) had obtained bank loans three times in the past. More important, while obtaining loans is of interest to the small business, the banks are more concerned about the other part, which is the timely repayment of the loan (avoidance of default).

Table 1: Number of bank loans obtained by businesses

No. of businesses Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percentage No. of times loans were sought Once only 6 16.2 16.2 Two times 6 16.2 32.4 Three times 15 40.5 73.0 Four times 6 16.2 89.2 Five times 2 5.4 94.6 More than ﬁve times 2 5.4 100.0 Total 37 100 In deference to this concern of banks, the study attempted to determine the number of times a business may have failed to meet loan repayment obligations when they were due. Going by the deﬁnition of loan default adopted by this study, a failure to make a repayment when it is due amounts to a default. Table 2 shows that 40.5% of the respondents had not defaulted on loans previously obtained from banks. Conversely, 59.5% of the small business respondents had defaulted on repayment at some point in time. However, the incidence of default on successive loans seemed to be much lower as the table suggests that only 8.1% of the respondents had a case of default occurring on three bank loans, while none of the respondents appear to have defaulted on more than three loans. The explanation for this may be the reluctance of banks to lend to borrowers with such a record of default on loans.

Table 2: Incidences of default on loans actually obtained

No. of businesses Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percentage No. of loans that led to default: None 15 40.5 40.5 1 17 45.9 86.4 2 2 5.4 91.8 3 3 8.1 100 4 0 0.0 100 5 0 0.0 100 more than 5 0 0.0 100 37 100 The gravity of the defaults indicated by the respondents was estimated from responses showing whether the business had ever been blacklisted by the credit bureau on the basis of delayed or non-repayment of loans obtained from banks. A total of 13 or 35.1% of the businesses that responded had defaulted seriously leading to them being blacklisted by the credit bureau at some time in the past. A total of 64.9% of the small business respondents, however, embodied lesser gravity of default on bank loans as evidenced by not having been previously blacklisted by the credit bureau because of a bank loan obtained. Table 3 is a cross tabulation of the number of loans that led to a default incident and cases of a business being blacklisted by the credit bureau because of a previously obtained bank loan. The table suggests that all those that had maximum recurrent incidents of default (defaulted on three bank loans) were blacklisted by the credit bureau while none of those who met their repayment JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

22 Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD)

obligations (no default) were blacklisted by the credit bureau. A total of 32.4% of the respondents defaulted to the extent of being blacklisted by the credit bureau and this ﬁgure represents 54.5% of all businesses that had previously defaulted on bank loans. The table suggests that all those businesses that may be described as ‘‘chronic defaulters’’ (defaulted on three bank loans) in the context of this study ended up being blacklisted by the credit bureau.

Table 3: Cross tabulation of number of loans that led to default and blacklisting of the business by the credit bureau

Was the businesses listed by the credit bureau? No. of loans that led to default Yes No Total None Frequency 0 15 15 Row Percentage 0% 100% 100% 1 Frequency 8 9 17 Row Percentage 47.1% 52.9% 100% 2 Frequency 1 1 2 Row Percentage 50% 50% 100% 3 Frequency 3 0 3 Row Percentage 100% 0% 100% 4 Frequency 0 0 0 Row Percentage — — — 5 Frequency 0 0 0 Row Percentage — — — more than 5 Frequency 0 0 0 Row Percentage — — — Total Frequency 12 25 37 Row Percentage 32.4% 67.6% 100% The propensity of a business to default was determined by scores obtained on the propensity to default scale. The sample means score of the respondents on this Likert-type 10-item scale was 30.57 and the standard deviation was 10.70. The minimum and maximum scores realised by respondents on this scale were 15 and 43, respectively. Of the 37 responding businesses, 20 (54%) displayed a low propensity to default given that their scores on the scale were below the mid-point score of 25 while 17 (46%) exhibited a high propensity for default. The usefulness of this measure of propensity to default was evaluated by relating the propensity to default category to which a business belonged to actual default in loan repayments by the business. A cross tabulation of propensity to default category with record of actual default is shown in Table 4. A total of 16 out of the 17 businesses that obtained high-propensity-to-default scores had actually defaulted on a loan, while only 6 of the 20 businesses that returned low propensity to default scores had failed, in the past, to meet loan-repayment obligations when they were due. Indeed, the result of Fisher’s exact test (p < 0.001) indicates that respondents in the high-propensity-to-default category actually did default signiﬁcantly more than those in the low-propensity-to-default category.

Table 4: Cross tabulation of Propensity to default category and Record of actual default

Actual Default Record Propensity to default category Business has not defaulted Business has defaulted Total High Frequency 1 16 17 Row Percentage 5.9% 94.1% 100% Low Frequency 14 6 20 Row Percentage 70% 30% 100% Total Frequency 15 22 37 Row Percentage 40.5% 59.5% 100% JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 23

Analysis of the management-style scale responses showed a sample mean of 47.31 and a standard deviation of 14.62. The minimum and maximum scores that were obtained by respondents on this 18-item scale were 25 and 66, respectively. An average of the scores obtained by the employees of a particular small business along this scale was utilised to establish whether they belonged to an organisation which is managed in accordance with participative or non-participative styles of management. Results suggest that, while 44.4% utilised the non-participative management style, 55.6% adopted the participative management style. Correlation statistical analysis was undertaken to determine the nature and strength of relationship that exists between a business’s propensity to default and management style. The results obtained, as shown in Table 5, indicate the existence of a strong, signiﬁcant relationship (Spearman’s rho = 0.836, p < 0.01) between both variables. This result implies that businesses that have a style of management which is non-participative portend a high propensity to default.

Table 5: Correlations between businesses’ propensity to default and management style

Propensity to default Management style score score Spearman’s rho Propensity to Correlation coefficient 1.000 0.836** default score Sig. (2-tailed) 37 0.000 N 37 Management style Correlation coefficient 0.836** 1.000 score Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 37 N 37 ** Correlation is signiﬁcant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The issue of inaccessibility to loans faced by small businesses has long being identified as a major inhibiting factor of the potential that the sector has in making substantial contributions to economic development (Rogerson, 1995). Cook (2001) argues that, within developing economies, between 12–33% of small businesses have access to formal credit and that this inhibits the performance of small businesses. The state of unemployment in South Africa makes it even more pertinent to address some of the constraints of the small business sector, since the small business sector is known for its potential to provide employment (Diederichs, in Nieman, Hough & Nieuwenhuizen, 2003). This study focused on one of the major constraints that small businesses face, which is a lack of financing from banks. This state of inaccessibility to finance has been attributed to the over-reliance of banks on financial indicators of performance, which small business are not adept at using (Keasey & Watson, 1991; McConnel & Pettit, 1984) to signal performance ability. There is, therefore, a case for consideration of non-financial factors especially as Storey, Keasey and Watson (1987) contend that non-financial predictors are as good as financial ones. This view is corroborated by Lussier and Pfeifer (2001), whose opinion is that non-financial variables pose profound relevance and higher reliability for evaluating small businesses. It was against this background that the study concerned itself with a non-financial variable. It sought to estimate the propensity of a small business to default and then investigate the nature of association that this may have with the management style that is employed in the organisation. The investigation of this association was particularly instructive given the impact that style of management may have on organisational outcomes that could invariably lead to timely repayment or default on loans. It is believed that this is one of the first attempts to investigate the relationship that exists between management style and propensity for loan default. This study also contributes to the literature on small business by providing empirical support for the existence of such a JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 11 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

24 Journal of Business and Management Dynamics (JBMD)

relationship. The knowledge gained is likely to complement loan default-potential estimation methods in a bid to improve accessibility to institutional loans for small businesses.

Figure 2: Model of relationship between management style and propensity to default

Loan Management default style propensity

Results of the study indicate that a strong and significant relationship exists between management style and propensity to default of a small business. It was found that those businesses that operate according to the tenets of participative management displayed a low propensity to default on loans, while those that adopted the non-participative management approach exhibited higher propensities to default. This can be related to Likert’s findings that the participative management approach tended to bring about higher levels of organisational success, which by inference would put the small business in a position to meet loan obligations when they are due. However, based on the proposed model (Figure 2 above); this study determined that certain other factors, which did not form part of the present study, may have a moderating effect on the relationship. Such factors, which, among others, include the managers’ locus of control and the loan amount applied for, affect the business’s propensity to default. The value of the identified existence of a relationship between management style and propensity to default is further emphasised by study statistics that showed that businesses in the high-propensity-to-default category actually defaulted significantly in comparison to those in the low-propensity-to-default category.

CONCLUDING REMARKS The results of this study bear managerial implications for both parties — small businesses and the banks — in a financial loan arrangement. On the side of the small businesses, it seems imperative that, in order to improve individual and organisational performance levels, employee participation in organisational processes is important. Generally, such a participatory approach to management results in: (a) higher levels of employee commitment to the pursuit of goals (Mullins, 1999), which engenders improved performance; and (b) leads to a consequent reduction in the business’s propensity to default on loan repayment. Over-concentration of authority, responsibility and decision-making in the hands of the owner/manager, which is a feature of non-participatory management, portends a higher propensity for loan default. On the side of the lending institutions (banks), attention to the management style utilised in a small business widens the scope of consideration of the non-financial variables, which are important components of success and loan repayment ability of a small business. Knowledge of management style adds value to the small business default risk-estimation mechanism. Part of the reason for this is that management style (unlike other non-financial variables) is ascertained from the perspective of employees of the organisation and is not simply based upon characteristics of the owner/manager. Therefore, not only does the consideration of management style introduce an JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 12 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

The Role of Management Style on the Propensity for Loan Default by Small Businesses 25

important non-ﬁnancial determinant of business success, it also allows employees (important stakeholders in the business) to play a role in signalling the pattern of decision-making, as epitomised by management style. Such information would aid the quest of the bank to estimate the default risk potential that the business embodies with regard to loan repayments. In conclusion, issues that border on research design present the main limitations of this study. The study was a cross-sectional one and, therefore, relied upon historical reports of actual defaults, as indicated by the respondents, to establish the propensity to default category of the businesses. Perhaps different results may have been obtained if the study was a longitudinal one, where management styles are determined prior to the obtaining of loans. Furthermore, with the small but acceptable sample size, it was unsuitable to make assumptions of normality, the implication of which was that more extensive statistical tools could not be used.

REFERENCES Altman, E. 1983. Corporate financial distress: A complete guide to predicting, avoiding and dealing with bankruptcy. New York: Wiley. Bates, C. 1991. ‘‘Commercial bank finance in white and black owned small business start-ups’’. Quarterly Review of Economics and Business, 31 (3), 64–80. Bartolome, F. & Laurent, A. 1989. ‘‘The manager: Master and servant of power’’. In R. L. Taylor & W. E. Rosenbach (Eds.) Leadership: Challenges for Today’s Manager (pp. 35–52). London: MacGraw-Hill. Baumback, C. 1983. Small business management practice, Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Bhatt, N. & Tang, S. 1998. ‘‘The problem of transaction costs in group-based micro-lending: An institutional perspective’’. World Development 26 (4), 623–637. Bridge S., O’Neill K. & Cromie S. (1998). Understanding enterprise, entrepreneurship and small business. London: Macmillan. Chandlier, G. & Hanks, S. 1994. ‘‘Founder competence, the environment and venture performance’’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(3), 77–90. Child, J. 1973. ‘‘Strategies of control and organizational behaviour’’. Administrative Science Quarterly, 18, 1–17. Coleman, S. 2000. ‘‘Access to capital and terms of credit: A comparison of men-and women- owned small businesses’’. Journal of Small Business Management, 3 (38), 37–52. Cook, P. 2001. ‘‘Finance and small and medium-sized enterprise in developing countries’’. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 6 (1), 15–40. Curran, J. & Blackburn, R. 2001. Researching the small enterprise. London: Sage. Department of Trade and Industry 1998. ‘‘Financial Access for SMMEs: Towards a comprehensive strategy’’. Paper prepared by the Centre for Small Business Promotion, Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) for the South African Parliament; (April). Daft, R. 2005. The leadership experience (3rd ed.). Canada: Thomson South Western. Dodge, H., Fuller, S. & Robbins, J. 1994. ‘‘Stage of the organisational life cycle and competition as mediators for small businesses’’. Strategic Management Journal, 15, 121–134. Eyiah, A. 2001. ‘‘An integrated approach to financing small contractors in developing countries: A conceptual model’’. Journal of Construction Management and Economics, 19, 511–518. Hambrick, D. & Mason, P. 1984. ‘‘Upper echelons: The organisation as a reflection of its top managers’’. Academy of Management Review, 9 (2), 193–206. Hempel, G. & Simonson, D. 1990. Bank management. New York: Wiley. Herron, L. & Robinson, R. 1993. ‘‘A structural model of the effects of entrepreneurial characteristics on venture performance’’. Journal of Business Venturing, 8, 281–294. Hughes, A. 1997. ‘‘Finance for SMEs: A UK perspective’’. Journal of Small Business Economics, 9, 151–166. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 13 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

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Kalleberg, A. & Leicht, K. 1991. ‘‘Gender and organizational performance: Determinants of small business survival and success’’. Academy of Management Journal, 34 (1), 136–161. Keasey, K. & Watson, R. 1991. ‘‘The state of the art of small firm failure prediction: Achievements and prognosis’’. International small business Journal, 9 (4), 11–29. Kolari, J., Berney, R. & Ou, C. 1997. Study finds small banks profit from small business lending, despite risks’’. Journal of Retail Banking, 3 (19), 17–24. Kotey, B. 1999. ‘‘Debt financing and factors internal to the business’’. International Small Business Journal, 17 (3), 11–29. Ladzani, W. & Van Vuuren, J. 2002. ‘‘Entrepreneurship training for emerging SMEs in South Africa’’, Journal of Small Business Managemen., 40 (2), 154–161. Liedholm, C. 2002. ‘‘Small firm dynamics: Evidence from Africa and Latin America’’. Journal of Small Business Economics, 18, 227–242. Lussier, R. 1995. ‘‘A non-financial business success versus failure prediction model for young firms’’. Journal of Small Business Management, 33(1), 8–20. Lussier, R. & Pfeifer, S. 2001. ‘‘A cross-national prediction model for business success’’. Journal of Small Business Management, 39(3), 228–239. Martin, J. 2001. Organisational behaviour (2nd ed). UK: Thomson Learning Mambula, C. 2002. ‘‘Perceptions of SME growth constraints in Nigeria’’. Journal of Small Business Management, 40 (1), 58–65. McConnel, J. & Pettit, R. 1984. ‘‘Application of the modern theory of finance to small business firms’’. Small Business Finance, 42, 97–126. Mead, D. & Liedholm, C. 1998. ‘‘The dynamics of micro and small enterprises in developing countries’’. World Development, 26 (1), 61–74. Mullins, L. 1999. Management and organizational behaviour. London: Pearson Education. Nieman, G., Hough, J. & Nieuwenhuizen, C. 2003. Entrepreneurship: A South African perspective (1st ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik. Obitayo, K. 2001. ‘‘Creating an enabling environment for small scale industries’’. Central Bank of Nigeria Bullion, 25 (3), 16–28. Ojo, A. 1992. ‘‘The relative importance of banks and other institutions in financing small scale businesses’’. In A. Ojo (Ed.) Banks and small scale businesses (pp. 19–36). Ibadan: F & A Publishers. Ojo, A. 1995. ‘‘The role of informal finance in the development of SMEs’’. In A. Ojo (Ed.) Management of small and medium scale enterprises in Nigeria (pp. 217–232). Ibadan: Pumark. Ovadje, F. 2003. ‘‘Access to credit: A study of the perception of Nigerian women entrepreneurs’’. Lagos Business School Management Review, 8 (1), 21–27. Owualah, S. 1999. Entrepreneurship in small business firms. Lagos: G-Mag Educational. Ozigbo, N. 2000. ‘‘Indigenous small and medium enterprises in Nigeria: A Review’’. African Journal of Business and Economic Research, 1 (1), 170–176. Rogerson, C. 1995. ‘‘SMME infrastructure and policy in South Africa’’, International Small Business Journal, 13 (3). Roper, S. 1999. ‘‘Modelling small business growth and profitability’’. Small Business Economics, 13, 235–252. Sinkey, J. 1992. Commercial bank financial management in the financial services industry (4th ed). New York: Macmillan. South African Institute of Race Relations. 2004. South African survey 2003/2004. Cape Town: Creda Communications. Storey, D., Keatson, K. & Watson, R 1987. ‘‘The performance of small firms: Profits, jobs and failures’’. London: Crown Helm Zikmund, W. 2000. Business research methods (6th ed). Orlando, Fl: Dryden Press. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 14 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/02article

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* COK Allen-Ile is research co-ordinator in the Faculty of Business, Bellville campus, of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. † CE Eresia-Eke is a lecturer of Business Management, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, University of Pretoria. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

THE ROLE OF CO-OPERATION BETWEEN STAKEHOLDERS IN THE EFFECTIVE DELIVERY OF EDUCATION IN KWAZULU-NATAL By BR Mngomezulu*

ABSTRACT This study focuses specifically on stakeholder co-operation in the Department of Education in KwaZulu-Natal. Its aim is threefold: (i) to establish the nature of the relationship between different stakeholders such as the provincial department of education in KZN, SMTs, SGBs, parents and teachers’ unions; (ii) to investigate how such relationship promotes and/or obstructs effective delivery of education in the KZN province; and, most important, (iii) to identify possible strategies that could be used to foster stakeholder co-operation in this province thereby ensuring effective delivery of education. This article is not elitist in nature in the sense that it does not dwell on what could be termed ‘high politics’. Most of the informants used in the discussion groups, interviews, and questionnaires are those tasked to implement education policies on the ground. Focusing on these stakeholders is useful because they are closest to where things happen and therefore talk about real issues that emerge when education policies are being implemented. However, it would be inappropriate to address these issues without first providing a historical background of stakeholder co-operation in South African education to provide the context in which the present study should be viewed. As Kenya’s former president, Daniel arap Moi, once put it, ‘‘. . . those who understand their past have confidence to face the future’’ (Kenya Times, 21 October 2002).

INTRODUCTION Stakeholder co-operation in education has been on the agenda in South Africa since the heydays of apartheid. However, racial politics ruled out any possibility of including blacks in the decision-making process on educational policies in a meaningful way. But the apartheid government found black teachers indispensable in the implementation of its policies. Thus, these teachers were forced to implement policies they did not embrace. As black teachers, learners and parents became impatient with the government’s mode of operation the latter resorted to the use of brute force to neutralise them. Among other things this resulted in the Soweto riots of 1976. With the advent of democracy in 1994 the call for stakeholder participation in decision-making on educational matters and co-operation between stakeholders became louder. One of the major tasks facing the Education Ministry from 1994 was to ensure that education policies drawn up during the apartheid era were revisited, improved and/or replaced by new ones altogether. What had been perceived as the prerogative of a selected few had to be made available to all steakholders. Among the issues that needed urgent attention was a move away from the dictatorial mode of operation whereby the central government single-handedly drew up education policies without any consultation. There was a general feeling that if South Africans were to reap the fruits of democracy they had to have a say in the policies that governed the education of their children and participate fully in the governance of the schools. It was in this context, therefore, that the Education Ministry under the new political dispensation instituted school administrative structures such as the School Governing Bodies (SGBs) to replace School Committees, School Management Teams (SMTs) and Learners’ Representative Councils (LRCs). The aim was to ensure that the voices of different stakeholders in the education sector were represented. Moreover, the government gave teachers’ unions such as 28 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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Suid Afrikanse Onderwyser Unie (SAOU), the South African Democratic Teachers’ Union (SADTU), the Natal African Teachers Union (NATU) more platform to table their concerns. In cases where differences of opinion emerged, the two parties followed constitutional procedures to resolve their differences. Establishing these institutions was one thing, ensuring that they did what they were set up to do was another thing altogether. More than ten years into democracy, the South African government in its different departments is involved in the process of self-introspection whereby the viability of certain policies is being questioned. In many instances, self-evaluation at the national and provincial levels happens concurrently. One of the desired outcomes is to get a better picture of the successes, failures, problems and prospects of the educational policies put in place since 1994 so that certain modiﬁcations could be made where necessary. The extent to which the government has succeeded in this regard remains debatable (see Mngomezulu, 2006).

A BRIEF HISTORY OF STAKEHOLDER CO-OPERATION IN SOUTH AFRICA Had the proponents of apartheid not been perfidious, stakeholder co-operation in South African education would have been entrenched decades ago. Stakeholder co-operation was contemplated during the heydays of apartheid. In 1949, soon after coming to power, Dr D. F. Malan and the National Party (NP) set up a Commission on Native Education, chaired by Dr W.W.M. Eiselen. The Commission submitted its report to parliament in 1951. Its recommendations were encapsulated in the Bantu Education Act, 1953 (Act 47 of 1953). Among the main findings of the Eiselen Commission was that the educational programme was not part of a socio-economic development plan and that there was no active participation of the Bantu in its control [emphasis mine]. Inferred in this finding was a clarion call for stakeholder co-operation in South African education. In making its essential recommendations, the Commission stated that to ensure active participation of the adult Bantu population in those matters that affected the education of their children, Bantu local authorities had to be set up. Such institutions would gradually take over the local control of the schools under the administration of missionary societies, and provincial administrations. The Commission argued that this transfer of control ‘‘should not take place until the Bantu local governing bodies achieved ‘the threefold test of cash, competence and consent’, i.e., until they were able to collect school fees, were capable of administering schools, and were acceptable to the local inhabitants’’ (The Report of the Eiselen Commission, 1951 (b) (i); see also: Behr, 1988:34, and Christie, 1985:78–79). Furthermore, the Commission deemed desirable the appointment of blacks to senior posts such as sub-inspectors in the teaching profession. Due to apartheid, blacks as stakeholders could only have minimal participation in the decision-making process regarding the education of their children. As Christie (1985:79) observes, the Bantu Education Act stipulated that African education should be under government control, and it gave wide powers to the Minister of Native Affairs, who was white. This meant that even if blacks could have some form of participation in the decision-making process regarding the education of their children, the Minister of Native Affairs would still have the final say. One of the causes of the Soweto uprisings of 1976 was the neglect of black parents and learners as stakeholders on educational matters. White politicians took the decision that Afrikaans should be the medium of instruction without African consent. This seemed right at the time but about five years later, the apartheid government tacitly acknowledged the fact that different stakeholders had a significant role to play in the education of children, regardless of the colour of their skin. In June 1980, the NP government approached the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) and tasked it to conduct a detailed study of all facets of education in the country. Represented in the Committee that was set up were different sections of society, including education departments, institutions of tertiary education, industry, the organised teaching profession, and different JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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population groups. People who were invited into the seminars wherein data were collected included representatives from the public sector, the churches, education, professional organisations, the mass media, and community interests. The decision to involve different stakeholders was captured in one of the principles enunciated by the Main Committee, which stated: ‘‘The provision of formal education shall be a responsibility of the State, provided that the individual, parents and organized society shall have a shared responsibility, choice and voice in this matter’’ (The De Lange Report, 1981; see also: Behr, 1988:39). Written comments submitted to the Main Committee came from more than 60 organisations, thus ensuring that a wide range of stakeholders had a chance to voice their opinion. The Main Committee stated that while it was acutely aware of the fact that its recommendations regarding the management of education would require changes in the country’s constitution, it was convinced about the need for a three-tier system ‘with strong built-in structures for participation, consultation and negotiation at each level’, so that all those concerned with education could have a say in influencing educational policy and practice. The three levels proposed by the Main Committee were the following: (i) a central level comprising a single ministry of education; (ii) a second level in the form of regional educational authorities whose task would be to direct education in specific geographical areas; and (iii) a third level in which management would be vested in school governing bodies. Their task would be to interpret the needs and wishes of the parents and the local community in the field of education, and to mediate between them and the professional staff of the school in establishing the character and ethos of the school. Following the submission of the report, a congress of Afrikaner educationists and intellectuals converged in Bloemfontein from 18 to 20 March 1982 to reflect and make comments on this report. Behr (1988:57) observes: A most important standpoint taken by Congress was that the control of education for Whites at all levels of management in any educational or political dispensation had to remain in their hands, was not to be alienated, and that all co-ordination mechanisms be subject to this. Implicit in these comments was a clarion call for stakeholder co-operation in education although only white interests were being considered in this regard. These Afrikaners vehemently objected to the idea of a single national department of education that would accommodate all population groups. The government’s response to the De Lange Report came in the form of a White Paper published on 20 November 1983. In that Paper, the government was opposed to education being centrally controlled, arguing that the granting of autonomy of managerial independence to executive education departments and autonomous institutions was conducive to administrative efficiency. Here, once again, stakeholder co-operation was considered as key to the effective delivery of education. Until the first quarter of the 1990s, stakeholder co-operation in education was still being contemplated although putting the idea into effect proved somewhat difficult due to lingering racial problems. From this synopsis, it is evident that stakeholder co-operation in education has deep roots in South African history.

LITERATURE REVIEW Stakeholder co-operation is a policy issue which could produce positive results in any institution. It is part of co-operative governance. According to Dye (1992:2), policy is that which government ‘‘chooses to do or not to do.’’ It is imperative that all stakeholders should be afforded an opportunity to participate in the decision-making process. There is a general consensus in the academy that those who participate in the decision-making process are more likely to be committed to decisions that emerge and ensure that such decisions are implemented as agreed upon (Weiss et al., 1992; Mhlanga, 1999). Pateman (1970) states that there are at least three forms of participation that stakeholders could be involved in: (i) pseudo-participation where management persuades employees to accept JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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decisions already made by the management team of an institution; (ii) partial participation whereby two or more parties influence each other in the making of decisions although one party makes the final decision; and (iii) full participation where a group of individuals have equal powers in the entire decision-making process. Of the three forms the third is deemed the most democratic because it allows full participation by all stakeholders. It is similar to Bush’s (1995) collegial model of governance which is based on democratic principles where all members have an equal voice on the issues on which a decision has to be taken. It also concurs with what Donn (in Kallaway, Kruss, Donn & Fataar, 1997:186) calls ‘participatory social democracy’, which guarantees partnership, co-operation, and the articulation of both the needs and interests of all stakeholders. According to Donn, the rationale for having participatory social democracy in an organisation is to encourage administrative and policy-making partnerships between different role players and stakeholders. He proposes that there must always be a balance between expert policy-making functions and stakeholder representation. Donn (ibid) identifies three models of governance: (i) state control whereby the state creates, funds, and manages education; (ii) state supervision where the state maintains quality and ensures accountability without necessarily taking full responsibility for the day-to-day management of the institution; and (iii) state intervention characterised by unsystematic state control whereby the state has an unclear interventionist policy in education. Organisations and/or institutions, like the state, have to choose the best model that would ensure inclusiveness or stakeholder participation in decision-making. For Ashley (1989), the question of how education should be controlled and managed is fundamental to issues of democratic participation as well as the balance between the power of central and local control. He identifies two sets of beliefs. The first one entails that the state should take exclusive responsibility for educational provision in terms of material support, policy formulation and direction, educational aims, curriculum and content. The second holds that parents, the local community, teachers, pupils and voluntary agencies such as the private sector should play an essential and more dominant role in education. Karlsson (1998:13) states that although educational policies are made at national and provincial levels their implementation requires an appreciation of local conditions and communities. He holds that a local or regional level governance structure is in a better position to consider the local needs when implementing policies. South African scholars, politicians, and other commentators have been wrestling with these issues. Responding to an interview question on the nature of education in apartheid South Africa back in May 1987, Professor A. P. Hunter, then Deputy Dean in the Faculty of Education, and Director of Academic Programmes at the University of Witwatersrand felt that one of the major problems facing South African education at the time was the absence of a properly representative mode of education whereby different stakeholders were part of the decision-making process. Professor P. C. Luthuli from the Faculty of Education at the University of Zululand held the same sentiments when he stated inter alia that the role of the local community in education was of vital importance because communities expected their children to serve them after completing their education. This meant that the syllabus had to be relevant to the local needs. In 1992, a National Education Conference was held in Broederstroom from 6 to 8 March. Its stated aims were to develop strategies for resolving the crisis in South African education and to identify a framework for the restructuring of the education system. The conference concluded that South African education was indeed in crisis. Ahmed Essop diagnosed the problem as being ‘‘the lack of democratic control within the education system — the fact that students, parents and teachers are excluded from decision making’’ (Essop, 1992:3). One of the issues delegates from political parties, trade unions and educational organisations agreed upon was the development of a strategy to engage the state and capital in order to address what was perceived to be the immediate JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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crisis in education, particularly as it affected the delivery of educational services. There was a realisation that unless different stakeholders participated in the decision-making process on educational matters, service delivery in education would be hampered. The conference adopted a code of conduct, which stated the role each stakeholder was expected to play in education. Meintjies (1992:56) stated that the code ‘‘advises, all-round development of student potential, student-driven learning, and participation in decision-making in the education process and governance.’’ Surprisingly, a delegate from Azanian Student Movement (Azasm) claimed that his organisation could not allow students to be involved in managing the school because it was not their job. Similar sentiments came from a leader of the South African Democratic Teachers Union who suggested that students should be represented in decision- making bodies, but that they should not stand for themselves. What was significant in this conference was the fact that there was a political will to ensure that all stakeholders were represented in decision-making bodies. However, the conference acceded to the fact that learners could not be represented in all decision-making bodies. For example, delegates raised serious doubt on whether learners were competent to participate in course evaluation and curriculum development. A sub-commission tasked to address this issue argued that learners have the competence to influence the environment in which these courses can be taught. Regarding parents, the broad guideline was that parents should contribute to creating an optimum educational environment at home, at school, and in the community. Suggested areas of participation included the following: (i) Participating in school governance, attending class and school meetings, liaising with their children’s teachers; (ii) Keeping up to date with their children’s progress, monitoring homework, and instilling discipline and love of education; (iii) Looking after textbooks and other school resources put in their care; and (iv) Participating in building strong parent organisations. The political negotiations that took place in Kempton Park in the 1990s gave hope to many South Africans. The education sector was one of the beneficiaries of those negotiations. The interim Constitution of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993 made provision for other levels of education (except higher education) to be the responsibility of the provinces. As Karlsson (1998:3) observes: ‘‘For the first time in South Africa, these constitutional provisions offered the potential for local government, as a lower tier of government, to play a partnership role in the provision of education.’’ Until 1994, the education system in South Africa was characterised by very strict central control. The Government of National Unity (GNU) questioned this. But, as De Clercq (in Collaway et al., 1997) suggests, in the 1990s, policy work and analysis gained a new lease of life in South Africa. It was in this context that the 1995 first White Paper on South African Education (1995:122) called for ‘‘a commitment by education authorities at all levels to share relevant information with stakeholder groups and to treat them as genuine partners.’’ In this paper, the Education Minister, Professor Sibusiso Bhengu, announced that school decision-making authority would be shared among parents, teachers, the community, and the learner in a manner that would demonstrate overt support for the values of democracy. The second Education Working Paper of 1996 (1996:12) stated inter alia that the new education system being developed in the mid-1990s ‘‘will be professionally planned and carried out, democratically governed and efficiently managed.’’ Indeed, stakeholder participation improved in subsequent years. The National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE) reiterated the need for co-operative governance in higher education. This form of governance is predicated on the assumption that no single sector or agency can claim sole responsibility or authority for determining the policies and priorities of the higher education system (Mhlanga, 1999:13). The NCHE intimated that different stakeholders and those with professional expertise be brought on board to participate in policy formulation and implementation. To ensure that this proposal was put into practice, the Commission proposed the establishment of two statutory bodies: (i) the Higher Education Forum JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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whose main task would be to advise the Education Minister on policy issues; and (ii) the Higher Education Council charged with the task of providing allocative and planning functions. Through these mechanisms, the question of stakeholder participation in decision-making received serious attention in the changing South Africa. Available literature suggests that South Africa was not the ﬁrst, nor was it the only country to see the need for stakeholder participation in decision-making. According to Rice and Schneider (1994), the educational reform movement in the United States of America continuously advocated for increased teacher participation in the decision-making process. The literature discussed above shows that the question of stakeholder participation in decision-making regarding educational matters has occupied the minds of many scholars, politicians, and other commentators for decades.

METHODOLOGY

Data Collection and Sampling Data for this study were collected both in rural and urban areas in KwaZulu-Natal. The list of informants included the following: learners, educators, parents, the Chairperson of the Portfolio Committee on Education in KZN, members of the community, members of administrative bodies such as SMTs and SGBs, and leaders and members of different teachers unions such as SADTU and NATU. Snowball sampling was used in this study because members of each group or stakeholder knew other members who were not known to the researcher. This method was guided by Neuman’s (1997:207) statement that in this type of sampling ‘‘each person or unit is connected with another through a direct or indirect linkage’’ (see Welman et al., 2005; Welman & Kruger, 1999). Further information was obtained by reading sources such as published books, articles, newspapers, and unpublished theses and dissertations.

Measures After holding a series of preliminary discussions with a number of stakeholders including 25 learners, 13 educators, 11 parents, and 10 members of the public, the researcher distributed 200 questionnaires to solicit information. The questionnaires had two parts, part A and part B. The ﬁrst part asked for demographic information such as gender, age, residential area (urban or rural) and the informant’s position at school or in the school administrative body (e.g., School Governing Body, School Management Team, Learners Representative Council, etc.) and whether such a respondent was a learner, educator, parent, etc. The second part of the questionnaires comprised ﬁve short questions: 1. How would you describe the nature of the relationship between different stakeholders (e.g., unions, SGBs, etc.) in the KZN Education Department? 2. To what extent does this relationship impact on effective service delivery in education? 3. What challenges does your stakeholder face when delivering services? 4. What do you think should be done to foster stakeholder co-operation in the KZN Education Department? 5. What role (if any) should the KZN Education Department play in this regard?

Data Analysis After collecting all 200 questionnaires the researcher analysed responses and organized them according to different themes. The rationale for doing this was to test data from one source against other sources in order to get a better picture on each theme. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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Ethical Issues The researcher assured those who participated in the study that their identity would be concealed. This allowed them to express their views freely.

FINDINGS

An Overview This section presents the findings of the study. As mentioned above, there was a total of five questions to which informants were asked to provide answers. Questions one and two comprise quantitative data and therefore shall be discussed together. Answers to questions three, four, and five are more qualitative in nature. Respondents could provide more than one straight answer. Therefore, the second set of questions shall be analysed differently from the first two. Question 1: How would you describe the nature of the relationship between different stakeholders (e.g., unions, SGBs, etc) in the KZN Education Department? The rationale behind asking this question was to establish whether the informants in their different capacities were pleased with the manner in which their stakeholders were working with other stakeholders. Respondents were given three options to choose from: (i) good; (ii) bad and (iii) not sure. A leader of NATU highlighted a very significant point when he stated that although there were issues that the education department needed to address so as to ensure effective delivery of education in the province, overall there was nothing very serious to complain about [emphasis added]. He argued that one should also note that there was a new political leadership in the province and that each concern should be looked into in the context of time; i.e., whether such a concern was old or new. This line of thought is useful to our interpretation of the responses received from different informants. The Chairperson of the Portfolio Committee on Education in KZN acceded to this point, stating that educational matters in KZN, as in other provinces, could not be discussed outside of the political context. However, he added that to a large extent there was more continuity in the KZN education department in terms of education policies and manpower and that the new incumbents had to first study existing education policies before effecting any changes that would boost service delivery in the education sector. In this context, he suggested that the time factor was key to the analysis; i.e., the fact that the study was conducted soon after the general elections meant that the incumbents were still organising their respective offices and drawing up their plan of action on how to improve service delivery in education in the KZN province. Of the 200 questionnaires that were received, 70 (35%) felt that the relationship was good, 80 (40%) stated that it was bad, while 50 (25%) were not sure and simply said that the relationship between different stakeholders was both good and bad. Responses to question one were as follows: JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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Table 1: The nature of the relationship between different stakeholders

The nature of the relationship between different stakeholders 45% 40% 40% 35% 35% 30% 25% age 25% 20%

Percent 15% 10% 5% 0% Good Bad Not sure No of responses According to this ﬁnding, a slight majority of the respondents felt that the relationship between different stakeholders in KZN was not good, which implied that service delivery was not as quick and/or smooth as it should be. But the fact that 35% of the respondents saw the relationship as good means that in their view there was a potential for improved service delivery in education because there was a general cordial relationship between different stakeholders. Even the fact that 25% of the respondents were uncertain meant that there was no conclusive answer to this question. Question 2: To what extent does this relationship impact on effective service delivery in education? The purpose of this question was to solicit information that would enable the researcher to establish whether the nature of the relationship (good or bad) between stakeholders indeed had an impact on the delivery of education in KZN, and if so, to what extent. Respondents were given four responses to choose from: (i) greater extent; (ii) lesser extent; (iii) no effect and (iv) not sure. The breakdown of the responses is shown below: JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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Table 2: The extent to which stakeholder relations impact on service delivery The extent to which stakeholder relations impact on service delivery 50% 45% 45%

40%

35%

30% 25% age 25% 20% 20%

Percent 15% 10% 10%

0% Greater extent Lesser extent No effect Not sure No of responses The fact that the majority (45%) of the respondents felt that there was a link between the nature of the relationship between stakeholders and service delivery means that the success of service delivery in education in the KZN province depends largely on the nature of the relationship that exists between different stakeholders. However, the 25% who stated that the effect was minimal alluded to the fact that there were other factors that needed to be considered when addressing this question. The Chairperson of the Portfolio Committee on Education in KZN concurred with this view, stating that some problems that have negative effects on service delivery in education do not necessarily derive from the education sector per se, thus intimating that there should be co-operation and co-ordination across departments, not just the education department. Question 3: What challenges does your stakeholder face when delivering services? The reason behind asking this question was to get a sense of the kinds of problem different stakeholders have to contend with when executing their various duties. This was particularly important because briskly rushing to ﬁnd a strategy to foster stakeholder co-operation without establishing the need thereof would have been a futile exercise. The researcher felt that it was necessary to identify the problems ﬁrst and then look at the possible solutions to those problems. During the interviews, informants (especially educators and union representatives) highlighted late payment of educators’ salaries, some form of intimidation from the education department’s officials when educators raise their concerns, arguing that such problems impact negatively on service delivery in education. More than half of the problems (52%) were highlighted by more than just one stakeholder. Therefore, instead of listing the problems according to the stakeholder that mentioned them, the various problems were consolidated into one list. Each problem was mentioned once even if more than one stakeholder mentioned it. These problems were: (1) Lack of discipline among learners; (2) Poor communication between different stakeholders; (3) Lack of knowledge among certain stakeholders; (4) Departments’ inability to build schools and/or educators’ cottages; (5) Disjunction between school and departmental views on what needs to be done; (6) Principals who do not want to see parents without children at their schools attending meetings in those schools; (7) Lack of co-operation between parents and SGBs regarding money JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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issues and the appointment of teachers; (8) Poor working relationship between the principals and the SGBs; (9) Lack of good working relationship between the principal and other educators; (10) Sour relationship between the SGB and the local community; (11) Shortage of staff because of PPN; (12) Failure by the education department to consult other stakeholders when drawing up education policies; (13) Failure by the department to pay teachers in time; and (14) Crowded classrooms. Question 4: What do you think should be done to foster stakeholder co-operation in the KZN Education Department? The reason for asking this question was to identify some strategies that could be used to ensure that there was co-operation between different stakeholders, thus improving service delivery of education in KZN. Respondents presented fascinating suggestions, which, if applied, could produce positive results beyond KZN. A member of SADTU argued that all stakeholders should change their mentality whereby each stakeholder perceives the rest of the stakeholders as competitors. The leader from NATU reiterated this view, arguing that there should be regular meetings between stakeholders even outside collective bargaining structures. He made a very intriguing point that different teachers’ unions should have a common understanding among themselves and convince their members to do likewise so that at least some of the problems could be addressed without the involvement of the education department. Other suggestions that came out of the questionnaires and interviews included the following: (1) There should be a meeting between learners and educators in which each party can voice its concerns about the other party; (2) School administrators, educators, and learners should protest against the authorities working for the Department of Education so that they can consult with them before taking decisions on educational matters; (3) All stakeholders should form part of the decision-making process; (4) Communication channels between stakeholders should always be open so that problems do not accumulate; (5) SGB members should be trained properly so that they can perform their duties more efficiently; (6) Educators who are appointed to work at school should be those who are relevant to the curricular and other needs of the school; (7) The Education Department should establish a good working relationship with the learners; (8) The relationship between learners and educators should be improved; (9) SGBs and school principals should work hand in hand; (10) School principals should get the views of their learners before making a decision on a particular issue affecting the school; The Department of Education should come closer to the school community and ensure that all stakeholders are capacitated; (11) The Education Department should work on a mandate from educators and SGBs instead of dictating policies; and (12) All stakeholders should work as a team from the top to the bottom. Question 5: What role (if any) should the KZN Education Department play in this regard? Questions four and five are closely related, except that question five focused specifically on KZN. The driving motive behind this study was to influence policy formulation and implementation in the DoE in KZN. Thus, the purpose of question five was to solicit answers that could help the department improve its relationship with other stakeholders in the province. Asking an open question was a deliberate decision aimed at giving respondents a platform to air their views freely. They stated that the DoE should: (1) Use available educational structures in the regions, districts, circuits, wards, and schools when drawing policies in order to accommodate other stakeholders; (2) Employ more educators (including temporary ones) so that schools could operate smoothly; (3) Provide teaching and learning material to reduce the number of complaints from educators and learners; (4) Ensure that the Minister of Education treats all schools equally regardless of the political parties they may be associated with; (5) First consult with SGBs and parents before implementing a any policy; (6) Provide bursaries to those learners who want to proceed to tertiary JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 11 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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institutions and discuss with them what professions they could pursue; (7) Do thorough research before passing any policy; (8) Call a meeting to address any misunderstanding between the principal and other stakeholders such as learners, educators, the SGB, or the community in general; (9) Change the principal in cases where there is a sour relationship between him and other members of the school community instead of trying to demonstrate who is in charge; (10) Hold occasional mass meetings with different stakeholders and design a questionnaire that would be used to capture the mood in schools and thus detect the problem before it escalates; (11) Ensure that its officials do not just conﬁne themselves to doing office work but visit regions and/or schools to get a sense of the reality on the ground; (12) Organise workshops to familiarise SGBs with their roles and functions; an (13) Listen to teachers’ unions because they are the voice of the educators.

CONCLUSION This study has shown that the question of stakeholder co-operation is a contentious issue for two reasons. First, those stakeholders that enjoy some form of power sometimes ‘protect their space’ pushing other stakeholders to the periphery. Conversely, those that operate on the margins strive indefatigably to have their voices heard. In either case, effective delivery of education is put in jeopardy. The historical background presented at the beginning of this article locates the issue of stakeholder co-operation in the broader context. As mentioned earlier, different commentators perceive stakeholder co-operation in political terms arguing that it is in line with the entrenchment of the democratic ethos. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that the call for stakeholder co-operation in South Africa became louder on the eve of and soon after the ﬁrst democratic elections in 1994. Another point worth noting is that the question of stakeholder co-operation is not an issue that concerns South Africa alone. Comparative literature shows that countries like the United States of America as well as other parts of the African continent had to wrestle with this issue at some point. This revelation should urge different stakeholders in the education sector to ensure that they learn from the experiences of other countries. The fact that there is a link between stakeholder co-operation and effective delivery of education means that such co-operation should be encouraged and sustained.

REFERENCES Ashley, M. (1989). Ideologies and schooling in South Africa, Rondebosch: S. A. T.A. Behr, A. R. (1988). Education in South Africa. Origins, issues and trends: 1652–1988, Pretoria and Cape Town: Academica. Bush, T. (1995). Theories of educational management, London: Paul Chapman. Christie, P. (1990). The right to learn. The struggle for education in South Africa, Braamfontein: Sached. Department of Education (1995). White Paper on Education and Training in a Democratic South Africa, Pretoria: Department of Education. Department of Education (1996). National Education Policy Act 27 of 1996 Department of Education (1996). South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 Dye, T. R. (1992). Understanding public policy, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Essop, A. (1992). ‘‘Introduction’’, Back to learning: The National Education Conference, Johannesburg: Ravan Press. Interim Constitution of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993. Kallaway, P., Kruss, G., Donn, G. & Fataar, A (eds) (1997). Education after apartheid. South African education in transition, Cape Town: UCT Press. Karlsson, J. (1998). The role of local government in the provision of public schooling in South Africa, University of Natal: Education Policy Unit. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 12 SESS: 11 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/03article

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Mhlanga, H. (1999). ‘‘A case study of academic staff participation in decision making in a college of education in the Northern Province’’, M.ED thesis, University of the Western Cape. Mngomezulu, B. R. ‘‘Going beyond the call: A critical appraisal of higher education policies in post-apartheid South Africa from 1994 to 2004.’’ Paper presented at the Writers’ Workshop, CODESRIA, Senegal, 6–7 December 2006. Neuman, W. L. (1997). Social research methods. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Third Edition, London: Allyn and Bacon. Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and Democratic Theory, United States of America: Prentice Hall. Rice, E. M. & Schneider, G. T. (1994). ‘‘A decade of teacher empowerment: An empirical analysis of teacher involvement in decision making’’, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 32: 47–54. Weiss, C. H. et al. (1992). ‘‘Trouble in paradise: Teacher conﬂicts in shared decision making’’, Education Administrative Quarterly, Vol. 28: 350–367. Welman, C. Kruger, F. & Mitchell, B. (2005). Research methodology. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Welman, J. C. and Kruger, S. J. (1999). Research methodology for the business and administrative sciences. London: International Thompson. Newspaper Kenya Times, 21 October 2002.

* Dr Bhekithemba R Mngomezulu is a lecturer in the Department of Research, Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 12 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/04article

DIVISION OF LABOUR AS EXPLOITATIVE MECHANISM OF WORKERS By WI Ukpere* & AD Slabbert†

ABSTRACT Division of labour has been acknowledged and praised by conservatives as a source of the wealth of nations, without considering its effects on the working class. On the other hand, social progressives believe that the division of labour is inhuman and exploitative in nature, particularly toward workers. The authors of this article align more with the social progressive counteractions that the division of labour is a form of capitalistic labour exploitation, and postulate certain ameliorating mechanisms to mend the lopsided effects of the division of labour in the workplace.

INTRODUCTION Capitalistic division of labour in most societies is hugely complicated. The way jobs are assigned to a particular worker and the manner or reason for such an assignment are also multifaceted. Economic scrutiny has a tendency of accepting division of labour as a product of economic and social relations by explaining it in terms of the allocation of each individual to particular jobs according to the individual’s inclination and dexterity (or according to an expertise acquired through investment in ‘human capital’). The inputs and efforts of workers tend to be ignored and incorporated under technology, which is assumed to evolve superﬁcially as a technical advancement (Miles, 1987; Dowd, 2002). Fine (1982:35) reiterated: ‘‘Economics has become oblivious to the fate of workers in the jobs that they undertake and the division of labour is taken for granted as a desirable source of increased productivity and growth’’.

Conservative contentions The celebrated work of Adam Smith (1776, cited in Stoner & Freeman, 1992:312; also see Boonzaier, 2001:18) on ‘division of labour’, has been considered as a major step in the productive and optimal utilisation of human resources. Adam Smith (1850, cited in Hackman and Oldham, 1980:47; Giddens, 1993:493; Boonzaier, 2001:18) presented one of the clearest and oldest illustrations of the application of division of labour. While analysing the pin-making process in his famous writings, ‘The Wealth of Nations’ (WN), Smith explained: ‘‘A person working alone could perhaps make twenty pins per day. But by breaking down the task into a number of simple operations, however, ten workers carrying out specialised jobs in collaboration with one another could produce 48,000 pins per day. The rate of production per worker, in other words, is increased from 20 to 4800 pins, each specialist operator producing 240 times as much as he or she was working in isolation’’. Thus, Smith has suggested that the increase in productivity is itself a result of three processes: an increased dexterity that accompanies the conﬁnement of workers to a specialised task, a saving of time for workers from passing one tool to another and the possibility of the creation and introduction of technology that the division of labour provokes. Charles Babbage (the inventor of the earliest form of computer) subsequently incorporated Smith’s thought of efficient labour utilisation into his personal analysis. According to Babbage (1835, cited in Giddens, 1993:493), ‘‘Technological progress in production can be measured by the degree to which the tasks of each worker are simpliﬁed and integrated with those of other workers. This process reduces the price employers have to pay for hiring workers and the time needed to learn each job, as well as weakening the workers’ bargaining power and thus keeping wage costs down’’. Taylorism went further to explicate how industrial processes could be broken down into simple operations that could be precisely timed and organised (Worsfold, 2004:1). Taylor was only 40 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 12 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/04article

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concerned with improving industrial efficiency, but gave little consideration to how products should be marketed. ‘Mass production necessitates mass markets’ and the industrialist, Henry Ford, was among the first to take notice of this and exploited its possibilities. Fordism was designated to the system of mass production and tied to the cultivation of mass markets, as enunciated by Henry Ford. The industrial mogul, Henry Ford, established his first plant at Highland Park, Michigan, in 1913 and made only one product — the Model T Ford — thereby allowing the introduction of specialised tools and machinery that were designed for speed, precision and simplicity of operation. The most spectacular innovation of Ford was the construction of a ‘moving assembly line’, which was inspired by Chicago slaughterhouses, where animals were disassembled section-by-section on a moving line. Each worker on Ford’s assembly line had a specific task, such as fitting the right-side door handles, while the car bodies moved along the line. The result of this system was astronomical, since prior to 1929, when production of the model T ceased, fifteen million cars were made and 80 per cent of the cars in the world were registered in the United States of America (Giddens, 1993:494). Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, in his writing towards the end of the 19th century, believed that the greater the division of labour, the more people would have to depend on each other, and the closer they would become (Hawthorn, 1981:33). Thus, Smith and his associates, without considering the negative effect of this system on workers, believed that division of labour leads to efficiency and growth, thereby tracing the wealth of the nation to the interaction between a growing division of labour and the scope of market relations.

SOCIAL PROGRESSIVE COUNTERACTIONS Contrary to the abovementioned views, Marx (1818–83, cited in Hawthorn, 1981:33) contended that: ‘‘division of labour impoverishes the worker and makes him a machine . . . for as soon as labour is distributed, each man has a particular exclusive sphere of activity, which is forced upon him and from which he cannot escape’’. It was on these grounds that Marx (1818, cited in Fine, 1982:40) went further to rebuff Smith and his cronies: ‘‘Now it is quite possible to imagine, with Adam Smith that the difference between the above social division of labour and the division in manufacture, is merely subjective, exists for the observer who in the case of manufacture can see at a glance all the numerous operations being performed on one spot, while . . . the spreading-out of the work over great areas and the great number of people employed in each branch of labour obscured the connection. But what is it that forms the bond between the independent labour of the cattle-breeder, the tanner and the shoemaker? It is the fact that their respective products are commodities. What, on the other hand, characterises the division of labour in manufacture? It is the fact that the specialised worker produces no commodities.’’ Since the system of division of labour in the production process may be gratifying to the capitalists in their respective factories, the social organisation of division of labour is intolerable in its totality. Toward this, Marx (1845, cited in Fine, 1982:41) opined: ‘‘. . .division within the workshop implies the undisputed authority of the capitalist over the workers, who are merely members of the total mechanism, which belong to him’’. Thus, in Marx’s view, the division of labour, under a capitalist mode of production, leads to incessant exploitation of the working class. The capitalist system of division of labour leads to the creation of surplus value through productivity increases at deplorable wages, which reduces the value of labour (Marx, Cap.v1, 1976:33–4). According to Marx (1844, cited in Greaves, 1975:212): ‘‘The source of man’s immediate diffıculty is the division of labour. Division of labour was the very essence of all that was wrong with the world. It is contrary to man’s real essence’’. The effect of division of labour on the working class is the creation of a hierarchy of skills and wages in correspondence to the increasingly specialised tasks that are undertaken. In many JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 12 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/04article

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instances, however, the detailed labour becomes increasingly simple even if certain dexterity is gained with practice. Accordingly, hand-in-hand with the creation of skilled specialised labour, there is an overwhelming amount of simple, unskilled jobs that are formed to which a large section of the working class is assigned (Worsfold, 2004:1). Marx traced the introduction of machinery that eroded jobs to the increasing division of labour and went further to show the extent to which machinery production utilises the division of labour to weaken the role of workers in the field of production. According to Marx (Cap.v1, 1976:548), ‘‘. . .whereas manufacture adopted existing methods of production and transformed them through the utilisation of the co-operation and division of labour, machinery took on much greater significance and transformed the role played by labour as a whole in the production process. In manufacture, the division of labour brings a range of specialist tools for the workman to use in his detailed task. Machinery production brings the displacement of the worker from the handling of his own tools and instead he becomes a tool of the machine. He becomes robbed even of the simple and specialised task that has been left by the manufacture. The pace of the machine dictates the pace of work. In short, machinery seizes the division of labour created by manufacture, intensifies it and transforms it into a division of tasks between the parts of the machine to which labour becomes an appendage’’. Therefore, it is no longer the labourer that employs the means of production, but it is the means of production that employs the labourer, since labour has taken the position as one of the limbs of the machine, which he has created (Leatt et al. 1987:204). The implication of this is that not only will labour continue to be inferior to capital economically, but it will also be subordinated to capital technically. Thus, capitalist division of labour is the creation of a class of wage-labourers dispossessed of means of production and compelled to the side of the machine (Marx v1, 1976; Fine, 1982; Leatt et al. 1987; Miles, 1987). Marx sees the introduction of machinery (a by-product of division of labour) as a stage in the development of capitalism and accentuated that, as manufacture compelled different capitalists to accumulate, this force was strengthened with the introduction of machinery that necessitates huge funding costs, which was once beyond the power of raising funds through savings and capital accumulation. The reorganisation of capital through liquidation, acquisition and amalgamation/ merger became the new trend, as well as the credit system through banking, which was utilised as another instrument of such accumulation (Fine, 1882:45). Thus, the greatest fillip to production by huge automation is only achieved by eradicating the possibility for competition from capitals, which continued to be realised through backward methods (retrenchment, downsizing, re-engineering and international division of labour) but remain profitable through imposing long working hours and low wages (Fine, 1982:45, Slabbert, 1996, Klein, 2001). Moreover, as the division of labour intensified, the source of value and surplus value become more deeply obscured. First, increasing productivity is associated with the power of collective labour organised in co-operation with division of labour that mars the skills of many workers. There is nothing exclusive to capitalism in the power of collective labour, as the construction of the pyramids illustrates. Nevertheless, capitalism took this great innovation of humankind to the highest point, owing to the fact that wage-labour makes collective labour freely available. In that case, it is capital that increasingly appears to be the source of wealth, since what is a gain for the productive power of capital through collective labour is a loss to the labourer in terms of dilapidated skills, functions and control. With the growing use of fixed and constant capital and the displacement of the labourer by machine, the significance of labour as a source of value is increasingly denied, and regarded as one source of value amongst other things (Marx, Cap.v1, 1979:35). Hence, this is how division of labour in production obscures the role of labour in the production of value and surplus value under capitalism. In the social division of labour, the concealment is JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 12 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/04article

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reinforced. The conﬁnement of each worker to a particular task, within a particular sector, renders impossible a direct vision of the performance of surplus labour. Therefore, as the social division of labour develops, the source of proﬁt in surplus labour will continue to be less transparent. Adam Smith later wrote with discernment about the intellectual degradation of the worker in a society in which the division of labour has proceeded exceedingly far. Smith (1776, cited in Heilbroner, 2002:5) remarked: ‘‘. . . for by comparison with the alert intelligence of the husbandman, the specialised worker generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human being to become’’. Smith went further to assert that there is a tendency in commercial society, owing to advanced division of labour, to corrupt the ‘intellectual, social and moral virtues’ of its citizens (WN V.i.f.51 cited in Alvey, 1998:1433). This ‘leprosy’ (division of labour) is so great a public evil that it leaves people ‘mutilated’ and deformed in their character (WN V.i.f.60–1, cited in Alvey, 1998:1433). Therefore, increasing division of labour (specialisation) narrows the range of choice of ways of making a livelihood for workers (Pasricha, 2005:233). The outcome of division of labour is the lowering of value (in terms of dexterity and remuneration) of individual workers (Hooker, 1999:2). By way of increasing division of labour, workers’ activities become more and more narrow and monotonous and, instead of developing man’s creative powers, it evaporates them, degenerating people into ‘idiocy’ and ‘cretinism’ (Leatt et al. 1987:204; Heilbroner, 2002:5). It is not a hidden fact that a highly monotonous job shrinks workers’ alertness, decreases their sensitivity to sensory input and, in many cases, impairs their muscular co-ordination. Consequently, simple and habitual non-challenging work is responsible for extraordinary job dissatisfaction, fatigue, boredom, monotony and high rates of labour turnover, which is part of the dysfunctional aspect of industrial psychology and, at the same time, very much peculiar to capitalism (Kumar, 2000:80; Boonzaier, 2001:20). It may be easy to show how the growing international division of labour helps to boost world economic performance, while at the same time ignoring its effect on the working class, namely the distribution of this performance. In this regard, Martin and Schumann, (1997:231) opined: ‘‘World market integration is economically very effıcient. But, in the absence of state intervention, the global economic machine (division of labour) is anything but effıcient in distributing the wealth so produced; the number of losers far exceeds the number of winners’’. Division of labour introduces inequality between occupations and generates disunity amongst workers, which results in social inequality that divides society into haves and have-nots, rulers and the ruled, exploiters and exploited (Leatt et al. 1987:205). In Marx’s view, division of labour pits a man against his fellow man; creates class differences and destroys the unity of the human race (Greaves, 1975:212–3).

CONCLUSION In conclusion, division of labour, a subset of capitalistic labour relations, may be surmised as one form of capital exploitation of labour, both locally and globally. As the name implies, it is actually the multiplication (×) of capital and the total division (÷) or fragmentation of labour. The rapid automation of the workplace that has eroded jobs, the growing outsourcing of labour that has rendered many workers redundant and, as such, retrenched, the unabated migratory character of transnational corporations, the undemocratic work atmosphere and the almost total concealment of the efforts of labour around the world, which is the source of renewed discontentment among workers, may be attributed to the growing global division of labour. Thus, as elucidated above, the authors of this article harmonise with the social progressive counteractions that the division of labour is a form of capitalistic labour exploitation, and postulate ameliorating mechanisms, such as intensive division of proﬁts, accelerated capital sharing, increasing labour directors, effective collective bargaining and industrial humanism as counter-forces to the lopsided effects of the division of labour in the workplace. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/04article

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REFERENCES Alvey, J. E. 1998. ‘‘Adam Smith’s three strikes against commercial society’’. International Journal of Social Economics, 25 (9): 1425–1441. Boonzaier, B. 2001. ‘‘Revision of job characteristics model.’’ Cape Town: Cape Technikon (D.Tech Thesis). Dowd, D. (ed.). 2002. Understanding capitalism: Critical analysis from Karl Marx to Amartya Sen. London: Pluto. Fine, B. 1982. Theories of the capitalist economy. London: E. Arnold. Giddens, A. 1993. Sociology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. Greaves, B. B. (ed.). 1975. Free market economics: A basic reader. Irvington on Hudson, NY: Foundation for Economic Education. Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G.R. 1980. Work redesign. Philippines: Addison-Wesley. Hawthorn, R. 1981. Asking about society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heilbroner, R. 2002. ‘‘Adam Smith’’. http://www.kat/history/Eco/SmithAdam.htm. [5 September 2004]. Hooker, R. 2004. ‘‘Capitalism’’. http://www.wsu.edu.8080/glossary/capital.htm. [19 January 2004]. Klein, N. 2001. No logo: No space, no choice, no job. London: Flamingo. Kumar, P. 2000. Personnel management and industrial relations. Meerut: Kadar Nath Ram Nath. Leatt, J., Kneifel, T. & Nurnburger, K. B. (eds.). 1986. Contending ideologies in South Africa. Cape Town: David Philip. Martin, H-P. & Schumann, H. 1997. The global trap: Globalisation and the assault on prosperity and democracy. Pretoria: HSRC. Marx, K. 1976. Capital: A critique of political economy. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. Miles, R. 1987. Capitalism and unfree labour: Anomaly or necessity. New York: Tavistock. Pasricha, A. 2005. WTO, self-reliance and globalisation. New Delhi: Deep & Deep. Slabbert, A. 1996. ‘‘Capitalism at the crossroads.’’ International Journal of Social Economics,23 (9): 41–50. Stoner, J. A. F. & Freeman, R. E. 1992. Management. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall. Worsfold, A. 2004. ‘‘Scientiﬁc management: Arguing for maximum proﬁtability (or Taylorism).’’ http://www.change.freeuk.com/learning/business/taylorism.html. [10 March 2004].

* Wilfred I Ukpere is a doctoral student in the Department of Human Resources Manage- ment, Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. † Professor André D Slabbert is the Head of Department of Research, Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 16 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

A BRIEF TAXONOMY OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL AT THE CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (CPUT) By MS Bayat*

ABSTRACT This article explains a number of general observations about academic research and research in general. An in-depth discussion of the institutional research proposal follows, including reference to the requirements of the Higher Degrees Committee (HDC) as well as the general format that is used by the institution for research proposals. Particular attention is devoted to the format of the proposal, such as the title, the problem statement, the key questions, the objectives of the research, the significance of the research, demarcation of the study field and a glossary of terms. Mention is made of the literature search and extracting of normative criteria from the literature as part of theory discovery. The empirical survey is explained, including methods of data collection, questionnaires, the total research population (universe), the target population (the sample) and the response population (the number of respondents that completed the questionnaire). Reference is made of statistical analysis, interpretation of the results of the statistical analysis as well as the description of the findings. The programme of study is briefly referred to, as well as a number of suggestions to simplify the research process for the novice researcher.

INTRODUCTION Research has a direct effect on the clothes one wears, the food one eats and the car, bus, train or aircraft in which one travels. Computer micro-chips, robots, ‘‘test tube’’ babies, lunar modules, satellites and video recorders all came about from decisions based on research results. There are few areas in modern life which have not been touched by research. Major decisions which affect people’s lives are based on research results from research projects conducted in both private and public sectors. These decisions range from the type of education one generation receives to the changes in value systems from generation to generation. Most products and processes used in commerce and industry are research-based. Billions of rands are spent on research globally. Large ﬁrms have their own research development departments and governments rely on their own and sponsored research to answer questions ranging from the efficiency of weaponry to poverty eradication initiatives. Academic research is an integral part of higher education. Since existing knowledge renews itself every few months, no academic can afford to ignore the need and necessity for doing constant research. At the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, research is one of the three pillars enshrined in the institutional mission, which reads as follows: . . . our mission is to develop and sustain an empowering environment where, through teaching, learning, research and scholarship our students and staff, in partnership with the community and industry are able to create and apply knowledge that contributes to development . . . This article will explain the various components of a research proposal as prescribed by CPUT, with particular reference to the requirement set by the Research Department, including various requirements set by the Higher Degrees Committee of CPUT (HDC). 45 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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The article will be concluded with a number of recommendations, followed by a conclusion and a bibliography, as well as Annexure ‘‘A’’, ‘‘Application for Acceptance of Proposal’’ form.

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL According to the Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies (2007:39), the purpose of a research proposal (also known as a ‘‘protocol’’) is to establish that the student has a viable and researchable problem and an acceptable plan of action for undertaking the intended research. At that stage, sufficient preparation and spadework should already have been done in order to establish that there are adequate grounds for embarking on the project and that there is a good chance of successfully completing it. The order of the layout as given below may be changed and certain sections may be combined, or additional features added. The suggested headings are to serve as road signs to clearly indicate to the evaluator what the research problem is, how the candidate intends doing the research, as well as what the intended outcomes could be. The requirements for an acceptable research proposal can rely on research based on generally accepted scientific norms. A research proposal usually includes the following: • The title. • Statement of the main research problem and possible sub-problems. • Posing a number of key questions. • The objectives of the research. • Hypothesis(es). • Delimitation of the research. • Definition of concepts. • The significance of the research. • Research methodology, which includes: − review of relevant literature. − brief description of the empirical survey − brief description of the statistical analysis − brief description of the interpretation of the findings and the description and presentation thereof. • Envisaged programme of study. • Bibliography. • Annexures (optional). (Adapted from the CPUT Research Guide (2006:1–4)). Each of the above proposal components will be described in more detail below as adapted from the Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies (2007:39–43) . * The title Has to be concise, encapsulating the essence of the research without being cumbersome or grammatically incorrect. Key words should be selected that can be recognised as acceptable terminology in terms of information retrieval systems. Avoid meaningless statements such as: ‘‘An investigation into the possibility of conducting researching in . . .’’ * Statement of the main research problem and possible sub-problems As research is usually problem-centred, according to the Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies (2007:39–43), the statement of the main research problem is the heart of the proposal. Usually a single sentence is all that is needed to describe succintly what the basic problem is. Often, students have difficulty in describing the problem. Instead they list objectives, outcomes, needs or other aspects that are not relevant to describing the problem. If the research problem is not accurately described against the background set by the title, it is likely that the application will be returned. The National Research Foundation (NRF) has reported that most research proposals they see are: JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

Taxonomy of academic research with special reference to the research proposal at the CPUT 47

haracterised by poorly formulated problems. The NRF states that: researchers often indulge in jargon, which seems to obscure rather than explain what the research problem is According to Brynard and Hanekom (1997:11), research entails the identification of a specific topic which needs to be investigated, or a problem that needs to be studied and, if possible, solved. The statement of the problem is the core of any research. Brynard and Hanekom (1997:11) argues that research commences with the selection of a general field of study, which has to be ‘‘reduced’’ to a specific problem relating to it. Bless and Higson-Smith (1995:21–22 as cited in Brynard and Hanekom (1997:11), hold that a number of factors are prominent in determining the suitability of a research problem. The more of these criteria are met, the more suitable the selected problem. The criteria are shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1 — source: Bless and Higson-Smith (1995:21–22 as cited in Brynard and Hanekom (1997:11))

Timeousness Identification should not take place after the problem has escalated to a point where it is unlikely that the research findings will contribute to solving the problem or to preventing the further escalation of the problem. Relative to a practical problem The problem should reside in a situation experienced in real life, not an imaginary, flight of fancy scenario. Relative to a definite population The problem should be experienced by a specific, easily definable group. Fill a gap in existing knowledge The results of the research should contribute towards better insight into, and a broadening of a specific area of knowledge. Possesses practical value The application of the recommendations, based on the findings of the research, should contribute towards rectifying an existing, unacceptable situation. Clearly demarcated The research should be manageable in order to enable the researcher(s) to focus on a specific problem, taking into account available time, finance, sample size and abilities of the researcher. Empirically testable The problem statement should be based on verificable empirical facts obtained by studying reality.

Research usually starts with a question in the researcher’s mind. It is this question which usually leads to a researchable problem. Research starts with the delimitation and description of a problem. This is where many inexperienced researchers founder. Research based on a poorly formulated statement of the problem or without such a statement at all is probably not going to progress and this leads to frustration and a waste of time and money. The problem statement, according to Goddard and Melville (2001:16) is the base on which the eventual report will stand, and needs to be clear and coherent. The statement of the problem will ask a question or questions, usually about the relationships between variables; be empirically verifiable or falsifiable, for example testable in the real world and will also be testable within the time, budget, experience and resource constraints of the researcher, while also defining the usefulness of the results of the research (Goddard & Melville, 2001:16). According to Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:142), the problem to be dealt with is introduced by quoting authoritative sources to assess current knowledge levels about the particular issue, what is still not clear and what needs further investigation, including the relevance of such investigation. How does the inexperienced researcher identify a research problem? According to Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:16), one can distinguish three steps in identifying a research problem. These are as indicated below. 1. The selection of the topic area. 2. The selection of a general problem. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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3. The reduction of the general problem to to one or more specific, precise and well delimited questions. In order to achieve the above steps, the following hints could be applied: • Analyse what is known, including the historical record. • Look for gaps or deficiencies in explanations — that is, for ‘‘areas of darkness’’. • Watch for incongruities and contradictions, the points of controversy, the untested conclusions. • Follow clues and suggestions obtained from reading, conferences, and thinking. According to Goddard and Melville (2001:12), problems can be identified in prior research, specific needs of industries, institutions, countries, groups and individuals, in new opportunities as well as in intellectual curiosity. The above sources of research problems, as explained by Goddard and Melville (2001:14), are major ways in which researchers can generate ideas for topics of research. In order to decide on a good topic, the researcher must first have a substantial knowledge of the field in question and of current developments in that field. This knowledge is usually acquired via a literature study of available books and other sources on the relevant topic. From the above, it can be inferred that a golden rule is to state exactly what one means and to say it in as few words as possible. To formulate a problem statement correctly at the first attempt is exceptional. As is the case with all other aspects of research, the statement of a problem requires some effort. The researcher must be prepared to formulate and reformulate his problem. Students should ensure that the problem remains foremost in their thinking and writing, and they should continuously focus on it and the objectives. The statement of sub-problems involves usually that the main research problem can be sub-divided into a number of sub-problems, which emanate from the main research problem. These should be limited to two, or three, but they can be described in more detail, approximately one paragraph per sub-problem. * Posing a number of key questions These questions emanate from the problem statement and will precede the hypothesis(es), which attempts to provide answers to each of the key questions posed in this section as well as prepare the ground work for the research objective and/or research goals. Usually, three or four key questions are adequate for the purposes of the research proposal (Ferreira, 2005:1). * The objectives of the research Clarify what the aims and objectives of this research are. Where feasible, objectives should be divided into main and subsidiary objectives. They should be numbered to facilitate the planning process. The NRF Research Review Guidelines specifically evaluate whether the objectives are well articulated and whether they are realistic and attainable. In writing the proposal, students should continually relate their report to the objectives of the research; i.e., remain focused on the objectives (Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies, 2007:39–43). * Hypothesis In this section, brief hypothesis(es) can be provided as possible answers to the key questions posed above as well as to prepare the groundwork for the research objective and/or research goals. The hypothesis is optional, since its application is more commonly found in the exact sciences. To hypothesise or not should be decided on in consultation with the statistician (see section on statistical analysis). * Delimitation of the research This entails the clarification of what the various boundaries of the research will be. What aspects will not be covered by the research, for example, inter alia a study of engineering firms that have JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

Taxonomy of academic research with special reference to the research proposal at the CPUT 49

fewer than 500 employees; only plants that grow in the Western Cape; a study of patients in clinics and hospitals in the Witwatersrand area, only 220v AC systems (Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies, 2007:39–43). According to Goddard and Melville (2001:14), the process of demarcation indicates what the researcher wishes to include in the research by determining the scope of the study, what variables are involved, how the research will be pursued and what practical constraints are involved. It is necessary for the researcher to indicate what is not to be included in the research project (Leedy, l980:60). The researcher cannot possibly include all the aspects of the research problem in the project. Inexperienced researchers are inclined to fall into the trap of attempting too wide an investigation. It can be tempting to research matters on the periphery of the central problem. Such investigations, although they may be of significance as far as other projects are concerned, are a waste of time and distract the researcher from his actual research problem. The exact boundaries of the problem must be stated. * Definition of concepts The same words may have different meanings to different people, especially if they work in different disciplines. List and clarify/define the main words and concepts that you will be using in the research. According to the Research guide, (CPUT: 2006, pp 1–4), a glossary of concepts in a research document enables the researcher to communicate his or her interpretation of the key issues of the research to other scientists and interested parties. This has to be provided, as the terminology used by the researcher may may be interpreted in different ways by other scientists. A number of definitions of what a glossary is, with sources, are provided below (from the Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies, 2007:39–43). • an alphabetical list of technical terms in some specialised field of knowledge; usually published as an appendix to a text on that field wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn • This is a list of glossaries (pages containing terms and their definitions or explanations). See also wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary • Short list of words related to a specific topic, with brief definitions, arranged alphabetically and often placed at the end of a book www.usd.edu/library/instruction/glossary.shtml • An alphabetical listing of special terms as they are used in a particular subject area, often with more in-depth explanations than would customarily be provided by dictionary definitions. www.brochure-design.com/brochure-design-publishing-terms.html • A list of questionable definitions. www.mizushobai.freeserve.co.uk/glossary.htm • An alphabetical list of terms, limited to a special area of knowledge, with accompanying definitions. www.isu.edu/library/research/glossary.htm • An alphabetical list of abstruse, obsolete, unusual, technical, or other terms concerned with a subject field, together with definitions. libweb.hawaii.edu/uhmlib/collection/glossary.html • To search for a particular term, go to Edit > Find at the top of your browser and type in the term you’re looking for. www.ctri.wisc.edu/Home/Glossary.html • A list of terms and definitions particular to the subject of the book. www.bookjobs.com/ page.php • A list of words and their meanings. www.clpgh.org/exhibit/gloss.html It is imperative that the researcher defines the terminology appearing in the title, the statement of the problem and sub-problems with precision. Without knowing the exact meaning of a term the research cannot be evaluated properly, and it will be impossible to determine whether the researcher has duly solved his or her problem. Terminology must be defined in an operational way; i.e., the definition must define the term as it is used in the research project. The researcher must therefore define the term according to the meaning he or she wishes to attach to it in that JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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specific research project. Terms with obvious meanings need not be defined. Terms with a special meaning or those that can have different meanings in the specific field of study must be defined. Where possible the researcher must use authoritative sources when defining terms (Research guide, CPUT: 2006, pp 1–4). * The significance of the research. According to de Vos et al. (2002:118), it must be demonstrated that the research will be useful in three broad areas as explained below. • The research must contribute to existing knowledge. • The relevant area of study should find usefulness and meaning in the study. • The study should be useful for practitioners. The relative emphasis placed on each aspect of the study’s significance depends on the study itself. De Vos et al. (2000:118) further assert that the researcher has to ensure that the section on significance of the research spells out not only the immediate, but also longer term benefits that the results of the study may bring to various target groups of possible beneficiaries. The contribution that the study can make to the development of the theoretical base of the relevant profession should also be stated in this context. * Research methodology, which includes − review of relevant literature. According the Ferreira (2005:1), this entails a study of relevant books, journal articles, academic papers, official reports, government policy, such as legislation and subordinate legislation, minutes of meetings, official publications and other policy documents, newspaper articles, unpublished research and other applicable published and unpublished material. According to Fox and Bayat (2007:35), a literature search is a critical assessment and summary of the range of past and contemporary literature in a given area of knowledge. The literature search may be restricted to formal documents or papers and books written on one discipline or sub-discipline, or it may be wider-ranging within another discipline or sub-discipline. The purposes and aims of literature searches may be summarised as follows: • To provide a sound theoretical overview of the existing research findings, theories and models in terms of the specific research problem. • To indicate to the reader that the researcher is familiar with recent research developments. • To show that the researcher had been selective and critical in listing only relevant research findings. • To provide insight into previous work. • To situate and locate the research project and outline of the work. • To show the supervisor that the researcher is comfortable with existing, current, relevant data on the research topic (Fox & Bayat, 2007:36). According to Fox and Bayat (2007:36), a literature search forms a significant part of any research project. From the researcher’s point of view, the literature search serves several purposes, examples of which are provided in the paragraphs that follow: • A literature search assists the researcher to become acquainted with the past and latest developments in the field of the project. In the majority of cases it may appear that the research is unique until a comprehensive literature search has been done and it is then revealed that the research has been undertaken before. • A literature search assists the researcher in understanding the facts and theories in the chosen field. It also provides a conceptual frame of reference that may be used to evaluate the researcher’s own research and research results. • By examining existing literature on the topic, the researcher gains insight into various approaches to conducting the research, what the best methods and techniques are, what problems were encountered, what mistakes were made and what successes were achieved. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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• A literature search assists in interpreting one’s own research and in determining the relationship between the research and existing knowledge in the field, thereby contributing to developments and increasing knowledge in the research area. • One should be able to gain a better idea of what should and what could be done in terms of the research, thereby discovering on which aspects of the study field to focus in order to meet the research objectives (Fox & Bayat, 2007:36). A literature search is undertaken by the researcher to inform/educate him or herself about the existing literature on the research topic. Extracting relevant and particular normative criteria from the literature pertaining to the stated research problem is a step in the literature review process that focuses and concretises the essence of what was found in the literature in a coherent and comprehensive description of selected normative criteria as found in the literature. Such normative criteria are extracted from the literature, indicating knowledge and understanding on the part of the researcher of the research topic, the research problem and other relevant matters. This has to be briefly explained in the research proposal. According the Faculty of Business Guidelines for Advanced Studies (2007:39–43), an adequate literature study is required in all proposals (protocols), especially where funding is required. The purposes of the literature study are to provide evidence to the research committee that the student is well acquainted with past and current research in the particular field of study; that the study will not duplicate past or current research; as well as indicating how the intended research fits in with related and past research. In addition to indicating how the literature supports the need for research in this particular field, some faculties also require the student to provide an indication from the literature in respect of what related aspects require further research. A recent NRF report relating to the evaluation of research proposals points out that the literature reviews ‘‘must provide a rationale for the choice of problem, or a theoretical framework for the study’’, and that too often this is missing. In the final dissertation a much more complete and extensive literature study will have to be presented than that which is acceptable for the protocol. The NRF report furthermore points out that too often the literature review does not correspond with the aims of the research. A specific comment of NRF evaluators is that many students ‘‘took the review of literature as a perfunctory task and therefore there was no contribution to or advancement of the intellectual debate’’. It was found that students who commenced research without first having completed a thorough literature study normally experienced problems. References such as the following should be consulted: Union catalogue of theses and dissertations of South African universities, Dissertations abstracts international, Index to theses with abstracts, etc. Students who wish to apply for NRF funds must produce evidence that they have completed a NEXUS and/or NAVTEC data search. It is strongly recommended that students who undertake a literature search seek the advice and help of a subject librarian to assist them in searching the various Internet search engines. Students should also include a brief section indicating what searches have been done, what key words have been used, and what databases or search engines have been used. This is particularly important where the available references are rather sparse. The Harvard system of bibliographic citation should be used, unless a specific department specifies otherwise. − brief description of the empirical survey The word ‘‘empirical’’ means ‘‘guided by practical experience’’. An empirical survey constitutes a second data stream in a research project. A research project is augmented by an empirical survey of a representative sample of a given research population and where the practical area pertaining to the research is investigated by various means of data collection, for example a questionnaire. The research population is categorised into three components (see illustration below): (i) Description of the Total possible research population, or ‘‘universe’’. (ii) Identification of the Target research population, which, in collaboration with the supervisors JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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and the statistician, can be any pre-determined percentage of a scientifically acceptable representative sample of the Total research population mentioned in item (i). (iii) A statement to the effect that a final Response population figure will be decided on in collaboration with the supervisors and the statistician, which, at the time, represents a given percentage of the Target population, which responses will be the subject of the statistical analysis (see illustration below).

arget Popu l T Total la ta tio o Response n T Population as a Total percentage of the Target Population Research

Total Research Population Population

Source: Ferreira (CPUT:2005:3). An empirical survey is conducted among the Target population (see (ii) above) in the form of a (usually self-administered) questionnaire consisting of dependent and independent variables, structured in a quantitative/qualitative (or both) research approach (representing a closed and/or open-ended format, respectively) and predetermined in collaboration with a registered statistician. The theory of questionnaire design is briefly explained, as well as basic concepts pertaining to the researcher’s attitude towards the research, such the ethics of research and the element of BIAS. − brief description of the statistical analysis Appropriate response percentages are determined in collaboration with a registered statistician by determining relative values from the empirical data and transferring such values in a codified form to a computer database. The data thus analysed are interpreted by utilising selected statistical methods and analytical instruments. A description of the analysis methodology design should be provided in a separate chapter on the research methodology. In the case of a quantitative survey approach, the relevant numerical evaluation scale (for example, Likert and/or Thurston scales) should be fully described. In the case of a qualitative approach being followed, the methods of determining analysable trends in the responses should be fully described. This can only take place in consultation with a registered statistician (Ferreira, 2005:4). − brief description of the interpretation of the findings and the description and presentation thereof After receiving the statistical analysis of the empirical data from the registered statistician, the results should be interpreted meaningfully by the researcher and the findings in terms of the various analytical instruments expressed and described by the researcher by way of tables, charts and figures, followed by a brief textual explanation of each and every analysis event. A brief reference to the various statistical analysis instruments envisaged should be provided in chapter one. In the separate chapter on research design, figures, tables and charts can be used to clarify descriptions of findings (Ferreira, 2005:4). Envisaged programme of study Not only is a time schedule of the intended programme of study required in this section, but also an exposition, chapter-wise, of the envisaged paper/dissertation. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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* Bibliography This is a list of the literature that has been referred to in the proposal. Titles that have no relevance to the research should not be listed. The Harvard referencing system should at all times be used. * Possible annexures, also known as appendices. Appendices should be kept to a minimum, although their inclusion can enhance the research. * Summary This section summarises in a nutshell what appears in the proposal. It may not provide new material by referring to aspects not discussed before.

CONCLUSION This article brieﬂy explained a taxonomy of academic research with speciﬁc reference to the research proposal, also known as a ‘‘protocol’’. A number of theoretical aspects of research per se were described. The emphasis of the article was on the research proposal, an aspect which had for a long time been a problematic area with new and aspirant researchers. It is trusted that this article will contribute to increased understanding of the research process and, in particular, the research proposal, as a vehicle to obtain access into higher education, with respect to master’s and doctoral studies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bless, C, & Higson-Smith, C. 2000. Fundamentals of social research methods: An Africa perspective. Lansdowne: Juta. Brynard, PA & Hanekom SX, 1997. Introduction to research in Public Administration and related academic disciplines. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Faculty of Business, Department of Public Manage- ment research guide. 2006. Cape Town: CPUT. Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Faculty of Business, Department of Public Manage- ment research guide. 2007. Cape Town: CPUT De Vos,AS (Ed). 2002. Research at grass roots. Pretoria: van Schaik. Ferreira, IW. 2005. ‘‘Template of a Chapter 1. Study material for Research Methodology 5.’’ Cape Town: CPUT. Fox, W. & Bayat, MS, 2007. A guide to managing research. Cape Town: Juta. Goddard, W & Melville, S. 2001. Research methodology: An introduction. Lansdowne: Juta. Internet sources: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary www.usd.edu/library/instruction/glossary.shtml www.brochure-design.com/brochure-design-publishing-terms.html www.mizushobai.freeserve.co.uk/glossary.htm www.isu.edu/library/research/glossary.htm libweb.hawaii.edu/uhmlib/collection/glossary.html www.ctri.wisc.edu/Home/Glossary.html www.bookjobs.com/page.php www.clpgh.org/exhibit/gloss.html Leedy, PD. 1985. Practical research: Planning and design. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan. Mouton, J. 1996. Understanding social research. Pretoria: Van Schaik. * Professor Mohamed Saheed Bayat is the Dean of the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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ANNEXURE A

CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

APPLICATION FOR ACCEPTANCE OF PROPOSAL FOR DISSERTATION/THESIS FOR A POST-GRADUATE DEGREE Student number Surname and initials Degree (for example: Magister Technologiae (discipline)), Doctor Technologiae discipline)) Discipline Department Faculty BUSINESS

FOR OFFICE USE Project number Ethical clearance number

SECTION 1: PERSONAL DETAILS

1.1 Surname of applicant:

1.2 First name/s of applicant:

1.3 Title (Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss/Dr/Prof/Rev etc):

1.4 Study ﬁeld:

1.5 Department:

1.6 Faculty: BUSINESS

1.7 Postal address: Postal code:

1.8 Telephone number:

1.9 E.mail address:

\1.10 Fax no:

1.11 Highest qualiﬁcations Major subject ﬁeld Year obtained Higher Educational Institution Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Type of degree registered for: 1. Coursework degree 2. Full Research degree SECTION 2: PROJECT DETAILS 2.1 Title of dissertation/thesis: JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 11 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

Taxonomy of academic research with special reference to the research proposal at the CPUT 55

SECTION 3: PROBLEM STATEMENT

SECTION 4: OBJECTIVES OF AND NEED FOR THE STUDY Brieﬂy describe the major objectives and the theoretical approach of the research, which indicates why you believe the study is needed.

SECTION 5: KEY QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO THE RESEARCH Outline the key (critical) questions which you intend to answer, by undertaking the intended research

SECTION 6: HYPOTHESIS(ES) (OPTIONAL) This section should brieﬂy discuss possible answers to the key questions posed in section 5

SECTION 7: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This section describes the steps that you envisage to undertake in terms of the literature search and the empirical survey. 7.1 Literature search — data stream 1 (type and extent of literature to be consulted with a preliminary bibliographical list attached; extraction of normative criteria from existing literature)

See HDC 1.2

7.2 Empirical survey — data stream 2 (description of research, target and response population; quantitative and/or qualitative approach, data collecting, for example with questionnaires, statistical analysis and interpretation of ﬁndings)

See HDC 1.2

SECTION 8: PROPOSED OUTLINE OF CHAPTER TITLES CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6

SECTION 9: SPECIFIC WORK PLAN Outline your intended plan of work for the research, which indicates target dates to meet your proposed deadlines. ACTIVITY DATES JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 12 SESS: 15 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/05article

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SECTION 7: FORMALISATION OF THE APPLICATION I hereby declare that the information provided in this application is accurate. ______Signature of applicant ______Date

RECOMMENDATION OF HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

______Signature ______Full name ______Department ______Date

RECOMMENDATION OF FACULTY RESEARCH COMMITTEE (FRC) Accepted Not accepted Date ______Signature of Chairperson of FRC

FINAL APPROVAL/REJECTION BY DEAN OF THE FACULTY APPROVAL/REJECTION ______Date

DEAN’S SIGNATURE JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

SCALE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR EMAIL AND WEB-BASED SURVEYS By S Pather* & CS Strümpfer†

ABSTRACT Surveys have been used by research communities for many decades to collect data, particularly in the social sciences. The advent of the world-wide web has facilitated a proliferation of surveys both for scientific and market research. The main tool for conducting surveys has been questionnaires, mainly because they are relatively easy to administer and can efficiently gather sufficient data at low cost. In the current era, both email and web-based questionnaires have been firmly entrenched as a tool of choice for researchers. The ease of being able to administer questionnaires using Internet protocols has motivated postgraduate students to incorporate questionnaires in their research design. However, the question that arises concerns the appositeness of questionnaire design techniques as well as issues pertaining to the length of electronic questionnaires. The authors, having conducted an analysis of a sample of master’s studies at a post-graduate centre of a South African University, have found that scant regard is given to proper survey instrument development technique. This is applicable to questionnaires that extensively utilise Likert scales. While most students have piloted their questionnaires, they have not really explored the statistical options available to refine the questionnaire at this stage of design. This article aims, first, to highlight concerns pertaining to electronic survey design, and to stimulate debate on the use of statistical analyses during instrument development. The primary objective of the article is to report on three web-based and emailed surveys that were conducted by postgraduate students. The authors use these three studies as case studies to demonstrate how, by application of statistical techniques for scale reduction, questionnaires can be refined and prepared through a pilot process. In particula, the article describes the use of item-analysis as a tool to prepare questionnaire instruments after an initial pilot phase. The article further demonstrates that if item-analysis were used in these three cases, the results of the surveys could have been enhanced.

INTRODUCTION The earliest use of the survey technique can be traced back to ancient Egyptian rulers who conducted censuses to help them administer their domains. The Old Testament of the Bible refers to the Lord asking Moses and Eleazar to ‘‘. . . take a census of all the congregation of the people of Israel . . .’’ (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). The early roots of this research technique are indicative of its prominence today as a tool of the modern scientist. Today, the survey method is considered as the single most significant approach in empirical social research (Kuechler, 1998) and one that most frequently underpins research designs (Van Staden & Visser, 1991). Hinkin (1995) posits that over the past several decades hundreds of scales have been developed to assess various attitudes, perceptions, or opinions of organisational members. The application of surveys can be found in a diverse number of journals in fields such as political science, psychology, education, computer science, medicine and informatics as well as in mass media and government research. Government-commissioned censuses are the most well-known of all surveys. There are various reasons for the prominence of the survey method amongst researchers. Possibly the most significant, though not always acknowledged, are the 57 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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positivist influences of philosophers such as Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim since the first half of the nineteenth century (Hinkin, 1995). In the 1990s, the introduction of a standardised internet protocol for the transmission of information, and hence the advent of the world-wide web, has facilitated a proliferation of surveys for both scientific and market research (Couper, 2000; Porter & Whitcomb, 2003). The main tool for conducting surveys has been questionnaires mainly because they are relatively easy to administer (Zhang, 2000) and can efficiently gather sufficient data at a low cost. In the current era, both email and web-based questionnaires have been firmly entrenched as a tool of choice for researchers (see for example Andrews, Nonnecke & Preece, 2003; Couper, 2000; Stanton, Sinar, Balzer & Smith, 2002). The ease of being able to administer questionnaires using Internet protocols has motivated numerous post-graduate students to incorporate questionnaires in their research design. The question that arises in the above context concerns the appositeness of approaches used in questionnaire design, especially during the pilot phase. This is especially significant in the light of Human Computer Interaction studies that indicate that the reading of text on lengthy web-based questionnaires is problematic for the average user as compared to filling out article-based questionnaires (see for example Dillon, Kleinman, Bias, Choi & Turnbull, 2004; Forsyth, Grose & Ratner, 1998; Stanton et al., 2002). Thus researchers who employ web-based surveys need to take into account that a parsimonious set of items will be more conducive to ensuring that the respondents are able to focus on the questions and consequently provide more reliable responses. In addition, other studies have suggested that the number of items in a scale has an effect on responses, and that shorter scales are an effective means of minimising response biases (Schmitt & Stults, 1985). From the above, a number of issues regarding web-based surveys have been highlighted, for example the use of lengthy questionnaires is problematic; the number of items in a scale could have a possible negative effect on response rates; and shorter scales minimise response biases. Consequently, the problem that this article deals with concerns how to arrive at an ideal parsimonious set of scale items so as to provide both focused and reliable responses. The principal research questions pursued in this article are: • Does the application of statistical techniques aid in condensing scales used in questionnaires? • Will the condensation of scales contribute to improved reliability of survey results? Three completed quantitative studies were chosen as case studies. For each study a pilot sample was simulated from the respondents. A statistical technique was applied to these pilot samples, the resulting reduced scale was used to re-analyse the remainder from each sample of respondents and the results were compared to the original results from the studies. This article explores, inter alia, the application of a statistical technique, for example item-analysis, as a means to develop a more parsimonious set of items in survey instruments. The article is set out as follows: (i) The background to the study which reflects on questionnaire design approaches of students at a post-graduate facility; (ii) a brief background of the epistemological influences on the use of surveys as a research method; (iii) An overview of some of the prominent statistical techniques used for survey design; (iv) an exposition of the application of the item-analysis technique; (v) the presentation and discussion of the results of the study to demonstrate the usefulness of item-analysis; and (vi) conclusion.

Background to the study The motivation for this study initially emanated from an analysis of postgraduate (master,s) research conducted within a postgraduate facility at a university in the period 2005 to 2007. In our analysis of the empirical work conducted by 30 students we found that: • The majority of students used a survey design (57%); JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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• 33% used Likert scales; • Of these only 15% had piloted the questionnaire; • 18% used web-based surveys; The main objective of the pilot studies of these students were to ensure that respondents were able to understand the questions being asked and to reword or remove items that were superﬂuous. None of the studies attempted to apply statistical techniques to reﬁne the questionnaire and consequently pre-empt more robust outputs from statistical techniques that were applied during the data analysis phases. In the light of human factor studies of web browsers which suggest that deploying web-based surveys result in ‘‘survey-fatigue’’ and the demand to ‘‘shorten’’ web-based surveys (Stanton et al. 2002), it was decided to investigate methods that can achieve these objectives.

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF EPISTEMOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research, which is based on quantitative methodologies, draws on notions of positivism. Positivist or logical positivist1 research is based on the notion that research can be objective, that the researcher is independent and that the results are valid, reliable and generalisable. This type of research, which is often directly associated with the scientific method (Galliers, 1992), draws on the notions of reductionism, determinism and falsification. In the physical and life sciences, positivism is regarded as being the research paradigm that has delivered the scientific and engineering successes such the electric motor, the internal combustion engine, manned flight, a heart transplant and a robot on Mars. When scholars began to turn their attention to how organisations and the individuals within them functioned, they looked towards the scientific method. This led to a new scientific community that addressed what was then referred to as the social sciences. One of the initiators of this, Auguste Comte (Comte, 1975), is regarded as the founder of positivist thought. The main thrusts of Comte’s philosophy are summarised by Babbie and Mouton (2001) as follows: For Comte the ultimate idea is to establish a society founded on scientific principles. This ideal could only be realized if the social sciences obtain the same control over its domain as is the case in the natural sciences. It is therefore only logical that the best strategy for the social scientist is to follow the same methodology as that of the natural scientist. This means that in both domains the aim is to establish universally valid, causal laws of human behaviour’. Exponents of positivist traditions utilise mainly quantitative research methods. Roode’s (2003) view of positivism is that the positivist regards the objects of a study as exactly that for example objects, and applies the methods and practices of the scientific method in investigating these objects with the aim of reaching valid and truthful conclusions about them, thereby contributing to knowledge that attempts to uncover universal laws to be used for predictive purposes. Although today there are a number of other epistemological influences on research such as interpretivism and critical realism, positivism is still held in high regard by many researchers, whether they are in the physical and life sciences or in the social sciences. There is an increasing number of studies that adopt non-positivist approaches, and it can be concurred that they have relevance within particular research settings. However, given the tenets of positivism, survey research will possibly still continue to dominate the research agenda, especially in the social

1 Logical Positivism was the term used by Hans Hahn, a member of the Vienna Circle in the 1920s, to describe the notion that the basis of knowledge rests upon public experimental veriﬁcation rather than upon personal experience. Strict logical positivists hold that any other claim for knowledge is meaningless (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:24). JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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sciences. This article therefore underscores the need for increased rigour in the design of surveys in order to fortify quests to ‘‘establish universally valid, causal laws of human behaviour’’ (Comte, 1975).

AN OVERVIEW OF STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED FOR SURVEY DESIGN According to Schab (1980),2 there are three stages in the development of questionnaires, for example item development, scale development, and scale evaluation. Given that the objective of this article is to propose a method for reducing scale items, the focus of the techniques discussed here are limited to those associated with scale development. There are a number of studies that have investigated and reported on scale reduction methods as speciﬁc strategies in survey design. An overview of these is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Scale Reduction Methods

Methods Description References Cognitive Methods Attention is paid to mental processes (Mullin, Lohr, Bresnahan & McNulty, respondents use to answer survey ques- 2000:14) (Collins, 2003:229) tions by using ‘‘think aloud’’ and ‘‘probing’’ methods. Split-half Reliability Tests Measures reliability by dividing the scale (Karavas-Doukas, 1996:187) into two matched halves and correlating the scores of each half. Reliability Tests Measures scale’s internal consistency (Radwin, Washko, Suchy & Tyman, using Cronbach’s alpha. 2005:94) (Grandzol & Gershon, 1998:84) Validity Tests Using pre-test and pilot study. Some item- (Chang, 2004:354) (Radwin et al., scale correlations 2005:94) Factor Analysis The loading of each item on each con- (Hinkin, 1995:978) (Stanton et al., struct is evaluated against specific criteria. 2002:170) (Grandzol & Gershon, 1998:86) Multitrait Analysis Uses a multi-item correlation matrix to (Quittner, Buu, Messer, Modi & Watrous, examine relationship with scale. 2005:2349) Various: distribution characteristics, skew- Distribution should not be insufficient with (Logan, Zelikovsky, Labay & Spergel, ness, correlations no skewness present 2003:386) LISREL Testing the overall goodness-of-fit of the (Grandzol & Gershon, 1998:97) model Hinkin (1995:971–973) discusses a number of concerns regarding scale development. Herein he explores the following issues relating to the number of items in a measure: • Scales with too many items can create problems with respondent fatigue or response biases; • Additional items demand more time in the development and administration of the measure; • Adequate internal consistency reliabilities can be obtained with as few as three items; • Adding items indefinitely makes progressively less impact on scale reliability. Hinkin (1995:973) also discusses sample size and he reports that item-to-response ratios should range from 1:4 to 1:10 (Rummel, 1970; Schwab, 1980). Kline (1994:49, 73) states that for factor analysis techniques to be significant, samples of at least 100 respondents are needed. If all of these considerations are to be taken into account in scale development, it would mean that pilot sample sizes should be of that magnitude. This problem can be overcome with a technique such as item analysis that works successfully with smaller pilot samples. The following section further explains this method.

ITEM ANALYSIS Item analysis has many contexts in the literature. Nunnally (1967)3 developed a technique called item analysis that measures the correlation of each item with each construct scale. Items should

2 See Hinkin (1995: 969). 3 See Grandzol and Gershon. (1998: 89) JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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correlate highly with the constructs they intend to measure. Cooper and Schindler (2003:252) on the other hand describes item analysis to differentiate between respondents having high total and low total scores (Cooper & Schindler, 2003:262) on summated Likert scale items. In this article we refer to item analysis as a strategy for scale development and scale reduction as defined by Edwards (1957). Likert scales, as used in the study of attitudes, are most often evaluated by this method. According to Edwards (1957) a mean score is calculated for each item among high and low scorers. A modified t-test for the equality of means is applied to find significant differences between the means (Cooper & Schindler, 2003:263). The items that have the highest t-values, i.e. the most significant differences, are selected for inclusion. Those with a significance greater than 0.05 probably do not add further insight to the construct and may be eliminated from the scale (Cooper & Schindler: 2003).

RESEARCH METHOD AND STUDY RESULTS In order to demonstrate the usefulness of item analysis during scale development, three completed studies were selected as cases. The criteria for selecting the studies were: • The research utilised the survey technique; • Questionnaires using Likert scales were used. • The researcher/s did not utilise any statistical technique for item reduction. • We had to have access to the raw data. After having selected the three cases, we then (i) Simulated a pilot study of the instrument by isolating a ﬁrst set of responses, according to the size of the original sample of responses; (ii) Applied item-analysis on the returned data of the responses; (iii Used the resultant reduced number of items to simulate the actual survey; i.e., responses to items excluded through our item-analysis were excluded; (iv) Applied the statistical tests used by the authors in the original survey; (v) Compared the reliability results with the original results of the researchers. The results of the foregoing are reported in the next three sections.

CASE ONE4 In this study the researcher investigated the perceptions of social status and its correlation with buying habits. The scale was made up of 14 items on a Likert scale. The sample consisted of 100 respondents. For the purpose of this article, the ﬁrst 40 respondents listed were included in the pilot sample and the remainder (60 respondents) were included in the experimental sample. The item analysis strategy was applied to the pilot sample. All items showing a p-value greater than 0.05 were eliminated from the scale, as can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2: T-test for Equality of means Item t-value df p-value (2-tailed) X1 −2.357 18 0.030 X2 −2.287 18 0.034 X3 −1.467 18 0.160 X4 −2.683 18 0.015 X5 −2.212 18 0.040 X6 −1.878 18 0.077 X7 −5.511 18 0.000

4 This case demonstrates the application of the item-analysis technique in more detail than Case Study 2 and 3. The reason for this is to provide at least one detailed example of how item-analysis is applied. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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X8 −3.973 18 0.001 X9 −2.415 18 0.027 X10 −3.161 18 0.005 X11 −1.655 18 0.115 X12 −1.144 18 0.268 X13 −1.561 18 0.136 X14 −0.221 18 0.828 Before using the t-tests the items relating to construct A were listed as in Table 3. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the construct in Table 3 was 0.460.

Table 3: Items in A Items Cronbach’s alpha Original Analysis Q1, Q5, Q8, Q12, Q14 0.460 New Analysis Q1, Q5, Q8 0.584 After applying item analysis as, explained by Edwards (1957), two of the items, X12 and X14, associated with the scale for construct A, were eliminated in the experimental example, increasing the Cronbach’s alpha to 0.584. The second row in Table 3 shows the remaining items in the construct. In applying the same analysis to the full sample, the Cronbach’s alpha increased to 0.623. In this case the application of item analysis yielded a favourable result; i.e., an increase in the scale reliability.

CASE TWO The second case is taken from an online survey. The researcher in this case used both reliability and factor analyses in his investigation of the loyalty of online customers of SMMEs. The scale in this questionnaire consisted of 49 items describing 12 constructs. The first 80 responses were included in the pilot sample and the remaining 96 responses were included in the experimental sample. Seven items were eliminated for not having significant differences between the low and high scorers of the pilot sample. The first item to be eliminated was one of the items describing the third construct. In the original analysis the Cronbach’s alpha for the third construct, of which the items are listed in Table 4, is 0.700.

Table 4: Items in the third construct with original and new factor loadings Items Original factor loading New factor loading X10 −0.120 — X11 −0.580 0.713 X12 −0.841 0.856 X13 −0.835 0.844 X14 −0.453 0.734 Cronbach’s alpha 0.700 0.793 After applying item analysis, item X10 was eliminated from the scale, and the Cronbach’s alpha increased to 0.793. The component matrix of exploratory factor analysis also showed higher loadings of the items onto the construct.. The second item, X27, to be eliminated was listed in the seventh construct. The Cronbach’s alpha in the original analysis for this construct was 0.677. Table 5 shows the original and resulting construct. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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Table 5: Items in the seventh construct, with original and new factor loadings Items Original factor loading New factor loading X26 -0.471 0.520 X27 −0.469 — X28 −0.685 0.779 X29 −0.808 0.822 X30 −0.465 0.680 Cronbach’s alpha 0.677 0.611 The Cronbach’s alpha in this case decreased to 0.611, but the factor loadings of the items on the construct increased. The tenth construct, consisting of four items, was completely eliminated from the scale. The original Cronbach’s alpha for this construct was 0.633, and all the factor loadings were below 0.57. The 49th item is the last item to be eliminated from the scale. This item was listed in the 12th construct. The Cronbach’s alpha for this construct is given as 0.712. The Cronbach’s alpha value decreased to 0.633, but the factor loadings of the remaining three items increased. The application of item-analysis in this study yielded improved results, i.e. improved factor loadings, even though the Cronbach’s alpha value (reliability) decreased.

Table 6: Items in the 12th construct, with original and new factor loadings Items Original factor loading New factor loading X46 −0.636 0.684 X47 −0.605 0.746 X48 −0.784 0.850 X49 −0.460 — Cronbach’s alpha 0.712 0.633 CASE THREE The third study investigated student perceptions of a subject. The scale used in this survey consisted of 37 items, making up a possible six constructs. Due to many items having missing responses, it was decided to assign a third of the 416 respondents (138 respondents) to the pilot sample. The sample size for each construct differed due to the missing item responses, the smallest pilot sample size being 110. In this study factor analysis was used to determine the underlying constructs. Item analysis was applied to the pilot sample and 9 of the 37 items were eliminated. In the ﬁrst set of twelve items, three were eliminated. The Cronbach’s alpha decreased from 0.738 to 0.704. Three factors were extracted from the original factor analysis, with ﬁve cross-loading items. In the new analysis only two factors were extracted, with no cross-loading items. Table 7 shows the results of the original and the new analyses.

Table 7: Rotated Component Matrices from the original and new factor analyses Original Analysis New Analysis Component Component Item 1 2312 X1 0.639 0.707 X2 0.416 0.321 Eliminated X3 0.628 0.415 0.515 X4 0.723 -0.772 X5 0.415 0.428 0.603 X6 0.398 0.436 0.546 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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X7 0.698 0.678 X8 0.603 0.597 X9 0.667 Eliminated X10 0.593 0.427 0.704 X11 0.848 0.626 X12 0.390 Eliminated Cronbach’s alpha 0.738 0.704 In the original analyses only one factor was extracted from the second set of items. Item analysis eliminated two of the ﬁve items in this set. The Cronbach’s alpha decreased from 0.436 to 0.315 and the factor loadings of the three items increased. This is not a favourable result, since the reliability of the construct decreased sharply. Three items were eliminated from the ﬁfth set of items. The Cronbach’s alpha value increased from 0.342 to 0.494. Two factors were extracted in the original analysis, whereas in the new analysis only one factor was extracted, as can be seen in Table 8.

Table 8: Rotated Component Matrix from the original and un-rotated component matrix from the new factor analyses Original Analysis New Analysis Component Component Item 1 2 1 X28 0.387 0.707 0.815 X29 0.795 0.815 X30 0.443 Eliminated X31 -0.361 0.739 Eliminated X32 0.645 Eliminated Cronbach’s alpha 0.342 0.494 In the last set of items one item was eliminated by item analysis. The Cronbach’s alpha value decreased from 0.639 to 0.537. In both analyses only one factor was extracted, and the factor loadings in the new analysis did not change signiﬁcantly.

Table 9: Component Matrices from the original and new factor analyses Original Analysis New Analysis Item Component Component X33 0.587 0.718 X34 0.717 0.716 X35 0.734 Eliminated X36 0.732 0.737 X37 0.333 0.319 Cronbach’s alpha 0.639 0.537 In summary, in this case the application of item-analysis during the ‘‘pilot’’ phase, resulted in a marginal increase in the Cronbach’s alpha value for the ﬁrst construct and a marginal decrease for the second construct. In both constructs the factor loadings increased. Once again this points to improved results.

CONCLUSION In this article we have highlighted a concern that there is insufficient attention being paid to questionnaire design. This is especially a concern where web-based and email surveys are concerned. In particular we point to the need to design instruments with a parsimonious set of items so as to account for ‘‘survey-fatigue’’ syndrome associated with reading text on electronic JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/06article

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media. We argue that the use of statistical techniques such as item-analysis not only aids in condensing scale items but also improves reliability of survey results. We demonstrated this through three cases, in which data from surveys conducted by post graduate students were used. Through the experimental processed described in Section 6, we have shown that the use of item-analysis as a technique can improve survey results. The application of item-analysis in all three surveys produced a more condensed set of items. However in only two of the three surveys could we prove an improvement in the reliability of the results. Consequently, we do not argue that there is conclusiveness that item-analysis can enhance survey results each and every time it is applied. Rather this study does demonstrate that through more diligent survey design, ‘‘survey-fatigue’’ can be countered by not only reducing the length of scales, but also improving survey results. Finally, we would urge researchers to consider the use of techniques such as item-analysis, prior to implementing either web-based or email surveys.

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Mullin, P. A., Lohr, K. N., Bresnahan, B. W. & Mcnulty, P. 2000. Applying cognitive design principles to formatting HRQOL instruments. Quality of Life Research, 9: 13–27, 25 November 1999. Nunnally, J. 1967. Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Porter, S. R. & Whitcomb, M. E. 2003. The impact of contact type on web survey response rates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67 (4): 579–588. Quittner, A. L., Buu, A., Messer, M. A., Modi, A. C. & Watrous, M. 2005. Development and validation of the cystic fibrosis questionnaire in the United States: A health-related quality-for- life measure for cystic fibrosis. Chest, 128: 2347–2354. Radwin, L. E., Washko, M., Suchy, K. A. & Tyman, K. 2005. Development and pilot testing of four desired health outcomes scales. Oncology Nursing Forum, 32 (1): 92–96, April 7, 2004. Roode, D. 2003. Information systems research: A matter of choice? South African Computer Journal, 30: 1–2. Schmitt, N. & Stults, D. M. 1985. Factors defined by negatively keyed items: The result of careless respondents? Applied Psychological Measurement, 9 (4): 367–373. Stanton, J. M., Sinar, E. F., Balzer, W. K. & Smith, P. C. 2002. Issues and strategies for reducing the length of self-report scales. Personnel Psychology, 55: 167–194. Van Staden, F. & Visser, D. 1991. The South African Journal of Sociology during the eighties: An analysis of theoretical and empirical contributions. South African Journal of Sociology, 22 (2): 33–34. Zhang, Y. 2000. Using the internet for survey research: A case study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51 (1): 57–68.

* S Pather is a Senior Lecturer at the E.Innovation Academy at Cape Peninsula University of Technology. † Ms CS Strümpfer is a Senior Lecturer at the E.Innovation Academy at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

THE ROLE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN THE GOVERNANCE OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE WITH REFERENCE TO SOUTH AFRICA By RS Masango*

ABSTRACT The role of public opinion in the governance of a state depends on the extent to which it is taken into account in the processes of policy making and implementation. According to Section 16(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 every one has the right to freedom of expression. Therefore, people have the freedom to express their views, whether or not such views agree with government’s policies, as long as they do not act unconstitutionally by contravening the limitations stipulated in section 16(2) of the Constitution. Freedom of expression plays a role in policy- making. The media, prominent individuals, interest groups, and political parties utilise it to inﬂuence public opinion about particular issues. Political parties and interest groups that opposite to government also use it to criticise public policies. In a democracy, government is expected to respect and take the will of the people into account. A policy framework which indicates that members of the public are free to express their views exists in South Africa. However, the question is, does, what the people say through this policy framework really matter? In this article, it is argued that public opinion is crucial for good governance and the survival of democracy and therefore it should be taken into account in the processes of policy making and implementation.

INTRODUCTION Public opinion is crucial for democracy. It constitutes a basis for the expression of the will of the people. An informed public could serve as a precursor to effective public participation and accountability. However the role of public opinion in the governance of a state depends on the extent into which it is expressed by the public and taken into account by the authorities. In a democracy, government is expected to respect and take the will of the people into account. People would refer their views to be taken into account in the processes of policy making and implementation. In order to facilitate the role of public opinion in a democracy, sufficient mechanisms should exist to ensure that the public is able to express its will. The framework of the law should provide for the freedom of expression. The South African legislative and policy contexts are conducive for the expression of public opinion. Speciﬁc provisions for freedom of expression and public participation are entrenched in the Constitution. Hence, people have the freedom to express their views, whether or not such views agree with government’s policies, as long as they do not act unconstitutionally by contravening the limitations stipulated in the Constitution. In this article, it is argued that public opinion is crucial for good governance and the survival of democracy and therefore it should be taken into account in the processes of policy making and implementation.

THE CONCEPT OF PUBLIC OPINION Political scientists have devoted much time and effort towards the study of public opinion (Anderson 1984:63). This could be attributed to the fact that from time immemorial, public opinion has been considered a guideline for governing democracy and it has been presumed that 67 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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elected office bearers make public policy on behalf of the citizens (Rodee, Anderson, Christol & Greene 1983:139). Public opinion has been defined in various ways by different authors. William J. Crotty has defined public opinion as the expressed view of an individual or aggregation of individuals on a subject of broad social importance (Rawnsely, 2005:66). While Elowitz in Van Niekerk, Van der Waldt and Jonker (2001:106) defines it as the collection of views and attitudes held by different groups and individuals towards the political system in general, and important public issues specifically. According to Rawnsely (2005:66) a public opinion is a point of view shared by a number of people and relevant to a topic of general political significance. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that there is no single public opinion, because there is no single public since each issue creates its own public, and individuals have overlapping membership with several publics at any one time. The measurement of public opinion is, in its simplest sense, finding out what people think (Van Niekerk et al., 2001:106). Normally, the measurement of public opinion is an easy process since one needs to ensure that the assessment methods and procedures which are utilised lead to unbiased, valid and reliable results in order to justify findings. According to Rodee et al., (1983:141) and Rawnsely (2005:66–68), public opinion may not even be the expression of majority opinion. It represents the collective individual opinions. Hence it has been defined as the aggregate of all individual opinions concerning a specific subject. Furthermore, a particularly articulate and vocal minority could make more impact if it gains the attention of the right people. In a democracy dissenting opinions are as worthy and necessary as those supporting consensus, otherwise there may be a danger of the tyranny of the majority.

LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY CONTEXT OF PUBLIC OPINION In order to enable the government to know the will of the people so that it could be taken into account in the policy making process, there should be sufficient opportunities for the public to make their will known to the authorities (Hanekom 1991:33). Therefore, for policy makers and officials to actually be responsive to public needs, there should be mechanisms through which the public can express its opinion. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 has specific provisions for public opinion. For instance Section 15 of this Constitution states that everyone has freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion. While Section 16(1) stipulates that: Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes – • Freedom of the press and other media; • Freedom to receive or impart information or ideas; • Freedom of artistic creativity; and • Academic freedom and freedom of scientific research. People have the freedom to express their views, whether or not such views agree with government’s policies, as long as they do not contravene the provisions of section 16(2) of the Constitution. The provisions of subsection 16(2) limit the provisions of subsection 16(1) by stipulating that: The right in subsection (1) does not extend to – • Propaganda for war; • Incitement of imminent violence; or • Advocacy of hatred that is based on race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes incitement to cause harm. Freedom of expression plays a role in policy making. The media, prominent individuals, interest groups, and political parties utilise it to influence public opinion about particular issues, whereas parties and interest groups that opposite the government of the day may use their freedom of expression to criticise public policies. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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The White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (Notice 1459 of 1997) was promulgated for the express purpose of promoting the responsiveness to public needs in South Africa. The White Paper lists eight principles for service delivery to guide public officials, particularly in the national and provincial spheres of government, to serve citizens in a responsive manner (see section 4.4.2.4). The basic intention of this White Paper is to encourage public officials to respond to people’s needs by – • Listening to their views and taking account of them in making decisions about what Services should be provided; • Treating them with consideration and respect; • Making sure that the promised level and quality of service are always of the highest Standard; and • Responding swiftly and sympathetically when standards of service fall below the Promised standard. The White Paper on Local Government (Notice 423 of 1998) provides principles for service delivery that should guide municipalities in choosing service delivery options. In terms of section F(2.1) of this White Paper, such principles are: the accessibility of services; the affordability of services; the quality of products and services; accountability for services; integrated development and services; sustainability of services; value-for-money; ensuring and promoting competitiveness of local commerce and industry; and promoting democracy. These principles also provide a scope for policy making and implementation that are responsive to public needs at the local government sphere. For instance, the accessibility and affordability of services and the quality of products and services all have a bearing on responsiveness to public needs, and the public could supply information on all of these aspects, thus making them serve as a yardstick in order to determine – • Whether the services are accessible; • Whether the services are affordable; and • Which quality of product and service is acceptable. An adequate response to citizens’ needs and aspirations cannot always be attained by relying on legislators as the citizens’ representatives (Kaufmann 1991:71). Hence the public should be given an opportunity to express its views in order to facilitate government’s responsiveness to public needs.

REINFORCING AND REVIVING DEMOCRACY One of the building blocks of democracy consists of the opinions and attitudes of the people (Ippolito, Walker & Kolson 1976:302). Public opinion reinforces and revives democracy since it contributes towards legitimacy and stability of the democratic process. An informed public plays a crucial role in strengthening democracy. It mediates between citizens and their state institutions (Rawnsely 2005:66) With respect to the role of public opinion in a democracy, the following questions are crucial (Anderson 1984: 63): • Do policy makers listen to what the public is saying? • Do they take that into account or does it inﬂuence their decision making? According to Ranney (1975:104) all governments and most politicians treat public opinion as a mighty force. This is in keeping with the fact that although the relationship between public opinion and policy actions is neither simple nor direct; policy makers do not appear unaffected in their choices by public opinion (Anderson 1984:63). However although, normatively speaking, government should listen to public opinion as a guide to policy making, this does not imply that people should always get what they say they want (Rawnsely 2005:71). Democracy is built on the assumption that government will listen to the expressed will of the people and respond to it (Ippolito et al., 1976:301). According to the Human Sciences Research JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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Council (HSRC) survey on South African voter participation in elections (2006:11), it is of concern when dominant governing parties see less and less need to respond to public opinion because they are assured of re-election in the face of weak opposition. Moreover, there is always a danger that governing parties with large majorities in legislatures might become arrogant and less accountable to the electorate, especially in countries with a proportional representation system such as South Africa. Unless the opinions of the people are transmitted to and received by the nation’s political leaders, public opinion has little signiﬁcance. Hence, for public opinion to have an impact it must be expressed. This has implications for public participation, because if it is weak, public opinions may not be expressed. The most common method of expressing public opinion is voting in elections (Ippolito et al., 1976:303). In South Africa, during the apartheid era, the involvement of local citizens, especially blacks, in policy making and implementation was severely lacking. It was mainly limited to compliance. The majority of citizens, especially those who were eager to participate in public affairs, perceived the government to be undemocratic and illegitimate. Such perceptions brought anger and frustration, which were manifested through boycotts and protest actions against public policies. Indeed, it was undemocratic, since democracy requires all people to have access to resources which could empower them, as well as the right to exercise their power in such a way that they are able to participate in public affairs (African National Congress, 1994:120). It is hoped that the new democratic order in South Africa, and the democratisation of institutions and processes, will contribute to the deepening and broadening of a democratic culture in South Africa. Democratisation requires that the structures and functioning of public institutions be re-established in such way that they allow and encourage public participation (African National Congress, 1994:120–121). In fact, public participation provides a mechanism for democratising the planning process in particular and the public management process in general, to the extent that public participation in local government affairs is considered to be a democratic right in many countries (Brynard, 1996:41). In order to democratise the municipalities, section B(1.3) of the White Paper on Local Government (Notice No. 423 of 1998) encourages municipal councillors to promote the involvement of citizens and community groups in the design and delivery of municipal programmes. Furthermore, in terms of section 5.12.14 of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (African National Congress, 1994), ‘‘Local authority administrations should be structured in such a way as to ensure maximum participation of civil society and communities in decision making and developmental initiatives of local authorities’’. Therefore, public participation in policy making and implementation is necessary in order to democratise the processes of policy-making and implementation. The survival of a government depends, inter alia, on its legitimacy. The government mainly derives such legitimacy from public support (Midgley et al., 1986:5). Public involvement in policy making and implementation makes a positive contribution to government legitimacy (Fagence 1977:340). In between the elections, in a democratic state, there should be a system of keeping those in power informed about the will of those who elected them (Lawson, 1985:211). This will contribute towards ensuring that the needs and aspirations of the people are taken into consideration during the policy-making and implementation processes. Hence there should be constant interaction between the governors and the governed (Reddy, 1996:4–5). Therefore, a situation that encourages and/or allows participation in general elections only is not entirely democratic; even though the results of a general election may clearly specify who should govern, they do not adequately address the question of how the government should govern. In fact, public participation in decision making is an imperative for a democratic government (Gildenhuys, Fox & Wissink, 1991:124). JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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It should be noted that the encouragement of popular support for democracy and the institutions that give expression to it is not limited to voting in an election, but is also dependent upon regular interaction between the public and such institutions. The encouragement of interaction is important, as interaction of this kind provides a basis not only for the long-term democratic stability of South Africa, but also for its future economic stability and prosperity.

ENCOURAGING FORMAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS ABOUT PUBLIC AFFAIRS Education for the citizenry in the understanding of the functioning of the state and state processes, inclusive of public institutions in democracies, is of great importance. Education increases levels of awareness and understanding of state structures, institutions and processes. In order to develop and sustain public participation there must be a particular level of education and intellectual sophistication present in most members of society. According to Bratton, Mattes & Gyimah-Boadi (2005:40), theorists generally agree that public opinion has a cognitive element and, accordingly, that democracy and markets operate best when the people are well informed. For example, to hold political leaders accountable, citizens require information. The quality of citizenship improves as they learn to identify their leaders, understand how the political system works, and become exposed to contemporary policy debates. In this regard Ippolito et al., (1976:302) maintain that ‘‘an educated, well informed, interested, intelligent public can be expected to prompt sound, prudent, and effective governmental policy. An education system which does not provide for a national, specific and systematic form of citizenship training in schools may result in learners who are unaware of the values, institutions, processes and functions of the institutions of a parliamentary democracy, or of their own rights, obligations and opportunities within a democratic system. Education provides a wide range of relevant skills: how to read, write, and calculate and how to critically evaluate information provided by the mass media. Education may also increase popular knowledge on a range of relevant topics (Bratton et al., 2005:41). The youth should be engaged in issues of public participation through the school curriculum, which should include a greater emphasis on developing a national programme on civic education as an integral part of the standard school curriculum. Institutions such as schools, universities and technikons could play a role in enhancing democracy through facilitating gatherings aimed at improving public participation in governance. It is suggested here that education on the composition and functions of such structures should be included in formal curricula on secondary school level. Citizen education, if formalised within the educational system, is likely, both to advance the levels of understanding and knowledge, and to cultivate the intention to participate. This may result in active participation that will benefit the vision and practices that sustain and deepen democracy in South Africa. Awareness among voters about issue differences between political parties and candidates may lead the members of the electorate to vote on the basis of these differences (Ippolito et al., 1976:237). In this regard voter education and political campaigns play a crucial role as they inform citizens about the various manifestos. However, in South Africa, historic differences relating to the power struggle against apartheid during the years of the liberation struggle could still influence voters to vote for specific political parties. Traditional party loyalty is one of the factors motivating certain voters to vote for certain political parties or candidates. This tends to result in some members of the electorate having committed themselves to voting for particular political parties even before the political campaign begins (Ippolito, et al., 1976:237). This party loyalty has implications not only for the party they are loyal to, but also for other political parties. It excludes a portion of the electorate from the pool of voters who could be convinced, through a political campaign, to vote for other political parties even before the political campaign begins. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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For the party which has the luck of having traditional loyalists, ongoing attempts to maintain such loyalty should be embarked upon. A disgruntled traditional party loyalist voter may decide not to vote at all rather than to vote for any other political party either than the one she/he is loyal to. This could lead to a portion of the electorate being left out of the voting process — contributing/adding to apathy — which is not good for democracy. The Government should provide more resources to literacy programmes — increased literacy will increase the public’s ability to participate in governance. People who are unable to read should not be at a disadvantage because of their illiteracy. Public participation programmes should use other means of communication — such as TV, audio-cassettes, and workshops — in creative ways.

AVOIDING AND ELIMINATING APATHY Eligible voters may be reluctant to participate in elections and claim that there is simply no point; and that their one vote makes no difference since politicians will do whatever they want anyway (Rawnsley 2005: 65 -66). The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) survey on South African voter participation in democratic elections since 1994 (2006:11) shows that 27% of South Africans felt that voting was pointless since all parties are the same after being elected. The electoral link which gives a mandate to the government of the day is obviously weakened when substantial segments of the population either are intentionally excluded from voting or decide not to participate (Ippolito et al., 1976:212). According to the above mentioned survey (2006:3), voter turnout since 1994 has been extremely high for the South African national and provincial elections but much lower for the municipal elections. Voter turnout in the last two municipal elections was 48,07% and 48,5% for 2000 and 1995/6 respectively. The voter turnout for the national and provincial elections was 76,73% (2004), 87,9% (1999) and 85,80% (1994). These results are consistent with many other democratic countries where the electorate seems to favour national and provincial elections over municipal or local elections. However, the same survey (2006:9) indicates that there has been a general decline in the proportion of people participating in the national elections. Three provinces reported a decrease in voter participation in the three previous national elections with Limpopo reporting a decline of 15% and KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape a decline of 13% each from 1994 to 2004. There was a slight increase from 1999 to 2004 of three percent in Mpumalanga and one percent in the Eastern Cape. People should be encouraged to participate in public affairs in order to avoid apathy and reduce or eliminate it when it already exist. Voter education, political campaigns, and the advertisement of government programmes should be used effectively. Dissemination of information that not only encourages public participation in public affairs but also indicates its importance should be an ongoing exercise since apathy has negative implications for democracy.

PROMOTING RESPONSIVENESS TO PUBLIC NEEDS There are three important requirements to obtain the responsiveness of policy makers and public officials to public needs: • The public should express its needs; • There should be adequate perception of the expressed public needs by policy makers and/or public officials (Kaufmann 1991:75); and • Policy makers and public officials should not only have the will to take expressed public needs into account during policy-making and implementation processes, but should actually take them into account. Democracy is built on the assumption that government elites will listen to the expressed will of the people and respond to it. Therefore, unless the opinions of the people are transmitted to and JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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received by the nation’s political leaders, public opinion has little signiﬁcance. Hence for public opinion, to have any impact, must be expressed (Ippolito et al., 1976:301). Through various methods of public participation which include letter writing, voting in elections, direct contacting, public hearings and public demonstrations; public opinion can be expressed.

FACILITATING THE PROCESS OF POLICY MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION Public participation paves the way for the process of policy implementation to run smoothly (Midgley et al., 1986:34). Policy implementation requires the support of the community, since policies are meant to be implemented in communities. Public participation fosters a sense of ownership and commitment to the outcomes of the process (Clapper [Sa]:76). Therefore, public participation can contribute to policy implementation by building support and eliminating resistance. In addition, it could save costs by minimising and/or eliminating the need for policy implementation to be policed. If people have participated in the policy-making process and eventually are not opposed to policy outcomes, they are more likely to support the implementation of such a policy, since they would feel that they are recognised stakeholders of the process. They may even convince other people to support such policy implementation, at least by complying. The prudent warning of Catanese (1984:127) should not be forgotten: ‘‘The local political process will usually overrule a rational planning process if it is based upon long-range planning principles that do not reﬂect local values and goals’’.

Opinion Surveys Political parties, pressure groups, and other political movements may provide selective and limited input to elected representatives, who need to establish public opinion at least in order to plan future campaign strategy ( Lawson, 1985:211). In order to counteract the limitations of this nature, it may be necessary to utilise scientific methods, which include surveys, to assess public opinion. Survey questionnaires are usually used to ask specific questions to a population sample that is statistically representative of all the members of the public in order to find out what the attitudes and opinions of the public are about a particular issue (Rosener, 1978:119). Such surveys could be used to make planners aware of public preferences (Atkinson, 1992:20). The results of public opinion polls provide an input into the political system. They could be used to make public officials aware of public desire for future action or public evaluation of a government action that has taken place (Yeric & Todd 1989:17). According to the 10-year review report of government performance (2004:92–95), the Institute for Democracy in South Africa, Afrobarometer and Markinor have respectively conducted surveys relating to public concerns (between 1994 and 2002), and people’s approval of government activities (between 1996 and 2003) with regard to certain selected issues. Among others, these surveys found the following.

People’s approval of social services in 2003: • Welfare grants 78% • Basic services 75% • Access to land 63% • HIV/AIDS policies 61% • Health 61% • Housing 64% • Education 34% 15% • Health 2% 10% • Housing 46% 22% JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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• Poverty 9% 28% • Crime and security 6% 35% • Job creation as most important problem 67% 84% To a large extent the results of these surveys indicate that the perceptions of South Africans about their government are positive. However it is incumbent upon government to ensure that endeavours are undertaken to retain a positive public opinion. Hence the results of opinion surveys should be taken as a crucial input in the policy-making and implementation processes.

Public Hearings Public hearings provide an opportunity for citizens to express their views and also to question policy makers about certain issues (Zimmerman 1986:8). They are usually held when major programmes are about to be implemented, or prior to the enactment of legislation (Rosener, 1978:121). In such cases they give the public an opportunity to comment before the actual implementation of the programme or the enactment of legislation. For public hearings to be effective, members of the public should have background information that enables them to make meaningful comments about the matter of concern. Furthermore, the timing of the hearings should be such that the citizens’ comments could still divert the course of action (Zimmerman, 1986:8–9).

Radio and Television Talk Shows According to Fagence (1977:156) the communications media have an important role, both in disseminating information upon which opinions and attitudes may be formed, and in construc- tively contributing to the fashioning of those attitudes and opinions. Radio and television talk shows comprised programmes in which members of the public participate directly, while in the studio or through the use of a telephone network, in the discussion of a particular issue. Political office-bearers are sometimes invited to these shows in order to clarify certain issues, answer questions, and listen to the views of the public. While participants in radio and television talk shows may not be sufficiently representative of the public, they could nevertheless give an indication of the public opinion regarding the matter of concern.

Referenda A referendum gives citizens an opportunity to inform policy makers about the popular view on a controversial issue (Zimmerman, 1986:11). However, referenda are most suitable for single issues or a small number of issues (Atkinson, 1992:20). The results of a referendum should be taken into account when a policy relating to the issue for which a referendum has been done, is developed.

CONCLUSION Public opinion is one of the main pillars of democracy. However, for it to make an impact in governance, it should be expressed. The South African legislative and policy context is conducive to the expression of public opinion. It encourages public participation in public affairs. The Constitutional right of the freedom of expression should be protected otherwise apathy, which is detrimental to democracy, may develop. An informed public opinion could lead to effective public participation. Information about the political system and governance constitutes a basis upon which citizens can demand accountability from government. Hence it is important for the citizens to be formally educated and aware about issues of national signiﬁcance. An informed citizenry is likely to make informed decisions which may lead to constructive input in governance. Public opinion strengthens democracy as it plays a crucial role towards the reinforcement and revival of democracy. The right of the members of the public to participate in the democratic process should not be limited to voting in elections. An informed public opinion constitutes a JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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crucial basis for meaningful input into the policy-making and implementation processes. The mass media, public hearings and referenda play a vital role in political communication. They serve as instruments through which public opinion is expressed. In order to facilitate government’s responsiveness to public needs, public opinion about issues of political importance should be monitored. In this regard the opinion surveys play a crucial role and therefore they should be conducted regularly.

BIBLIOGRAPHY African National Congress. 1994. The Reconstruction and Development Programme: A policy framework. Johannesburg: Umanyano. Anderson, J.E. 1984. Public policy-making. New York: CBS College Publishing. Atkinson, D. 1992. Let the people decide? Public participation in urban planning. Pretoria: Centre for Policy Studies. Bratton, M., Mattes, R. & Gyimah-Boadi, E. 2005. Public opinion, democracy and market reform in Africa. Cambridge: Press Syndicate. Brynard, D.J. 1996. Public participation in local government and administration: Bridging the gap. Politeia, 15(2). Catanese, A.J. 1984. The politics of planning and development. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Clapper, V.A. [S.a.]. Advantages and disadvantages of citizen participation. In Bekker, K. (ed). Citizen participation in local government. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Fagence, F. 1977. Citizen participation in planning. Oxford: Pergamon. Hanekom, S.X. 1991. Public policy framework and instrument for action. Pretoria: Southern. Ippolito, D.S. Walker, T.G. & Kolson, K.L. 1976. Public opinion and responsible democracy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kaufmann, F.X. 1991. The public sector: Challenge for coordination and learning. New York: Walter de Gruyter. Lawson, K. 1985. The human polity: An introduction to political science. New Jersey: San Francisco State University. Masango, R. 2001. ‘‘Public participation in policy-making and implementation with speciﬁc reference to the Port Elizabeth Municipality.’’ Unisa: Unpublished thesis. Midgley, J. 1986. Community participation, social development and the state. New York: Methuen. Midgley, J., Hall, A., Hardiman, M. & Narine, D. 1986. Community participation, social development and the state. London: Methuen. Rawnsely, G.D. 2005. Political communication and democracy. New York: Macmillan. Reddy, P.S. 1996. Readings in local government management and development: A South African Perspective. Cape Town: Juta. Republic of South Africa. 1996. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, 1996 Pretoria: Government Printer. Republic of South Africa. 2003. Towards a 10 year review: Synthesis report on implementation of government programmes: Discussion document. Pretoria: Government Printer. Republic of South Africa. 1997. The White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery, 1997 (Notice 1459 of 1997). Pretoria: Government Printer. Republic of South Africa. 1998. White Paper on Local Government (Notice 423 of 1998). Pretoria: Government Printer. Rodee, C.C., Anderson, T.J., Christol, C.Q. & Greene, T.H. 1983. Introduction to Political Science. Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Rosener, J.B. 1978. Matching method to purpose: The challenges of planning citizen-participation activities. In Langton, S. Citizen Participation in America. Massachusetts: Lexington. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 8 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/07article

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The Socio-Economic Surveys Unit of the Knowledge System Group. 2006. Survey on South African voter participation. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. Van Niekerk, D., Van der Waldt, G. & Jonker, A. 2001. Governance, politics, and policy in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Yeric, J. L. & Todd, J.R. 1989. Public opinion: The visible politics. Illinois: Peacock. Zimmerman, J.F. 1986. Participatory dDemocracy. London: Praeger.

* Professor RS Masango is the Head of Department of Politics and Governance at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/08article

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND DIVERSITY By KK Tummala*

ABSTRACT This reﬂective short piece attempts to untangle the semantic confusion between Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO), Affirmative Action (AA) and Diversity – all trying to better the lot of minorities in public service. It also tries to take a brief look at the relative advantages and disadvantages of each, and points out future directions. It draws upon the experience of three countries: India, the most populous democracy with the longest and exhaustive experience with AA (known there as ‘‘reservations’’); the United States, the longest working democracy, where AA is very controversial; and the Republic of South Africa, whose experience is relatively nascent (Tummala, 1999).

INTRODUCTION When an organisation advertises that it is an ‘‘equal opportunity employer’’ (as is required in the United States), the statement implies more than simple equal opportunity. For equal opportunity employment implies that no one would be discriminated on the basis of designated criteria. While this is laudable in itself, it does not serve well the minorities who have been left behind historically for multifarious social, political and economic reasons. Equal treatment of unequal people is no more than an affirmation of status quo where the dominant majority would continue to reap the largest social benefits. Thus, other measures are needed to offset the inequality historically imposed upon by discriminating public policies which had left minorities in a disadvantaged situation. And this is where AA and diversity come in. EEO in the United States stems from the principle of ‘‘equality’’ which is enshrined in the Declaration of Independence as well as in the Constitution (Article I, and the 5th, 13th, 14th, 15th and 24th Amendments). It is further buttressed by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, and the 1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Act. A similar mandate occurs in Article 15 of the Indian Constitution, and Chapter 2, Section 9 (3) in the South African Constitution dwells on this. It is thus endowed with certain transcendental nature. AA has different origins and import. In the United States, its modern origins could be traced back to President Kennedy’s Executive Order (EO) 10925, followed by President Johnson’s 1965 EO11246. But there is tension between these two. (A) EEO is negative in that it demands that all be treated equally, and none discriminated against on the basis of race, color, national origin or sex. Contrarily, AA provides preference to minorities, including women. Thus while the former is color and sex neutral, the latter is conscious of both. (B) In so far as AA seeks out minorities, it is positive and expansive where as EEO could be considered as restrictive. In fact, the British usage ‘‘positive discrimination’’ is thus better expressive of the intent of AA. (C) AA is remedial in so far as it is intended to offset past discrimination with the positive purpose of integrating minorities who are otherwise discriminated. In essence, AA is a transitory public policy aiming to offset past discrimination and its continuing effects in the society so that all eventually would find themselves more or less equal. But the irony lies here, which is also a constitutional challenge: AA, in an effort to ensure an equal society in course of time, now treats designated minorities preferentially, or more equally. To that extent AA appears to be flying in the face of ‘‘equality’’, and thus needs to be justified. There are a couple of other fallacies as well that need to be corrected. One, designated minorities are plural. Thus, AA does not prefer any one particular minority although it 77 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/08article

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discriminates against the majority whites, or the upper castes in the case of India, who in their turn indulged in discrimination over time to ensure their own prosperity by continuing their hold on societal goods and opportunities. Two, AA, as some minorities on occasion contend, is not some sort of ‘‘entitlement’’ in perpetuity. It is meant to be only a temporary instrument which should wither away once equality is established.

SUPPORT FOR AA The major issue thus is how to resolve the tension between EEO and AA and find a firm footing to the latter. Each of the three countries studied here went in different ways in this context. In fact, while the US is still struggling with this tension, India more or less resolved it, and South Africa ended it. The latter two countries used the Constitution itself to enshrine AA. The South African Constitution recognised past injustices due to apartheid, and emphasised that the country belongs ‘‘to all who live in it, united in our diversity.’’ It hopes to heal the injustices of the past, and states that the state may not unfairly discriminate. To further this cause they also passed the Employment Equity Act in 1998 to enforce ‘‘employment equity to redress the effects of discrimination,’’ and to ‘‘achieve a diverse workforce broadly representative’’ of the people of the country. In the case of India faced almost immediately after the passage of the new Constitution, the problem of how to deal with equal protection and the issue of preference to those castes which have been discriminated against over the millennia, it simply added the very first amendment to the new Constitution by creating a new proviso to Article 15 which allowed preference, notwithstanding the equality clause. And a strict quota system has been in place for recognised ‘‘Scheduled’’ castes and tribes, and of late ‘‘Other Backward Classes’’. In the United States, lacking either a constitutional or statutory mandate, AA is largely dependent on Presidential Executive Orders and the decisions of the Supreme Court both of which are subject to the vagaries of the beliefs of the incumbents. However, certain principles have been established (Tummala, 1999:495–508): AA, as a matter of public policy in general, is accepted as a ‘‘core’’ principle, and should serve a ‘‘compelling state purpose,’’ but will come under strict constitutional scrutiny; It should be tailored narrowly; Race may be accepted as one, but not the criterion, while race-neutral options are preferred; No quotas are permitted except when Congressionally mandated, or court-ordered; voluntary preferential policies, which are also flexible and not unduly burdensome on non-beneficiaries, are accepted; preferential relief must be narrow, not intrusive, and not ‘‘limitless’’ in terms of a time-frame. However, it is noteworthy that the fundamental issue whether AA flouts the ‘‘equal protection/equal treatment’’ constitutional provisions has never been tackled head-on.

DYSFUNCTIONALITIES OF AA The very first dysfunctionality of AA is the very definition of ‘‘minorities’’ who would be eligible for preference. In all the above three countries the issue tended to be contentious. In the United States, although the term ‘‘minority’’ is plural, one hears on occasion the erroneous argument that the policy of preference applies only to the African Americans, and at best the original people — the Native Americans. Despite the more inclusive definition of minorities, no mention is made for example of people of Middle East or Eastern European origin. (One should note that there is no agitation for such an inclusion, though.) Surely, the Native Americans get little press. In case of India, the problem is the other way around in that there is a clamour for including more and more castes into the definition of ‘‘scheduled’’ or ‘‘backward’’ classes. Originally, 15 per cent of public positions are ‘‘reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 7.5 per cent for Scheduled Tribes. While state governments were permitted to make their own reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs), the federal government kept silent on this till 1991 when it JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/08article

Equal employment, affırmative action and diversity 79

implemented (the recommendations of a 1980 Mandal Commission) a 27 per cent reservations for the OBCs although they constituted nearly half of the population (because the Supreme Court of India in 1963 capped the total reservations at less than fifty per cent all positions).1 Yet, the state of Tamil Nadu has a total of 68 per cent reservations (and it was grand-fathered). Another state, Karnataka, at one time boasted more then 90 per cent of its population eligible for preferential treatment. In the state of Tamil Nadu, the number of backward classes grew from 11 in 1883 to 270 in 1953. As many as 3,753 castes are counted as ‘‘backward’’ eligible for reserved positions by the Mandal Commission. This inflationary tendency is largely a product of populist politics when the party (parties) in power use this as an electoral bait to garner support from a larger number at the polls. In case of South Africa, the very concept of AA is turned on its head due to the dictates of the apartheid policies which kept the large majority of the population — the blacks, out of the main stream by relegating them to the townships. AA there now is meant for only ‘‘blacks’’ (which includes the coloured and Indian people. The minority whites (about five per cent of the population) would not come under the gambit of this social policy. The second pertains to the behaviour of those who are benefitted by preference. While indeed, these might carry a certain stigma (due to the stereotyping that they got there only because of their minority status, even though they are merited), as argued by a few. Clarence Thomas, an Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court is one such. Then there are scholars such as Shelby Steele and Thomas Sowell, and politicians such as Ward Connerly. The latter in particular made it his mission to goad several states to kill AA at the state level, once he succeeded in California, and followed it up by Washington. On the other end of the spectrum are those minorities who use AA as a crutch to lean on and behave as if they are ‘‘entitled’’ to it, which leads to arguments of inefficiency in performance as sub-standard people are brought into service based on preference. The inefficiency argument is largely intuitive, and even prejudiced, as no scientific studies are made to prove or disprove it. The third, and perhaps the most serious in this context is the social cost. No doubt, all public policies exact some price from some one or the other. Such price from individuals is acceptable in so far as it leads to the collective good. Here, however, the historically discriminated being preferred, leading to the previously entrenched feeling dispossessed, results in an abundance of social cleavage which raises the crucial question whether the polarisation is worth the preference (Rosenbloom, 1981), despite the fact AA is successful in integrating the minorities into the main stream . Finally, the fourth is more contentious. This comes in as an advocacy of reparations, particularly in the United States. To these (Brooks, 2004) neither preference, nor apology is adequate. Only cash payment in reparations must be made. They bank on the precedent of payments to Japanese who suffered internment in camps during WW II, or compensation for Jews who suffered at the hands of Hitler. The awkward problem here is how to calculate the amount and how to decide on who the beneficiaries should be.

DIVERSITY AS AN ANTIDOTE Advocacy of ‘‘diversity,’’ instead of pushing AA, comes in handy as it offsets some of the above traumas. Diversity in fact accepts the variety in the society as an advantage that should be exploited for a better public service, and thereby a better society. This starts from the premise of a

1 It should be noted that two terms are used — ‘‘caste’’ and ‘‘class’’ in India.These are not co-terminus. In fact, the Constitution talks of only ‘‘class’’ and not ‘‘caste.’’ However, the Mandal Commission which addresses the issue of ‘‘backward classes’’uses caste as a criterion in deciding the backwardness of class. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/08article

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utilitarian principle that each individual has something to contribute, and that this be tapped (Fullinwider, 1980). Moreover, diversity has some specific advantages (Kahlenberg, 1996.) One, it is not predicated upon admitting any previous discrimination. Two, the difficult issue of when to end it (as is the case with AA) does not arise as it reflects the reality. Three, as it does not deal with compensatory justice, atonement, guilt, or any other moral or legal claim, it does not favour any one in particular and hurts none. And finally, as it encompasses a variety of individuals and orientations, it brings in more allies, such as handicapped, gays, lesbians, trans-gendered, et al. Diversity certainly is favoured in the American context in that the 1978 Civil Service Reform Act advocates for a public service which is ‘‘reflective of national diversity.’’ So is the case with South Africa. If applied, diversity principle would include the whites in South Africa and the forward classes in India. Thus it might help stanch the acrimony resulting from AA preferential policies. This however is not an unmixed blessing in that diversity freezes the prevailing social inequalities as well by recognising that people are different, after all. If, indeed, the policy preference were aimed at some sort of equalisation of all eventually, diversity negates it. Yet, it is reflective of prevailing condtions, and to that extent it is realistic. Nonetheless there are two wicked issues in trying to operationalise diversity. One, should the wealthy and well-placed also get the benefit here? As the Supreme Court of India observed, should the ‘‘creamy layer’’ be included as beneficiaries? The Court answered in the negative in that there is no reason to perpetuate their own privileges. This means not all would be diverse. And two, how to allocate the ratios among all these diverse groups? What would be the criterion despite the need to include them all? This begs for an answer and takes us back to the original problem with AA. Thus, it appears that there is no easy way to cut the Gordian knot. Each country should find its own consensus and answers as to the definition of those eligible for preference, and perhaps add an economic criterion to the historical, social and political rationale.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Brooks, R.L. (2004). Atonement and forgiveness: A new model for black reparations. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Fullinwider, R.K. (1980). The reverse discrimination controversy: A moral and legal analysis. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littleﬁeld. Kahlenberg, R.D. (1996). Remedy: Class, race, and affırmative action. New York: Basic Books. Rosenbloom, D.H. (1981). ‘‘Federal equal employment opportunity: Is the polarization worth the preference?’’Southern Review of Public Administration, 5 (1): 63–72. Steele, S. (1990). The content of our character. New York: ST. Martin’s Press. Tummala, K.K. (November-December 1999). ‘‘Policy of preference: Lessons from India, the Untied States and South Africa,’’ PAR 59 (6): 495–508. Tummala, K.K. (1991) ‘‘Affirmative action: A status report,’’ International Journal of Public Administration, 14 (3): 383–412. The effects of differing ideologies of different Presidents and changing Supreme Courts can be seen here. (November-December 1999). ‘‘Policy of Prefer- ence: Lessons from India, the United States and South Africa,’’ PAR 59, No. 6: 495–508 gives a comparative perspective of how three different countries — India (the largest working democracy with the longest experience with AA), the United States (the oldest democracy) and the Republic of South Africa (a nascent state since 1996) — dealt with the issue of AA. For a summary of arguments for and against AA may also be seen here.

* Professor Krishna K Tummala is Professor and Director, Graduate Programme in Public Administration at the Kansas State University in the United States of America. He is currently working on a book, The Politics of Preference, comparing the experience of India, the United States and South Africa. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH AND MOBILE TECHNOLOGY IMPACT: THE MXIT PHENOMENON By E Francke* & M Weideman†

ABSTRACT An empirical study has been conducted to determine the extent to which South African youth uses MXit, and its effect on them. The purpose of the study was to indicate to parents, employers, as well as other relevant stakeholders, the level of usage, as well as the impact of MXit, on its users. Since the target market of MXit is youth, the authors have conducted a survey of a number of school-going and working youth by means of a questionnaire. The sample consisted of primary school learners, as well as high school learners, higher education learners and young working people. The research methodology used was a literature survey and a questionnaire. Demographic results indicated that the proﬁle of the typical MXit user is a female aged above 13 years, who uses MXit between 18:00 and 24:00, for two hours and less. The study has shown that issues surrounding MXit do not seem to be as serious as reports indicate. However, incorrect usage of mobile technology and, in particular, the MXit application, could have a negative impact on users in relation to their personal safety, emotional well-being as well as to their productivity at work, school and play. Furthermore, the research also highlights the role that parents should play in understanding and monitoring their children’s’ mobile technology usage.

INTRODUCTION According to a report in IOLTechnology (31 January 2007), MXit has expanded at a rate of between 9 000 and 12 000 new registered users, daily. Launched in May 2005, the South African-based IM (instant messaging) service company has grown phenomenally and, by 31 January 2007, MXit had signed up its three millionth subscriber. Heunis, MXit founder and CEO, has indicated that he expects users of the IM service to increase dramatically as they embark on an international launch. However, there is evidence of an increasing number of children who have become victims of people who study, monitor, stalk, lure and, eventually, kidnap children as a result of their participation on MXit. This was the research problem of this study. The purpose of the study was to indicate to parents, employers, as well as other relevant stakeholders, the level of usage and impact of MXit on its users. Since the target market of MXit is the youth, the authors have conducted a survey of a number of school-going and working youth by means of a questionnaire. The sample consisted of primary school, high school and higher education learners, as well as young working people. The research methodology used was a literature survey and a questionnaire.

Literature survey A literature survey has revealed that not much has been written about MXit in academic literature, as it is a relatively new phenomenon. In fact, not a single journal article, conference paper or thesis was found on the MXit topic, after extensive searching on Sabinet, NISC, EbscoHost, Emerald, Proquest, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink and SwetsWise. Much of the information that is available on the topic was found in newspaper articles, blogs and on websites, which mention instances where children have fallen prey to paedophiles that enter chat rooms and arrange meetings with them after extracting conﬁdential information from 81 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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them via MXit. The broader topic of IM, of which MXit is an example, is, however, more proliﬁc in traditional academic literature. IM is discussed elsewhere in this paper.

Business interest Mochiko (2007) states that the company’s success has attracted business interest to such an extent that South African media group, Naspers, has added the IM business to its portfolio by acquiring a 30% share in MXit Lifestyle (Pty) Ltd. With Naspers as an investor, MXit has begun its expansion plans towards the international market. The company envisages expanding to nine more countries during the next three years. With its current figures of 400 000 international users, Heunis’s plan is to reach the 50-million international customer target by the end of 2008. There are other companies, which offer the same services internationally. In spite of this, Heunis believes that the untapped market has huge potential provided that basic services such as software, which is initially required, are offered free of charge. Keating (2006) reports that two young Cape Peninsula University of Technology students are the inventors of Idrive.co.za, which is a website that enables users to search for driving schools and to book lessons. These two innovative Capetonians are the first business owners to use MXit as a means to allow their clients to contact their website by using the Internet and a cellphone in order to put people in contact with driving school instructors. The MXit user is able to chat to the iDrive.co.za admin staff, by using MXit, for real-time support, which makes finding a driving school that much easier. The popularity of MXit among school pupils and university students has made them realise the value of MXit as a business tool and they launched their website in September 2005. As an extension of this, they now find that driving instructors utilise MXit as a means to maintain contact with their clients.

The market Leung (2006) states that results from a random sample of 532 college students show that students who made the heaviest use of SMS were motivated by its convenience, its low cost, and its utility for co-ordinating events. These users, who were socially anxious, were unwilling to communicate face-to-face and were discouraged by the confusing acronyms used in mobile messaging, which appeared to be those who spent less time using SMS. This is in spite of the fact that the SMS service could help overcome students’ shyness about bringing up taboo topics with friends. In broad terms, SMS is a social technology and has become a popular communication utility for college students. MXit’s popularity is attributed to the fact that it provides inexpensive IM, text-based communication to cellphone users. This is done via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), which enables one to use Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) to browse the Internet via a GPRS-enabled cellphone. In order to initiate MXit, users have to download the required software onto a cellphone as a once-off initiation. Thereafter, they are able to send and receive messages from people who are also connected to MXit, via either cellphones or computers, at a cost of 2c, which is several times cheaper than an SMS rate of between 35c and 80c. MXit is currently one of the largest generators of GPRS traffic in South Africa with users logging onto its servers more than six million times daily, sending over 100 million text messages per month. Within its two years of operation, the company has attracted as many as three million users between the ages of 12 and 25, which is largely attributed to its low-cost message rate. Other than its low-cost messaging, MXit offers its users a range of services and products such as news and games. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

South African youth and mobile technology impact: The MXit phenomenon 83

According to Mochiko (2006), MXit has a potential to have a profound effect on the SMS market because network operators have begun to realise the importance of data services. This author added that SMS charges are expected to continue to decrease and that frequent SMS users will switch to MXit. One of the operators, Cell C, has acknowledged that MXit is a company to monitor as it will change the SMS market, especially amongst the youth segment. Cell C, Vodacom and MTN have begun to offer SMS bundles, as well as lower their costs of sending a message. Heunis, however, believes that MXit is not an SMS replacement and does not purely offer messages. He claims that SMS has its own advantages and ability, and that MXit targets a different market where subscribers have to sign up, unlike conventional SMS offerings. Van Niekerk (2007) states that those who are the most vulnerable in the MXit environment are children and adults who lack meaningful relationships in their lives and for whom this form of communication has become a substitute.

Instant messaging (IM) IM is a form of real-time communication between two or more users, based on typed text. IM is a popular medium for both social and work-related communication. Rovers & Van Essen (2004) state that IM is a popular chatting platform on the Internet and increasingly permeates teenage life. Even intimate and emotional content is discussed. Avrahami & Hudson (2004) propose that the growing use of IM for social and work-related communication has created a situation where incoming messages often become a distraction to users while they perform important tasks. Staying on task at the expense of responsiveness to IM buddies may portray users as impolite or even rude. Constantly attending to IM, on the other hand, may prevent users from performing tasks efficiently, leaving them frustrated. Grinter & Palen (2002) indicate that IM is being widely adopted by teenagers. In a study of 16 teenage IM users, they explored IM as an emerging feature of teen life, focusing questions on its support of interpersonal communication and its role and salience in everyday life. They discussed behaviours around privacy management. In their investigation, they found differences in the nature of use between high school and college teens. They proposed that the differences emanate from the teens’ degree of autonomy as a function of domestic and scholastic obligations, the development of independent work practices, Internet connectivity access, and even transportation access. Moreover, while teen IM use is, in part, characterised as an optimising choice between multiple communications media, its practice is also tied to concerns around peer pressure, peer group membership and creating additional opportunities to socialise.

The precarious side of MXit It should be stated that long before MXit was introduced in May 2005, most cellphones had an ability to search the web via an Internet browser on the phone. This allowed children access to everything and anything that is available on the Internet. Unlike the personal computer environment, where a myriad of software products are available to protect children, the cellphone industry has yet to implement such safety nets. MXit is not a web browser and, therefore cannot be used to access pornographic or other adult sites, or adult chat rooms; nor can it be used to send pornographic or adult content. Considering its low cost, MXit is particularly appealing to teenagers. However, for the same reason, it is also easily accessible to paedophiles. According to Rondganger (2006), since October 2006, MXit has developed stronger links with police to rid its system of potential sex predators. The service had been used by an alleged paedophile, a 33-year-old man who kidnapped a 16-year-old Ekurhuleni girl. He allegedly abducted and sexually assaulted her after he had met her on a MXit chat room, where he was able JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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to obtain the girl’s home address. It is not known whether or not the girl knew the man’s age, while chatting to him on the service. Heunis has indicated that they have considered ways to increase the security of their service, by giving police detectives more access to their chat rooms. Based on this, a detective went onto the service and contacted the perpetrator, while he pretended to be a teenage girl. A trap was set and the perpetrator was arrested. Business owners have also reported claims that their staff members spend large amounts of time on MXit, which has a negative impact on their performance at work.

MXit at school Other than reported violent crimes, which emanate from MXit, users have evidently become addicted to it. Particularly in 2006, the abuse of MXit by learners has manifested in school benches where learners were spending hours on MXit during school time. Schools have responded in various ways with one school starting a support group for pupils who are addicted on MXit. The support includes discussions and writing essays about learners’ personal experiences on MXit, while others have simply banned cellphones. Early ﬁndings of the Film and Publications Board indicate that, in the Western Cape, exposure to pornography on cellphones is worse than on the Internet. This is not directly attributed to MXit as users cannot access pornographic content on websites via MXit. The same board also investigates the use of MXit at schools, across the country, considering that MXit indicates that it is not associated or connected to pornography. MXit has also been described as a huge dating service by a learner (Keating & Williams, 2006). A spokesperson for the Western Cape Education Department has said in the Cape Argus (23 August 2006) that principals have also blamed MXit for poor performance among learners because they no longer pay attention in class. They also chat all night and are consequently tired at school the next day. One learner claimed that she was addicted to sexual chat rooms, which destroyed her self-esteem. A Grade 11 pupil, who has been off MXit for two months, said she had had sexually explicit conversations with older males that she had met in chat rooms on MXit. She stopped when her mother found out about the messages. Western Cape Education MEC (Dugmore), has praised schools for their responses to this problem and indicated that more research is required on this phenomenon. There is no national or provincial policy — normally, individual schools would determine their own codes of conduct. He iterated that clear direction is necessary in terms of dealing with the MXit phenomenon within schools (Keating & Williams, 2006).

MXit at home While schools have their problems with MXit, it has also raised issues within homes. There was a particular report of a 12-year-old boy who has experienced a drastic change in his behaviour since he became linked to MXit. Peters (2006) states that since all his friends had cellphones, he desperately wanted to become part of a fashion that has usurped the country’s teenagers, namely to become a resident of MXit. He simply wanted to chat to his friends but soon the urge was to get into chat rooms. This began an experience that has left the 12-year-old emotionally scarred and psychologically damaged to the extent that he now attends counselling three times a week. A discussion with one particular girl at the time became personal and intimate which resulted in a request for them to meet. The girl friend turned out to be a man who tried to force himself onto the boy.

Response from MXit Lifestyle (Pty) Ltd The company has provided information for parents on their website, which attempts to enlighten parents about the technology and potential dangers that are linked with its incorrect usage (MXit 2007). Section 2.5.1 is a verbatim quote from the MXit website. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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Precautions: In order to try and minimise the inherent risks, we have put the following precautions in place: • All teenagers’ chat rooms (Like TeenZone) have profanity filters (this means that swearwords are replaced by ##### symbols). • Moderators assiduously monitor the rooms on an ad hoc basis. • No user profiles, which normally include personal details and photographs, are stored. There are many chat rooms on the Internet that do store user profiles. • The MXit chat room acts as a cocoon. The user remains completely anonymous while in the chat room, and as long as he/she does not puncture this cocoon by revealing any personal information (including information about friends and family), he/she remains safe in his/her anonymity. • All MXit chat rooms are public by default with a limited number of people in them — so every person can see every message and can respond. • Users can at any time leave a chat room or type the ignore command to ignore someone who is abusive. • Every time users enter the chat rooms we remind them to keep their personal information confidential. • None of our chat room names or descriptions has any sexual slant and we strongly discourage any form of discrimination and/or explicit sexual chat. • By using our website, users can report abuse. • We publish safe chatting tips on our website and forum in a number of places. • A shorter version of safe chatting tips is built into the MXit phone application and users are constantly reminded to view it. The following section is a verbatim quote from the MXit website. Safe chatting tips 1. People on the Internet may not be who they say they are! 2. Please keep your phone number, MXit PIN, and residential address a secret. 3. Be careful not to reveal personal information about your friends or family to strangers. Everyone deserves their privacy! 4. If you’re posting a profile on for instance our forum, don’t include any information which could help to identify you offline — your personal email address, mobile phone number, home or school address, pictures of yourself; these all give strangers more information about you than you need or want them to know. . . 5. Keep your online relationships ONLINE! Even if you think you know your contacts well enough, we still strongly advise that you DO NOT meet offline with strangers. Paedophiles and other offenders are clever; they sometimes spend months gaining their victims’ trust, before asking to meet with them. The following section is a verbatim quote from the MXit website. If you do, however, decide to meet with someone in real life • Always tell a loved one where you are going, who you are meeting, and when you will be back. • Meet in a public place. • Ideally, take a friend with you and have the other person do the same. • Do not invite anyone to your home or go to their home. Keep your distance until you feel you know them well enough. • Take your mobile phone along, and make sure it’s fully charged and has calling credit. Get someone to call you at a pre-arranged time to check that everything is OK. This person can also act as your alibi, giving you an excuse to leave if necessary. We, at MXit Lifestyle, will continually strive to make the MXit world a safer place.

The need for education According to Rondganger (2006), Heunis was angry that an alleged paedophile had used his system and because there was nothing more that they could do to further secure the chat room service to protect its users. There is a link on their website to educate parents about the proper JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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usage of the service. It is vital that users should never provide personal information to strangers and that they should remain anonymous at all times when they use chat rooms. It is not advisable for children to spend hours at a time on MXit. According to Heunis, he does not advocate or condone the use of cellphones during school hours or when children should be doing homework. Heunis has said that parents should educate their children about their use of MXit. He also claimed that MXit should be regarded as a ‘‘positive’’ service because it provided a cost-effective way for people to communicate. According to MXit Lifestyle (Pty) Ltd, clear guidelines, which deal with the responsible use of their technology, are provided to users in the form of a text message each time they enter any of their chat rooms. These guidelines can also be accessed through their website. The program cannot control the content of the chat, but there are warnings on the website where users have to register. Furthermore, MXit is also not in any way associated or connected to pornography. MXit Lifestyle (Pty) Ltd has conﬁrmed that in order to prevent unpleasant experiences, profanity ﬁlters have been established to block abusive language and a ‘‘Report Abuse Function’’ is operational on the website for users to access. A list of safety tips have also been posted on the website and MXit portal. MXit is also in the process of a Joint venture with ChildLine, which allows children to receive online counselling. According to Van Niekerk, it is parents’ responsibility to ensure that their children are educated about the dangers of services such as MXit and the Internet. She states that it is not MXit that is bad, but that some users abuse it. Criminals who prey on children will use any means available to get to them, even via technology. It is parents’ responsibility to teach their children about dangers which potentially exist in the use of cellphones and the Internet. Parents are urged to set rules and guidelines for their children who use MXit, instead of banning it. For example, children should be told that they can only talk to relatives and friends, and that they cannot use it during school hours. If used correctly, MXit can assist in saving on telephone costs, especially if friends or relatives live in other parts of the country. In order to use MXit, users should subscribe to the services via the Internet and can then chat to other users. Those whom they know can be added to their MXit contact lists. If parents are concerned about who their children chat with, they can become users of the service, since by adding their children as a contact, they can then monitor their MXit activities.

What makes this technology precarious? Holloway and Valentine (2003) focus on children’s access to and use of new information and communications technologies (ICT). They also look at ways in which children’s technological competencies on the Internet have shaped their use of time, domestic relationships, friendship networks and sense of community from the local to the global scale. They state that children are at the heart of contemporary debates about the possibilities and dangers that these new information and communication technologies might bring. Peters (2006) states that, according to child psychologist Heide, it is imperative for parents to become more involved with ‘‘their children’s technological escapades’’. Technology, especially in the form of cellphones, is relatively cheap and readily available to a large proportion of society and increasingly to younger children. An application such as MXit is also low-cost and readily available. Parents are often technologically challenged and, therefore, choose to ignore their children’s interest in activities such as MXit. Chat rooms are intimate in terms of the discussions, which take place largely because of there anonymity. These faceless dialogues that children engage in may result in sharing personal information. On a social level, parents may not have open communication channels with their children and, therefore, children might not feel free to discuss their addictions. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology included a survey of relevant literature and a questionnaire. Since the target market of MXit is youth, the authors conducted a survey of a number of school-going, as well as working youth, by means of a questionnaire. The sample consisted of a number of primary school learners, as well as high school learners, higher education learners and young working people.

RESULTS The results obtained from the survey are summarised below.

Demographics Of the 168 respondents, 58% were female. This provides an interesting variation from the results of Weideman and Strümpfer who had a 29% female participation in a demographic study on Internet search engine usage (Weideman & Strümpfer, 2004:62). Of these, 51% were aged older than 13 and 47% younger than 13. The ages varied between 10 and 31 years of age — refer to Figure 1 for details.

Figure 1: Respondents’ age 40 10 year olds 40 11 year olds 35 12 year olds 35 13 year olds 30 14 year olds s 15 year olds 25 16 year olds 18 20 17 16 17 year olds 18 year olds 15 Respondent 19 year olds 10 7 5 5 6 6 20 year olds 3 3 21 year olds 5 1 1 2 0 22 year olds 0 23 year olds Age in years 24 year olds 25 years old and older JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 8 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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Figure 2: Gender analysis

70% 65%

58% 60% 56% 53%

47% 50% 44% 42%

40% 35%

age

Percant 30%

20%

10%

0% Male Female Males who do Females who do Under 13 Under 13 Over 13 Over 13 respondents respondents not use MXit not use MXit male users female users male users female users Gender The number of males for all four classes of participants was consistently lower than the females — see Figure 2.

MXit usage MXit has been used by 68% of the respondents before. Of the 32% who have not made use of MXit before (see Figure 3), the following are some of the reasons for not doing so: ‘‘I can’t use MXit as I’m in matric and need to focus on my schoolwork.’’ ‘‘MXit can cause a lot of problems at school and at home.’’ ‘‘It’s like a drug you get addicted to it. People forget to do simple things when on MXit.’’ ‘‘I heard bad things about it and it becomes addictive and I don’t want to be like them.’’ JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 9 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

South African youth and mobile technology impact: The MXit phenomenon 89

Figure 3: Reasons for not using MXit (more than 1 option)

60%

49% 50%

s 40%

30% 26%

age respondent

20% 19% 17%

Percent

11% 10%

0% Have heard of it but No time to spend on it Never bothered to Other reason Do not have a cell Never heard of Mxit just not interested to install it phone before Reasons for not using MXit Of the respondents who have not used MXit before, 58% do not intend to do so in the future. Of those respondents who have made use of MXit before, Table 1 illustrates when they last they did so.

Table 1: The last time MXit was used Today (day of survey) 13% Yesterday 39% A week ago 14% Two weeks ago 5% A month ago 3% Longer than 1 month ago 13% Some reasons as to why they are attracted to MXit include: ‘‘I can be who I want to be and its fun joking with people.’’ ‘‘I can chat to cousins in Mpumalanga.’’ ‘‘When I’m taking a break from my school work and that’s at 10.30 at night I go on MXit to relax my mind.’’ Users of MXit indicated reasons why they are attracted to it in Table 2.

Table 2: Attraction to MXit (more than 1 option) It is fun 64% It is cheap 55% It allows me to meet people 38% I have available time to spend on it 13% I can pretend to be anyone 12% Other (comment below) 10% More than eight hours in one particular day were spent by 25% of MXit users at some time. Figure 4 illustrates how much time they spent on it, per day. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 10 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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Figure 4: Time spent on MXit per day

Since they have been on MXit, 29% of MXit users cannot complete their daily work. Figure 5 illustrates the time of day that they access the MXit service.

Figure 5: Time of the day spent on MXit (more than 1 option)

70%

s 60% 67%

50% 38% 06h00 to 12h00 40% 12h00 to 18h00 30% 18h00 to 24h00 age of respondent 20% 9% 7% 24h00 to 06h00 10%

Percent 0% Period of the day Of the MXit users, 86% indicate that their parents/guardians are aware that they make use of MXit, while 51% say that they have spoken to their parents/guardians about MXit and 63% say that their parents understand MXit. If faced with a choice, 13% would prefer MXitting above alternative activities, which they may enjoy. Figure 6 illustrates how long users think they will still be using it. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 11 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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Figure 6: How long users think they will still be using MXit

80% 75%

70%

s 60%

50%

40%

age of respondent 30%

Percent 20% 14%

10% 6% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0% I don't know Less than 1 month More than 24 6 months 3 months 12 months 24 months months Months Forty one per cent of users want to speak to someone responsible who they can trust (a parent/guardian/teacher/close friend) about a nasty experience on MXit. Sixty ﬁve per cent of users would advise others to make use of MXit.

Chat rooms Fifty three per cent of users have entered into a chat room on MXit and 95% ended up speaking to people whom they did not know before. Twenty ﬁve per cent of these users shared personal information with a person in the chat room and 16% of them indicated that the things that they chatted about made them feel uncomfortable, awkward or uneasy. Fifty six per cent of these users requested to meet each other. Of these users who requested to meet each other, 47% did not actually meet. Table 3 illustrates where users requested to meet each other.

Table 3: Places where users requested to meet Shopping mall 38% At home 18% Club 3% Other 3% Other places included Grand West Casino and a friend’s house. While 81% of these users indicated that the person turned out to be who they claimed to be in the chat room, 33% indicated that they felt uncomfortable, uneasy or insecure with the person they had met.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Demographics Respondents aged 13 and below constitute 48% of MXit users, of which 53% are male. Of those users aged above 13, 35% are male. It would, therefore, seem that the majority of youth that use MXit are females aged above 13 years of age. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 12 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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MXit usage Fifty three per cent of MXit users use MXit for two hours and less and it is likely to be during 18:00 and 24:00. A vast majority of these users’ parents/guardians understand MXit and know that their children use MXit. It, therefore, seems that a majority of users do not spend excessive time on MXit nor do they use it during school hours. This could be attributed to the schools’ concerted efforts to curb the use of cellphones during school time. However, they might be using MXit when they should be sleeping at night. While 41% of these users feel that they want to speak to someone that they can trust about a negative experience on MXit, a vast majority would advise others to make use of MXit. It is interesting that many of them are unsure as to how long they will still use MXit. This could mean that MXit might not be as popular in the near future.

Chat room More than half of users have entered a chat room on MXit with a quarter of these sharing personal information about themselves. A majority of them chatted with strangers. Those users who requested to meet people whom they met in the chat room actually proceeded to do so, while a majority did so in a shopping mall. A third of the users indicated that they were uncomfortable with the person they had met.

SUMMARY Based on the findings, a profile of a MXit user is as follows: a female aged above 13 years of age, who is likely to spend two hours and less on MXit during 18:00 and 24:00. Her parents/guardians understand MXit and know that she uses it. She would advise others to make use of MXit but is unsure of how long she would be using it in the future. She would have entered a chat room, chatted to a stranger but not be likely to have shared personal information about herself. She would make a request to meet someone that she met in the chat room and it would be likely to be in a shopping mall. Based on this profile, problems surrounding MXit do not seem as serious as reports seem to indicate. The age of the average user is above 13, while the use of MXit per day is two hours or less, where 30% of the total is actually an hour or less, and is not the heavy usage indicated by some reports. More than . . . of the total number of users indicate usage outside school hours, although this does include late-night sessions. In contrast to the above, however, points of concern are: • a quarter of users have spent more than eight hours on MXit in one particular day; • nearly a third of users cannot complete their daily work because they have been on MXit; • nearly half of MXit users would want to speak to someone that they can trust about a negative experience on MXit; • a third of those in chat rooms felt uncomfortable, uneasy or insecure with the person they had met; and • 18% of these users met at home.

CONCLUSION Holloway and Valentine (2003) argue that, if children use ICT in balanced and sophisticated ways, they can beneﬁt from everyday uses of technology. They believe that, if used appropriately, the beneﬁts that children can derive from the use of ICT far outweigh the negatives of contemporary moral panics about the risks from dangerous strangers on-line, the corruption of innocence by adult-oriented material and addiction to this technology. It would appear that, as information technology and communication advances, it presents several opportunities to society. However, it also presents threats of abuse and exploitation by JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 13 SESS: 13 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

South African youth and mobile technology impact: The MXit phenomenon 93

criminals and potential criminals. It could be a product of human social dynamics and not necessarily that of fundamental technology. Each year many motorists in South Africa lose their lives to motorcar accidents because of incorrect and inappropriate usage, yet motor manufacturers are not blamed for the cause of those deaths. Experts agree that the responsibility lies with parents. During the last decade parents have been confronted with challenges that the Internet presents. Presently, it is possibly the fear of what MXit could present that parents have to face. With the rapid pace at which technology is evolving, what technological fears await parents in the future? According to Van Niekerk (2007), a possible solution to the problem is relationship building and communication with children, encouraging them to participate in face-to-face activities, setting limits on cellphone use, making sure that children participate in setting these limits and deciding on consequences post-abuse. Perhaps the answer is a socio-technical approach. The developers of MXit, as well as society at large, have a responsibility to ensure that users, especially children, are not harmed when making use of this technology. Further research should be done on social networking (of which MXit is only one aspect), including phenomena such as Facebook, YouTube and other similar social environments.

REFERENCES Avrahami, D. & Hudson, S. 2004. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. In: Proceedings of the 2004 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work, 2004. Chicago, Illinois, USA. p515–518. Grinter, R. & Palen, L. 2002. Instant messaging in teen life. In: Proceedings of the 2002 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work, 2002. New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. p21–30. Holloway, S. & Valentine, G. 2003. Cyberkids: Children in the Information Age. Routledge- Falmer: London. Keating, C. 2006. Driven entrepreneurs MXit up. [Online], Available WWW: www.ioltechnology. co.za/article_page.php?iArticleId=3430555&iSectionId=2889–22k- (Accessed 30 January 2007). Keating, C. & Williams, M. 2006. Schools seek to ban ‘addictive’ Mxit. [Online], Available WWW: http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id= vn20060823102953929 C168531 (Accessed 31 January 2007). Leung, L. 2006. Unwillingness-to-communicate and college students’ motives in SMS mobile messaging. Telematics and Informatics [Online], Volume 24, Issue 2, Available WWW: http://www. sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V1H-4J614H4–1&_user=10&_coverDate= 05%2F31%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_ version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b510acbf9983fb500b08e7891e38347f (Accessed 24 May 2007). Mochiko, T. 2007. Naspers adds MXit to bag sprouting market. [Online], Available WWW: http://www.ioltechnology.co.za/article_page.php?iSectionId=2892&iArticleId=3651952 (Accessed 29 January 2007). Mochiko, T. 2006. MXit to open shops in nine countries. [Online], Available www: http://www. ioltechnology.co.za/article_page.php?iSectionId=2892&iArticleId=3472004 (Accessed 30 January 2007). MXit. 2007. Advice to parents. [Online], Available WWW: http://www.mxit.co.za/parents.htm. (Accessed 10 February 2007). Peters, S. 2006. MXit is great, but don’t be fooled. [Online], Available WWW: http://blog.sabinet. co.za/index.php?/archives/32-Caution-!-MXit.htm (Accessed 30 January 2007). JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 14 SESS: 14 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/09article

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Rondganger, L. 2006. Police to help improve MXit security. [Online], Available WWW: http://www. ioltechnology.co.za/article_page.php?iSectionId=2885&iArticleId=3494240 (Accessed 31 January 2007). Rovers, A. & van Essen, H. 2004. HIM: A framework for haptic instant messaging. In: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2004. Vienna, Austria. p. 1313–1316. Van Niekerk, J. ([email protected]). 5 April 2007. RE: MXit follow-up. E-Mail to E.Francke ([email protected]) Weideman, M. & Strümpfer, C. 2004. The effect of search engine keyword choice and demographic features on Internet searching success. Information Technology and Libraries, ISSN: 0730–9295, 23(2):58–65.

* E Francke is currently a lecturer in the Department of Management and Project Management in the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. † Professor Melius Weideman is currently an Associate Professor at the E.Innovation Academy at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL AND HERITAGE TOURISM DEFINITIONS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE CAPE FLATS IN CAPE TOWN By R Ismail*

ABSTRACT A motivation for undertaking a conceptual analysis of cultural and heritage tourism definitions, with specific reference to the Cape Flats in Cape Town, is as a result of excellent potential to develop the Cape Flats as a major cultural and heritage tourist destination within Cape Town. In 2010, the FIFA Soccer World Cup will be staged in South Africa and will afford Cape Town, in particular, an opportunity to offer tourists cultural and heritage tourism on the Cape Flats. The Cape Flats is situated twelve kilometres from the ‘Mother City’, Cape Town. The area of the Cape Flats extends to 30 square kilometres. The White Paper on Tourism makes provision for the establishment and development of cultural tourism on the Cape Flats. Currently, cultural facilities, attractions, tourist infrastructure and transportation networks for tourists are non-existent. It is imperative that a definition on cultural and heritage tourism is agreed upon and accepted by various stakeholders before any developments and promotion of the Cape Flats take place. In developing a cultural and heritage tourism definition with specific reference to the Cape Flats in Cape Town, input from residents, tour operators, travel agents, bed & breakfast establishments, hotels and tour guides on the Cape Flats and surrounding areas should be taken into account. In addition to the above, cognisance of some of the following factors such as unemployment, crime, gangsterism, education and skills development will shape a cultural and heritage definition for the Cape Flats. A number of recommendations are made with respect to a definition of cultural and heritage tourism when offering a cultural and heritage tourism experience on the Cape Flats.

INTRODUCTION Cultural and heritage tourism definitions have been formulated by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO), the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the White Paper on Tourism, 2006. The search for a cultural and heritage tourism definition which is relevant to the Cape Flats should be investigated. This paper argues that it is not the ideal solution to use an existing definition prepared by the WTO and ICOMOS and impose it on the Cape Flats. Every cultural and heritage situation is unique with its own set of characteristics and this should reflect and be taken into account when formulating a definition for cultural and heritage tourism. Many people who reside within the Cape Flats, when asked about cultural and heritage tourism, view it as another phrase used by tourism stakeholders to financially enrich themselves at the expense of the local people. Some of the social and economic malaise prevalent on the Cape Flats includes drug abuse, alcohol abuse, murder, gangsterism, widespread unemployment, rape and child abuse, amongst other vices. The Cape Flats in the Western Cape Province of South Africa include areas such as Athlone, Langa, Philipi, Gugulethu, Khayelitsha, Macassar, Delft, Mitchell’s Plain, Mannenberg, Bonte- heuwel, Hanover Park, Lansdowne, Bridgetown, Rylands, Elsies River, Cravenby, Matroosfontein and Montana. 95 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

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The racial composition of the overwhelming majority of people who reside in the above mentioned areas on the Cape Flats, comprises African, coloured and Indian people. The African people are indigenous to South Africa, and migratory factors have resulted in the majority of indigenous Africans in the Western Cape being Xhosa-speaking. Coloured people are broadly classified as the indigenous Khoi and San people who came into contact with white Europeans who had settled in the Cape. Many slaves were brought from the East and Far East and are, therefore, classified as coloured, while Indian indentured slaves and business people from the Indian subcontinent came to work and settle in South Africa. This article proposes elements that should be considered when formulating a definition on cultural and heritage tourism for the Cape Flats. The definition should be relevant, applicable and serve as a catalyst to drive a social responsibility programme for the Cape Flats. The definition on cultural and heritage tourism should provide a solution to some of the abovementioned social and economic issues.

SELECTED DEFINITIONS ON CULTURAL TOURISM An overview of definitions on cultural tourism is investigated in order to assess if it is applicable to the Cape Flats. During the research process it became clear that there was not a large amount of data or related publications available which addresses the issue of cultural tourism on the Cape Flats. Literature, web and database searches confirmed that there is a lack of information with respect to research conducted on cultural tourism on the Cape Flats. The White Paper on Tourism defines cultural tourism as ‘‘that activity, which enables people to experience the different ways of life of other people, thereby gaining at first hand an understanding of their customs, traditions, the physical environment, the intellectual ideas and those places of architectural, historic, archaeological or other cultural significance which remain from earlier times’’. Cultural tourism differs from recreational tourism, since it seeks to gain an understanding or appreciation of the nature of the place being visited (IOCOMOS Charter for Cultural Tourism, Draft, April 1997). The White House Conference on Travel and Tourism in 1995 concluded that cultural tourism is travel directed toward experiencing the arts, heritage, and special character of place and is an important component for the travel and tourism industry www.lorf.ca/publications/articles/cul_ tourism_business.html [24 April 2007]. The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) defines Cultural Tourism as ‘‘movements of persons essentially for cultural motivations such as study tours, performing arts and cultural tours, travel to festivals and other events, visits to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore or art, and pilgrimages’’ (McKercher & du Cros, 2002:4). Cultural tourism is defined by attendance by inbound visitors at one or more of the following cultural attractions during their visit to Australia: festivals or fairs (music, dance, comedy, visual arts, multi-arts and heritage); performing arts or concerts (theatre, opera, ballet and classical and contemporary music); museums or art galleries; historic or heritage buildings, sites or monuments; art or craft workshops or studios; and Aboriginal sites and cultural displays (Bureau of Tourism Research, ‘Cultural Tourism in Australia’, 1998:7). Cultural tourism is tourism that focuses on the culture of a destination — the lifestyle, heritage, arts, industries and leisure pursuits of the local population (Office of National Tourism ‘Fact Sheet No 10 Cultural Tourism’, 1997:1). Another definition of cultural tourism is an entertainment and educational experience that combines the arts with natural and social heritage and history (www.Cultural Tourism Industry Group [27 June 2007]). Cultural tourism, therefore, defines the phenomenon of people travelling specifically for the sake of either experiencing another culture or the cultural attractions of a place (www.http://Arts Industry Tourism Council, ‘Cultural Tourism Development in Victoria’, June 1997). JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

A conceptual analysis of cultural and heritage tourism deﬁnitions with speciﬁc reference to the Cape Flats in Cape Town 97

Cultural tourism embraces a full range of experiences that visitors can undertake to learn what makes a destination distinctive — its lifestyle, heritage, arts, people — and its business of providing and interpreting that culture to visitors (www.http://Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Creative Nation’, 1994). Cultural tourism covers products which authentically reflect the culture of the destination (for example, lifestyle, heritage and industrial activity) and visitors who seek an understanding of that culture (www.http://Tasmanian Department of Tourism, Sport and Recreation, ‘Strategies for Growth’, 1995). Cultural tourism is a term which refers to leisure travel motivated by one or more aspects of the culture of a particular area (’Dictionary of Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Terms’, 1996). Hughes (1996:707) argues that cultural tourism ‘‘tends to be applied to trips whenever cultural resources are visited, regardless of initial motivation. Stebbins (1996:948) asserts that ‘‘Cultural tourism is a genre of special interest tourism based on the search for and participation in new and deep cultural experiences, whether aesthetic, intellectual, emotional, or psychological’’ . Travel for essentially cultural motivations, which may include travel for specific purposes, for example, to attend festivals or to visit sites or monuments, or may be more broadly motivated by the desire to experience cultural diversity or to immerse oneself in the culture of a region (www.deh.gov.au/soe/2001/heritage/glossary.html ). Cultural tourism is a subset of tourism that is concerned with a country or region’s culture, especially its arts. Cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their cultural facilities such as museums and theatres. It can also, less often, include tourism to rural areas, to outdoor festivals, the houses of famous writers and artists, sculpture parks, and landscapes made famous in literature (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_tourism). Cultural tourism will include visiting ‘‘museums, galleries, festivals, architecture, historic sites, artistic performances, and heritage sites, as well as any experience that brings one culture in contact with another for the specific purpose of that contact, in a touring situation’’ (Stebbins, 1996:948). Cultural policy developed by the Department of the Communications and the Arts, Creative Nation defined cultural tourism in the following way: The experiences generated by Australian performances, visual arts and our heritage are unique. Cultural tourism embraces the full range of experiences visitors can undertake to learn what makes a destination distinctive — its lifestyle, its heritage, its arts, its people — and the business of providing and interpreting that culture to visitors. This cultural policy is also an economic policy. Culture creates wealth. Broadly defined, our cultural industries generate 13 billion dollars a year. Culture employs around 336,000 Australians in culture-related industries. Culture adds value, it makes an essential contribution to innovation, marketing and design. It is the badge of our industry. The level of our creativity substantially determines our ability to adapt to new economic imperatives. It is a valuable export in itself and an essential accompaniment to the export of other commodities. It attracts tourists and students. It is essential to our economic success (www.arts.monash.edu.au/ncas/teach/unit/tou/tou21wk02.html, Creative Nation: Commonwealth Cultural Policy October 1994 Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Communications and the Arts, Canberra, 1994). A cultural venue is defined to comprise the following venues and activities: art gallery; museum; animal/marine park; botanical garden; library; popular music concert; classical music concert; theatre; dance; opera or musical theatre; other performing arts; and cinema (www.http://Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Domestic Cultural Tourism in Australia, 1994–95’, 1997). Cultural tourism, as a tourism product, has been recognised by the tourism industry and by its stakeholders as an opportunity to showcase the diverse cultural phenomenon prevalent in the Western Cape. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

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Cultural tourism visits will include ‘‘archaeological sites, museums, castles, palaces, historical buildings, ruins, art, sculpture, crafts, galleries, festivals, music and dance, folk arts, theatres, ethnic communities, heritage theme parks, churches and cathedrals’’ (McKercher & du Cros, 2002:5). The above selected deﬁnitions on cultural tourism shows, that a wide range of meanings exist. Thus, when deﬁning cultural tourism, one should take into account various aspects of culture. Since it is an emerging tourism niche market, stakeholders should undertake to promote and market cultural tourism extensively (www.ea.gov.au).

SELECTED DEFINITIONS OF HERITAGE TOURISM Some confusion exists in the tourist industry concerning the terms ‘‘cultural tourism’’ and ‘‘heritage tourism’’. The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) deﬁnes heritage that includes tangible assets such as natural and cultural environments, encompassing landscapes, historic places, sites, and built environments, as well as intangible assets such as collections, past and continuing cultural practices, knowledge, and living experiences (McKercher & du Cros, 2002:7). Heritage tourism includes visits to ‘‘natural history attractions and the performing arts events’’ (Lubbe, 2003:90). Potential of developing and making natural history sites accessible to tourists should be prioritised by the Western Cape Government and participating stakeholders. Examples of natural history sites for the Cape Flats are Kramats, slave cemeteries, language routes, slave routes, missionary activities, visiting historical or industrial sites such as old canals, railways and battlegrounds. A major difference between cultural and heritage tourism is that heritage tourism is place-based, which creates a sense of place rooted in speciﬁcs of the local land, its people and their artifacts, stories and traditions. Cultural tourism, meanwhile, embraces the same kinds of experience with less emphasis on place.

TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF CULTURAL TOURISM FOR THE CAPE FLATS When developing a definition of cultural tourism for the Western Cape, tourists’ motivations for visiting the Western Cape should be made considered. Implementing any of the abovementioned definitions on cultural tourism would not be a true reflection of the cultural activities that are prevalent in communities residing in the Western Cape. A definition on cultural tourism can only be formulated once there is an understanding of cultural activities on offer and the many cultural activities that are not on offer in the community. Cultural tourism should be considered as an asset to the tourism industry and therefore government and tourism stakeholders should propel the process. Analysis of the reasons provided by tourists for visiting the Western Cape shows that the overwhelming majority visit friends and family. Tour operators should offer and market cultural tours that will attract and appeal to this sector of tourists. In order to offer cultural experiences for tourists, local communities wherein this activity will be undertaken should be educated and trained to provide such cultural activities. An investigation is required in terms of what inbound tourists deem the term cultural tourism to mean. Research should also be undertaken to comprehend what South African travellers understand by the term cultural tourism. It will be of interest to investigate how the industry’s stakeholders perceive the term cultural tourism. An understanding of the environment and its shortcomings, constraints and strengths should assist in developing a meaningful definition of cultural tourism for the Cape Flats. An environment and its people are unique to a spatial place and time. It will be a fruitless exercise to implement a definition on cultural tourism which is applicable in another part of the JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

A conceptual analysis of cultural and heritage tourism deﬁnitions with speciﬁc reference to the Cape Flats in Cape Town 99

world. The reason for stating this is that unique features exist within a community, which also experiences its own problems.

ELEMENTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WHEN FORMULATING A DEFINI- TION ON CULTURAL TOURISM FOR THE CAPE FLATS A deﬁnition on cultural tourism for the Cape Flats should address the following issues: • Unemployment; • Community involvement — education; • Establishing cultural sites; • Government participation; • Local government participation; • Tour operator involvement; • Crime, drugs, gangsterism; and • Upgrading infrastructure.

MARKETING THE CAPE FLATS AS A CULTURAL TOURISM DESTINATION Defining cultural tourism from an economic perspective would involve the ‘‘marketing of various sites or attractions for foreign, as well as domestic, tourists’’ (McKercher & du Cros, 2002:4). Cultural tours are offered to township areas such as Langa, Gugulethu and Khayalitsha. Tourists are exposed to shebeens, spaza shops, food made on open fires, and walking tours of the area, and are also offered accommodation. Offering cultural tours within township areas exposes tourists to mainly isiXhosa-speaking inhabitants. However, the Cape Flats comprises several ethnic groups. If these areas are excluded, the tourists are denied a complete cultural experience. None of this is offered in areas such as Athlone, Lansdowne or Mannenberg. Cultural tourism, as a marketing strategy to entice local and international tourists to visit cultural sites in South Africa, is a relatively new concept. Cultural tourism is presently the latest buzzword within the tourism sector. Tourism stakeholders have highlighted the fact that a number of tourists travel with the intention to gain insight and appreciation of the various cultures on offer in the Western Cape. Cape Town boasts five of the top 10 most visited tourist attractions in South Africa. These include the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, Table Mountain, Robben Island, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens and Cape Point. It can be argued that extensive marketing and media exposure are given to these facilities. Cape Town and, in particular, the Cape Flats, should be promoted as a cultural mecca of the Western Cape.

RECOMMENDATIONS This paper proposes the following recommendations: • The vision of tourism in the Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) policy document of 1998–2000 is to develop the tourism sector as a national priority in a sustainable manner in order to improve the quality of life for every South African. • The Cape Flats renewal project (improve walkways, signage, planting trees, etc.) will promote cultural and heritage tourism on the Cape Flats. • Foreign investment will be required to accelerate a development of cultural and heritage tourism attractions, accommodation establishments and related infrastructure. • Develop cultural and heritage tourism attractions such as cultural museums, galleries, accommodation facilities, historic buildings and cultural and heritage site tours. • Tourism Acts and policies that are legislated by national government should be implemented to promote cultural and heritage tourism on the Cape Flats. • A seminar on cultural and heritage tourism should be held with key role players in order to agree on a standard deﬁnition for cultural and heritage tourism for the Cape Flats. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/10article

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Below are examples of how cultural tours could address the economic and social malaise of communities on the Cape Flats: • Walk-about tours of areas, meeting local residents who could relate their experiences and problems. • Purchase fruit and sweets from local street vendors and distribute them at a primary or nursery school in the area. • Book a one-night stay at a residential home in the area • Make tourists aware of a poverty alleviation programme for the Cape Flats and, should they wish to make a ﬁnancial contribution, they may do so. • Have lunch or dinner at a home, eating local foods and, thereby, support a household on the Cape Flats. • Purchase locally produced artefacts at stalls on the Cape Flats rather than from established curio shops at shopping malls.

CONCLUSION It will take a number of years to sensitise the Cape Flats community to the benefits and risks associated with an introduction of cultural and heritage tourism on the Cape Flats. A successful implementation of cultural and heritage tourism requires a greater degree of buy-in from key role players that are involved in the tourism industry. Cultural and heritage tourism can be a means of alleviating unemployment on the Cape Flats. For the unemployed, formulating an ideal definition of cultural tourism has no significance to their lives. The unemployed masses want to know how they could be employed in order to sustain and provide for basic needs within their families.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2003. The definition of cultural tourism. http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/ckenned1/definition.html [20 July 2005]. Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2003. Natural and Cultural Heritage Theme Report. www.deh.gov.au/soe/2001/heritage/glossary.html [20 July 2005] Cre- ative Nation: Commonwealth Cultural Policy. October 1994 Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Communications and the Arts, Canberra, 1994 Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage http://www.deh.gov.au/ www.ea.gov.au [20 July 2005] Calhoun, Charles. 2000. Promoting Cultural tourism Vol. 9(2):92–99 www.lorf.ca/publications/ articles/cul_tourism_business.html [10 July 2005] ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Cultural Tourism http://www.icomos.org/tourism/ [2 July 2005] McKercher, B. & du Cros, H. 2002. Cultural Tourism: The partnership between tourism and cultural heritage management. New York: The Haworth Hospitality Press. Queiros, D. 2003. The cultural resource base. In Lubbe, B.A.(ed). Tourism management in Southern Africa. (p.90) Maskew Miller Longman. South Africa. 1996. White paper on the development and promotion of tourism in South Africa. Government of South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. http://www. gov.za/whitepaper/1996/tourism.htm [24 March 2004] The group travel leader. Cultural or heritage — this tourism is hot! www.grouptravelleader.com/roundups/6–00/cultural2.html [15 July 2005] Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_tourism [20 July 2005].

* Mr Reedwaan Ismail is currently the Acting Head of the Department of Tourism Management in the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

CHALLENGING PARADIGMS: WHY WARM UP PRIOR TO EXERCISE? By D Strout,* & Professor SEH Davies†

ABSTRACT There appears to be a common consensus within the exercise and sporting fraternity that prior to physical activity an individual should ‘warm up’ in order to lessen the risk of injury and optimise his or her performance. In this context, there is an alternative viewpoint that indicates that a ‘warm up’ may, in certain conditions, be counter productive, and that cooling down an individual prior to exercise may elicit better performance outcomes. A study into the warm-up phenomenon was undertaken to examine the effect of lower body pre-cooling on the duration of high intensity running performance when compared to a ‘normal’ or non pre-cooled protocol, and to evaluate individual responses in terms of Running Distance Achieved, Core temperature, Heart rate response and Ratings of Perceived Exertion. Three test protocols were performed by the participants based on the 20 m Multi-Stage-Fitness Test (20MSFT) (Leger et al., 1988). Test one involved the standard 20MSFT protocol to predict aerobic performance, while Test 2 and 3 required a participant to start from the end shuttle obtained in the ﬁrst aerobic test. Randomised selection of Test 2 or 3 involved either pre-cooling, or a ‘normal’ warm up scenario. Eight participants with a mean age of 18.6 years volunteered for the research with written informed consent. The study showed a signiﬁcant increase in the number of shuttles completed in the pre-cooled state as opposed to normal state. The results of this study challenge the widely accepted ‘warm up’ paradigm, and demonstrate that pre-cooling intervention (opposed to a warm up) increased the duration of high intensity running performance by 11.56%.

INTRODUCTION Endurance Training is known to produce adaptive thermoregulatory modifications such as enhanced sweating sensitivity (Gissolfi & Robinson, 1969: Henane et al., 1977: Nadel et al., 1974: Piwonka et al., 1965: Roberts et al., 1977: Senay & Kok, 1977: Shvartz et al., 1977), lowered threshold temperatures for sweating (Baum et al., 1976: Henane et al., 1977: Nadel et al., 1974: Roberts et al., 1977), forearm skin vasodilatation (Roberts et al., 1977), and shivering (Baum et al., 1976). These changes contribute to the lowered level of internal body temperature found in physically fit participants during exercise, upon heat exposure, during rest at neutral temperature as well as at cold exposure (Baum et al., 1976: Adams & Heberling, 1958). The above modifications may be advantageous in that they counteract the danger of reaching a critically high exercise body temperature that is one of the factors limiting endurance performance (Adams et al., 1974: Pugh et al., 1967: Saltin et al., 1972), but this appears to contradict the widespread belief that exercise is improved by warm-up maneuvers and that low body temperatures are not compatible with maximum exercise performance. Accordingly, investigators (Hessemer et al., 1984: Kruk et al., 1990: Olschweski & Bruck, 1988) have reasoned that increased body temperature by warming up before vigorous exercise may not be beneficial, because warming up increases pre-exercise body temperature and subsequently narrows the range of body temperature within which thermal homeostasis is normally maintained. In addition, lowering body temperature provides a wider temperature span before upper critical body temperature can be reached (Nadel, 1987). 101 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

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Pre-cooling might increase exercise endurance by lowering the starting body temperature and allowing more work to be completed before critical limiting temperature is reached (Schmidt & Bruck, 1981). In addition, pre-cooling allows a greater rate of heat storage with less strain on the metabolic and cardio-vascular functions during prolonged exercise (Lee & Haymes, 1995). To elicit beneﬁcial effects of body pre-cooling on exercise duration, the exercise mode has to produce adequate heat to overload the heat dissipation mechanisms of the body. Involvement of a greater muscle mass is essential to a high rate of heat production in a given time during exercise (Bergh & Ekblom, 1979: Olschweski & Bruck, 1988) In doing so, a pre-cooled body should store a larger amount of heat as well as delay the onset of heat dissipation mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of lower body pre-cooling on the duration and distance of high intensity running performance utilising the 20MST (Leger et al., 1988) which provided a standardised test for all participants, allowing an accurate estimation of V02 Max, as well as providing an effective indication of high intensity running performance during the second and third phase protocols of testing. In addition, Core temperature, Heart rate response and Ratings of Perceived Exertion were measured.

METHOD

Participants Eight 1st team level rugby players (either school level and/or U.20 representative level at Natal Provincial level, South Africa) volunteered to participate in this study. All participants had recently completed their 1st team ﬁxtures and were considered to be above average in terms of both aerobic and anaerobic capacities. None of the participants reported any injury or health-related problems. Informed consent was obtained from all the participants prior to the testing. All the participants were familiar with the multi-stage shuttle run test (20MST) which was used, and they had all participated in the test at some stage prior to the study. All participants refrained from any vigorous exercise 24 hours prior to any of the tests. All three tests where performed at the same time of day in similar conditions within ﬁve days of each other, thus eliminating any training affect. The same researcher supervised all the testing.

Testing Procedures The testing was completed on South African U.20 rugby players. Each subject was required to perform three tests, all using the multi-stage shuttle run test. Test one involved the standard 20MSFT protocol to predict aerobic performance, while Tests 2 and 3 required a participant to start from the end shuttle obtained in the ﬁrst aerobic test. Randomised selection of Tests 2 or 3 involved either pre-cooling, or a ‘normal’ warm up scenario. These tests were separated by a period of 5 days, ensuring the effects of fatigue were eliminated as well as any training affect, which may have developed.

20MST Protocol Two lines were marked out on the level rugby playing ﬁeld, 20 metres apart. The participants ran back and forth on the 20-meter straight course touching the 20-metre line with one foot at the moment that a sound signal was emitted from an audiotape. The frequency of the sound signal increased in such a way that the running speed increased by 0.5 km/hr each minute, from the initial running speed of 8.5 km/hr. When the participants could no longer maintain the prescribed pace, after receiving two warnings for not reaching the line at the time of the signal, the test was terminated on the third warning. The score was taken as the last shuttle where the subject’s foot crossed the line prior to or at the same time as the signal.

Test One: Predicted VO2 Max The ﬁrst test required the normal procedure of the multi-stage shuttle run, with the participants starting at level 1 and continuing until they could no longer maintain the prescribed pace. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

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Participants were to run the incremental test to volitional exhaustion to determine maximal

aerobic power, VO2 max, and thus maximum shuttle completed. Heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded at the completion of each stage and core temperature was recorded at the start and end of the multi stage ﬁtness test. Heart rate was monitored by means of a Polar heart rate monitor (HR; Polar sports tester, Polar Electro, Finland) and RPE was monitored on the exertion scale of Borg (1970). Core temperature was measured through the external auditory canal so that it was close, but not touching the eardrum by means of the Braun Thermoscan.

High Intensity Running Test: Thermoneutral. The second and third tests required that the participants started the Multi-Stage shuttle run at the level and stage that they achieved (or terminated their running at) in the ﬁrst test. Thus the second test started from the end point of the previous test, and the participant was encouraged to run for as long as possible until they could no longer maintain the prescribed pace. This was a high intensity running test, designed to elicit an indication of anaerobic ability. The heart rate, RPE, and core temperature was recorded under the thermoneutral conditions.

High Intensity Running Tests: Pre-cooled In the third test, like the second, participants continued trying to achieve the highest level possible, from the end point of the ﬁrst test, before no longer being able to maintain the prescribed pace, however a key intervention was the pre-cooling maneuver. Heart rate, RPE, and core temperature were duly recorded.

Pre-cooling Manoeuver The participants were required to recline in a large waste-paper bin ﬁlled with water and ice, to the level of the hips. The water temperature was set at 0 to −1ßDC. The water temperature was maintained through the continual addition of ice throughout the duration of the testing. The immersion protocol lasted for three minutes. All of the participants tested, were able to endure the three-minute immersion period. Once participants left the water bin they were towelled dry, and commenced the multi-stage ﬁtness run (at the point they withdrew in Test 1) within 30–45 seconds of leaving the water.

Statistical Analysis The results were analysed using descriptive statistics, and dependent t-tests, where signiﬁcance was determined using a two-tailed probability of h0.05.

RESULTS

Termination Data Running Performance The results (P < 0.05) revealed that there was a signiﬁcant increase in the number of shuttles completed between the normal and pre-cooled states. (See ﬁgure 1) There was an 11.56% increase in shuttles completed between the normal and pre-cooled runs. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

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Fig 1. Effect of pre-cooling on the number of shuttles completed. Total shuttles completed

16 14 12 10 8 Immersed 6 Normal No. of shuttles 4 2 0 12345678 Subjects Heart rate There was no significant difference in heart rate at the completion of both the normal and pre-cooled tests (P<0.05). Core Temperature There was no significant difference in core temperature at the completion of both the normal and pre-cooled tests (P > 0.05). Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) There was no significant difference in the Rating of Perceived Exertion at the completion of both the normal and pre-cooled tests (P < 0.05).

Initial Data Heart rate There was no signiﬁcant difference in heart rate at the start of both the normal and pre-cooled tests (P < 0.05). Core Temperature There was a signiﬁcant increase in core temperature at the start of the test following pre-cooling (P < 0.05). See Figure 2.

Fig 2 Effect of Pre-cooling on core temperature

Temperature Differences in precooled and normal conditions 38

36 Immersed 35 Normal

Core temp 34

32 12345678 Subjects JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

Challenging paradigms: Why warm up prior to exercise? 105

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) There was no signiﬁcant difference in rate of perceived exertion at the start of both the humid and pre-cooled tests (P < 0.05).

Heart rate measures at each additional level above max shuttle reached Heart rate There was no signiﬁcant difference in heart rate in all three subsequent levels above the maximum shuttle reached initially between the pre-cooled and normal state, which is evident due to only a 1.1% increase (P < 0.05). See Table 1.

Table 1. No significant differences in heart rate between normal and pre-cooled conditions. HR HR HR HR HR HR Participant Max 1 Imm Max 1 Hum Max 2 Imm Max 2 Hum Max 3 Imm Max 3 Hum 1 163 164 180 186 186 191 2 164 162 176 176 173 182 3 168 167 172 170 177 180 4 162 164 183 178 NA NA 5 154 162 168 172 171 173 6 152 163 182 182 189 18 6 7 118 151 170 172 177 178 8 172 174 188 188 NA NA Mean 156,625 163.375 177.375 178 178.8333 181.666667 SD 16.94476 6.36816861 7.029276 6.76123404 7.167054 6.28225013 RPE measures at each additional level above max shuttle reached Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) There was no signiﬁcant difference in RPE in all three subsequent levels above the maximum shuttle reached initially between the pre-cooled and normal states (P < 0.05).

DISCUSSION As indicated in the introduction, a beneficial effect of lowered body temperature on endurance performance has been inferred from the adaptive thermoregulatory modifications tending to decrease body temperature in the course of endurance training. The present results extend those observations by showing that high intensity exercise can further be improved by reducing initial body temperatures below those found at thermoneutral conditions. As for the mechanisms underlying the increased work rate after pre-cooling, it has to be considered that a redistribution of blood volume has been demonstrated to occur during exercise in humid compared with lower temperatures (Rowell et al., 1966). Blood volume is shifted to the skin veins due to the increased venous compliance (Wyndham, 1973). Central blood volume is diminished (Rowell et al., 1966). In addition, a decrease in muscle blood flow during exercise in the heat leading to higher anaerobic energy production has been inferred from the findings that blood lactate started to increase at lower work rates when compared with exercise at lower temperatures (Williams et al., 1962). The results from the present study revealed that core temperature increased following the pre-cooling manoeuver. The possible reason for this occurrence is that sudden cold exposure (−1ßDC for 3 minutes) results in rapid peripheral vasoconstriction, and warm blood is shunted back to the central circulatory system, causing a spike in deep body temperature. Thus pre-cooling maneuvers (Hessemer et al., 1984: Lee et al., 1995: Olschweski & Bruck, 1988: Schmidt & Bruck, 1981) are characterised by 15–20 minutes of rewarming or transient periods to minimise the rise in deep body temperature and reduce subject discomfort. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

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Shivering during pre-cooling could be detrimental to exercise performance as muscle glycogen is used as a substrate to fuel the increased metabolic rate (Martineal & Jacobs, 1988). In the present study, to maximise effects of body cooling on exercise duration, high intensity running was chosen as the exercise mode. Running requires contractions of a larger number of muscle groups than does leg (cycle) exercise or local muscle contractions. High metabolic heat produced by the exercise may overload heat dissipation mechanisms during exercise. Beginning exercise at a high intensity, but not a maximal level, also seems to be critical for enhancing the pre-cooling effect. If participants progressively increase the exercise intensity, the cooling effect on exercise duration seems to disappear (Schmidt & Bruck, 1981).

CONCLUSION On the basis of the results of the present study, it may be concluded that lower body pre-cooling appeared to increase the duration of high intensity running performance in a thermoneutral environment. This is evident by the 11.56% increase in the number of shuttles (distance) completed by participants after the pre-cooling intervention compared to the normal high intensity running test. In theory the results indicate that pre-cooling has the capacity to enhance high intensity running performance. Such a ﬁnding challenges the present paradigm that all high intensity exercise should be preceded by a warm up. It is tentatively suggested that further research is directed to realising a better understanding the beneﬁts of pre-cooling maneuvers for exercise and sporting performance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Adames, W. C., Fox, R. H., Fry, J. & MacDonald, I.C. (1975). Thermoregulation during marathon running in cool, moderate, and hot environments. Journal of applied physiology, 38: 1030–1037. Baum, E., Bruck, K. & Schwennicke, H.P. (1976). Adaptive modifications in the thermoregulatory system of long-distance runners. Journal of applied physiology, 40: 404–410. Booth, J. & Marino (2001). Cardiovascular responses to self-paced running in warm humid conditions following whole-body pre-cooling. American College of Sports Medicine. Booth, J., Marico, F. & Ward, J.J. (1997). Improved running performance in hot humid conditions following wholebody pre-cooling. American College of Sports Medicine, 29: 943–949. Gallaway, S.D.R. & Mavghan, R.J. (1997). Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. American College of Sports Medicine, 29: 1240–1249. Gisolfi, C. & Robinson, S. (1969). Relations between physical training, acclimatization, and heat tolerance. Journal of applied physiology, 26: 530–534. Henane, R., Flandoris, R. & Charbonnier, J.P. (1977). Increase in sweating sensitivity by endurance conditioning in man. Journal of applied physiology, 43: 822–828. Hessemer, V., Langusch, K., Bruck, K., Bodeker, R.H. & Breidenbach, T. (1984). Effect of slightly lowered body temperatures on endurance performance in humans. Journal of applied physiology, 57: 1731–1737. Lee, D.T . &; Haymes, E.M. (1995). Exercise duration and thermoregulatory responses after whole body pre-cooling. Journal of applied physiology, 79: 1971–1976. Leger, L.A., Mercier, D., Gadoury, C. & Lambert, J. (1988). The multi-stage 20 metre shuttle run test for aerobic fitness. Journal of Sports Sciences, 6, 93–101. McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I. & Katch, V.L. (1991). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance (3rd Edition). Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger. MacDougal, J.D., Reddan, W.G., Layton, C.R. & Dempsey, J.A. (1974). Effects of metabolic hyperthermia on performance during heavy prolonged exercise. Journal of applied physiology, 36: 538–544. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/11article

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Nadel, E.R., Pandolf, K.B., Roberts, M.F. & Stolwjk, J.A.J. (1974). Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat. Journal of applied physiology, 37:515–520. Olschewski, H. & Bruck, K. (1988). Thermoregulatory, cardiovascular and muscular factors related to exercise after pre-cooling. J of applied physiology, 64:803–811. Piwonka, R.W., Robinson, S., Gay, V.L. & Manalis, R.S. (1965). Preacclimatization of men to heat by training. Journal of applied physiology, 20: 379–384. Pugh, L.G.C.E., Corbett, J.L. & Johnson, R.H. (1967). Rectal temperatures, weight losses, and sweat rates in marathon running. J of applied physiology, 23: 347–352. Roberts, M.F., Wegner, C.B., Stolwijk, J.A.J. & Nadel, E.R. (1977). Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. Journal of applied physiology, 43: 133–137. Rowell, L.B., Marx, H.J., Bruce, R.A., Conn, R.D. & Kusumi, F. (1966). Reductions in cardiac output, central blood volume and stroke volume with thermal stress in normal men during exercise. Journal of clinical Invest. 45: 1801–1816. Saltin, B., Gagge, A.P., Bergh, U. & Stolwijk, J.A.J. (1972). Body temperatures and sweating during exhaustive exercise. Journal of applied physiology, 32: 635–643. Schmidt, V. & Bruck, K. (1981). Effect of a pre-cooling maneuver on body temperature and exercise performance. Journal of applied physiology, 50: 772–778. Senay, L.C. & Kok, R. (1977). Effects of training and heat acclimatization on blood plasma contents of exercising men. Journal of applied physiology, 43: 591–599. Shvartz, E., Bhattacharya, A., Sperinde, S.J., Brock, P.J., Sciaraffa, D. & Van Beaumont, W. (1979). Sweating responses during heat acclimatization and moderate conditioning. Journal of applied physiology, 46: 675–680. Shvartz, E., Shapiro, A., Magazanik, A., Meroz, A., Birnfield, H., Mechtinger, A. & Shibolet, S. (1977). Heat acclimatization, physical fitness, and responses to exercise in temperate and hot environments. Journal of applied physiology, 43: 678–683. Wyndham, C.H. (1973). The physiology of exercise under heat stress. Ann. Rev. Physiology, 35: 193–220.

* D Strout is from the Department of Human Movement Science at the University of Zululand. † Dr Simeon Davies is the Head of Department of Sport Management in the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/12article

EXTRAPOLATING RELATIVITY THEORY TO DETERMINE PARTICULAR NORMATIVE CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC MANAGEMENT By Dr IW Ferreira*

ABSTRACT A parallel can be drawn between relativity theory and the determination of normative criteria for Public Management. The article uses the well-known formulaE=mc2 of Albert Einstein as a point of departure to extrapolate similarities between theorising in Physics with a general theory of Public Management. The relevancy of theE=mc2 theorem to Public Management is established by way of a number of arguments, while the original formula, as postulated by Albert Einstein, is paraphrased to include an ‘‘n’’ factor, which, for the purpose of this article, denotes an element of infinity, and stated as such relevant to the unpredictability of human beings, the humanities per se, as well as that of the social sciences, in general, which are suggested as ‘‘situational’’, rather than constant, under all circumstances, as is the case in physical sciences. The article suggests that managers of human resources, in any particular field of work and/or expertise, should take due cognisance of the unpredictability of human behaviour, as illustrated by the ‘‘n’’ factor, within the framework of infinite environmental influences.

INTRODUCTION Public management theorists often experience difficulties in explaining the nature and extent of their discipline. Sceptics about the validity and integrity of the science and discipline of Public Management are frequently found among theorists in other social science disciplines pertaining to, for example, Marketing and Economics, Fundamental Pedagogics and Didactics, as well as in disciplines pertaining to exact sciences such as Physics, Engineering and the Health Sciences. A possible reason for this phenomenon is that often individuals with backgrounds firmly vested in one or more of the other subject fields mentioned above are appointed in top management positions in the public sector or related structures. It is often found that individuals who are appointed should solve complex administrative and management problems pertaining to dynamics of the organisational structures within which they find themselves without adequate training in management principles and administration systems. Such problems include, inter alia, financial decision-making, formulating and implementing human resources policies, problems of organisational development (OD) and problems pertaining to political issues vis-a-vis the management of administrative systems to achieve political objectives. This article briefly explains the nature and extent of Public Management as a science and a discipline, relative to its essentiality for management purposes, which theorists within other disciplines may relate to. Particular reference to certain aspects of Physics is utilised to facilitate an improved understanding of the vast and complex field of Public Management.

RELEVANCY OFE=mc2 TO PUBLIC MANAGEMENT In 1905 Einstein propounded what is presently called the ‘‘special theory of relativity’’, which has, as its origin, the conviction that the velocity of light has the same value for all inertial systems. Einstein developed a theorem from this theory that can be illustrated by the equation ‘‘E = mc2’’, 108 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/12article

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and which refers to the equivalence of the inertial mass ‘‘m’’ and the energy ‘‘e’’ of a system ‘‘c’’ (velocity of light squared) (Hoffmann, 1969:357). It is generally known among Public Management theorists that the teaching of that subject is greatly facilitated by presenting basic principles of the subject in terms of a systems model. The components of systems are all mutually interrelated on a complementary basis in order to achieve the objective of each system. In spite of certain limitations, the systems model approach is widely used to illustrate complex social science concepts. The fact that systems models do not reflect absolute accurate simulations of given phenomena within a social science context does not detract from a holistic value of such models. Within the exact sciences, systems models are, to a larger extent, useful compared to the social sciences, since, in that context, there components are usually finite variables with predictable properties. In the social sciences, the components of systems models usually consist of infinite variables with unpredictable properties such as human behaviour, with a result that forecasting the effects of the dynamics portrayed with systems models in the social sciences is markedly less accurate in terms of real-life situations than when applied in exact sciences. An inherent shortcoming of systems models relates to the perceived equal weighting of every component in most known systems models, which will cause the model to lack the ability to predict unpredictable behaviour of structures, systems and organisms. In spite of the abovementioned limitations, and lacking alternative methods of illustration and simulation, systems models are widely used within social sciences, including Public Management, to explain phenomena and to attempt to predict optimum courses of action in terms of goal achievement through organisational structures. Within this context, Einstein’s equation, ‘‘E = mc2’’, derived from his special theory of relativity, can serve as a basis for extrapolating and explaining normative behaviour of public managers, which provides a background — for those trained in disciplines other than in Public Management — of an approach to public management that would be simple to relate to. When the equation ‘‘E = mc2’’ is analysed, it is understood that it refers to the fact that ‘‘E’’ (energy) is equal to inertial mass (m) multiplied by ‘‘c’’ [velocity (of light) squared]. While the significance of this equation refers to its value for the theory of the behaviour of chemical elements and radioactive processes within the realm of the exact sciences, in order to bring about comprehension of the relativity between the elements of the extrapolated equation, as it relates to the essence of the discipline of Public Management, it may be possible to extrapolate the following parallel paraphrased version of the equationE=mc2: • ‘‘Energy’’, which is viewed as ‘‘Output’’ or ‘‘Work’’ = ‘‘O’’. • ‘‘Inertial mass’’, which is viewed as the dysfunctional situation that the community has to put up with, for example a need for education, or health services, or employment, or crime prevention, = ‘‘d’’. • ‘‘velocity squared’’, which is viewed as the rate at which the action is taken to rectify the dysfunctional situation that is facing the community = ‘‘r2’’. In terms of the above extrapolation, ‘‘E=mc2’’ could be translated to read ‘‘O = dr2’’, where ‘‘O’’ equals ‘‘Output’’ (‘‘Energy’’), ‘‘d’’ equals ‘‘dysfunctional situation’’ (‘‘inertial mass’’) and ‘‘r2’’ (‘‘velocity squared’’) equals the rate according to which the output is undertaken. With the understanding that Public Management, as a social science, is subject to infinitely variable situations, the individual elements of the paraphrased theorem should be understood to express an unlimited and unpredictable range of possible situations. In this context, a further, unknown element should be added to the equation. If such an element is labelled ‘‘n’’, then the equation is presented as ‘‘On = n(dr2)’’, where the ‘‘n’’ factor, which is unpredictable, is multiplied into each element of the equation. Should the subject of Public Management be viewed in this manner, a potential of the equation becomes infinitely complex compared to a similar equation pertaining to the exact sciences. Due to the precise extent of the data emanating from the exact JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/12article

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sciences, the ‘‘n’’-factor can be omitted from such research with satisfactory results. However, the ‘‘n’’-factor should be included within the social sciences in order to illustrate the unpredictable and variable nature of such disciplines, in this instance, Public Management. The ‘‘n’’-factor thus becomes an indispensable part of the extrapolated equation. While it is often possible to accurately predict the behaviour and properties of matter in exact sciences, similar exact predictions cannot, and should not, be made within the context of social sciences. This is particularly valid of the theory and practice of Public Management, which should serve the unlimited and inﬁnitely variable needs of subjective, emotional and unpredictable human beings, with each individual being inherently more complex than any structure to which he or she belongs. Current syllabi of Public Management programmes within higher education institutions take due cognisance of the situation-bound and, therefore, variable nature of the theory and practice of that discipline. Knowledge and understanding of the immeasurable extent of management sciences will not only encourage a new esteem for those disciplines, in general, but will generate particular understanding of the complexity and difficulties which face the theory and practice of the subject ﬁeld of Public Management.

SUMMARY Without proficiency in management sciences and expertise in exact sciences, as well as in social sciences, other than Public Management such as Law, Engineering, Education and Marketing, it is usually not adequate to manage human and other resources in organisational structures. Within a public sector environment, the only discipline that can achieve a holistic and workable approach to explaining phenomena and solving societal problems related to people and the environment is the eclectic science and discipline of Public Management. Few top managers in responsible public management and related positions possess sufficient knowledge of that discipline. Public Management is all about constant change from dysfunctionalities to functionalities against a background of infinite external and internal environmental influences. In order to move inertial mass, energy is required. The rate and force at which such energy is expended will determine the time taken to reach the chosen destination. Whether one considers the equationE=mc2 or, as extrapolated in this article, On = n(dr2), the desired end result is the same: optimum goal achievement with the least expenditure of available resources. Such is the requirement of Physics, which is also the requirement for Public Management.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bayat, M.S. 1990. Public Administration: Principles and norms for the future. Administratio Publica, Association of Teachers in Public Administration, V.2. Nr. 2. Stellenbosch. University of Stellenbosch. Bayat, M.S. & Meyer, I. (Eds). 1994. Public Administration: Concepts, theory and practice. Halfway House: Southern. Bayat, M.S. 1991. Perspectives for Public Administration in Post Apartheid South Africa, Acta Academica, V.23. Nr. 3. Bloemfontein. University of the Orange Free State. De Wet, J.J. et al. 1981. Navorsingsmetodes in die opvoedkunde. Durban: Butterworths. Hoffmann, B. 1969. Relativity, Theory of Grolier International Encyclopedia, V. 16. P.355. New York: Grolier. Hughes, J.H. 1987. The philosophy of social research. New York: Longman. Manheim, J.B. & Rich, R.C. 1981. Empirical political analysis. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Nagel, S. (ed). 1994. African development and public policy. London: Macmillan. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/12article

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Welch, S. & Comer, J. 1988. Quantitative methods for public administration. Chicago: Dorsey. Zimbardo, P. & Ebbesen, E.B. 1969. Inﬂuencing attitudes and changing behaviour. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

* Dr IW Ferreira is a Senior Lecturer in the Departments of Public Management and Tourism Management, Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 1 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

THE IMPACT OF THE SINGLE PUBLIC SERVICE INITIATIVE FROM A LOCAL GOVERNMENT PERSPECTIVE By Dr HH Ballard*

ABSTRACT The Public Administration and Management Bill or the so-called Single Public Service Bill will be introduced into parliament this year, which will have far-reaching consequences and implications for provincial and local government. The bill in question is deemed to be controversial as it erodes the autonomy of local government as provided for in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, (108 of 1996). Furthermore, the institutions and actions of provincial and local government will change dramatically as both spheres will be regarded as one sphere from a practical service delivery perspective. The national government has continuously expressed its concern at the slow progress in the provision of essential and emergency services in a sustainable manner to all communities and in delivery on the social and economic development agenda. Furthermore, the National Minister of Public Service and Administration, Geraldine Fraser-Moleketi, argues that a developmental state requires a strong centre which is an important vehicle for defeating poverty within the concept of co-operative governance. The purpose of this article is to question the motivation and desired intention of the above national department to introduce this bill. The article will also attempt to explore the consequences for local government and question the assumption that no development has taken place. The approach adopted to achieve this purpose will be to provide the theoretical context with regard to the various forms of government, detail the national government’s motivation, and provide an evaluation of the development trends and backlogs as well as the consequences for local government in terms of the following elements: • constitutional principles; • inter-government relations; and • municipal systems.

INTRODUCTION The national government has continuously expressed its concern at the slow progress in the provision of essential and emergency services in a sustainable manner to all communities as well as delivery on the social and economic development agenda. Local government has in terms of the provisions contained in chapter seven of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, 1996 (108 of 1996) been designated inter alia with this responsibility. In order to facilitate the above, various initiatives were introduced, from the drawing up of new municipal boundaries, the development of improved ﬁnancial control through the introduction of the GAMAP standards, to the launch of Project Consolidate. The initiatives listed above, as well as other initiatives, have not fully improved the lives of citizens nor contributed towards ongoing social and economic upliftment, despite the continued growth in the economy of between 3 and 6% which is within the national government’s macro economic target. The national government has continuously adopted the approach that a development state must be established to defeat poverty, which requires that all three spheres of government must work 112 JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 2 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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together, hence the promulgation of the Inter-government Relations Framework Act, 2005 (13 of 2005) and the Inter-government Fiscal Relations Act, 2007. Despite this intention and design, the relationship between the three spheres and other public bodies has not achieved the desired levels of co-operation as manifested, for example, in the relationship between the Cape Town City Council and the Provincial Government Department of Local Government and Housing. A further manifestation is the vast differences in capacity between the larger and smaller municipalities. Since 2005, the National Department of Public Service and Administration has reviewed the existing three-sphere government structure and related powers and has also examined alternatives, such as strengthening local government and removing the provincial government sphere or alternatively strengthening the supervision and co-ordination role of provincial government with local government reduced to the role of agencies. However, in both cases a strong central power control base is proposed. The purpose of this article is to question the motivation and desired intention of the National Department of Public Service and Administration to introduce into parliament the Public Administration and Management Bill or the so-called Single Public Service Bill. The article will also attempt to explore the consequences for local government and question the motivation that no development has taken place. The approach adopted to achieve this purpose will be to provide the theoretical context with regards to the various forms of government, detail the national government’s motivation, provide the development trends and backlogs and sketch the consequences for local government in terms of the following three elements: • constitutional principles; • inter-government relations; and • municipal systems.

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE FORMS OF GOVERNMENT To contextualise the foregoing, it is necessary to explain and distinguish between the various forms of government. To complete this contextualisation, reference will be made to the South African situation as it relates to the provisions contained in the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996), especially with regard to autonomy. Tansey (1995:144) conﬁrms that the distribution of powers is haphazard in practice with the international trend drawn towards a greater concentration of power centralised at the highest level of government. The advantage of a unitary form of government is that it ensures uniformity of laws and administration. The disadvantages are obvious and are listed below: • over-centralised control of local affairs; • ill suited to large and culturally heterogeneous communities in which local problems require speciﬁc rather than standardised policies (as in the case of South Africa); and • public interest in public affairs is discouraged due to the impact of a centralised bureaucracy. Many factors contribute towards this trend for centralisation. The most important factor is the national government being the biggest government in the country and therefore containong and control the greatest concentration of expertise. Contrary to the centralised approach is the federal system which permits the lower levels or spheres to operate with a certain degree of independence from the national level or sphere. The lower levels in a devolved system negotiate a local interpretation of national policies within a framework of national statutory guidance. Closer interpretation of the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996) reveals that a system of devolution operates, whereby powers are created and allocated to local government for execution. Refer to schedules 4 and 5 of the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996). In a decentralised system, however, the local bureaucrats would merely interpret and apply national policies and be granted some discretion to interpret national policy and consult local opinion. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 3 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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In practice, all systems have some measure of co-ordination and co-operation between the various levels. International writers refer to this manifestation as co-operative federalism. In South Africa, local government is deemed to be independent with a guaranteed autonomy, in terms of section 41(1)(g) of the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996) which states that the national and provincial government must ‘‘. . . exercise their powers and perform their functions in a manner that does not encroach on the geographical, functional or institutional integrity . . .’’ Despite the foregoing theoretical and statutory exposition and contextualisation, the National Department of Public Service and Administration is promoting the acceptance of more power to the centre, whereby national government will set goals from the centre, monitor administration and exercise overall supervision of provincial and local government.

MOTIVATION FOR A SINGLE PUBLIC SERVICE On 1 November 2007, the National Minister of Public Service and Administration, Geraldine Fraser-Moleketi, in a key note address to the 8th Annual Conference of SAAPAM in Cape Town, argued that a developmental state requires a strong centre which is an important vehicle for defeating poverty within the concept of co-operative governance. The national minister stated that service delivery was hampered when national frameworks and policies do not extend to local government in the areas of service delivery, public administration and management and ‘‘. . . a continued ‘‘silorised’’approach in the delivery of services resulting in poor integration of delivery efforts across government; and marked differences in remuneration and conditions of service in the public service and local government which make mobility and transfer of functions diffıcult.’’ The national minister further stated that to address these challenges it was necessary to introduce the Single Public Service concept. The motivation is summarised below: • strategic intervention to strengthen and enhance government across all three spheres; • due to the lack of co-ordination and integration to ensure the effectiveness of government initiatives and efforts on the ground; • create a single easy window of access to services; • ensure a fair distribution of human resources and expertise to strengthen the capacity at those points of access especially at local level; • integrating the three spheres of government into a common institutional framework; • establish a public service with harmonious systems, conditions of service and norms; • promote more efficient co-ordination thereby facilitating seamless service delivery; and • the clustering of services to the convenience of the citizen, through a ‘single window’ be this a physical structure or in cyberspace. In support of the foregoing, the Director-General: Department of Public service and Administra- tion stated at the same conference that this was not an exercise in ‘‘recentralization’’ — ‘‘the approach of a decentralized human resource management framework is maintained in the Single Public Service’’ The Director-General (2007) stated that as part of implementing the Single Public Service, work was currently proceeding through various initiatives including: • implementation of the access strategy; • development of a single public service GIS; • development of a citizens’ relations portal; • drafting of a single public service legislation; • development of human resources and remuneration norms and standards for institutions and spheres of government; • development of an anti-corruption strategy and standards of conduct. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 4 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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The rationale and motivation for a Single Public Service as detailed above, which is premised on the lack of capacity and underdevelopment is now critically examined hereunder.

CURRENT STATE OF DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE To test this rationale and motivation, the Human Development Index measurement was utilised, as calculated by Hartle (2007) to assess the national growth and provincial development strategies on the inhabitants of the City of Cape Town. The three respective strategies are: • the national growth, employment and redistribution strategy (GEAR); • the growth and development strategy of the Western Cape (Ikapa Elihlumayo); • the Integrated Development Plan of the Cape Town City Council. The performance of the 30 local authorities in the Western Cape Province in terms of the submitted 2005/2006 financial statements and the Integrated Development Plans was also examined. The HDI is calculated by first defining the lowest level a country occupies with respect to the specific variable being utilised. This is termed the deprivation level. The three components of the HDI are life expectancy, education and the GDP index. Hartle’s (2007) study demonstrated that the HDI for the City of Cape Town increased for three consecutive years. The HDI of South Africa and the Western Cape Province demonstrated a similar pattern in that it increased from 2003 to 2004 but then decreased in 2005. Hartle’s (2007) results indicate that the integrated local development strategy contributed positively to human development over a three-year period which questions the national minister’s contention that no development is taking place — perhaps the percentage increase is too small and incremental with no real impact at grassroots. However, it must be agreed that the development strategy has shown an incremental increase in positive externalities. The foregoing is qualified, as it is conceded that Hartle’s study was undertaken to ascertain whether the HDI could be utlised to assess development and not to formulate conclusions as presented above. Two performance criteria, namely the submission of financial statements; and integrated development plans, are currently being examined to assess local government performance in the Western Cape.

Financial Statements (2005/06) In terms of section 126 of the Municipal Finance Management Act, 2003 (Act 56 of 2003) the accounting officer of a municipality must prepare the financial statements of the municipality and, within two months after the end of the financial year (31 August) to which those statements relate, submit the statements to the Auditor-General for auditing. The types of report from the Auditor-General reflected that 30% of the municipalities had an unqualified opinion with emphasis on matter. Fifty-four per cent of the municipalities had a qualified opinion. Only 5% of the municipalities had a disclaimer of opinion or an adverse opinion.

Integrated Development Plan In terms of section 32(1)(a) of the Local Government, Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (32 of 2000) the municipal manager of the municipality must submit a copy of the integrated development plan as adopted by the council of the municipality, to the MEC for local government in that province within 10 days of the adoption thereof. In 2007/08, all 30 municipalities submitted their IDPs of which 26 were credible. Additional information was requested only from four municipalities. In all cases the spatial development element was positive. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 5 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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The current reality as submitted above needs to be improved. However, the situation does not reﬂect a very weak scenario when assessing the measurement of development and management capacity. In view of the foregoing, the rationale and motivation as presented by the national minister and her Director-General is again questioned.

IMPLICATIONS FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT The implications of the Bill for local government will be discussed from three elements, namely: • legislative; • inter-government relations; and • systems which relates to human resources.

Legislative The Public Service Act, 1994 (103 of 1994) will have to be amended as it only makes provision for the regulation of employment conditions for public servants as local government employees are covered by a separate bargaining council and legislation. The salary structure for the three spheres of government will also have to be harmonised with a uniform performance appraisal system implemented. Pascal Moloi, in his article published in the Journal of the Institute of Municipal Finance Officers (vol.8; no. 2; 2007:39) states that the proposed Bill has two objectives: • to facilitate transfer of functions between municipalities and the public service; and • to facilitate the deployment of individuals to administrative components requiring their skills. In view of this development, what is the implication for the statutory concept of inter-government relations?

Inter-government relations A further question is whether the two objectives of the proposed Bill erode the status of municipalities in terms of section 151(3) and (4) of the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996) which expressly states that the municipality has the right to govern, on its own initiative ‘‘. . . and the national and provincial government may not compromise or impede its ability to exercise its powers and to perform its duties . . .’’ By implication, does the national government concede that the spirit of Chapter 3 of the Constitution, 1996 (108 of 1996) on co-operative government is not being adhered to, nor the intention of the Intergovernmental Relations Act, 2005 (13 of 2005) been achieved, which is to facilitate inter-governmental relations and to settle disputes? Who will make the ﬁnal decision regarding these transfers, the determination of criteria for these transfers and the process to be adopted, whether inclusive and the role-players involved?

Systems that relate to human resources The Bill will impact on the following human resources systems: • market related benchmarks; • remuneration frameworks; • job evaluation and grading; and • performance measurement. Furthermore, the prevailing variables relating to the job market which is diverse in accordance with industry, sector, vocation and, more important geographic location, will certainly compound this matter.

CONCLUSION The motivation for the implementation of the content of the Public Administration and Management Bill has been questioned especially with reference to local government performance and human development. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 6 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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The implementation of this bill or policy will challenge the capacity of institutions on all three spheres, resources, skills and competencies. A feasibility study should be undertaken on the following factors: • weakening of local governance and accountability; • lack of commitment; • weakening of skills base; and • difficulty in attracting scarce skills and competencies. In the above context, it will appear that the government strategy is to obtain full unitary power from a centralized perspective so as to dictate and dominate all policy and decision making to ensure that the ruling party’s philosophy and credo is implemented and sustained despite the views of the opposing minorities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Literature Tansey, SD. 1995. Politics: The basics, 1st ed., London: Routledge. Statutory Legislation and Bills Public Service Act, 1994 (Act No 103 of 1994). Pretoria: Government Printer. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, 1996 (Act No 108 of 1996). Pretoria: Government Printer. Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations Act, 1997 (Act No 97 of 1997), Pretoria, Government Printer. Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act No 32 of 2000) Pretoria: Government Printer. Local Government: Municipal Finance Management Act, 2003 (Act No 56 of 2003). Pretoria: Government Printer. Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act, 2005 (Act No 13 of 2005). Pretoria: Government Printer. Municipal Fiscal Powers and Functions Bill as published in the Government Gazette No 29775 of 13 April 2007. Pretoria: Government Printer. Draft Public Administration and Management Bill also known as the Draft Single Public Service Bill. Pretoria: Government Printer. Journal Publication Moloi, P, Single Service Delivery as published in the Institute of Municipal Finance Office’s Journal; vol 8, no 2007:(p 39), October 2007. Unpublished works Hartle, LJ. 2007. Growth and development strategies in the City of Cape Town: A provisional impact analysis. Unpublished thesis submitted to the School of Public and Development Management, University of Stellenbosch. Conference proceedings Fraser-Moleketi, G. Keynote address to the 8th Annual Conference of SAAPAM on 1 November 2008 at the Cape Sun Hotel, Cape Town. Levin, R. The single public service paper presented to the 8th Annual Conference of SAAPAM on 2 November 2008 at the Cape Sun Hotel, Cape Town. Newspaper Publications ‘‘Provincial system under the microscope’’ published in the Sunday Times on 27 August 2008. ‘‘Strong centre will create a developmental state’’ letter to the Editor submitted by the Minister of Public Service and Administration, Geraldine Fraser-Moleketi published in the Argus, October 2007. ‘‘More power to the centre’’ published in the Mail & Guardian, 19–25 August 2005.

* Dr Harry Ballard is the Head of Department of Public Management, Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. JOBNAME: JBMD PAGE: 7 SESS: 9 OUTPUT: Mon Jul 14 17:18:16 2008 /dtp22/juta/academic/Journal−JBMD/13article

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