Gautama Buddha

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Not to be confused with Budha, a deity and personiﬁca- tion of the planet Mercury in Hinduism. For Buddhist's title, see Buddha (title). “Buddha”and “Gautama”redirect here. For other uses, see Buddha (disambiguation) and Gautama (disambiguation).

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gau- tama, Shakyamuni,*[note 3] or simply the Buddha, was a sage*[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.*[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.*[4]*[note 4] Ancient kingdoms and cities of India during the time of the Bud- The word Buddha means “awakened one”or “the dha. enlightened one”. “Buddha”is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been ac- samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age.*[note 5] Gautama quainted with and influenced by.*[8]*[9]*[note 6] Indeed, taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement*[5] of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of common in his region. He later taught throughout regions Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic.*[10] There is also ev- of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.*[4]*[6] idence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed meditative techniques.*[11] While the general sequence by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death of“birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and and memorized by his followers. Various collections of liberation, teaching, death”is widely accepted,*[12] there teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years in traditional biographies.*[13]*[14] later. The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncer- tain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.*[1]*[15] 1 Historical Siddhārtha Gautama More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this ques- * * * Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about tion held in 1988, [16] [17] [18] the majority of those the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order dur- * * * ing the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, death. [1] [19] [note 4] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all histori- the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the * * * early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the succes- ans. [24] [25] [note 7] and that several Yaksha-shrines, where trees were worshipped, were converted into Bud- sor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contem- * porary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara.*[7] Apart from dhist holy places. [26] the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It that was on the periphery, both geographically and cultur- was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, ally, of the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, BCE.*[27] It was either a small republic, in which case his

1 2 2 TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.*[27] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowa- days in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilvastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.*[note 1]

• Warder: “The Buddha [...] was born in the Sakya Republic, which was the city state of Kapilavastu, a very small state just inside the modern state bound- ary of Nepal against the Northern Indian fron- tier.*[4]

• Walsh: “He belonged to the Sakya clan dwelling on the edge of the Himalayas, his actual birthplace being a few miles north of the present-day North- ern Indian border, in Nepal. His father was in fact an elected chief of the clan rather than the king he was later made out to be, though his title was raja – a term which only partly corresponds to our word 'king'. Some of the states of North India at that time were kingdoms and others republics, and the Sakyan republic was subject to the powerful king of neigh- Buddha by Otgonbayar Ershuu bouring Kosala, which lay to the south”.*[34] 2 Traditional biographies • The exact location of ancient Kapilavastu is un- * known. [33] It may have been either Piprahwa in 2.1 Biographical sources Uttar Pradesh, northern India,*[35]*[36]*[37] or Tilaurakot,*[38] present-day Nepal.*[39]*[33] The two cities are located only fifteen miles from each The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a vari- other.*[39] ety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.*[41] Of these, the Buddhacarita*[42]*[43]*[44] is the earliest full bi- See also Conception and birth and Birthplace ography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, Sources He obtained his enlightenment in and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in CE.*[41] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest bi- Kushinagar. ography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to * No written records about Gautama have been found from the 3rd century CE. [45] The Mahāvastu from the his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, * commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's 4th century CE. [45] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts men- * tions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, [46] and various Chinese trans- of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of lations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition * * in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Pāli Canon. [40] [note 8] The oldest surviving Buddhist * manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported Buddhaghoṣa. [47] to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Maha- in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British padana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collec- third century CE.*[web 9] tion of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist 3

texts.*[48] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never histori- Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gau- cally regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely hu- tama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the man: Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb. It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often 2.2 Nature of traditional depictions a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, “superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.*[52]

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Bud- dhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates Māyā miraculously giving birth to Siddhārtha. Sanskrit, palm- of the events in his life. These texts contain descrip- leaf manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period tions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience for which significant accounts exist.*[53] British author (sabbaññu) *[49] nor is he depicted as being an eternal Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very lit- transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu tle information that can be considered historically sound, Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) did exist as a historical figure.*[54] Michael Carrithers are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu.*[49] of“birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda out- liberation, teaching, death”must be true.*[12] lines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing *[web 10] while in the Tevijjavac- chagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never 3 Biography made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the “higher knowledges”(abhijñā).*[50] The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses 3.1 Conception and birth on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.*[web 11] Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abil- ities including: a painless birth conceived without inter- course; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such“in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to“suppress karma”.*[51] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his Maya dream of the Birth of Gautama Siddharta life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha.*[55]*[note the traditional supernatural elements of his early biogra- 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.*[note 1] The exact site phies. of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been 4 3 BIOGRAPHY

prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.*[63] Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the ﬁrst arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.*[64] While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddho- dana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.*[65] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.*[66] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly Purported birthplace of Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, hierarchical kingdoms, may have inﬂuenced the develop- Nepal,*[note 1] a holy shrine also for many non- ment of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where Buddhists.*[note 9] monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.*[67]

either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,*[35] 3.2 Early life and marriage or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.*[56] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.*[56] Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,*[57]*[note 10] the son of Śuddhodana, “an elected chief of the Shakya clan",*[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,*[59]*[60] and ten months later*[61] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.*[62] Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning “he who achieves his aim”. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great Departure of Prince Siddhartha king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu.*[63] By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddho- Maha Pajapati.*[68] By tradition, he is said to have been dana held a naming ceremony on the ﬁfth day, and invited destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although 3.3 Renunciation and ascetic life 5

more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suﬀering. When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly ar- ranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes an ascetic. Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that Borobudur, 8th century material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.*[68]

3.3 Renunciation and ascetic life the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.*[69] Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, “the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods” *[70] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure. Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbis- ara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Sid- dhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.*[71]*[72]*[73] After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāma- putra).*[74] With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.*[75] The Victory of Buddha Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their aus- terities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl The“Great Departure”of Siddhartha Gautama, surrounded by named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding a halo, he is accompanied by numerous guards, maithuna loving made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got couples, and devata who have come to pay homage; Gandhara, back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his Kushan period path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's At the age of 29 Siddhartha left his palace to meet his ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna. 6 3 BIOGRAPHY

3.4 Awakening a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha. See also: Enlightenment in Buddhism * According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta According to the early Buddhist texts, [web 12] after re- Nikaya VI.1) —a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons —immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so over- powered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati con- vinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

3.5 Formation of the sangha The Buddha surrounded by the demons of Māra. Sanskrit palm leaf manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period

alizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way*[web 12] —a path of moderation away from the extremes of self- indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.*[web 12] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.*[web 13] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.*[web 13] Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated Dhamek Stupa in Sârnâth, India, site of the first teaching of the under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Buddha in which he taught the Four Noble Truths to his first five Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until disciples he had found the truth.*[76] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhal- and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days — of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have at- lika two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan —who became his first lay tained Enlightenment.*[76]*[web 14] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his fol- the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Bud- dha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara lowers as the Buddha or “Awakened One”(“Buddha” is also sometimes translated as “The Enlightened One” Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, ). but they had already died. According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries be- Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first came known as the "Four Noble Truths",*[web 14] which sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks. is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha All five become arahants, and within the first two months, described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive the number of such arahants is said to have grown to states,*[web 14] or “defilements”(kilesas). Nirvana is 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa fol- also regarded as the “end of the world”, in that no per- lowed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, re- sonal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such spectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000. 3.6 Travels and teaching 7

A view of Vulture Peak, where the Atanatiya Sutta was held

Rajagaha, capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Buddha with his protector Vajrapani, Gandhāra, 2nd century Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his re- CE, Ostasiatische Kunst Museum turn, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hear- 3.6 Travels and teaching ing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said “Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamas- to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now sata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a di- alms.” verse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka.*[77] The Buddha is said to have replied: Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely “That is not the custom of your royal lin- related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be eage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lin- a standardization. eage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expound- by seeking alms.” ing the dharma. This continued throughout the year, ex- cept during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. was that it was more difficult to do so without causing After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha the visit, many members of the royal family joined the would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha where people would come to them. became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to and became an arahant. visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to five disciples, after which they were to become the Bud- have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost dis- dha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next ciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. 8 3 BIOGRAPHY

In the ﬁfth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).

The last days of buddha teachings

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Bud- dha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, Zenyōmitsu-Temple Mu- seum, Tokyo have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capac- a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Bud- ity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules dha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda (Vinaya) to follow. that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest 3.7 Mahaparinirvana merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.*[web 15] Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.*[78]*[web 16] The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambigu- ity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns. Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukara- The Buddha's entry into Parinirvana. Sanskrit palm leaf maddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period can translate literally as pig-soft, to mean “soft flesh of a pig”. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali “pig's soft-food”, that is, after Neumann, a soft food canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, after Neumann) that as "(p)lant names tend to be local and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate and dialectical”, as there are several plants known to his last meal, which he had received as an offering from have suukara- (pig) as part of their names,*[note 11] and 3.8 Relics 9

as Pali Buddhism developed in an area remote from the According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, Buddha's death, suukaramaddava could easily have been the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death Pali regions. Specifically, local writers writing soon af- of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chi- ter the Buddha's death knew more about their flora than nese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Em- Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hun- peror Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. dreds of years and hundreds of kilometres remote in time Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 and space from the events described. Unaware that it may BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE accord- have been a local plant name and with no Theravadin pro- ing to Mahayana record. However, the actual date tra- hibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would ditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and inter- Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign preted the term accordingly.*[79] of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Bud- Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinir- vana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day dhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE.*[80] whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, * however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushi- 545 BCE. [81] nara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told king that resounded with joy: his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was cho- sen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist 44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceas- Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and ingly day and night with ten sounds—the trum- Sariputta having died before the Buddha. peting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana of hands, and cries of “Eat, drink, and be as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira,*[82] merry!" Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata. The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clar- ify any doubts or questions they had and cleared them all in a way which others could not do. They had none. 3.8 Relics According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to See also: Śarīra and Relics associated with Buddha have been:“All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perish- able. Strive for your own liberation with diligence”(Pali: After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later body was cremated and the relics were placed in monu- they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 ments or stupas, some of which are believed to have sur- stupas.*[web 17]*[83] Many supernatural legends sur- vived until the present. For example, The Temple of the round the history of alleged relics as they accompanied Tooth or “Dalada Maligawa”in Sri Lanka is the place the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers. where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. 4 Physical characteristics

Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demon- strate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have “the 32 Signs of the Great Man”. Life scenes of Buddha, sand stone: Birth, Enlightenment, Descent The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as “handsome, from Heaven, First Sermon, Passing Away, c. 2nd Century CE, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beauti- Government Museum, Mathura. ful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, 10 6 TEACHINGS

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.*[85]

5 Nine virtues

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka,*[web 19] and include:

Buddho – Awakened Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct. Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken. Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds. Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people. Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods Gandhāran depiction of the Buddha from Hadda, Afghanistan; and humans. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Bhagavathi – The Blessed one Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is he is by no means unattractive.”(D, I:115) “one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down “It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complex- the fetters of being, and is completely liberated ion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radi- through ﬁnal knowledge.” ant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even 6 Teachings so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant.”(A, I:181) Main article: Buddhist philosophy A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances. Although there are no extant representations of the Bud- dha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142).*[84] In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's ﬁrst post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional Reclining Buddha in Jade Temple, Shanghai. hymn, Narasīha Gāthā (“The Lion of Men”).*[web 18] 6.2 Dhyana and insight 11

6.2 Dhyana and insight

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.*[89]*[88]*[91] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'En- lightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting “liberating insight”, which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.*[92]*[88]*[89]

6.3 Earliest Buddhism

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Bud- dhism is the practice of dhyāna,*[101] as a workable alternative to painfull ascetic practices.*[102]*[note 17] Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist inven- tion,*[88] whereas Norman notes that“the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices.” *[104] Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.*[105]*[106] According to the Mahāsaccakasutta,*[note 18] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to.*[104]*[88] According Lord Buddha at Pandavleni Caves, Nashik. to Schmithausen and Bronkhorst, “liberating insight” is a later addition to this text, and reﬂects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism.*[92]*[88] 6.1 Tracing the oldest teachings The mentioning of the four truths as constituting“liberating insight”introduces a logical problem, since the four Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain in- which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:*[107] formation on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon [T]hey do not teach that one is released by and other texts.*[note 12] The reliability of these sources, knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which is a matter of dispute.*[88]*[89]*[90]*[91] According to culminates in right samadhi.*[107] Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must * * be applied to resolve those inconsistencies. [86] [note Although “Nibbāna” (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the com- 13] mon term for the desired goal of this practice, many other According to Schmithausen, three positions held by terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:*[95] speciﬁed.*[108]*[note 19] According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term “the 1.“Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and sub- middle way”.*[109] In time, this short description was stantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold the Nikayic materials;"*[note 14] and Richard Gom- path.*[109] brich.*[97]*[lower-alpha 4] According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or“liberating in- 2.“Scepticism with regard to the possibility of re- sight”, in the suttas*[110]*[111] in those texts where“lib- trieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"*[note erating insight”was preceded by the four jhanas.*[112] 15] According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve 3.“Cautious optimism in this respect.”*[note 16] in earliest Buddhism as a description of “liberating in- Johannes Bronkhorst*[lower-alpha 7] and Donald sight”.*[113] Gotama's teachings may have been per- Lopez.*[lower-alpha 8] sonal, “adjusted to the need of each person.”*[112] 12 8 DEPICTION IN ARTS AND MEDIA

The three marks of existence*[note 20] may reﬂect Upan- is not so”*[note 21]) from the perspective of orthodox ishadic or other inﬂuences. K.R. Norman supposes that Hinduism.*[117]*[118] these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and * Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of were familiar to his listeners. [114] Vishnu.*[note 9]*[119] The Buddha is also regarded as The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims*[web 20]*[web term;*[115] but its usage may have been common to the 21]*[web 22] and a Manifestation of God in the Sramana traditions.*[88] Bahá'í Faith.*[120] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.*[121] 6.4 Later developments

In time,“liberating insight”became an essential feature 7.2 Vietnam of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a formulations which form part of the explanatory frame- major religious teacher.*[122] His image can be found in work of this “liberating insight":*[89]*[88] both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their • The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an in- Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other ma- grained part of existence; that the origin of suffering jor religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and Confucius.*[123] fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this; 7.3 Western world • The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right inten- The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The tion, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.*[124] The only story • Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, * a natural product of a complex process. is based on the life of the Buddha. [125] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) —though not in the Roman 7 Other religions Missal —and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August). In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism, the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.*[126]

8 Depiction in arts and media

Films

Main article: Depictions of Gautama Buddha in ﬁlm

• Little Buddha, a 1994 ﬁlm by Bernardo Bertolucci Buddha depicted as the 9th avatar of god Vishnu in a traditional • Prem Sanyas, a 1925 silent ﬁlm, directed by Franz Hindu representation Osten and Himansu Rai Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions Television

• Buddha, a 2013 mythological drama on Zee TV 7.1 Hinduism Literature Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas*[116] and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is gener- • The Light of Asia, an 1879 epic poem by Edwin ally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally “It Arnold 13

• Buddha, a manga series that ran from 1972 to 1983 • 405: Richard Gombrich*[20]*[21]*[22]*[23] by Osamu Tezuka • Around 400: See the consensus in the essays by leading scholars in Narain, Awadh Kishore, ed. • Siddhartha novel by Hermann Hesse, written in Ger- (2003), The Date of the Historical Śākyamuni Bud- man in 1922 dha, New Delhi: BR Publishing, ISBN 81-7646- 353-1. • Lord of Light, a novel by Roger Zelazny depicts a man in a far future Earth Colony who takes on the • According to Pali scholar K. R. Norman, a life span name and teachings of the Budda for the Buddha of c. 480 to 400 BCE (and his teaching period roughly from c. 445 to 400 BCE) “ﬁts the archaeological evidence better”.*[2] See also Music Notes on the Dates of the Buddha Íåkyamuni.

“ ” • Karuna Nadee, a 2010 oratorio by Dinesh Subas- [5] Hypothetical root budh perceive 1. Pali buddha – “understood, enlightened”, masculine “the Buddha"; inghe Aśokan (the language of the Inscriptions of Aśoka) Budhe • The Light of Asia, an 1886 oratorio by Dudley Buck nominative singular; Prakrit buddha –‘known, awakened ’; Waigalī būdāī, “truth"; Bashkarīk budh “he heard"; Tōrwālī būdo preterite of bū“, to see, know”from bṓdhati; Phalūṛa búddo preterite of buǰǰ , “to understand”from búdhyatē; Shina Gilgitī dialect budo, “awake"; Gurēsī dialect budyōnṷ intransitive “to wake"; Kashmiri bọ̆ du, “quick of understanding (especially of a child)"; Sindhī ḇudho, past participle (passive) of ḇujhaṇu, “to understand”from búdhyatē, West Pahāṛī buddhā, preterite of bujṇā, “to know"; Sinhalese buj (j written for d), budu, A panorama of scenes from the Buddha's life, from a Burmese bud, but“, the Buddha”.Turner, Sir Ralph Lilley.“buddha parabaik or picture book 9276; 1962–1985”. A comparative dictionary of the Indo- Aryan languages. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, Uni- versity of Chicago. London: Oxford University Press. p. 9 Notes 525. Retrieved 22 February 2010. [6] According to Alexander Berzin, “Buddhism developed [1] According to the Buddhist tradition, following the as a shramana school that accepted rebirth under the force Nidanakatha,*[web 6] the introductory to the Jataka tales, of karma, while rejecting the existence of the type of soul the stories of the former lives of the Buddha, Gautama that other schools asserted. In addition, the Buddha ac- was born in Lumbini, present-day Nepal.*[web 7]*[web cepted as parts of the path to liberation the use of logic and 8] In the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka de- reasoning, as well as ethical behavior, but not to the de- termined that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace and thus gree of Jain asceticism. In this way, Buddhism avoided the * installed a pillar there with the inscription: "...this is where extremes of the previous four shramana schools.” [web the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born.” 3] *[28] [7] In 2013, archaeologist Robert Coningham found the re- Based on stone inscriptions, there is also specu- mains of a Bodhigara, a tree shrine, dated to 550 BCE at lation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, Odisha, at the Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini, speculating that it may the east coast of India, was the site of ancient possible be a Buddhist shrine. If so, this may push back Lumbini.*[29]*[30]*[31] Hartmann discusses the hypoth- the Buddha's birth date.*[web 4] Archaeologists caution esis and states, “The inscription has generally been con- that the shrine may represent pre-Buddhist tree worship, sidered spurious (...)"*[32] He quotes Sircar: “There can and that further research is needed.*[web 4] hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Richard Gombrich has dismissed Coningham's specula- Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the said facsimile tions as“a fantasy”, noting that Coningham lacks the nec- not much earlier than 1928.” essary expertise on the history of early Buddhism.*[web 5] Kapilavastu was the place where he grew up:*[33]*[lower- Geoﬀrey Samuels notes that several locations of both alpha 2] Gethin does not give references for this statement. early Buddhism and Jainism are closely related to Yaksha- [2] According to Mahaparinibbana Sutta,*[web 1] Gautama worship, that several Yakshas were“converted”to Bud- * died in Kushinagar, which is located in present day Uttar dhism, a well-known example being Vajrapani, [lower- Pradesh, India. alpha 1]

[3] Baroni: “The sage of the Shakya people”*[3] [8] Minor Rock Edict Nb3:“These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to [4] • 411–400: Dundas 2002, p. 24: "...as is now al- Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the most universally accepted by informed Indological Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula scholarship, a re-examination of early Buddhist his- which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech torical material, [...], necessitates a redating of the – these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE...” monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember. 14 9 NOTES

Likewise the laymen and laywomen.”*[40] [19] Vetter: “I am especially thinking here of MN 26 Dhammika:"There is disagreement amongst scholars con- (I p.163,32; 165,15;166,35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram cerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. santivarapadam pariyesamano (searching for that which Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Angut- is beneficial, seeking the unsurpassable, best place of tara Nikaya, 1:98-100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa peace) and again MN 26 (passim), anuttaramyagakkhe- Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, mam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27-28. Anagata bhayani: proba- place, the nirvana). Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has bly the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207-221. Upatisa pa- in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p, 235), see chapter 2, sine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955-975. Laghulavade: footnote 3, Furthermore, satthi (welfare) is important in Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421.”*[40] e.g. SN 2.12 or 2.17 or Sn 269; and sukha and rati (hap- piness), in contrast to other places, as used in Sn 439 and [9] Kumar Singh, Nagendra (1997). “Buddha as depicted in 956. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal, im- the Purāṇas”. Encyclopaedia of Hinduism 7. Anmol Pub- mortality) [...] but one could say here that it is a negative lications. pp. 260–75. ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7. Re- term.”*[108] trieved 16 April 2012. [20] Understanding of these marks helps in the development of [10] According to Geoffrey Samuel, the Buddha was born as a detachment: Kshatriya,*[57] in a moderate Vedic culture at the central Ganges Plain area, where the shramana-traditions devel- • Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come oped. This area had a moderate Vedic culture, where the to be have an end; kshatriyas were the highest varna, in contrast to the Brah- • Dukkha (Sanskrit: duḥkha): That nothing which manic ideology of Kuru-Panchala, were the Brahmins had comes to be is ultimately satisfying; become the highest varna.*[57] Both the Vedic culture • Anattā (Sanskrit: anātman): That nothing in the and the shramana tradition contributed to the emergence realm of experience can really be said to be “I” of the so-called “Hindu-synthesis” around the start of or “mine”. the Common Era.*[58]*[57] [21]“in Sanskrit philosophical literature, 'āstika' means 'one “ [11] Waley notes: suukara-kanda, pig-bulb"; suukara- who believes in the authority of the Vedas' or 'one who “ ” “ paadika, pig's foot and sukaresh.ta sought-out by believes in life after death'. ('nāstika' means the opposite ” pigs . He cites Neumann's suggestion that if a plant of these). The word is used here in the first sense.”Satis- “ ” called sought-out by pigs exists then suukaramaddava chandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An In- “ ” can mean pig's delight . troduction to Indian Philosophy. Eighth Reprint Edition. [12] The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada, (University of Calcutta: 1984). p. 5, footnote 1. Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka and other schools,*[86]*[87] and the Chinese Agamas and other sur- Subnotes viving portions of other early canons. [1] See “Ambattha Sutta”, Digha Nikaya 3, where Vajra- [13] Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of pani frightens an arrogant young Brahman, and the su- “liberating insight”by Lambert Schmithausen,*[92] the periority of Kshatriyas over Brahmins is established.Tan, Piya (2009-12-21), Ambaṭṭha Sutta. the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Nor- Theme: Religious arrogance versus spiritual openness man,*[93] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich,*[91] (PDF), Dharma farer and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes * Bronkhorst. [94] [2] Some sources mention Kapilavastu as the birthplace of the Buddha. Gethin states: “The earliest Buddhist [14] Well-known proponents of the first position are A.K. sources state that the future Buddha was born Sid- Warder*[lower-alpha 3] dhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son — — [15] A proponent of the second position is Ronald David- of a local chieftain a rājan in Kapilavastu (Pali son.*[lower-alpha 5] Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian–Nepalese border."Gethin [16] Well-known proponent of the third position are J.W. de 1998, p. 14. Jong,*[98]*[lower-alpha 6] [3] According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication “In- [17] Vetter: “However, if we look at the last, and in my opin- dian Buddhism”, from the oldest extant texts a com- * ion the most important, component of this list [the no- mon kernel can be drawn out. [96] According to Warder, ble eightfold path], we are still dealing with what accord- c.q. his publisher: “This kernel of doctrine is presum- ing to me is the real content ofthe middle way, dhyana- ably common Buddhism of the period before the great meditation, at least the stages two to four, which are said to schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be be free of contemplation and reflection. Everything pre- substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, al- ceeding the eighth part, i.e. right samadhi, apparently has though this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism the function of preparing for the right samadhi.”*[103] presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is [18] Majjhima Nikaya 36 no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone 15

else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."Warder, & 1999 inside ﬂap. [18] Narain 1993, pp. 187-201.

[4] Richard Gombrich: “I have the greatest difficulty in ac- [19] Prebish 2008, p. 2. cepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single [20] Gombrich 1992. genius. By “the main edifice”I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the [21] Narain 1993, pp. 187–201. main body of monastic rules.”*[91] [22] Hartmann 1991. [5] Ronald Davidson: “While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (dis- [23] Gombrich 2000. puted)(sic) that a relatively early community (dis- puted)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little con- [24] Schumann 2003, p. xv. fidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scrip- [25] Wayman 1993, pp. 37–58. ture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."Davidson 2003, [26] Samuels 2010, pp. 140–52. p. 147. [27] Gombrich 1988, p. 49. [6] J.W. De Jong: “It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Bud- [28] Gethin 1998, p. 19. dhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the [29] Mahāpātra 1977. canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his [30] Mohāpātra 2000, p. 114. disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."Jong 1993, p. 25. [31] Tripathy 2014.

[7] Bronkhorst: “This position is to be preferred to (ii) for [32] Hartmann 1991, pp. 38–39. purely methodological reasons: only those who seek may ﬁnd, even if no success is guaranteed.”*[99] [33] Keown & Prebish 2013, p. 436.

[8] Lopez: “The original teachings of the historical Buddha [34] Walsh 1995, p. 20. are extremely diﬃcult, if not impossible, to recover or re- [35] Nakamura 1980, p. 18. construct.”*[100] [36] Srivastava 1979, pp. 61–74. 10 References [37] Srivastava 1980, p. 108. [38] Tuladhar 2002, pp. 1–7. [1] Cousins 1996, pp. 57–63. [39] Huntington 1986. [2] Norman 1997, p. 33. [40] Dhammika 1993. [3] Baroni 2002, p. 230. [41] Fowler 2005, p. 32. [4] Warder 2000, p. 45. [42] Beal 1883. [5] Laumakis 2008, p. 4. [43] Cowell 1894. [6] Skilton 2004, p. 41. [44] Willemen 2009. [7] Smith 1924, pp. 34, 48. [45] Karetzky 2000, p. xxi. [8] Walshe 1995, p. 268. [46] Beal 1875. [9] Collins 2009, pp. 199–200. [47] Swearer 2004, p. 177. [10] Nakamura 1980, p. 20. [48] Schober 2002, p. 20. [11] Wynne 2007, pp. 8–23, ch. 2. [49] Anålayo, The Buddha and Omniscience, Indian Interna- [12] Carrithers 2001. tional Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2006, vol. 7 pp. 1–20.

[13] Buswell 2003, p. 352. [50] MN 71 Tevijjavacchagotta [Tevijjavaccha]

[14] Lopez 1995, p. 16. [51] Jones 1956.

[15] Schumann 2003, pp. 10–13. [52] Skilton 2004, p. 64-65.

[16] Bechert 1991-1997. [53] Carrithers 2001, p. 15. 16 10 REFERENCES

[54] Armstrong 2000, p. xii. [92] Schmithausen 1981.

[55] Weise 2013. [93] Norman 1992.

[56] Huntington 1988. [94] Bronkhorst 1997.

[57] Samuel 2010. [95] Bronkhorst 1993, p. vii.

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• Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative [9] “Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara”. UW Press. Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill Retrieved 4 September 2008. 20 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

[10] Tan, Piya (trans) (2010). “The Discourse to Sandaka 12.2 Early Buddhism (trans. of Sandaka Sutta, Majjhima Nikāya 2, Majjhima Paṇṇāsaka 3, Paribbājaka Vagga 6)" (PDF). The Dhar- • Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught mafarers. The Minding Centre. pp. 17–18. Retrieved 24 (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press. September 2015. • Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative [11] Access to Insight, ed. (2005). “A Sketch of the Bud- Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill dha's Life: Readings from the Pali Canon”. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Access to In- sight (Legacy Edition). Retrieved 24 September 2015. 12.3 Buddhism general [12] “Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of • Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist Dhamma in Motion”. Access to insight. 2012-02-12. Retrieved 25 December 2012. philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • [13] “The Golden Bowl”. Buddha net. Retrieved 25 Decem- Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L; Wawry- ber 2012. tko, Sandra A; DeGraﬀ, Geoﬀrey (1996). The Bud- dhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, [14] “The Basic Teaching of Buddha”. SFSU. Retrieved 25 CA: Wadsworth. December 2012.

[15] “Maha-parinibbana Sutta”, Digha Nikaya (16), Access insight, verse 56 13 External links

[16] Mettanando (2001-05-15). “Buddha net”. Archived • Works by Buddha at Project Gutenberg from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. • Works by or about Buddha at Internet Archive [17] Lopez Jr., Donald S. “The Buddha’s relics”. Ency- • Works by or about Siddhārtha Gautama at Internet clopædia Britannica. Archive [18] Thera, Ven. Elgiriye Indaratana Maha (2002).“Vandana: • Works by or about Shakyamuni at Internet Archive The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns” (PDF). Buddha net. pp. 49–52. Retrieved 25 Decem- • Works by Gautama Buddha at LibriVox (public do- ber 2012. main audiobooks) [19] Dhammananda, Ven. Dr. K. Sri, Great Virtues of the Bud- • dha (PDF), Dhamma talks • Buddha on In Our Time at the BBC.(listen now) [20] Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jamaʻat: History, Belief, Prac- tice Check |url= value (help) (Google books), p. 26, re- • A sketch of the Buddha's Life trieved 15 November 2013 • What Was The Buddha Like? by Ven S. Dhammika [21] “Buddhism”. Islam International Publications. Retrieved 9 September 2010.

[22] “An Overview”. Al islam. Retrieved 9 September 2010.

12 Further reading

12.1 The Buddha

• Bechert, Heinz, ed. (1996). When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru.

• Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku (1992). The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon (3rd ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.

• Wagle, Narendra K (1995). Society at the Time of the Buddha Check |url= value (help) (2nd ed.). Pop- ular Prakashan. ISBN 978-817154553-7. 21

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text

• Gautama Buddha Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha?oldid=694847718 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Mav, Danny, PierreAbbat, Fubar Obfusco, Ortolan88, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, Camembert, Mintguy, Isis~enwiki, Olivier, Some- one else, Stevertigo, Lir, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Pnm, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Skysmith, SebastianHelm, Mkweise, Ellywa, Aho- erstemeier, HarmonicSphere, Brettz9, Usedbook, Kh7, Poor Yorick, Andres, Jiang, Palfrey, Evercat, Csernica, KayEss, Mxn, Heidimo, Agtx, Andrevan, Aion, N-true, Andrewman327, Jogloran, Selket, Steinsky, Suphawut, Mahaabaala, EACH, Furrykef, Acmuller, Ed g2s, Jimc, Shizhao, Fvw, AnonMoos, Russell Dovey, Secretlondon, Adam Carr, Twice25, Robbot, Xiaopo, Goethean, Lowellian, Mirv, Rursus, Texture, Auric, Timrollpickering, Andrew Levine, Sunray, Hadal, Wereon, Aetheling, Carlj7, Ambarish, Mandel, David Gerard, Dominick, Crculver, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, MPF, Andries, Hargettp, Nat Krause, Tom 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Ander- 22 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14.2 Images

• File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Buddha_Parinirvana.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/ Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Buddha_Parinirvana.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_ object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the ﬁle. Artwork created by an anonymous ancient source. • File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Queen_Maya_Birth.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/ 14.2 Images 23

Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Queen_Maya_Birth.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_ object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the ﬁle. Artwork created by an anonymous ancient source. • File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Victory_Over_Mara.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/ Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Victory_Over_Mara.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_ object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the ﬁle. Artwork created by an anonymous ancient source. • File:Avatarbuddha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Avatarbuddha.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Painting from Jaipur, India; in , London. Original artist: the Victoria and Albert Museum • File:Birthplacebuddha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Birthplacebuddha.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: myself • File:Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_Buddha_03-12.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/ Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_Buddha_03-12.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www2.odl.ox.ac.uk/gsdl/cgi-bin/ library?e=d-000-00--$-$0orient01-$-$00-0-0-0prompt-10--$-$4-----$-$0-1l-$-$1-en-50--$-$20-about--$-$00001-001-1-1isoZz-8859Zz-1-0& a=d&cl=CL1&d=orient001-aaf.14 Original artist: Unknown • File:Buddha'{}s_cremation_stupa,_Kushinagar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Buddha%27s_ cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: The Buddha's cremation stupa Original artist: Prince Roy from Arlington, Virginia, USA • File:Buddha-painting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Buddha-painting.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work http://www.mongolian-art.de/galerie_buddha_goetter/index.htm Original artist: Otgo Otgonbayar Ershuu • File:Buddha_Victoria_&_Albert.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Buddha_Victoria_%26_Albert. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Michel wal • File:Buddha_at_pandav_cave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Buddha_at_pandav_cave.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 25 Cents FC • File:China-Shanghai-Jade_Buddha_Temple_6048-05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/ China-Shanghai-Jade_Buddha_Temple_6048-05.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steve46814 • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Departure_of_Siddhartha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Departure_of_Siddhartha.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Myths of the Hindus & Buddhists (1914) Original artist: Abanindranath Tagore • File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona • File:EndAscetism.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/EndAscetism.JPG License: Public domain Con- tributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Leoboudv using CommonsHelper. Original artist: PHG at English Wikipedia • File:Great_Departure.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Great_Departure.JPG License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine- readable author provided. World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Life_Scenes_of_Buddha_-_Birth-Enlightenment-Descent_from_Heaven-First_Sermon-Passing_Away_-_Circa_ 2nd_Century_CE_-_Rajghat_-_ACCN_00-H-1_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5843.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Life_Scenes_of_Buddha_-_Birth-Enlightenment-Descent_from_Heaven-First_ Sermon-Passing_Away_-_Circa_2nd_Century_CE_-_Rajghat_-_ACCN_00-H-1_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_ 5843.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Biswarup Ganguly • File:Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c. _500_BCE%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Avantiputra7 • File:Maya_dream_of_the_Birth_of_Gautama_Siddharta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/ Maya_dream_of_the_Birth_of_Gautama_Siddharta.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hutchinson's story of the nations Original artist: Unknown • File:Sarnath1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Sarnath1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? 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