CHAPTER-I-INTRODUCnON
1 * m<£**$^., ** • 1 «1'**jfiSND* ^M.^ 1 **??J?^L -sgfr" '^V-^KVS
•A--. * •SfpS H 1 , y--| INTRODUCTION
Archaeological evidences showed that the area surrounding Nashik was the early
Stone Age. Since the trap rock characteristic of that time have been found buried in the riverbed at Gangavadi. Agastya, the renowned sage was the first Aryan to cross the Vindhya Mountains and live on the banks of the Godavari. There is also mention of Lord Rama accompanied by Lakshman and Sita met Agastya, and he presented
Ram with bow and two quivers presumably to fight the Rakshasas, and advised to settle down at Panchavati. Mughal named it Gulshanabad in appreciation of beauty of Nashik, which was then restored as Nashik when Peshwas took over in 1751.
Nashik city is regional headquarter of Nashik revenue division and also various offices of Government of Maharashtra. Nashik city is spread on the banks of
Godavari River and is at 565 meters above mean sea level (MSL). The banks or the
Ghats of the river Godavari are considered to be sacred for people to take holy dip in the "Kundas" (Ponds), Godavari is also known as "Dakshin Vahini", As early as
1864 local body known as Nashik Municipality was there. Presently there are 15
Talukas namely Nashik, Peth, Dindori, Surgana, Kalvan, Baglan (Satana), Devla,
Trimbakeshwar, Malegaon, Chandwad, Nandgaon, Yeola, Niphad, Sinnar and
Igatpuri. Nashik region is a major hub for grapes, sugarcane and onion. Nashik region also art of Western Ghat known as for its biodiversity (http:// www.mpcb.in"). GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
Nashik district lying between 19° 35' and 20° 52' North latitude and 73° 16' and 74°
56' east longitude, with an area of 15,530 km2 (6,015 sq. miles) having population of
49,93,796 with>$21.56 /km2L(832^/sq mi) as per the census of 2001. It is surrounded by Dhule district in the north, Dangs and Surat district of Gujarat State in the northwest, Jalgaon in the east and northeast, Ahmednagar in the south, Aurangabad in the southeast and Thane in the west and southwest. The district has 18 towns and
1931 villages. The district forms part of Godavari basin (southern part) and Tapi basin (northern part). Godavari and Girna are the main rivers flowing through the district.
Map 1.1: Taluka Map of Nashik District
3 GENERAL CLIMATE
The climate of this district is characterized by dryness, except in the southwest monsoon season. The year may be divided into three seasons, the cold season from
December to February followed by the hot season from March to May and the monsoon season from June to November.
Rainfall: The average annual rainfall of Nashik and Niphad taluka is 923 mm and
736 mm respectively (Fig 1.1), depending on the location with respect to Western
Ghats rainfall. Considering the rainfall, jmgadoji_ac^iyities in Niphad taluka is more, but rainfall is less. Very low rainfall was observed in 2009 considering last decade.
(Source: http:// www.mahaagri.com.)
Figure 1.1: Rainfall in Nashik and Niphad Taluka, Nashik District. Temperature: Meteorological stations in the district are located at Malegaon and the other are at Nashik. Malegaon being at lower elevation than the rest of the district, the temperatures is about 3 \°C higher than at Nasik in summer and about one or two degrees higher in thev colcPseason. In the Western Ghats region the temperature is much lower than at Nasik depending on the elevations.
Humidity: As mentioned earlier humidity is higher in monsoon and dr^ in summer season. The summer season shows relative humidity between 20 and 25 percent.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
The physiographic configuration has a major role to play in the occurrence of groundwater. The district forms part of Western Ghat and Deccan Plateau.
Physiographically Nashik district comprises varied topography. Study area falls under the moderately dissected plateau (Map 1.2). Moderately dissected plateau means moderate relief and shallow soil mantle followed by zone of weathering and area is favourable for groundwater recharge. Primary, secondary and tertiary type of drainage pattern is present in the study area.
There are three types of physiography which occur such as 1. MDP-A, exposed rock and thin soil cover. 2. MDP-B, with moderate soil cover. 3. MDP-C, with thick soil cover and thick weathered zone. Nashik district is mainly drained by Godavari and
Girna River. Other important rivers in the district are Damanganga, Vaitarna, Darna,
Kadva, Aram, Mosam, Panjan and Manegad.
5 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND DRAINAGE MAP OF STUDY AREA
Map 1.2: Geomorphology and Drainage pattern of Nashik and Niphad taluka.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
In general Deccan trap is present in the district. It is entirely of volcanic, consisting
of compact, stratified basalts, and an earthy trap. The basalts are the most conspi
cuous geological feature (Map 1.3). The formation at the base of the traps is chiefly
amygdaloidal, containing quartz in vertical veins, crystals and zeolitic minerals,
especially apophyllite weathering into a gray soil, (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in).
The shallow alluvial formation of recent age also occurs as narrow stretch along the
banks of Godavari and Girna Rivers flowing in the area. The main minerals are lime
nodules and Kankar are found practically all over the district. At isolated locations the deposits consists of magnetite and ilmenite are reported (http://www.cgwb.in).
6 GEOLOGY AND DRAINAGE MAP OF STUDY AREA
Map 1.3: Geological Map of Nashik and Niphad Taluka
AGRICULTURAL (rf NASHIK
As regards the soil, the valleys are filled with disintegrated basalt of various shades from gray to black. It is of argillaceous nature. This soil is not favorable to the growth of large trees but it is very fertile for cereals and pulses. The black soil contains high alumina and carbonates of calcium and magnesium with variable amounts of potash, low nitrogen and phosphorus. The red soil is less common and is suitable for cultivation under heavy and consistent rainfall.
(http://www.maharashtra.gov.in)
7 LANDUSE MAP OF STUDY AREA
INDEX • Cooing nonoXootog Reservoir • industrial • Ktwit+Kata i.L*j*jbte topped] • Kharif'S • Land wth sen* • Open(r4atitied) D Others • Rabi*SfTvner • Residential • Sen* ForwtfNobfred)
Map 1.4: Land use map of Nashik and Niphad taluka.
Mainly kharif*and rabii crops were irrigated in the study area (Map 1.4) The main kharif crops are bajra and rice, especially in Malegaon, Baglan, Yeola, Nandgaon and Chandwad talukas. Jawar and groundnut are grown on a large scale in the western parts of the district - Niphad, Igatpuri, Peth, Nashik and Surgana talukas. In recent past, Nashik is known as 'Grape city". Besides certain irrigated crops like
Sugarcane, (GrapesyOnions and other vegetables. Niphad, Nashik, Baglan, Yeola,
Malegaon and Sinnar talukas produce large quantities of sugarcane, which require an excess amount df chemical fertilizers (Fig 1.2).
Nashik, Niphad, Dindori, and Kalvan talukas have many vineyards. Onions are grown in Lasalgaon, Niphad, Nashik, Sinnar and Malegaon areas. Brinjal, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, Tomato, Cucumber, Carrot, Potato and Coriander are some of the vegetables grown in the district. Niphad taluka is well known as high irrigation zone because cultivation of land (Fig 1.3) by using groundwater sources like dug wells and bore wells (Fig 1.4) is more than Nashik taluka.
Distribution of Chemical Fertilizers in Nashik and Niphad Taluka
s o 50000 c u 40000
30000
20000 fi 10000 5 £ 0 IH mil nil 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008
I Nashik Taluka • Niphad Taluka
Fig 1.2: Distribution of Chemical Fertilizers in Nashik and Niphad Taluka
Land Under Cultivation in Nashik & Niphad Taluka
100000 80000 -I O 60000
I Nashik Taluka D Niphad Taluka
(Source: Nashik Arthik ani Samajik Samalocham Ahaval, 2003-2008, District Inspector, Land Survey, Nashik)
Fig 1.3: Land under Cultivation in Nashik and Niphad Taluka
9 YIELD OF GROUNDWATER SOURCES
The yields of the wells are the functions of the permeability and transmissivity of aquifer encountered. This varies with location, diameter and depth of wells. There are mainly two types of ground water structures i.e. dug wells and bore wells in the area. Dug wells are generally used for both domestic water requirements and for minor irrigation purposes in the district. The depth of dug wells in Basaltic area of the district ranges from 12 to 15 m and the yield varies from 45 to 90 m3/day depending upon the local hydro geological conditions. Bore wells drilled down to 70 m depth, tapping weathered and vesicular basalt are found to yield 18 to 68 m /day.
This variation of yields in the single type of aquifer is due to lateral/spatial variation in permeability of the formation/aquifer material (http://www.cgwb.in).
*jaoundwater level of sources-ef the study area bocoincs \oyc,-h£nc&-farmers use surface water for irrigation purpose in pre monsoon season.
Irigation by Gropundwater in Nashik & Niphad Taluka
_!--' 30000 20000 r 10000
No . o f Du g Well s o 1 • 1 • • 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-200 7 2007-2008
• Nashik Taluka Q Niphad Taluka
(Source: Nashik Arthik ani Samajik Samalocham Ahaval, 2003-2008)
Fig 1.4: Irrigation by groundwater in Nashik and Niphad Taluka
10 WINE PARK OF NASHIK
Nashik Wine Park is ^rape wine park) administrated by Maharashtra Industrial
Development Corporation (MIDC). It contains 97 plots developed for winery activities. There are about 34 wine projects in Maharashtra, out of that, 20 are only in Nashik district. The total installed capacity of all the wineries are around 25-lakh lit/year. The Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation created special zone known as wine parks in the districts of Nashik. As per the Government's Grape
Processing Industry Policy- 2001. (http://www.maharashtatra.gov.in)
INDUSTRIAlJJASHIK'
Nashik district has 5372 total number of industrial units in Satpur, Ambad, Sinnar and Dindori industrial areas. Out of that small scale industries (5240) were more than medium (40) and large scale (92) industries in Nashik district (Table 1.1).
Apart from agricultural based industries, the other industries in Nashik district were of mechanical, pharmaceutical, plating, silk, dying, Calico printing, blanket weaving, paper manufacturing, Paithani sarees of Yeola, etc. All these industries together provided livelihood to about 35000 families. Some of the brands have even established their reputation in the international market.
Some of major industries in Satpur are ABB, MICO, XLO, VIP, Mahindra &
Mahindra, Crompton Greaves, Carbon, Taparia Tools etc. The following Table -1.1 shows details of various types of industries. Discharge of the industries was added in
Nasardi River at Satpur and Ambad, which meets the Godavari River at Tapovan. About 355 industries were water polluting industries, which is more thai the air polluting and hard water generating industries in Nashik district (Table 1.1)
Table 1.1: Number of various category industries in Nashik district
Large Scale Industries (LSI) 92
Medium Scale Industries (MSI) 40
Small Scale Industries (SSI) 5240
Total number of Industrial Unit 5372
Red 370 Orange 281 Green 4721
Water polluting Industries 355
Air Polluting Industries 67
H.W. generating Industries 133
WATER SUPPLY
Nashik and Niphad get its water supply from surface and groundwater sources, such
as dams, lakes, rivers and percolation tanks and groundwater sources. The Godavari
and Girna Rivers were mainly used for drinking and irrigation purpose in Nashik
district. The Darana, Gangapur, Chankapur, Mukane, Ozarkhed and Waghad lakes
have been formed by constructing dams across rivers (Map 1.5). In Niphad taluka,
dug well and bore wells were groundwater sources used for irrigation and drinking purpose. In summer season, groundwater level becomes very low, farmers use surface water from the Godavari and Darna River in summer season.
(Source: www.maharashtra.gov.in)
Map 1.5: Location Map of Dams in Nashik and Niphad Taluka
POPULATION OF NASHIK
Population of Nashik recorded 85 % the highest ever growth rate between 1941-
51.Population growth rate started rising steadily after 1961 and Nashik recorded more than the average growth rate for urban India in two decades. Nashik acquired the status of Municipal Corporation with a population of 432,000. Growth rate of 63
% of the decade 1971-81 continued in decade 1981-91. By 2001 Nashik become a million plus. Growth rate of Nashik has been constantly more than that of urban
13 India, Maharashtra and Mumbai between 1981 - 2001 and also projected population increase (Table 1.2)
Table 1.2: Population Growth of Nashik District
Year Population (Lakhs) Change (%)
1971 274482 —
1981 432044 57.4
1991 656925 52.0
2001 1077236 64.0
2011 1750000 62.0
(Source: Ghumare, 2000)
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A large amount of literature has been published during the last four decades
regarding the chemistry of surface and groundwater in India. Rhoades et ai, (1973) reviewed effect of salt present in iirigation waters in western USA, effects of
irrigation water composition, leaching fraction and salt composition of irrigation
drainage waters. Tyagi (1983), Nath et al., (1983) and Handa (1983) worked on the
utilization of saline groundwater for the irrigation purposes but considering the
special land and water management practices, which mitigate the salinity hazards.
Kothari and Gupta (1983) studied on the hydrochemical investigation in southern
Rajasthan and find out that ionic and distribution of salinity in groundwater from
hard rock areas of Chittorgarh and Banswara district. The chemical composition of
groundwater is Ca-Mg-HCC>3 type. However, dominance of sodium and chloride in
14 saline waters. Gupta (1983) worked on the salinization and desalinization of groundwater and management practices for the crop production, viewed that salinization occurs at shallow aquifer in summer season and desalinization during monsoon due to excess of rainfall which contributes to leaching.
Ghosh (1974) and Zeid and Bishwas (1990) have worked on the impacts of agriculture on the groundwater quality like changes in the salinity of water, nitrate contamination, due to agricultural waste. Mitigate this problem using the water management practices in over all India.
Pande et al, (1982), Sahu and Bhosale (1991), Sahu and Godgul (1992) studied the heavy metal pollution in Nagpur and Bombay in Maharashtra, indicating that heavy metal pollution in groundwater due to the industrial wastes.
Geochemistry of groundwater was studied in different areas of India and other countries. Zemlyanitsyna (1961) studied on the geochemistry of groundwater in north coast of lake Ladoga and reported that mineral content in the groundwater increases with depth, where HCO3 is predominant over SO4, Ca^ over Na+ and considerable Mg++.
General geology and hydrology of area, which emphasis on their impact on the geochemistry of groundwater were studied by Paulliukevicius and Masiliunas
(1968), Darr (1978), Himida (' 1981) and Herman (1989).
Kharaka et al., (1989) had study on the geochemistry of groundwater from the fractured systems in Cajon pass well from three intervals, indicates that first fracture system have salinity above 1150 mg/1 is of Na-SC>4 type and characteristic of poor water from granitic rocks and second fracture system having salinity above 850 mg/1 indicate it is alkalii e in nature.
Mathess (1961), found the sulphate ion concentration increased due to the biological sulphate cycle, fertilizing, waste products of industry, temperature of groundwater and fluctuation of sub surface water level and surface water. Mirisher (1968) studied on fluoride content in groundwater of the Dzhebel area. High content of potassium in Nepsk artesian basin was studied by using hydrogeochemical index and depth of groundwater by Trofimuk (1971).
Rudenko (1966) have studied on hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater in the Ukrainian crystalline massif. Same study was done by Khodzhibaev and
Salimova (1965) reported mineral content in groundwater of Amu Darya area increases due to the evaporation, leaching of soil, salts from saturated soils and exchange adsorption between irrigation waters and salinated soils.
Study on the origin of sodium bicarbonate waters in the Otway basin, Victoria,
Australia have done by Blake (1989), reported three types of reaction from high
HC03 waters 1. Reaction of Na ion with Kaolinite to form sodium beidellite. 2.
Dissolution of dolomite by H+ ion to release Ca, Mg, HCO3 ions in the solution and
3. Exchange of Ca and Mg ions on clays to displace Na ions to solution.
Prasad et ah, (1982) attempt study on the utility of groundwater for drinking, irrigation purposes in Vishakhaptnam - Bhimilipatnan area in India. Most of the wells were suitable for the drinking and irrigation purpose, in fact most of the wells situated near the coast. Studies of environmental contamination of groundwater with organic substances in the Gaza strip by Al- Agha (1995) and Vuppala et al, (2005) studied on the contamination of groundwater due to the organic chemical waste that was placed landfills and leaching through vasado zone in to the groundwater. Water quality of urban villages in Delhi is not acceptable for human consumption and biologically also not accepted was reported by Bhatia and Dave (1980).
Poch (1971), Spalding et al, (1978), Tabatabai et al, (1992), Levallois et al,
(1994), Dick and Christ (1995), Zhang et al, (2006) attempted study on the nitrate contamination of groundwater due to the massive use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture in different parts of different countries.
Nitrate content in soil and underneath area, due to the disposal of manures from dairies in the Chino - Corona basin were determined by Pratt and Bishap (1971).
Mineral content of groundwater increases due to the rise in water level was studied by Planin et al, (1964) in irrigated parts of 4th terrace of Vakhsh River. Report on the nitrate contamination of groundwater due to animal and human waste was done by Hedlin (1971), Kreitler et al, (1975) and Wassenaar et al, (2006).
Thomas et al, (1972), Gillham (1991), Iqbal (1994), Schudel et al, (1995) and Luo et al, (2003) worked on the infiltration process, which is responsible for contamination of groundwater. Nitrate contamination of groundwater due to leaching of inorganic nitrate from barnyard and due to disposal of municipal sewage reported by Gillham (1969) and Polta et al, (1972) respectively.
17 Alaburda and Nisihara (1980) attempted study on the presence of N compound in well water due to the inadequate sanitary conditions in the metropolitan region of
South Paulo city.
Soam and Singh (1997) have work done on the Krishna River using a spatial modelling approach to water pollution monitoring in the sugar belt of Maharashtra.
Gaikwad (2000) has work done on the Godavari River in Nashik; pool pollution index was used for the influence of parameters on the quality of Godavari River.
Aher, Zinjad, Gunjal and Kuchekar (2002) collected water from Bhandara to
Babhaleshwar for analysis. The results shows that the physicochemical characteristics of water changes to downstream from Bhanadara to Babhaleshwar due to human activities. Islam and Gyananath (2002) from Swami Ramanand Teerth
University worked on contamination of chemical fertilizers in groundwater and seasonal variations. Sulphate and nitrate levels were within permissible limit but phosphate levels higher than the permissible limit. Ghumare (2004) has attempted work on the surface water quality of Darana River in Nashik, which is the tributary of Godavari River.
The highest values of nitrates, potassium and phosphate ions are recorded in dug well waters. In eastern India, viz. in west Bengal, Orissa, Assam and Kerala, due to humid climate, the concentration of nitrate, potassium and phosphate ions were low as compared than the arid and semi arid parts of India was reported by Handa
(1983).
18 Schmidt et al., (1987) studied on increase in salinity and nitrate of groundwater beneath irrigated lands, due to evapotranspiration and application of nitrogen fertilizers are the primary causative factors.
Jastrio and Singh (2007) worked on the geochemistry of groundwater and concluded that dominance of calcium carbonate, indicating recharging of water from the carbonates present in sandstone aquifer. The groundwater increases its major ions concentration in the post monsoon season in comparison to the pre monsoon period, due to the precipitation and environment weathering.
Differences between nitrate concentrations in groundwater from aquifers underlying agricultural and urban areas are small and higher in urban areas, due to landfill leachate or sewage produce high concentration in groundwater was reported by
Wakida and Lerner (2005).
Pawar (1993) studied on the chemical equilibrium with respect to dolomite prior to calcite and selective dissolution of augite has led to rapid release of Mg than Ca and
Na from minerals in Pune area.
Irrigation agricultural has a tremendous effect on the environment, and evidently most ancient irrigation systems and crop production practices were no exception,
(Nightingale, 1973).
Application of fertilizers to crop, lead to leaching of nitrogen to soil and then to the groundwater. It can be assumed that 10 to 30 percent of the fertilizer nitrogen applied would be leached out of the root zone as nitrate in deep percolation water reported by Mallick and Banerji (1981). According to the surveys carried out by Central Ground Water Board (2008) on selected stations of groundwater in India, it has been observed that groundwater quality of states in India was polluted. Groundwater was contaminated due to the salinity, nitrate and chloride in Maharashtra. Various factors are responsible for the contamination of groundwater pollution, which is summarized in Table 1.3.
20 Table 1.3: Groundwater Pollution in India.
Pollutant State Place of occurrences Salinity Maharashtra Amravati, Akola (Inland) Bihar Begusarai Haryana Karnal Rajasthan Banner, Jaisalmer, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Nagaur, Jalore & Sirohi U.P. Mathura Salinity Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatnam (Coastal) Orissa Puri, Cuttak, Balasore West Bengal Haldai & Pargana Gujarat Junagarh, Kachch, Varahi, Banskanta & Surat Fluoride Kerala Palaghat Krishna, Ananipur, Nellor, Chittoor. Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah, Guntur and Nalgonda Gujarat Banskanta, Kachch & Amreli Haryana Hissar, Kaithal & Gurgaon Orissa Bolangir, Bijapur, Bhubaneshwar and Kalahandi Punjab Amritsar, Bhatinda, Faridkot, Ludhiana & Sangrur Rajasthan Nagaur, Pali, Sirohi, Ajmer & Bikaner Tamil Nadu Chengalput, Madurai U.P. Unnao, Agra, Aligarh, Mathura, Ghaziabad, Meerut & RaiBaraili Sulphide Orissa Balasore, Cuttak & Puri Iron U.P. Mirjapur Assam Darrang, Jorhat, Kamrup Orissa Bhubaneshwar Bihar E. Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Gaya, Manger, Deoghar & Madubani Rajasthan Bikaner, Alwar, Bharatpur Tripura Dharmnagar, Kailasanar, Ambasa, Amarpur & Agartala West Bengal Madnipur, Howrah, Hoogly and Bankura Manganese Orissa Bhubaneshwar, Athgaon U.P Muradabad, Basti, Rampur & Unnao Arsenic West Bengal Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, 24 Pargana
21 Nitrate Bihar Patna, East Champaran, Palamu, Gaya, Nalanda, Nawada and Banka Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatnam, East Godvari, Krishna, Prakasam, Nellor, Chittoor, Anantpur, Cuddapah, Kumool, Khamam and Nalgonda Delhi Naraina, Shehadr (Blocks) Haryana Ambala, Sonepat, Jind, Gurgaon, Faridabad & Hissar Himachal Pradesh Kulu, Solan, Una Karnataka Bidar, Gulbarge and Bijapur Madhya Pradesh Sehore, Bhopal & (West & Central Part of state) Maharashtra Jalna, Beed Nanded, Latur, Osmanabad, Solapur Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur Punjab Patiala, Faridkot, Firozpur, Sangrur & Bhatinda Rajasthan Jaipur, Churu, Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jalore, Banner, Bundi and Sawaimadhopur Tamil Nadu Coimbatore, Penyar and Salem West Bengal Uttar Dinajpur, Malda, Birbhum, Murshidabad, Nadia, Bankura and Purulia. Chloride Karnataka Dharwad, Belgaum Madhya Pradesh Bhind, Shagapur and Sehore Maharashtra Solapur, Satara, Amravati, Akola & Buldana Chloride Rajasthan Banner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur & Jalore West Bengal Contai, Digha, Haldia Zinc Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad, Osmania University campus Delhi R.K. Puram Rajasthan Udaipur Chromium Punjab Ludhiana
(Source: http : // www.cgwb.com)
22 Increase of population, rapid industrialization and agricultural activities were responsible for the groundwater pollution in India. There is lack of groundwater quality data of Nashik and Niphad taluka, Nashik district. Hence it is proposed to undertake a systematic study of groundwater quality in Nashik and Niphad taluka of
Nashik district and is expected to be of great help to the authorities of Government for effective implementation/^
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the study includes
1. To assess the quality of groundwater using various physicochemical
parameters and heavy metals.
2. To determine types and sources of groundwater pollution, from strategic
locations for sample from Nashik and Niphad taluka.
3. To observe trends in groundwater quality.
4. To find the suitability of groundwater for drinking & irrigation purposes.
5. To study the groundwater quality in irrigation command area .
6. To identify & monitor the locations of major pollutant sources e.g. landfill
sites, domestic sewage, industrial waste disposal & mining activities.
7. Monitoring of nitrate, fluoride & iron concentration in groundwater & to
identify fluoride, nitrate & iron vulnerable areas.
8. To provide basic data for monitoring groundwater quality for administrators
for overall planning to protect the groundwater quality.
23