10. KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Synthesis of the data gathered under this study has resulted in generation of a comprehensive inventory of 960 medicinal plant species that form source of 1289 botanical raw drugs recorded in trade in the Indian raw drug markets (Appendix-1). This list provides correlation of the popular trade names with the updated botanical nomenclature and would form a reliable base for any study on traded medicinal plants of India. Out of these 960 species, 688 are part of the classical materia medica of ‘Ayurveda’, 501 species of ‘Siddha’ and 328 of the ‘Unani’ system, with many species overlapping across these systems. 41% of these 960 species are herbs, 26% are trees, 18% are shrubs and the remaining 15% are climbers. Whole plants, roots, wood and bark form more than 50% of the 1289 botanical raw drugs in trade and as such their collection involves damage/destruction of the specific plant entities. 81% (780) of these species in trade are sourced entirely or largely from the wild, the remaining traded species being obtained from either cultivation or imports. The study has also resulted in assessment of total annual demand of botanical raw drugs and its corresponding monetary valuation. Inferences drawn from the analysed data can guide major shifts in strategies and focus for management of medicinal botanicals both in the agricultural and forestry sector. This study is, thus, a definite step forward towards clearer understanding of the priorities for management of the medicinal plant resources of the country. Key findings of the study are outlined below:

10.1. Estimation of Annual Demand of Botanical Raw Drugs The annual demand of botanical raw drugs in the country has been estimated at 3,19,500 MT for the year 2005-06. This demand estimate reflects synthesis of data related to consumption of botanicals by the domestic herbal industry, the rural households and the actual volume of botanicals exported during the year 2004-05 (Table 10.1). For arriving at realistic annual demand estimates in respect of the domestic herbal industry, the ‘demand’ has been assumed to be equivalent to the actual ‘consumption’ of botanical raw drugs by the industry. This has helped in offsetting the general tendency amongst the traders and industrial consumers to quote much higher ‘potential’ demand estimates, leading to over- estimation. There are many spices, fruits, vegetables and cereals that are used in high quantities by the herbal industry. We have, however, excluded such entities while arriving at demand estimates of ‘botanical raw drugs’ as:

(i) the use of such entities as ‘herbal raw drugs’ forms only a small part of their annual production and their major usage is for other purposes, 108 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

Table-10.1: Total Annual Demand of Botanical Raw Drugs by Dry Weight (2005-06)

S. Categories of Estimated Basis of Estimates Remarks Consumers Annual Demand (MT)

1 Herbal Industry* 1,77,000 Analysis of consumption The demand estimates pertain data of 188 sampled to botanical entities that are herbal units stratified exclusively traded as ‘herbal into outturn based four raw drugs’ and do not include size-classes demand on account of popular spices, fruits, 2 Rural Households 86,000 Analysis of medicinal vegetables and cereals used as plants consumption of raw drugs. 1223 sampled rural households (5 states)

3 Exports** 56,500 Analysis of DGCIS data relating to export of commodities during 2004-05 Total: 3,19,500

* Data pertains to 2005-06 * * Data pertains to the year 2004-05.

(ii) all these entities are already under sizeable cultivation and the demand by the herbal industries is being adequately met, and

(iii) there is already adequate focus on their cultivation and management through various government agencies like Spices Board, Horticulture Board etc. and specific intervention by NMPB may not be needed.

10.1.1. Estimates of Non-commercial Household Consumption:

An important highlight of this study is the first ever quantitative estimation of the herbal raw drug consumption by the Rural Households. This segment of the society consumes an estimated 86,000 MT of botanical raw drugs per year for health care purposes. This accounts for nearly 27% of the total estimated consumption of herbal raw drugs in the country. Inclusion of consumption estimates in respect of the rural households for estimation of total annual consumption of botanicals in the country reflects a paradigm shift in the demand and supply assessment procedure and will contribute to understanding the role of botanicals for fulfilling health security and largely the non-commercial requirements of rural communities. This demand has important implications for developing a more holistic framework for the management of the resource. One implication is that in the 11th Plan one will need to balance commercial cultivation programmes, which largely cater to industrial consumption, with programs for promoting homestead and community gardens which can meet the non-commercial requirements for the resource. Although this estimation has been Key Findings and Recommendations 109 based on a limited sample size, the results are indicative enough to flag this important dimension of non-commercial and non-industrial consumption of medicinal plants in the country.

Box 10.1: Comparison of Annual Demand Estimates with Previous Studies: The comprehensive annual demand estimate of 3,19,500 MT arrived at under this study, is higher than the quantitative estimates reported in the three earlier national level reports i.e. the Planning Commission’s Task Force Report (Anon. 2000), CERPA report (Anon. 2002) and the EXIM Bank Report (Anon. 2003). The Task Force Report (Anon. 2000) had, on the basis of quick assessment, estimated the total herbal raw material demand of the ISM sector as 2,40,000 MT. The total annual demand of botanicals in the country, extrapolated by CERPA report (Anon 2002) on basis of study of 162 species, was estimated at 2,34,674 MT (1,98,054 MT on account of domestic consumption & 36,620 MT on account of exports). The EXIM Bank Report (Anon. 2003) estimates the total demand of botanicals to be 1,28,000 MT. A critical evaluation of the Task Force Report reveals that it neither contains any basis nor methodology for ‘quick assessment’ of the demand and supply. The demand estimate can at best, therefore, be taken as indicative. In the case of the CERPA Report, the annual demand estimation is based on the fieldwork related to 162 species with more than 100 species in high demand left out of the survey and analysis. Moreover, the demand figures worked out in the CERPA Report seem to be very high in respect of certain species. For example, the domestic annual demand of ‘Vansalochan’ has been estimated to be 2,153.5 MT in CERPA Report whereas the same has been assessed to be below 100 MT in the present study. Similarly, annual demand of other species, viz. Asparagus racemosus, Adhatoda zeylanica, Saraca asoca has been estimated at 8,246.3 MT, 4,211.9 MT and 5,331.8 MT respectively. These demand estimates seem to be much higher when viewed in the light of consumption figures of 3,180 MT, 2,701 MT and 2,041 MT respectively for these species arrived at in the present study. As far as the EXIM Bank Report is concerned, the annual demand estimate has been calculated by dividing the total trade value estimates given in the National Draft Policy on ISM, 2001, by an average common price of Rs. 30/- per kg for all botanicals.

10.2. Estimation of Annual Trade Value of Botanical Raw Drugs

An annual trade value corresponding to the trade of 3,19,500 MT of botanical raw drugs in the country works out to Rs. 1,069 crores for the year 2005-06. This trade value reflects the synthesis of trade values worked out separately for each of the three different consumer categories (Table 10.2). As far as the valuation of botanical raw drugs exported during the year is concerned, the actual export value i.e. Rs. 354.80 crores as gleaned from the DGCIS data has been used. As regards the rural households, a notional average value of Rs. 10 per kg for air- dried material (equivalent to Rs. 2/- per kg of green material) has been used to work out the financial contribution of medicinal herbs to the society on account of non-commercial users. The quantities of plant raw drugs procured by M/s. Dabur, M/s. Sami, M/s. Charak and M/s. Zandu, during 2005-06, add up to 8,147 MT at a corresponding procurement value of Rs.2,890 lac. Using this correlation, the total trade value of 1,77,000 MT consumed by 110 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India the herbal manufacturing sector works out to Rs.627.90 Crores. This works out to a procurement cost of Rs.35.47 per kg for all botanicals in industrial consumption, excluding spices, cereals, fruits etc. Most of the plants are traded by parts and not as a whole and as different plant parts in trade command different prices, it is not feasible to work out species- wise prices for botanicals in trade. Further, the prices are subject to large variations depending upon season, distance from the source, quantum of production, purity/quality, bulk purchases etc. making it impossible to work out species-wise ‘average annual prices’.

Table 10.2: Total Annual Trade Value of Botanical Raw Drugs (2005-06)

Consumer Quantity Trade Value Remarks Categories Consumed (MT) (Rs. in crores)

Herbal Industry 177000 627.90 i) The aggregated procurement costs reported by four major Exports* 56,500 354.80 manufacturing units (Dabur, Rural Households 86,000 86.0 Charak, Sami and Zandu) have been utilized for estimating the Total: 3,19,500 1068.70 procurement value of 177000 MT of raw drugs. ii) Trade value of material consumed by the rural households has been estimated using a notional rate of Rs.10 per kg.

Comparison of the trade value as worked out in this study, with estimates included in the earlier reports, presents a rather intriguing picture. Whereas the annual trade value of Rs. 1,069 crores worked out in this report is lower than annual trade value of Rs. 1,275 crores (Rs. 1,099 crores on account of domestic trade & Rs. 176 crores on account of exports) as calculated in CERPA Report (Anon. 2002), it is higher than the annual trade value of Rs. 847 crores (Rs. 384 crores on account of domestic trade & Rs. 463 crores on account of exports) as per the EXIM Bank Report (Anon. 2003). This difference in the trade values is presumably due to the use of different unit rates and methodologies in different studies. The unit rates used in CERPA report are very high as could be appreciated from the inferred average price i.e. Rs. 55 per kg (total annual trade value/ total annual trade volume = 1099 crores/ 1,98,055 MT) used in the study. Moreover, instead of elucidating the basis for arriving at this trade value, it states that the figures have been ‘adjusted’ in consultation with ‘knowledgeables’. The EXIM Bank Report on the other hand uses an inferred figure of Rs. 30 per kg for arriving at the trade value. The present report, thus, is the first to clearly present the methodology and basis for arriving at the trade value.

10.2.1. Estimation of Annual Domestic Turnover of Herbal Industry: Analysis of data obtained from herbal industries related to their annual turnover and the procurement cost of botanical raw drugs (excluding spices, cereals, fruits etc.) has thrown up an interesting correlation between the trade value of botanical raw drugs consumed Key Findings and Recommendations 111 by the manufacturing units and their annual turnover. On an average the annual procurement costs of botanical raw drugs account for about 7% of the annual turnover of the herbal manufacturing unit. Employing this correlation to the total procurement costs of Rs. 627.90 crores pertaining to the botanical raw drugs consumed by the herbal manufacturing sector for the year 2005-06, the estimated annual turnover of this sector works out to Rs. 8,800 crores!

10.3. Identification of 178 Species Traded in High Volumes (>100 MT/yr.) Out of the 960 medicinal plant species recorded in trade as raw drugs in the country, 178 species are consumed in volumes exceeding 100 MT per year (Table 10.5). This list has been arrived at as under and includes - (i) 117 species recorded in high industrial consumption during sample survey of 188 herbal manufacturing units (table 4.2) (ii) 28 medicinal plant species that are harvested from wild in quantities exceeding 100 MT but not included in table 4.2. (iii) 31 medicinal plant species recorded in high volume trade (>100 MT/ annum) in the survey of ‘mandis’ but not recorded in high volume from either the consumption or the production end. (iv) 2 species recorded exclusively from exports data. It is interesting to note that the consolidated annual consumption of these high trade species, by the domestic herbal industry, accounts for nearly 80% of the total industrial demand of all botanical raw drugs. The implication is clear. These species are the mainstay of domestic herbal industry and would need to be continuously made available for sustenance and growth of the industry. A key question is whether all these 178 species would need management interventions for their sustained supply? To find answer to this question we have subjected this list of species in high demand to an analysis by their major sources of supply and the results are quite revealing. Out of these, 36 species (20%) are sourced largely from cultivation. The wastelands, fallow lands, roadsides and farm bunds form the source of 46 species (25%) and 5 species (3%) are imported. The remaining 91 species (52%) are sourced from the forests, both tropical and temperate (Fig. 10.1). Critical evaluation of these 178 species in view of their demand and the major source of supply brings out that not all these species need immediate management focus. An assessment of the criticality of the species needing management interventions in view of their supply source and demand is presented below:

10.3.1. Ninety one Wild (Forest) Species for Prioritised Management Interventions: Analysis of the 91 species that are sourced primarily from forests shows that 21 species are from Himalayan (temperate) forests and 70 from tropical forests. Additionally, 112 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India the raw drugs obtaind from two very important tropical forest species namely Commiphora wightii (guggul) and Aquilaria agallocha (agar) are being imported in sizeable quanitities to meet the demand of domestic herbal industry. These two species need a special management focus in their natural range of distribution in the country.

Fig. 10.1: Supply source wise analysis of 178 species in high demand

A closer look at the 21 Himalayan species (Box 10.2) reveals that barring six tree species viz. Cedrus deodara, Cinnamomum tamala, Juniperus communis, Pistacia integerrima, Taxus wallichiana and Abies spectabilis and two shrubs i.e. Berberis aristata and Rhododendron anthopogon, the remaining species are temperate and alpine herbs. The wild populations of these temperate and alpine herbs are going down drastically due to indiscriminate removals to meet the high industrial demand. It is these species that need the most urgent and immediate management focus if their sustained supplies over a long-term period are to be ensured. An obvious strategy for increasing their supplies should be to build up their wild populations by putting in place effective management interventions to regulate their wild collections. The domestication and commercial cultivation of these species also needs to complement the conservation initiatives. However, domestication and cultivation would need intensive research inputs as most of these species produce harvestable parts after more than one year and, therefore, would need meticulous working out of their economic viability vis-a-vis conventional crops. Each of the eight woody perennials of temperate Himalayan forests will also need careful and immediate appraisal of the status of their wild populations in order to have an objective basis to plan appropriate interventions.

Box 10.2: 21 Medicinal Plant Species in High Trade sourced from Temperate Forests Abies spectabilis (Brahmi talish), Aconitum ferox (Vachnag), Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis), Berberis aristata (Daruhaldi), Bergenia ciliata (Pashanbheda), Cedrus deodara (Devdar), Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpatra), Ephedra gerardiana (Somlata), Juniperus communis (Hauber), Jurinea macrocephala (Dhoop), Nardostachys grandiflora (Jatamansi), Onosma hispidum (Ratanjot), Parmelia perlata (Chadila), Picrorhiza kurroa (Kutaki), Pistacia integerrima (Kakarsingi), Rheum australe (Revandchini), Rhododendron anthopogon (Talish patra), Swertia chirayita (Chirata), Taxus wallichiana (Talish), Valeriana jatamansii (Mushakbala), Viola pilosa (Banafasha). Key Findings and Recommendations 113

NMPB needs to give high priority to support conservation and cultivation programmes, backed up by focussed research on these species. As far as the 70 species mainly sourced from the tropical forests (Box 10.3) are concerned, it is alarming to note that most of these are trees or woody perennials with many of them occurring in specialised niches. Of special concern are the tree species like Oroxylum indicum, Stereospermum chelonoides and Premna integrifolia the roots of which form part of the popular Ayurvedic raw drug group ‘Dashamoola’. With no current management focus for promoting populations of such species, their populations are on the decline and would need to be urgently built up if herbal industry is to be fed with regular supplies of these species, as the current level of estimated consumption exceeds 1000 MT in respect of each of these species. All the 70 species needs focussed and urgent attention by NMPB.

Box 10.3: 70 Medicinal Plant Species in High Trade sourced from Tropical Forests* Acacia catechu (Katha), Acacia nilotica (Babool), Acacia sinuata (Shikakai), Aegle marmelos (Bael), Albizzia amara (Cheroola), Alstonia scholaris (Saptaparni), Anogeissus latifolia (Dhawada), Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari), Baliospermum montanum (Dantimool), Bombax ceiba (Simal), Boswellia serrata (Salai guggul), Buchnania lanzan (Chironji), Butea monosperma (Tesu phool), Careya arborea (Vaai kumbha), Cassia fistula (Amaltas), Celastrus paniculatus (Malkangani), Chlorophytum tuberosum (Safed musali), Cinnamomum sulphuratum (Dalchini), Clerodendrum phlomides (Arnimool), Coscinium fenestratum (Maramanjal), Cyclea peltata (Paadu kizhangu), Decalepis hamiltonii (Magali), Desmodium gangeticum (Salparni), Embelia tsjerium-cottam (Vai-vidang), Emblica officinalis (Amla), Garcinia indica (Kokam), Gardenia resinifera (Dikamali), Gmelina arborea (Gambar Chhal), Gymnema sylvestre (Gudmar), Helicteres isora (Marod phali), Holarrhena pubescens (Kutja), Holoptelea integrifolia (Aavithali), Holostemma ada-kodien (Jeevanti), Ipomoea mauritiana (Palmudhukkan kizhangu), Ixora coccinea (Thechippoovu), Lannea coromandelica (Jhinganjingini), Litsea glutinosa (Maida chhal), Lobelia nicotianaefolia (Lobelia leaves), Madhuca indica (Madhuka), Messua ferrea (Nagakesar), Mimusops elengi (Bakul), Morinda pubescens (Manjanathi), Mucuna puriens (Kaunch beej), Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Kurinji), Operculina turpethum (Nishoth), Oroxylum indicum (Tetu chhal), Premna serratifolia (Arnimool), Pterocarpus marsupium (Vijaysaar), Pterocarpus santalinus (Rakta chandan), Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha), Rubia cordifolia (Manjishtha), Santalum album (Chandan), Sapindus mukorossi (Reetha), Saraca asoca (Ashoka Chhal), Schrebera swietenioides (Ghanti phool), Semecarpus anacardium (Balave), Shorea robusta (Raal), Smilax glabra (Chopchini), Soymida febrifuga (Rohan), Sterculia urens (Karaya), Stereospermum chelonoides (Patala), Strychnos nux-vomica (Kuchla), Strychnos potatorum (Nirmali), Symplocos racemosus (Lodh pathani), Terminalia arjuna (Arjan), Terminalia bellirica (Behra), Terminalia chebula (Harda), Vateria indica (Manda dhoopa), Wrightia tinctoria (Indrjau), Ziziphus xylocarpus (Ghonta phala)

*Commiphora wightii (guggul) and Aquilaria agallocha (agar), largely sourced through imports at present, are also native tropical species and need special management focus. 114 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

10.3.2. Wild Species in High Trade with Adequate Production from Self-grown Populations:

Amongst the high volume trade category we have identified 46 such species, which grow in abundance along roadsides, farm bunds, fallow lands and wastelands (Box 10.4) across the tropical regions of the country. These species have high regeneration potential, are very hardy with and are known to come up even in high stress conditions.

Box 10.4: 46 Medicinal Plant Species in High Trade sourced from Wastelands, etc. Abrus precatorius (Gunja), Achyranthes aspera (Upmarga), Aerva lanata (Cheroola), Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh), Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Boerhavia diffusa (Punarnava), Cardiospermum halicacabum (Mudakkatham), Cassia absus (Chaksoo), Cassia tora (Chakoda beeja), Centella asiatica (Brahmi booti), Centratherum anthelminticum (Kali zeeri), Citrullus colocynthis (Indrayan), Convolvulus microphyllus (Shankhapushpi), Curculigo orchioides (Kali musli), Cynodon dactylon (Durva), Cyperus esculentus (Musta), Cyperus rotundus (Nagar motha), Datura metel (Dhatura), Eclipta prostrata (Bhringraj), Fumaria indica (Shatara), Hedyotis corymbosa (Pitpapra), Hemidesmus indicus (Anatmool), Hygrophylla schulli (Tal makhana), Ipomoea nil (Kaladana), Merremia tridentata (Prasarani), Ocimum americanum (Ban tulsi), Peganum harmala (Harmal), Phyllanthus amarus (Bhumiamla), Pluchea lanceolata (Rasna), Plumbago zeylanica (Chitrak), Pseudarthia viscida (Moovila), Psoralea corylifolia (Bawachi), Sida rhombifolia (Bala), Sisymbrium irio (Khubkalan), Solanum anguivi (Katheli badi), Solanum nigrum (Makoi), Solanum virginianum (Kateli), Sphaeranthus indicus (Gorakh mundi), Tephrosia purpurea (Sarpankha), Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy), Tragia involucrata (Kodithoova), Tribulus terrestris (Gokshura), Trichosanthes cucumerina (Patol panchang), Vetiveria zizanioides (Lavancha), Withania coagulens (Panir dodi), Woodfordia fruticosa (Dhatki)

With large tracts of land under these land-use categories and the innate capacity of these species to regenerate, there does not appear to be the need for concern regarding sustenance of their supplies from such self-grown populations and/or the need to focus attention towards their domestication. Only in case of some specific species, the quality requirements and ease of collection may, in future, require their domestication and cultivation.

10.3.3. Species of High Trade & Stable Cultivation that may need Development of Improved Varieties (selected species): A closer look at the 36 species sourced from cultivation (Box 10.4) reveals that whereas species like Plantago ovata, Cassia angustifolia, Aloe barbadensis, Lawsonia inermis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Ocimum basilicum, Inula racemosa, Saussurea costus and Caeselpinia sappan, etc. are sourced almost exclusively from cultivation, major proportion of supplies of some of the indigenous species like Adhatoda zeylanica, Acorus calamus, Gloriosa superba, Withania somnifera are also obtained from cultivated sources with part supplies coming from the wild. Key Findings and Recommendations 115

Box 10.5: 36 Medicinal Plant Species in High Trade sourced largely from Cultivation Abelmoschus moschatus (Muskdana), Acorus calamus (Bach), Adhatoda zeylanica (Adusa), Aloe barbedensis (Kumari), Alpinia calcarata (Chittartha), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Caesalpinia sappan (Pathimugam), Cassia angustifolia (Sonamukhi), Catharanthus roseus (Sadabahar), Cichorium intybus (Kasani), Croton tiglium (Jamalghota), Curcuma angustifolia (Tikhur), Curcuma zerumbet (Kachur), Ficus benghalensis (Vada Chhal), Ficus religiosa (Arali chakki), Gloriosa superba (Kalihari), Indigofera tinctoria (Nili), Inula racemosa (Pushkarmool), Jatropha curcas (Nepalam seed), Kaempferia galanga (Kacholum), Lawsonia inermis (Henna), Lepidium sativum (Halim), Ocimum basilicum (Sweet basil), Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulasi), Piper longum (Pippali), Plantago ovata (Isabgol), Plectranthus barbatus (Gandhira), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Prunus armeniaca (Chuli), Saussurea costus (Kuth), Silybum marianum (Milk Thistle), Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba), Trachyspermum ammi (Ajwain), Vitex negundo (Neergundi), Withania somnifera (Ashvagandha), Ziziphus jujuba (Ber)

The point that needs to be taken note of in respect of these 36 species is that the cultivation of these species has already stabilised and got incorporated into the local agricultural systems. The farmers have come to understand the market dynamics of these species and are able to decide the extent of area to be put under cultivation of these species in response to the market demands. Thus, cultivation of these species does not need special promotional incentives. The focus in respect of these species needs to be on development of new and improved varieties, multiply the germplasm of such improved varieties, and supply the same to the growers for enhancing farm income.

10.3.4. Five Currently Imported Species needing Support for Indigenous Production The industrial demand of botanical raw drugs derived from 5 species (box 10.6) is being largely met through imports.

Box 10.6: 5 Medicinal Plant Species in High Trade under Import

Aquilaria agallocha (Agar), Commiphora wightii (Guggul), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Mulethi), Piper chaba (Chavak) and Quercus infectoria (Majuphal)

Of these five species, limited wild populations of Aquilaria agallocha occur in the north-eastern part of the country. Due to rapid decline of wild populations of this species, it is already included in appendix II of CITES. Similarly, much reduced wild populations of Commiphora wightii now occur in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The government of Rajasthan has put a ban on the tapping of guggul in the state to save the remnant guggul plants. Some tapping of guggul plants does take place in Gujarat, but the total yield is too little in relation to the huge trade demand. It is estimated that less than 10% of the domestic 116 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India industrial demand for guggul gum is currently being met from domestic production. These two species will, therefore, need afforestation efforts to augment their existing populations as well as research on sustainable harvest for utilization. The remaining three species are exotics, which are currently imported. However, given their high level of demand it will be prudent for NMPB to support initiatives to bring them under cultivation in suitable areas for meeting the high level of domestic demand.

10.3.5. Dynamic Nature of the Top Traded Plants List and Need for Updates: Although the list of 178 species in high demand is fairly comprehensive, two issues need to be appreciated. Firstly, some species in high trade might have been missed out due to limitations of the sampling size in the given time frame (e.g. trade of Mentha sp. could not be captured in this survey because the ISM based herbal industry which was sampled does not consume this species in sizeable quantities. Yet it is a medicinal plant in high demand on account of exports of its derivatives and it is commercially cultivated on a large scale in U.P). Secondly, the changes in use pattern brought about by the technology advancement, preference of certain formulations, or spurt in exports may cause a change in the list of top traded medicinal plant species in the country. This list, thus, needs continuous monitoring and updating in order to have accurate picture of the demand of botanicals. Further, in many cases, several species contribute to a particular raw drug entity in trade, whereas the list of 178 species includes names of only the main species forming the source of such raw drug entity. For example, ‘bala’ of trade is traditionally correlated to Sida rhombifolia but in practice it also includes material obtained from S. acuta and S. cordifolia. Similarly, ‘gokshura’, traditionally linked to Tribulus terrestris, is also obtained from other species of this genus viz. T. alatus, T. lanuginosus and T. subramanyamii. ‘Daruharidra’ is obtained from different species of Berberis viz. B. aristata, B. lycium, B. asiatica, or B. chitria, etc. Whereas the name of only one species for each such raw drug entity has been included in the list of 178 species in high demand, it is implied in such cases that the one name ipso facto includes the allied or equivalent species contributing to the traded raw drug material. Footnotes to highlight some of the alternate species for various raw drugs have been provided in the list of 178 medicinal plant species in high demand (Appendix-2).

10.4. Analysis of Exports and Imports of Botanical Raw Drugs Foreign trade of botanical raw drugs has a significant impact on the demand and supply of botanicals in the country. Computation of the latest available export data for the year 2004-05 reveals the export of 56,500 MT of botanical raw drugs valued at Rs. 354.80 crores. For the same year the quantity of imported botanical raw drugs add up to 37,483 MT at a value of Rs. 173 Crores. These exports and imports figures relate only to the botanical ‘raw drugs’ and exclude the foreign trade of herbal ‘extracts’. The volumes and value relating to herbal extracts have not been included in these figures as the botanical raw drugs going into the production of these semi processed products are accounted towards the consumption data relating to the domestic herbal manufacturing units. Key Findings and Recommendations 117

A quick analysis of the exports data reveals that Plantago ovata (Psyllium husk/ Isabgol) has been contributing the maximum to the export of botanical raw drugs as its export during 2004-05 constituted 35.6% of total exports of this segment by quantity and 32.5% of total exports by value. Cassia angustifolia (Senna), Lawsonia inermis (Henna) and Terminalia chebula (Myrobalans) are the other major botanical raw drugs in export. The one time surge in the quantities of ‘Jojoba Seeds’ catapulting it to the highest exported botanical raw drug during 2003-04 (as per data compilation provided by DGCIS) seems to be due to wrong documentation as even the total production of jojoba seeds in the country does not support the 9,657 MT of export recorded during that year. Similar analysis of the imports figures shows that ‘Gum Arabic’ accounts for nearly 34% of the total botanical raw drugs imported in quantitative terms and ‘Long Pepper’ accounts for 31% of the quantities imported by value. Close scrutiny of the imports and exports data reveals that some items like ‘Long Pepper’ and ‘Gum Arabic’ form items of both import and export. However, the rates at which these items are imported are much lower than the rates at which these items are exported! This difference in import and export rates seems to be due to trade of different species in case of ‘Long Pepper’ (exported species being Piper longum & imported species being Piper chaba), whereas in case of ‘Gum Arabic’, the difference in rates seems to be due to quality difference. A large proportion of the items recorded under exports and imports fall under the categories ‘Others’. Whereas the exports and imports figures bring out the total quantum of trade in terms of quantity and value fairly accurately, the currently used HS (ITC) system to classify botanicals in foreign trade falls short in defining the identity of most of the botanicals those are clubbed for documentation purposes as ‘others’. Thus, it is not possible to draw a list of all botanical raw drugs that are in foreign trade from the official foreign trade data. The lists of botanical raw drugs that are available are based on information shared by the exporters and traders. However, the information gathered this way is subjective and may not indicate the realistic quantity and value of species in foreign trade. Although there is a general perception about the growth in foreign trade of botanical raw drugs, there is inadequate recording of trade data to substantiate the perception. It is mainly because of the reason that botanical raw drugs are tabulated under different heads while allowing foreign trade. With no guidelines or consensus on use of data from specific heads for working out exports and imports of botanical raw drugs, different researchers base their calculations on different set of data to arrive at quantum of foreign trade, making it difficult to have comparable figures. As per DGCIS data for the year 2004-05 the total exports of raw drugs was assessed to be Rs.354.80 Crores and imports of Rs.173 Crores.

10.4.1. Exports Turnover of India’s Herbal Sector: The annual exports of India’s herbal sector add upto Rs. 807 Crores for the year 2004- 05 as per DGCIS data. This includes exports worth Rs. 354.80 Crores relating to plant raw drugs, Rs. 161 Crores relating to plant extracts and Rs.291 Crores relating to medicants of Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathic system. It shows that the finished herbal 118 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India products constitute nearly 36% of the total exports of India’s herbal sector and the balance 64% exports are in the form of raw materials and extracts. In 2003-04, the corresponding total export turnover of raw drugs, extracts and finished products was Rs.622 Crores. These figures show that compared to the year 2003-04, the herbal exports during 2004-05 showed a sizeable increase of Rs.185 Crores (nearly 30%) and this was almost entirely on account of higher exports of finished herbal products. For arriving at an assessment of future trends, for this sector, the data for years 2005-06 and 2006-07, when it becomes available, will have to be analysed. However, even assuming a modest growth rate of 20% per annum, the export turnover for the year 2006-07 is likely to be of the order of Rs.1150 Crores.

10.5. Species of Conservation Concern in Trade

An estimated 15,000 medicinal plant species, forming about 21% of the total plant species used for medicinal purposes in the world, fall in the endangered category (Schippmann et. al (2006). In the Indian context, 265 medicinal plant species have already been assessed as threatened in one or more states (FRLHT Database). Analysis of the list of 178 species in high trade reveals that a number of such threatened species e.g. Aconitum heterophyllum, Coscinium fenestratum, Decalepis hamiltonii, Nardostachys grandiflora, Oroxylum indicum, Picrorhiza kurroa, Saraca asoca, Swertia chirayita, Vateria indica are traded in high volumes. Concerns about global depletion of populations of some of these species have prompted their inclusion in the CITES lists. Government of India, in 1994, had also drawn a ‘negative list of exports’ wherein some of these species were included. However, wild populations of many of these threatened species continue to deplete in the face of indiscriminate harvesting. Export of some of the species included in the ‘negative list’ still continues due to nomenclature issues (Box 10.6).

Box 10.6: Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Traded as ‘Kutki’, this temperate Himalayan herb found at altitudes ranging from 3000 to 3500 m was hitherto believed to have wide distribution extending from North-west Hiamalyas to Nepal and Bhutan in the east. Its increasing domestic and global trade coupled with concerns about its fast shrinking populations prompted the inclusion of Picrorhiza kurroa in the CITES Appendix-II to regulate its foreign trade. However, typification of the taxon growing in Uttrakhand, Nepal and Bhutan as Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennel (=Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennel D. Y. Hong) has added a new dimension to the trade of ‘kutki’, as the new taxon is not included in the CITES list. The estimated consumption of ‘Kutki’ by the domestic herbal industries was 416 MT during 2005-06. Since rhizomes of both these species are freely traded as ‘kutki’, it is difficult to link a specific quantitative estimate to any one of these. The foreign trade of ‘kutki’, derived from both the species, can also continue under the name of P. scrophulariiflora. Cultivation of the species at any significant scale is yet to take off. The net result is further decline in wild populations of both P. kurroa and P. scrophulariiflora. Key Findings and Recommendations 119

In addition to the medicinal plant species in high trade, there are other threatened medicinal plant species in trade, presently traded in lower volumes but with high trade potential, that needs focussed management interventions. Some such species like Podophyllum hexandrum are subjected to indiscriminate harvesting because of their high demand in international market for their chemotherapeutic use (Box 10.7). A few others like Gentiana kurroo and Dactylorhiza hatageria are already on the verge of extinction and their populations have drastically declined.

Box 10.7: Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (=P. emodi Wall. ex Honig.)

A temperate Himalayan herb found at altitudes ranging from 2800 to 3500 m, it is commercially collected for its rhizomes that are processed to extract ‘podophyllin’, derivatives of which are used in treatment of tumours. The species, once known to form extensive dense populations in its natural zone, has borne the brunt of heavy exploitation over the past more about 50 years and has become endangered now. Since the rhizomes take 5-6 years to mature, efforts to domesticate the species and cultivate it on commercial scale have proved to be non-viable and abandoned.

In view of threat to its wild populations, export of this species was banned in 1994. However, since it is preferred over its American allied species (P. peltatum L.) for its higher alkaloid content, it continues to be indiscriminately harvested from the wild, further endangering even its residual populations.

There is an urgent need to initiate interim measures for management of high-risk medicinal plant species and to take up re-assessment of wild populations of these species at the regional, national and global level for guiding comprehensive in situ and ex situ species recovery and commercial cultivation programmes respectively.

10.6. Estimation of Production and Supply Estimation of domestic production and supply of botanical raw material has emerged as a major grey area in the absence of any systematic mechanism to keep record of the material obtained from (a) wild harvests (from forests and non-forest areas like roadsides, wastelands, farm bunds, etc.), and (b) cultivation.

10.6.1. Estimation of Production and Supply from Wild Harvests: Whereas no record pertaining to harvest of botanical raw drugs from wild (non-forest areas) is available, basic information about such harvest from wild (forest areas) is available in the records of some of the state forest departments. However, during the study, the records of only nine state forest departments obtained by us, contained species-wise data on wild collection and supply from forest areas and the total quantum of annual supply of these botanicals added up to a rounded volume of 1,20,000 MT. The area under forest cover, in respect of these nine states, represents more than 52% of the total forest cover of India. In as far as other states are concerned, no data could be obtained from the 120 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India north-eastern states and information in respect of remaining state forest departments was found to be either too old or not recording species-wise supply. It came to the notice during the study that owing to transfer of NTFP rights to the panchayats, data maintenance by state forest departments in respect of NTFPs has become all the more weak as mechanisms for transfer of information from panchayats to the state forest departments were still under development. Efforts were made to generate the supply figures from the industry end. However, even with the existing rules and regulations requiring every herbal manufacturing unit to maintain records of procurement of botanicals in the prescribed formats and submit this record to the State Drug Controller, implementation of these rule provisions is yet to be enforced. Thus, no worthwhile information as to the sources of supplies could be obtained from the industry end. Proposed amendment to the Drug & Cosmetics Rules, 2006 (copy as Annexure-III) is aimed at ensuring the required documentation.

10.6.2: Estimation of Production from Cultivation:

National statistics on the species-wise cultivation of medicinal plants and production of botanical raw material from cultivated sources is woefully missing. In the absence of such statistical backup, information gleaned from literature and that obtained during survey of herbal units and raw drug markets was made the base for further investigations. Field visits were carried out to the areas reported to be under sizeable medicinal plant cultivation and within the short span of the study, data in respect of six species (Isabgol, Senna, Jojoba, Henna, Aswagandha & Milk thistle), being almost exclusively obtained from cultivations was compiled. These species, with an estimated annual production of 1,21,400 MT, are cultivated over an area of nearly 118,000 hectares. Another set of 30 species consumed/ traded in high volumes, and obtained entirely from cultivations, have been identified. The consumption estimates of these species add up to 24,000 MT that broadly correlates to a cultivation area of 24,000 hectares.

10.7. Supply of Botanical Raw Drugs through Mandis

Three kinds of raw drug markets viz. ‘large mandis’, ‘regional mandis’ and ‘intermediate mandis’ are engaged in trade of botanical raw drugs in the country. These mandis are either ‘traditional jarhi-buti mandis’ through which largely the wild collected botanical material is traded, or ‘organised agricultural mandis’ where the producers bring their produce for auction. Data related to quantities traded and price range for top traded entities was obtained from each of the 20 such mandis spread across various regions of the country. Collation of this data has revealed that the largest volumes trade relates to ‘henna’ and ‘isabgol’ through the organised agricultural mandis of Sojat (Rajasthan) and Unjha (Gujarat) respectively. Mandi- wise highlights of the survey results have been discussed in chapter-8. The collation of data has also resulted in enlistment of botanicals that are traded in high volumes (>100 MT each per year) in these mandis. Key Findings and Recommendations 121

Data as to the prices of various botanicals traded in these mandis was also collected. However, analysis of the price related data reveals that it was not possible to arrive at any ‘common annual price’ for the botanicals in trade in view of trade complexities on account of seasonality, distance from production centres, quantum of production, quality, size of procurement order, etc. It was also found to be non-feasible to work out species-wise prices for medicinal plants in trade as most of the plants are traded by parts and not as a whole and that different plant parts in trade command different prices.

10.8. Recommendations Many critical issues have emerged during the study which need focussed attention towards their better understanding and for initiating appropriate actions. The important issues and recommendations are enumerated below: i) Support Periodic Assessment of Demand and Supply of Botanical Raw Drugs at National Level:

The current assessment of demand and supply of medicinal plants in India is based on sample survey of annual consumption by the herbal manufacturing units, analysis of annual exports and imports, survey and data collection pertaining to selected trading centres (Mandis) and very limited sampling of annual consumption of botanicals by rural households. All this data collection exercise was executed during the second half of the year 2006. The present work, based on analysis of the data, attempts to provide reliable updated information on the subject. It is, however, limited as to the sample size and its spread due to time constraints, besides being a one-off work. The subject being dynamic and vast with more than 9,000 registered industrial units engaged in manufacture of thousands of formulations, using several hundred plant species, there will always be scope for gathering and analysing additional data. The level of demand of botanicals is likely to grow with the growth of the sector or change in the use pattern of botanicals by the industry. New species may come into prime use as a result of ongoing prospecting efforts. The botanical nomenclature relating to the plant sources also needs periodic updating to maintain a common platform with international norms and standards. The current assessment, therefore, needs to be used as a starting point for undertaking improved and more insightful periodic assessments based on rigorous and periodic data collection through increased sampling and coverage of different geographic regions. For this purpose it is necessary to identify one Central Nodal Agency to coordinate the data compilation, analysis and periodic reporting and 4-5 Regional Agencies for data collection work on a regular and continuous basis. A broad Template for such periodic assessment is outlined in table 10.3. This template is based on the understanding that actual consumption provides the most realistic basis to arrive at annual demand estimates of the botanical raw drugs in the country. The data gathered from the raw drug markets and from the production/ supply end, will be of use 122 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India mainly in cross checking the demand, in understanding the market dynamics and in finding gaps in demand and supply.

A periodicity of 3 years (triennial) for the assessment of demand and supply of botanical raw drugs in the country is suggested keeping in view the time and rigour involved in the work. A 3-year periodicity in respect of such assessments is also considered appropriate to reflect trends reasonably realistically.

Table 10.3: Suggested Template for Periodic Assessment of Demand & Supply of Botanical Raw Drugs

S.N. Action Points Details Responsibility

A. General 1 Define objectives -To estimate the annual consumption/ NMPB & Nodal Agency demand of botanical raw drugs by domestic herbal manufacturing units, rural household and exports. . -To estimate the annual supplies from forests, wastelands, cultivation, imports. -To work out species-wise gaps in demand and supply. -To flag the concerns that may come up during the periodic assessment, etc. 2 Standardise data Design, field test and standardise separate Nodal Agency in consultation collection formats formats for collection of data from with NMPB and Regional industry, households, raw drug markets Agencies and production centres for ease of collation and analysis. B. Assessment of Domestic Demand (Consumption) 1 Define the Prepare separate state-wise inventories Regional Agencies (regional complete universe of units engaged in manufacture of lists) & Nodal Agency of herbal (i) traditional formulations, and (national inventory) manufacturing (ii) herbal extracts.The inventories to be units in the classified into turnover based country categories i.e. ‘large’, ‘medium’, ‘small’ and ‘very small’. 2 Sample Size for 50% each for ‘large’ and ‘medium’ units Regional Agencies survey of herbal (the numbers being <100 each); 10% for units for assessing ‘small’ and 5% for ‘very small’ (the annual industrial largest number). Record species-wise consumption & assessment of entities consumed*. conducting field surveys 3 Sample survey to 20-50 villages per state and 10 households Regional Agencies assess rural house- per village.Record species-wise assess- hold consumption ment of entities consumed*. Key Findings and Recommendations 123

S.N. Action Points Details Responsibility

4 Compile national Compilation of data provided by regional Nodal Agency level consumption agencies. data C. Survey of Raw Drug Markets 1 Prepare state-wise State-wise & national level inventories of Regional Agencies (state inventories of the all the ‘major’, ‘intermediate’ and ‘road inventories) & Nodal Agency Raw Drug Markets head’ mandis. (national inventory) (Mandis) 2 Sampling of the Comprehensive survey of ‘Major’ markets Regional Agencies Raw Drug Markets to the entities in trade* and their prices, (Mandis) and Sample survey of ‘intermediate’ and ‘road head’ mandis. 3 Compile national Compilation of data provided by regional Nodal Agency level raw drug agencies. market data D. Assessment of Supplies 1 Assessment of Procure available records from SFDs/ Regional Agencies wild harvest from PRIs/ Local Contractors, &Undertake Forests sample resource mapping. 2 Assessment of Gather information from Local Regional Agencies supplies from Contractors regarding entities collected Wastelands locally*, &Undertake sample resource mapping. 3 Estimation of Workout species-wise area under Regional Agencies supplies from cultivation and assess total production Cultivation for each species. 4 Compile national Compilation of data provided by regional Nodal Agency level supply data agencies. E. Gathering and Analysis of Foreign Trade (Export/ Import) Data 1 Liaison with local Gather entity-wise details about the Regional Agencies Customs Office items exported/ imported on the basis of original applications for export as filed by exporters. 2 Sample survey of Gather entity-wise information on foreign Regional Agencies exporters in the trade. region 3 Analysis of Work out total quantum of foreign trade Nodal Agency DGCIS data on by botanical raw drugs, volume of trade foreign trade and value of trade. 4 Compile national Compilation of data provided by regional Nodal Agency level foreign trade agencies. data 124 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

S.N. Action Points Details Responsibility

F. Time Line for Periodic Assessment Reports 1 Periodicity of assessment 3 years 2 Develop protocols 1st year Nodal Agency for the triennial assessment and orientation of the participating agencies 3 Compile/ update At regional level =1st yearAt National Regional Agencies inventories of level =2nd year manufacturing units, Nodal Agency raw drug markets

4 Undertake field 2nd year Regional Agencies surveys and compilation at regional level 5 Compilation of 3rd year Nodal Agency regional data and bring out the triennial National Report

* The trickiest part in the assessment of demand and supply of botanicals in trade is the ability of the survey teams to correlate the commodities in trade to their corresponding botanical identities. It will be the responsibility of the Nodal Agency to build in checks and balances to minimise the incidence of erroneous wrong correlations through appropriate orientation to the survey teams of Regional Agencies. ii) Assess Status of Wild Populations of Threatened Medicinal Plant Taxa in High Trade: Assessment of the population status of wild collected medicinal plant species is needed for two purposes. Firstly, to formulate strategies for management of wild populations in respect of species under threat of extinction and secondly, to estimate their potential annual wild-harvest levels vis-à-vis demand to assess the need for cultivation/plantation programmes. Raw drugs obtained from many wild medicinal plant species like Coscinium fenestratum, Oroxylum indicum, Premna integrifolia etc. are in high demand and are indiscriminately harvested adversely impacting their wild populations. It is, thus, imperative that immediate action to assess their wild populations is initiated to enable development of appropriate management strategies. Guidelines developed by IUCN (The World Conservation Union) are available for Rapid Assessment of threatened status of wild plant taxa. FRLHT has applied these guidelines to rapidly assess the status of prioritised medicinal plants of India and has, over Key Findings and Recommendations 125 the past ten years, co-ordinated assessment of threat status of more than four hundred medicinal plants species across the country. However, this initiative marks only the pilot assessment exercises. The effort needs to be carried forward by creating a long term institutional mechanism with nodal and regional centres to undertake initially rapid threat assessments and subsequently population studies. Supporting such institutional efforts is necessary in view of the large diversity of medicinal plant species in use and the need to ensure survival of those which are threatened with extinction. The Rapid Threat Assessment exercises would need to be followed up with species- specific field surveys in respect of those species that are assessed as threatened. Urgent field surveys are needed in case of species that are already assessed as ‘critically endangered’ e.g. ‘Ksheer Kakoli’ (Lilium polyphyllum), ‘Daruhaldi’ (Coscinium fenestratum), etc. to assess the status of their wild populations and to enable planning of appropriate action for their restoration and conservation. The species-specific field surveys would also help in assessing the authenticity of the material being traded in the name of some of the threatened species, e.g. the known sources of production of ‘Atis’ (Aconitum heterophyllum) are far too restricted to meet the high trade demand of the species. Field surveys will help in resolving the concerns about authenticity of the material being traded and used as ‘Atis’ (Box 10.8).

Box 10. 8: Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Root tubers of this western Himalayan high-value herb are the ‘Atis’ (=Atees, Patish, Ativisa) of trade. The plant grows wild in temperate regions at altitudes varying from 3000-4000 m. Un- sustainable harvesting of its root tubers for folk use and for commercial purposes has caused its populations to drastically shrink. It is estimated that per day collection of its tubers, in equivalent air dried weight, has come down from more than 200 gms some five years ago to less than 70 gms (Alam & Kop, 2005). The species has been assessed as ‘Endangered’ (Ved & Tandon, 1998; Ved et al, 2003) and along with other ‘aconites’ has also been included in the ‘Negative list of Exports’ notified by the Government of India. Cultivation of this species on commercial scale is not reported from any area. It would mean that annual requirement of >200 MT of ‘Atis’ is being entirely met from the wild. The material being in high demand and with limited availability, it would also mean a fairly uniform price at which it would be traded. However, the trade figures belie this assumption. The domestic herbal industry is procuring air-dried ‘Atis’ tubers at highly variable prices varying from Rs. 315 per kg to Rs. 4,000 per kg! Our interaction with the resource managers, researchers and even traders suggest a gross mismatch between the estimated production levels and traded volumes of ‘Atis’. It is evident that not everything that is passed off and used as ‘Atis’ actually corresponds to Aconitum heterophyllum. Mehra & Puri (1968), Sharma et al. (1969) and Aumeeruddy &Thomas (2001) have reported that other taxa like Aconitum kashmiricum Stapf ex Coventry, Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. and Delphinium denudatum Wall were also being traded as ‘Atis’. However, the proportion of such ‘mixing’ with authentic ‘Atis’ is not known. 126 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

There are many more cases of similar nature. If estimates for annual harvest levels for even some key species are known, trade dynamics of such species would be better understood and adulteration, if any, would easily come to notice. Comparison between the annual trade volume and estimated harvest levels will also clearly bring out the need for management interventions, including need for commercial cultivation, in respect of high-risk species. iii) Improve Harmonized System (HS) of Classification for Botanicals in Foreign Trade:

The Harmonized System of classification, ITC (HS), currently in use for regulating foreign trade in the country, falls short when it comes to classification of botanical materials. Even though export of botanical raw drugs to the tune of 56,500 MT worth Rs. 354.80 crores were recorded for the year 2004-05, the data provided by DGCIS could help in linking this trade to only about ten specific plant entities. All the remaining entities are clubbed as ‘others’. The foreign trade in respect of unidentified botanical materials, classified as ‘others’, amounted to more than 12000 MT with a value of Rs.62.4 crores during 2004-05. It is a serious issue from the perspective of management of the resource. It is, thus, imperative that foreign trade of botanicals should get linked to specific plant entities to enable resource managers to develop appropriate resource management interventions. A detailed study for developing an improved HS classification with unambiguous linkages of the codes and the specific plant entities in foreign trade is, therefore, strongly recommended. iv) Develop and Implement a System for Backward Linkage of Traded Botanicals and the related Forest Species to their Source of Production: During the survey it was observed that no mechanism exists to trace the botanicals to their phyto-geographical production source. The amendment no. dated to the rules do provide for appropriate record keeping at the end of herbal units, but implementation of these provisions is yet to be enforced. This creates doubts about the authenticity of the material on one hand and the implementation of harvesting guidelines on the other. Moreover, lack of mechanism for backward linkage to the production source also creates problems in distinguishing the cultivated material from the one collected from the wild in respect of species those are found in the wild and are also cultivated. Examples of ‘Chirayita’ and ‘Asoka bark’ are cited in Boxes 10.9 and 10.10 respectively to highlight the issue. In both these and many other similar cases, the issue related to authenticity of the material can be sorted out if some mechanism to link the traded material back to its production source could be put in place. Such mechanism would also help in addressing the concerns about the possible clandestine removals of the material from their last remnant populations. The backward linkage of the botanical raw material to its region-specific production source would require meticulous monitoring and record keeping in respect of harvest of prioritised species by the state forest departments. Since this is a new initiative, it may need orientation and capacity building of the front-line forest staff in identification of prioritised species in fresh as well as in raw drug form and in maintaining their harvest records. This Key Findings and Recommendations 127 effort will also need setting up of well-equipped central and regional raw drug repositories for authentication of the material in trade.

Box 10.9: From where ‘Chirayita’ of trade is sourced? ‘Chirayita’ of trade comprises of the aerial parts of temperate Himalayan herb Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karst., that is recorded as growing wild at altitudes ranging from 1,200 to 3,000 m from Kashmir to Bhutan. However, with its wild populations almost exterminated from Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, it has been assessed as “threatened” in these states. It is traded in high quantities and this study estimates its annual consumption by domestic herbal manufacturing units at more than 700 MT. Inquiries from the mandis about its source reveal that the material in trade is imported from Nepal. This explanation seems to be fine on its face value but for the fact that import statistics maintained by DGCIS reported import of only 97.4 MT of ‘Chirayita’ during the year 2004-05. In the absence of any mechanism to establish proper backward linkage of this material to the production source, how do we account for the major chunk of material being traded and consumed as ‘Chirayita’? One explanation probably lies in the fact that Swertia chirayita is called ‘Kirat tikta’ in Sanskrit, the name which is also used for its allied species viz. Swertia angustifolia and Swertia alata and for even Andrographis paniculata which is traded as ‘Chirayita’ in Central India. Is it that all these species are being traded as ‘Chirayita’? And in the absence of backward linkages how is it possible to link the trade of ‘chirayita’ to its cultivated sources?

Box 10.10: From Where does ‘Asoka Chhal’ Come? ‘Asoka chhal’ is the bark of Asoka (Saraca asoca) trees (also known as ‘Sita Ashok’) that constitutes a popular botanical raw drug used by India’s herbal industry in the preparation of well known Ayurvedic formulations including “Asoka arishtam”. It is estimated that the total consumption of ‘Asoka chaal’ by India’s herbal industry was more than 2000 MT during 2005-06. Since there is no known plantation of Saraca asoca in the country that could yield this high volume of ‘Asoka chhal’, the material has to obviously come from its wild occurrence. The wild presence of this species has been recorded from only a few scattered patches in the Western Ghats of Maharastra, Goa and Karnataka and a few places in the Eastern Ghats of Orissa. These wild populations of Saraca asoca are also not of the size that could yield the needed annual quantity of the material on sustainable basis. Investigations in the Western Ghats of Karnataka have revealed the absence of any sizeable collection of bark of this species from wild populations. In this scenario, it is indeed intriguing as to where from such a sizeable quantity of ‘Asoka chhal’ is being obtained from! There are two possible answers to this. Either that the wild populations of the species from some inadequately known remote localities are being completely stripped of bark, putting this threatened species under greater threat of extinction or a very large proportion of ‘Asoka chhal’ being presently traded and used is not the bark of Saraca asoca at all. 128 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

It is, therefore, recommended that the NMPB may take the lead and commission the job of suggesting backward linkage prools. It is also recommended to start a capacity building programme for the forest staff in identification of prioritised medicinal plant species and maintaining their harvest records. v) Support SFDs to develop and implement Effective Management Systems for Wild (forest) Populations of Medicinal Species in High Consumption: Diminishing populations of medicinal trees and shrubs is a cause of serious worry as non-initiation of timely management measures could result in a severe setback to the herbal sector. Of immediate concern are the tree/ shrub species of which bark and roots are used in the herbal formulations. Also at risk are trees/ shrubs that are tapped for oleo-resins. Example of difficulties in sourcing authentic ‘ashoka chhal’ - bark of Saraca asoca - has already been cited. Sourcing of the authentic root material of Aegle marmelos, Gmelina arborea, Oroxylum indicum, Premna integrifolia, Stereospermum chelonoides, Uraria picta, constituting important ingredient of ‘Dashamoola’, a well known Ayurvedic formulation is also an issue of concern. Even as these species are widely distributed, their occurrence in the wild is very sporadic. With no known commercial plantations of these species and no records of their harvest from the wild in place, the authenticity of material collected to fulfil the annual demand of >1000 MT in respect of each of these species remains a question. Similar situation prevails in case of a few other tree species like Aquilaria agallocha, Commiphora wightii, Litsea glutinosa, Pistacia integerrima, Taxus wallichiana and Terminalia arjuna whose annual demand is estimated between 100 MT and 1000 MT. Sizeable population of such tree/ shrub species are needed to fulfil their growing demand. The trees and woody perennials are long gestation crops and in context of the prevailing raw material prices, these may not form commercially viable plantation ventures. On the other hand many of these tree species occur sporadically over large forest tracts. It would be, therefore, prudent to manage their wild populations and augment their stock in their natural environs. It is, therefore, recommended to support SFDs in developing and implementing strategic schemes for augmentation of wild populations of medicinal trees/ shrubs and for their sustainable management. Many medicinal trees also occur naturally outside the forests on private and common lands and their dwindling populations is also a cause of concern. It will be prudent to design suitable agro-forestry models and support pilot projects to promote conscious incorporation of such medicinal trees in local agricultural practices. vi) Support Repositories of Plant Raw Drugs in Trade: Well-stocked repositories of plant raw drugs are absolutely necessary as reference centres for authentication of the botanical material in trade. As already cited, the authenticity of the material being traded as ‘asoka chhal’ and ‘atis’ is a matter of concern. Similar situation of doubtful identity in case of many other botanicals presently prevails in the market. Key Findings and Recommendations 129

It is a not a happy situation for the development of herbal sector in the country. One of the reasons for continuance of the situation is non-availability of well-stocked reference centres for authentication of the material. Such repositories will also help in generating general awareness about the medicinal plants and other natural resources used by the herbal sector. The repository of raw drugs used in ISM under development at FRLHT is an example of how such repositories can be used for education purposes by forest trainees, ISM students, community groups, school students and researchers in addition to provide services for authentication of raw material. It is recommended that NMPB initiate schemes to identify and support institutes for the establishment of one central and 4-5 regional repositories to create awareness about the sector and to provide services for authentication of herbal raw drugs. vii) Support Studies for Reviewing the Plant Sources of Controversial Raw Drug Entities: Several plant raw drug entities, deriving their names from the classical Indian medical texts, have been interpreted and linked to more than one plant species by different scholars. In addition to such scholarly interpretations, linking classical drug names with botanical names, the prevailing practices in different regions of the country sometimes add altogether different plant species to the list. Examples of several botanical candidates for “Shankapushpi” and “Vidari” have been discussed below (Box 10.11 & Box 10.12).

Box 10.12: What is ‘Vidari’? Root tubers of at least three different medicinal plant species i.e. Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC., Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. and Adenia hondala are traded and used as ‘Vidari’. Whereas the tubers of Pueraria tuberosa and Ipomoea mauritiana are used in most parts of the country, use of the tubers of Adenia hondala is restricted largely to Kerala, where these are used after detoxification. In addition to these three ‘Vidari’ candidates with tuberous roots, pith of Cycas circinalis L. has also been recorded in trade as ‘Vidari’, in Kerala markets, as an adulterant.

Box 10.11: What is ‘Shankhapushpi’? ‘Shankhapushpi’, with annual estimated consumption of more than 1000 MT by the domestic herbal industry, is one of the very widely used raw drugs, which has been linked to more than one region-specific candidate species. Thus, ‘Shankhapushpi’ is linked to Evolvulus alsinoides L. in peninsular India, Clitoria ternatea L. in Kerala, Canscora decussata Schult. & Schult. f. in Gangetic plains, and Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng. (=C. pluricaulis Chois.; C. prostratus Forssk.) in Western Dry Plains and Central India. Raw drug obtained from all the above mentioned candidates is considered to be equivalent in term of its use. 130 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

Material obtained from different plant species, linked to ‘Shankhapushpi’ and ‘Vidari’, is recorded in trade. In this scenario it is not possible to arrive at a reasonable estimate of consumption levels or potential demand for a specific plant species out of those linked to ‘Shankhapushpi’ or ‘Vidari’. There are several other plant raw drug like ‘Moorva’, ‘Vidang’, ‘Gokhru’, ‘Daruhaldi’, etc. with multiple plant species as candidates linked to these raw drugs for which detailed review of classical literature as well as pharmacognostic studies of material in use would be needed to establish proper linkages of these raw drugs to their corresponding botanical identity. It is recommended that in view of the importance of the matter, such studies should be supported. viii) Rationalise Schemes for Promotion of Commercial Cultivation & Support R&D for Developing Improved Varieties of Selected Species among the Medicinal Crops under Commercial Cultivation: Under the 10th five year Plan, NMPB played a lead role in promoting commercial cultivation of medicinal plant species. For this purpose a list of 32 species was prepared and their cultivation over an area of 35,000 hectares was supported via 4,250 projects over the last five years under a subsidy scheme (Kala et al., 2006). Cultivation of many species like Isabgol (Plantago ovata), Amla (Emblica officinalis), Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), Kalihari (Gloriosa superba), Kuth (Saussurea costus), Pushkarmool (Inula racemosa), Mentha (Mentha sp.), Safed Musli (Chlorophytum sp.), Senna (Cassia angustifolia), Tulasi (Ocimum tenuiflorum), etc. has stabilised and got integrated into the prevailing agriculture systems of the area as a result of these interventions. The focus of promoting commercial cultivation now needs to shift from these species to the threatened species, which are in short supply. Some such species namely Aconitum heterophyllum, Swertia chirayita, Picrorhiza kurroa and Nardostachys grandiflora, already included in the NMPB’s priority list, need to be given more attention. Other species of conservation concern like Coscinium fenestratum, Gymnema sylvestre, Embelia tsjerium-cottam, Nilgirianthus ciliatus, Decalepis hamiltonii, Onosma hispidum, etc. would need concerted research inputs before their commercial cultivation could be promoted. Further, there is also a strong case for promoting the domestication and commercial cultivation of high value imported species like Anacyclus pyrethrum and high volume imported species like Piper chaba. In as far as species for which commercial cultivation has already stabilized and included in the local agricultural practices, there is a large scope for improving the quality of propagation material. A focussed research programme for development of improved varieties/ cultivars of selected species from amongst these species needs to be developed and supported.

Summary of Recommendations: The key findings of this study and the above recommendations emerging out of this study need to be utilized for guiding focused action programmes relating to the medicinal plants sector. The table 10.4 below enlists summary of recommendations along with action points and time line, under the 11th 5-year Plan. Key Findings and Recommendations 131

Table 10.4.: Summary of Recommendations

S. Recommendation Action Points Time Line under No. the 11th 5-year plan

1 Support Periodic (triennial) • Designation of one nodal agency • By Mar 2008 Assessment of Demand and and 4-5 regional agencies to Supply of Botanical Raw carry out triennial assessment. Drugs at National Level • Financial support to regional • 2008-2012 agencies for data gathering. (4 years) • Financial support to nodal • 2008-2012 agency for coordination of (4 years) periodic assessment, collation & analysis of data received from regional agencies and preparation of periodic reports. 2 Assess status of Wild • Identify a competent nodal • 2008 to 2011 Populations of threatened agency to carry out Rapid Medicinal Plant Taxa in Threat Assessment of medicinal high trade [e.g. Coscinium plants through CAMP fenestratum, Oroxylum workshops indicum, Premna integrifolia • Sponsor organisation of state • 2008 to 2012 etc. which are a sub-set of level and regional CAMP (continuous) the 91 forest species workshops for Rapid Threat (table 10.4.1a & 10.4.1b)] Assessment of medicinal plants, analysis of workshop results, synthesis and report preparation. • Initiate species-specific field • By Mar 2008 assessment of wild populations of critically endangered medicinal plant species in their distribution range. 3 Improve Harmonized • Support a study to assess the • 2008 to 2009 (1 year) System (HS) of prevailing HS classification Classification for Botanicals systems related to foreign trade in Foreign Trade of medicinal plants and initiate development of a comprehensive HS classification with unambiguous linkage to the specific plant entities. 4 Develop and Implement a • Support development of • 2008-2010 (2 years) System for Backward protocols for backward linkages Linkage of Traded Botanicals of traded botanical raw material and the related Forest obtained from 91 species largely Species to their Source sourced from forests to their of Production species-specific and region- specific source of supply. • Support recording, monitoring • 2008-2012(4 years) and training programmes in SFD’s for documenting harvest of forest species. 132 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India

S. Recommendation Action Points Time Line under No. the 11th 5-year plan

5 Support SFDs to develop • Support SFD’s in developing • 2007-2012 (5 years) and implement effective and implementing effective Management Systems for management systems and Wild (forest) Populations of strategic schemes for Medicinal Species in High (i) sustainable harvest through Consumption adaptive management, and (ii) augmentation of wild populations of forest species in high volume trade. • Support research initiatives for • 2008-2012 varietal improvement and (4 years) promotion of medicinal tree species. • Sponsor pilot studies for integration of medicinal tree species under agro-forestry • 2008-2012 systems on private lands. (4 years) 6 Support Repositories of • Identification of one Central and • 2007 Plant Raw Drugs in Trade 4-5 Regional Agencies to house repositories of botanicals. • Support the establishment/ • 2007-2012 strengthening of repositories. (5 years) 7 Support Studies for • Support bio-cultural studies of • 2007-2012 Reviewing the Plant Sources controversial raw drug groups, (5 years) of Controversial Raw Drug in order to establish botanical Entities (e.g. Talispatra, identities of plant materials Daruharidra, Vaividang, involved. Shankapushi, Pashanbheda, • Support pharmacognostic • 2008-2012 Dashamoola, etc.) studies to confirm the botanical (4 years) identities of controversial raw drug entities. 8 Rationalise Schemes for • Strengthen/ initiate research for • 2008-2012 Promotion of Commercial developing improved varieties (4 years) Cultivation & Support R&D of selected species from among for Developing Improved 34 species (See Box-10.4.3) Varieties of Selected Species for which cultivation has already from among the Medicinal stabilised and included in the species under Commercial local agricultural practices Cultivation. • Increase focus on and promote • 2008-2012 commercial cultivation of (4 years) threatened medicinal plant species like ‘Atis’, ‘Chirayita’, ‘Karu’, ‘Marmanjal’, etc. • Promote domestication of high • 2008-2012 value (Anacyclus pyrethrum) (4 years) and high volume (Piper chaba) imported medicinal plant species. Key Findings and Recommendations 133 (Rs. per Kg) - 2000- 130 - 180 rade (MT) 100 - 200 10 - 15 Estimated Price Range 200 - 500 10 - 15 200 - 500 20 - 30 2000 - 5000 10 - 25 100 - 200100 - 200 40 - 50 2000 - 5000 15 - 25 17 - 30 500 - 1000200 - 500 30 - 50 10 - 15 200 - 500 150 - 250 200 - 50010 - 5 100 - 200200 - 500 150 - 250 4000 - 2000 W 200 - 500 10 - 15 Major SupplySource Annual T alisa HF Pattura W Kasturilatika C 200 - 500 60 - 100 Kanyasara C 1000 Babbula TF Ativisa HF alispatra T Cheroola Mushakdana Kumari KathaBabul Shikakai TF TF Bael BilvaChittarthaSaptaparniKalmegh C Saptaparna TF W TF VachnagAtis HF Nees ex 2 L.] Royle (L.) Burm.f. ] ex Del. 1 ex (Burm.f.) Wall. A. vera L.] Medik. Wall. Ser. .)oscoe

ex Medic. Adusa Vasa C 2000 - 5000 10 - 15 L. Apamarga Apamarga L. Gunja Gunja W (L.) R.Br. Justicia adhatoda Mill.[= (Haw (D.Don) Spach T (L.) Correa L. Vach Vaca C 500 - 1000 30 - 35 (L.) Willd. Wall. (L.f.) Willd. (Lour.) Merr. Merr. (Lour.) (Willd.) DC.] (Roxb.) Boivin Krishna shirish TF (L.) Juss. Nees; List of 178 Medicinal Plant Species in high Volume Trade/ Consumption Trade/ Volume List of 178 Medicinal Plant Species in high Hibiscus abelmoschus A. concinna A. vasica Abelmoschus moschatus [= Abies spectabilis Abrus precatorius Acacia catechu Acacia nilotica Acacia sinuata [= Achyranthes aspera Aconitum ferox Aconitum heterophyllum Acorus calamus Adhatoda zeylanica [= Aegle marmelos Aerva lanata Albizia amara Aloe barbadensis Alpinia calcarata Alstonia scholaris paniculata Andrographis 121 34567 S. NoS. Name of the Species2 3 4 5 Name Trade 6 names API 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Table 10.5. Table 134 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India 10000 5 - 10 500 15 - 20 - 10000 5 - 10 - 200- 40 - 60 2000 - 5000 40 - 70 2000 - 5000 30 - 35 200 - 500 15 - 20 100 - 200 10 - 20 200 - 500 40 - 55 100 - 200 15 - 25 2000 - 5000 10 - 15 2000 - 50000 30 - 40 100 - 200500 - 1000 50 - 60 40 - 55 200 - 500 10 - 20 200 - 500 30 - 40 500 - 1000 15 - 35 Palasa, Palasah TF 200 - Kumbhikah TF AgaruNimba I C Punarnava rakta, Rakta-punarnava W SalmaliKunduruPriyala TF TF Pattanga TF 5000 CSvarnapatri 200 - 500Aragvadha CPrapunnada 125 - 175 TF 2000 - 5000 W 33 - 50 5000 - aari kumbha Agar kala ShatavariNeem Brahmi Satavari Brahmi TF Pashanabheda Pasana-bhedha W Mochrus HF Salai guggul Chironji Chakoda beeja Willd.] phool Tesu L.] Sadabahar C Guill. & Perr. Dhawada TF 100 - 200 50 - 100 ex B. frondosa B. frondosa DC.] Vinca rosea rosea Vinca Gars. ex Mill.] L. Mudakkathan Karnasphota W (L.) Roxb.] (Willd.)Muell.-Arg. ettst. Willd. Daruhaldi Daruharidra HF (L.) G.Don[= 3 (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. (Roxb. ex DC.) (Lam.) Taub. [= (Lam.) Taub. L. Pathimugam Roxb. Spreng. Vahl Sonamukhi A.Juss. B. malabaricum (Geiseler) Suresh](Geiseler) L. Punarnava Dantimool Danti TF 100 - 200 20 - 30 (L.) W Roxb. DC. Senna tora (How.) Sternb. (How.) Roxb. V Senna alexandrina L.[= L. Amaltas L. Chaksoo W100 L. Chaksoo L. [= L.; B. solanifolium C. senna Anogeissus latifolia Aquilaria agallocha Asparagus racemosus Azadirachta indica Bacopa monnieri Baliospermum montanum [= Berberis aristata ciliata Bergenia Boerhavia diffusa Bombax ceiba Boswellia serrata Buchanania lanzan Butea monosperma Caesalpinia sappan Cardiospermum halicacabum Careya arborea Cassia absus Cassia angustifolia Cassia fistula Cassia tora Catharanthus roseus [= 12 34567 19 20 21 22 23 24. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Key Findings and Recommendations 135 1000 - 2000 15 - 20 100 - 200 90 - 100 200 - 500 100 - 90 100 - 200 10 - 25 500 - 1000200 - 500 25 - 35 500 - 1000-55 48 30 - 35 500 - 1000 70 - 75 500 - 1000 20 - 25 2000 - 5000200 - 500 15 - 20 500 - 1000 15 - 20 140 - 160 200 - 500 35 - 45 100 - 200 30 - 35 100 - 200 325 - 425 500 - 1000 15 - 35 TF 100 - 200 120 - 135 alamuli W Sankapuspi W Jayapala C DevadaruJyotismatiMandukaparni HF TF W Vanyajiraka W IndravaruniAgnimanthaGuggulu W TF I Kaliyaka TF 100 - 200Karcura 30 - 35 C 100 - 200 15 - 25 Tvakapatra HF Devdar Malkangani Indrayan Guggul Maramanjal Kali musliThikhur T Kachur C Durva Durva W Safed musli TF Tejpatta 6 . 7 Chois.] Shankhapushpi Spreng. DalchiniTF 5 ex 4 (L.)Kuntze Nees Sieb. .Don Baker L. ] Kali zeeri L.f. Arnimool C. pluricaulis (Gaertn.) Coleb. (Buch.-Ham.) Nees & Eberm Roxb. Willd. Gaertn. (Arn.) Bhandari (L.) Schrad. Roxb. L. Kasani C L. Kasani (L.) Pers. (L.) Urban Brahmi booti (Roxb.) G Forssk.; (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson Paadu kizhangu L. Jamalghota (Christm.) Roscoe] (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl.] C. mukul C. zedoaria C. prostratus Vernonia anthelmintica Vernonia Cedrus deodara Cedrus Celastrus paniculatus Centella asiatica Centratherum anthelminticum [= Chlorophytum tuberosum Cichorium intybus Cinnamomum sulphuratum Cinnamomum tamala Citrullus colocynthis Clerodendrum phlomides Commiphora wightii Convolvulus microphyllus Coscinium fenestratum Croton tiglium Curculigo orchioides Curcuma angustifolia Curcuma zerumbet [= Cyclea peltata Cynodon dactylon [= [= 12 34567 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 136 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India - 2000- 35 - 50 100 - 2001000 - 2000 40 - 45 2000 - 500010 - 5 15 - 20 200 - 500 25 - 35 1000 - 2000100 - 200 20 - 25 20 - 25 1000 - 2000 10 - 20 200 - 500 10 - 20 1000 - 20002000 - 5000 10 - 15 200 - 500 15 - 30 10 - 15 200 - 500200 - 500 10 - 15 100 - 20010 - 5 10 - 15 100 - 200 600 - 750 200 - 500 20 - 25 1000 - 2000 40 - 45 asti I 1000 Amalaki TF 16000 30 - 35 MustaDhattura W W Nayagrodha jata,Nayagrodha C AsvatthaParpata C Langali W Mesarngi C TF 500 - 1000 40 - 50 aividang TF MagaliSalparniBhringraj TF Salaparni BhrngarajaSomlata TF W HF Shahtara KokamDikamali TF TF Gambar chhalGudmar GambhariPitpapra TF W L.] Amla 8 . Arn. Phyllanthus emblica L.] (Roem. & Schult.) DC (L.) DC. Wall. ex J.A. Mey Wall. Wight & Wight (L.) Lam. Roth R.Br. ex Schult. R.Br. L. Mulethi Y L. Musta W MustaL. Gaertn. [= L. Vada chhal L. Vada L. Nagarmotha L. Kalihari Roxb. (L.) L. (Dup.) Choisy L. Marodphali TF L. Marodphali (Hauskn.) Pugsley L. Lakh pippal L. Lakh L. Duttura L. sensu (Roem. & Schult.) A.DC., non Mez sensu (Roem. & Schult.) V E. basaal Oldenlandia corymbosa [= Cyperus esculentus Cyperus rotundus Datura metel Decalepis hamiltonii Desmodium gangeticum Eclipta prostrata Embelia tsjeriam-cottam Emblica officinalis Ephedra gerardiana Ficus benghalensis Ficus religiosa Fumaria indica Garcinia indica Gardenia resinifera Gloriosa superba Glycyrrhiza glabra Gmelina arborea Gymnema sylvestre Hedyotis corymbosa Helicteres isora [= 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 12 34567 Key Findings and Recommendations 137 500 150 - 160 200 30 - 50 - 500- 10 - 20 - 200- 80 - 90 100 - 200 30 - 35 500 - 1000100 - 200 10 - 15 100 - 200 10 - 15 10 - 15 100 - 200 10 - 20 100 - 200 20 - 35 >10000 10 - 20 100 - 200 10 - 15 500 - 10001000 - 2000 35 - 45 60 - 150 200 - 500 30 - 35 100 - 200 80 - 100 skara C 200 - Nili C Sveta sarivaSveta WCirabilva 500 - 1000 TF 60 - 65 Hapusa HF MadaynatiCandrasura C C 100 - chhal Medasakah TF al makhana Kokilaksa W 200 Kutja Indrayava, Kutaja TF 1000 - 2000 75 - 100 Jeevanti TF 100 - 200 250 - 270 Anatmool Aavithali Pushkarmool Pu Kaladana W Jingini TF Madhuka Madhuka TF Dhoop HF Lobelia leaves TF G.Don Wall.] T.And.] Roxb.] Boiss.] ex H. rheedii H. rheedii H. spinosa Roem. & Schult. J. dolomiaea ex Bassia latifolia Schult. (Houtt.) Merr. (Houtt.) Merr. Roth (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. DC. [= (Roxb.) Planch. (L.) R.Br. L. Hauber Jacq. Palmudhakkan Kshiravidari TF C100L. Kachora (Roxb. ex Fleming) Wall.] (Roxb. ex Fleming) L. Akika (Buch.-Ham.) M.R. & S.M.Almeida T L. Mehndi L. Kurassani (Lour.) C.B. Rob.(Lour.) Maida L. seed Nepalam C 200 - 500 15 - 30 J.F.Gmel.[= Hook.f. (Schum.) Heine; L. Thechippoovu TF L. Thechippoovu (Roxb.) K.Schum.; (L.) Roth H. auriculata H. annulare H. antidysenterica [= [= Hemidesmus indicus pubescens Holarrhena Holoptelea integrifolia Holostemma ada-kodien Hygrophila schulli Indigofera tinctoria Inula racemosa Ipomoea mauritiana Ipomoea nil Ixora coccinea Jatropha curcas Juniperus communis Jurinea macrocephala Kaempferia galanga Lannea coromandelica Lawsonia inermis Lepidium sativum Litsea glutinosa Lobelia nicotianaefolia Madhuca indica [= 12 34567 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 138 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India - 1000- 30 - 35 200 - 500100 - 200 50 - 60 30 - 50 2000 - 5000 20 - 25 100 - 200 40 - 45 1000 - 2000 80 - 90 100 - 2001000 - 2000 15 - 20 30 - 35 200 - 500 40 - 45 2000 - 5000 20 - 25 500 - 1000 50 - 60 HF 150 - 200 90 - 110 Atmagupta TF Pippalimula,Pippali C2000- 1000 90 - 100 Nagekesar NagakesarKaunch beej Jatamansi TF Jatamansi HF 200 - 500Nishoth 110 - 150 TrivrtaChadila Saileya TF Kabab chini Cavya HF I 500 Ratanjot HF Kutaki Katuka HF 200 - 500 220 - 230 Bhumiamla Tamalaki W 9 L.] Tulasi Tulasi C (Burm.f.) Kosterm.] 10 Benth. G.Don G.Don O. sanctum DC. Ach. ex Nees] ex (L.) Shah & Bhat] (L.) J.Silva Manso L. tulasi Ban W 500 - 1000 20 - 25 (Nees) Bremek.(Nees) Kurinji TF 200 - 500 15 - 20 L. [= Stew. ex Brand.Stew. Kakar singi (L.) Hallier.f.(L.) Prasarani W 100 - 200 45 - 55 Schumach. & Thenn. J.E.Sm. Manjanathi TF (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. chhal Tetu Syonaka TF 1000 - 2000 20 - 30 Royle L. tulasi Kali C 1000 - 2000 20 - 25 L. Harmal W L. Harmal M. nagassarium Wall. (L.) DC. (Huds.) L. Bakul TF L. Bakul L.[= L. Pippali L. Hunter Merremia turpethum Strobilanthes ciliatus [= Merremia tridentata Merremia Mesua ferrea Mimusops elengi Morinda pubescens Mucuna pruriens Nardostachys grandiflora Nilgirianthus ciliatus [= Ocimum americanum Ocimum basilicum Ocimum tenuiflorum Onosma hispidum Operculina turpethum Oroxylum indicum Parmelia perlata Peganum harmala Phyllanthus amarus Picrorhiza kurroa Piper chaba Piper longum Pistacia integerrima 12 34567 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Key Findings and Recommendations 139 1000 - 2000 70 - 80 100 - 200 10 - 15 2000 - 5000 20 - 25 200 - 500500 - 1000 10 - 20 15 - 25 200 - 500 110 - 125 500 - 1000 60 - 70 2000 - 5000 20 - 25 200 - 500200 - 500 15 - 30 30 - 40 200 - 500500 - 1000 65 - 80 70 - 80 200 - 500 700 - 850 500 - 1000 25 - 30 200 - 500 30 - 40 HF 100 - 200 15 - 30 Mayakku I Svetacandana TF IsabgolGandhiraRasna GandiraKaranji Rasna C C Karanja 1000 – 2000 W 65 – 75 C Damulakhwain AsanaMajuphal Sarpagandha TF Sarpagandha TF chhalAshoka Ashoka TF - 5000 2000 20 - 25 Revan chini HF Kurz Wall. ex Meissn.] Wall. Arn. Moorva W (Lam.) Bennett] ex ilde ReethaTF 12 D.Don Talispatra R. emodi Roxb. [= L.f. Rakatachandan Raktacandana TF 11 Andrews (L.) Wight & (L.) Wight (L.) Benth. Gaertn. L. Chitrak Citraka W L. Arnimool TF 500 - 1000 10 - 15 (Poir.) Briq.] (Poir.) L. Bawachi Bakuchi W (DC.) Oliver & Hiern. L. Chuli C G.Oliver G.Oliver (L.) Pierre Derris indica L. Manjistha Manjistha TF L. Chandan D.Don Forssk. (Roxb.) W.J. de W de (Roxb.) W.J. Vent.; P. glabra P. Coleus forskohlii [= [= Plantago ovata Plectranthus barbatus Pluchea lanceolata Plumbago zeylanica Pongamia pinnata Premna integrifolia Prunus armeniaca viscida Pseudarthria Psoralea corylifolia Pterocarpus marsupium Pterocarpus santalinus infectoria Quercus Rauvolfia serpentina Rheum australe Rhododendron anthopogon Rubia cordifolia Santalum album Sapindus mukorossi Saraca asoca 12119 34567 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 140 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India 2000 20 - 30 - 500- 70 - 80 - 1000 200 - 225 100 - 200 40 - 60 100 - 200 10 - 15 100 - 200 200 -225 1000 - 200010 - 5 1000 - 200010 - 5 2000 - 5000 40 - 45 200 - 500 15 - 20 2000 - 5000200 - 500 40 - 50 40 - 55 500 - 1000 20 - 25 isamusti TF KusthaBhallataka C TF BrhatiKakamaciKantakari W W WMunditika 1000 - 2000 W 10 - 15 Kiratatikta HF 500 Mahabala W 5000 - 1000010 - 5 Patalai TFLodhra 1000 - TF chini TF 100 - 200 150 - 200 Kuth Balave RaalJojoba TF Rohan C 900 TF Bala Patala Pathani Lodh Chiraiyata 15 Ortega] 14 . H.Schrad. & Wendl.] H.Schrad. &

(L.f.) DC 16 Fleming) H.Karst. A.Juss. S. violaceum L.f. ex Roxb. Ghanti phool TF 100 - 20010 - 5 L. Kateli L. Kuchla V (Link) C.K. Schneid. Roxb. L. Gorakh mundi L. Gorakh S. xanthocarpum L. Nirmali Kataka TF 13 (L.) Gaertn. Milk Thistle C 500 (Roxb.) (Roxb. L. Lam. Katheli badi (Falc.) Lipsch. L. Makoi L. Khubkalan Khubkalan W 200 (Roxb.) DC.] Gaertn. Roxb. Karaya TF 500 - 1000 80 - 100 Roxb. Chop Burm.f.; auct. non L.; (Decne.) Sch.Bip.] S. lappa S. indicum S. suaveolens S. surattense Saussurea costus Schrebera swietenioides Semecarpus anacardium Shorea robusta Sida rhombifolia Silybum marianum Simmondsia chinensis Sisymbrium irio Smilax glabra Solanum anguivi Solanum nigrum Solanum virginianum Soymida febrifuga Sphaeranthus indicus Sterculia urens Stereospermum chelonoides Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnos potatorum Swertia chirayita Symplocos racemosa [= [= [= [= 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 12 34567 Key Findings and Recommendations 141 5000 10 - 15 500 300 - 350 1000 5 - 10 200 - 500 60 - 70 2000 - 5000 10 - 15 2000 - 5000 10 - 15 100-200 20 - 35 200 - 500 100 - 120 1000 - 2000100 - 200 45 - 55 10 - 20 500 - 1000200 - 500 40 - 60 30 - 35 200 - 500 10 - 15 2000 - 50002000 - 5000 60 - 70 10 - 15 2000 - 5000 10 - 20 100 - 200 95 - 100 rscikalli W avani C agara HF Kola C HaritakiGuduci TF W 5000 - 10000 10 - 15 Sthauneya HFBibhitaka 100-200 TF 90 - 75 2000 - SarajaUsiraNirgundi, Renuka TF C W Asvagandha C Goksura W alispatra Sarpankha W 500 - SarpankhaArjunBehra W 500 ArjunaAjwain TF Y Lavancha PaneerdodiAshwagandha W Inderjau TF Musakbala T - Banafsha HF 200 Lam.] Ber Arn. Z. mauritiana 19 L. panchang Patol W 500 - 1000 15 - 20 (L.) Sprague Gokhru (L.) Kurz Dhai phool Dhataki W (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. ex Miers (Willd.) Giloy (L.) Nash 18 Jones (L.) Pers. (Gaertn.)Roxb. (L.) Dunal Retz. Harda Dunal (Retz.) Willd. (Retz.) Ghonta phala Ghonta TF 100 - 20010 - 5 L. Barhanta V (Roxb.ex DC.) Wight & Wight (Roxb.ex DC.) L. Zucc. T R.Br. (L.) Gaertn.[= 20 L. Neergundi L. Manda dhupa L. Manda

Bi. 17 & Thomson Taxus wallichiana Taxus purpurea Tephrosia arjuna Terminalia bellirica Terminalia chebula Terminalia cordifolia Tinospora ammi Trachyspermum involucrata Tragia terrestris Tribulus cucumerina Trichosanthes jatamansi Valeriana indica Vateria zizanioides Vetiveria pilosa Viola negundo Vitex coagulens Withania somnifera Withania fruticosa Woodfordia tinctoria Wrightia Ziziphus jujuba Ziziphus xylopyrus 12158 34567 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 Cultivated; I = Imported C = Largely Wastelands; = W Forest; HF = Himalayan Tropical TF = 142 Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India . P. madraspatensis P. & etc. traded as ‘banafsha’. is also traded as ‘dalchini’ , the probable ‘patis’ adulterants. , being traded as ‘gokhru’. are also traded as ‘tejpatta’. , being traded as ‘revandchini’. T. alatus T. , , being traded as ‘daruhaldi’. traded as ‘shankhapushpi’ C. malabathrum , etc. , . R. webbianum S. alata C. malabathrum , , urinaria, P.reticulatus, P.virgatus, P.debilis P.virgatus, urinaria, P.reticulatus, & . T. subramanyamii T. C. zeylanica P , , viz. , etc., being traded as ‘bala’ C. zeylanica C. cassia S. angustifolia . C.arundinaceum Symplocos paniculata viz. viz. T. lanuginosus T. B. lycium, asiatica, chitria viz. R. moorcroftianum Phyllanthus and Sapindus laurifolius and , the most accepted candidate for ‘Vaividang’. , the most accepted candidate for V. odorata, V. canescens, V. biflora, V. betonicifolia biflora, V. canescens, V. V. odorata, V. viz. viz. viz. and Swertia viz. . Cinnamomum Tribulus Berberis Rheum Viola Cinnamomum Embelia ribes Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Tinospora sinensis Valeriana hardwickii Valeriana Sapindus emarginatus Sida acuta, cordifolia, cordata Aconitum chasmanthum Aconitum kashmericum, Delphinium denudatum, Chaerophyllum villosum Chlorophytum borivilianum Symplocos cochinchinensis Evolvulus alsinoides, Clitoria ternatea, Canscora decussata Stereospermum colais Stereospermum 8. Includes the fruits of 9. herbaceous species of Includes other 15. Also includes other species of This indicative list only provides an idea of accepted equivalents and substitutes is not exhaustive. 19. Includes 20. species of Includes other 7. Includes 3. Includes other species of 10. Also includes 11. Includes other species of 13. Includes 14. Includes 17. Also includes 18. species of Includes other 16. Includes 2. Includes 4. Includes 6. Bark of other species 12. Includes Notes: 1. Includes 5. Leaves of other species