Climate migration in the Dry Corridor of : integrating a gender perspective

1 Climate migration in the Dry Corridor of Central America integrating a gender perspective

Climate migration in the Dry Corridor of Central America: integrating a gender perspective

This document was produced, coordinated and revised by InspirAction/ Christian Aid based on research conducted by the Women’s Environment & Development Organization (wedo) and the Professional Services Co- operative for Social Solidarity (Cooperativa Autogestionaria de Servicios Profesionales para la Solidaridad Social R.L., CoopeSoliDar R.L).

Authors of the research: Ivannia Ayales, Eleanor Blomstrom, Vivienne Solis Rivera, Daniela Pedraza and Paula M. Perez Briceño.

The research has been coordinated and reviewed by Gaby Drink- water, Arantxa García, Alejandro González, Sagrario Monedero and Kas Sempere.

Images: Christian Aid / Ezequiel Sánchez / InspirAction / wedo / Coope- SoliDar.

Design and layout: www.Edita.in.

The texts in this publication may be reproduced in full or in part, pro- vided that the author is cited.

June 2019

2 INDEX

Acronyms...... 6 Introduction...... 8 Metodología...... 9

1. Background and context...... 10 1.1. The Dry Corridor, a high area...... 12 1.2. Climate migration...... 15 1.2.1. Terminology, legal context and figures...... 15 1.2.2. Climate migration in the Dry Corridor...... 16 1.3. Integrating a gender perspective into climate migration...... 21 1.4. An overview of international, regional and natural institutions and policies...... 24

2. Case studies...... 30 2.1. ...... 32 2.1.1. Climate migration and gender impacts...... 34 2.1.2. adaptation and resilience from a gender perspective...... 35 2.2. ...... 38 2.2.1. Climate migration and gender impacts...... 40 2.2.2. Adaptation and resilience from a gender perspective...... 42 2.3. ...... 44 2.3.1. Climate migration and gender impacts...... 46 2.3.2. Adaptation and resilience from a gender perspective...... 48 2.4. ...... 50 2.4.1. Climate migration and gender impacts...... 52 2.4.2. Climate change adaptation and resilience from a gender perspective...... 53

3. Conclusions...... 54 3.1. Environmental migration patterns and different gender impacts...... 58 3.2. Women’s climate change adaptation and resilience actions...... 62

4. Recommendations for public policies to address climate change from a gender equality perspective...... 66

5. Annex I...... 70 6. Bibliography...... 71

.

4 Acronyms

amdv Association of Women Defenders of Life FUNDESYRAM Foundation for Socioeconomic Development and Environmental Restoration

CAC Central American Council for GCRI Global Climate Risk Index

ccad Central American Commission for the Environment and Development IICA Inter-American Institute for Co-operation on Agriculture

CDH Human Development Centre IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

CDM Women’s Rights Centre MAREMA Ministry of the Environment (Nicaragua)

CEM-H Women’s Studies Centre MILPAH Independent Lenca Indigenous Movement of La Paz-Honduras

CENTA National Centre for Agricultural and Forestry Technology MNIGR National Board for Disaster Risk Management

CEPREDENAC Coordination Centre for the Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America ODESAR Organisation for Economic and Social Development for the Urban and Rural Area

CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture IOM International Organization for Migration

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change NGO Non-Governmental Organization

COMBRIFOL Brisas de la Frontera Regional Mixed Cooperative PARCA Environmental Plan for the Central American Region

COMUCAP Coordinator of Women Farmers of La Paz UNDP United Nations Development Programme

CONGCOOP NGO and Cooperatives Coordinating Organization PREVDA Regional Programme for the Reduction of Vulnerability and Environmental Degradation

CoopeSoliDar RL Professional Services Cooperative for Social Solidarity PRISMA Salvadoran Research Programme on Development and Environment

CRRHH Regional Committee for Water Resources SMES Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises

CADC Central American Dry Corridor RDS Network for Sustainable Development

ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation RECMURIC Central American Network of Rural, Indigenous and Farming Women

ERCC Regional Climate Change Strategy EWS Early Warning System

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations SICA Central American Integration System

FCAM Central American Women’s Fund UNAG National Union of Farmers and Stockbreeders

FEM Foundation Between Women UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

FEMUPROCAN Agricultural Federation of Cooperatives of Women Farmers in Nicaragua UNES Salvadoran Ecological Unit

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development WEDO Women’s Environment & Development Organization

6 7 Introduction Methodology

Climate change is a threat which affects the planet’s most vulnerable people in The following questions were addressed: multidimensional ways and is manifested unequally depending on the population’s natural geographical and social vulnerabilities. It is abundantly clear that climate What are the patterns of environmental migration, the causes of which are now likely change has a greater impact on women. Climate change projections also include to worsen as a result of climate change, in the Central American Dry Corridor and the extremely high numbers of climate change migrants. The Central American region associated gender impacts? is the most striking example of this phenomenon; this region is severely affected by extreme climate phenomena, and the women among the migrants travelling What adaptation and resilience actions have women planned and through the Dry Corridor towards the United States are exposed to violence. implemented to deal with climate change?

The aim of this study is to understand the relationship between three factors – What factors must be taken into account when formulating public policy at different migration, gender and climate change – in the Central American Dry Corridor levels to approach climate change from a gender equality perspective? because, although there is a vast body of literature that addresses each of these factors individually, there is a significantly smaller number of sources which cover The research has been conducted during 2017 and 2018. The qualitative field work included

the link between three variables, and studies which analyse the three factors focus groups, interviews and visits to communities, ngos and government representatives together are virtually non-existent. in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. (see Annex I). A total of 251 people (184 women and 67 men) took part in the focus groups, which were held in the following It was initially assumed that there was a multi-directional relationship between municipalities (Figure 1): the deterioration of habitats and livelihoods caused by climate change, the migration phenomenon in the Dry Corridor and gender inequality in that region. • the Departments of Usulután and San Miguel in El Salvador The analysis also includes other cross-cutting economic factors, such as energy • the Departments of Matagalpa (San Ramón) and Madriz (Somoto) in Nicaragua and extractive mega-projects, and social triggers, such as poverty and violence, • the southern region of Choluteca, the western region of Langue and the north-western which are essential in understanding the migration phenomenon and the patterns region of Marcala, in Honduras of inequality in the region. • the communities of Jocotán and Camotán in the Chiquimula department, Guatemala

This report is divided into four chapters; the first chapter provides the background and context of the Dry Corridor in order to explain why the variables analysed were chosen; the second includes the main testimonies gathered in each of the countries during the fieldwork; the third sets out the main conclusions, and the final chapter includes a series of recommendations for the inclusion of the gender equality perspective in public policies on climate change.

8 9 1. Background and context This section summarises the most relevant findings from the review of literature and secondary sources with respect to the context of the Dry Corridor and the interrelationship bet- ween climate change, migration and gender, the focus of the research. In addition, the institutional framework in which the three variables studied are integrated at the international, re- gional and national levels is also analysed.

10 11 1.1. 92°W 88°W 84°W 90°W 85°W 80°W

15°N 15°N The Dry Corridor, a high México Mar Océano Caribe Pacífico climate risk area 0 400 Guatemala Belice 10°N 10°N Mar Caribe Kilómetros 90°W 85°W 80°W

Honduras Camotán

Jocotán No official geographical demarcation exists for treme poverty. Various estimates also show Marcala the Central American Dry Corridor, although that more than one and a half million peo- there is an eco-climatic definition. One of the ple are moderately or severely food inse- 14°N Langue 14°N first attempts to define the area was based on cure in the region: 25% of households in El Salvador Choluteca Nicaragua a monthly precipitation analysis, which was Guatemala, 36% in Honduras and 13% in El Somoto used to create a Climate Risk Index map (see Salvador.1 Figure 1); the map marks the and ex- Despite being one of the world’s most vulner- treme drought areas (ciat, World Bank and able regions to the consequences of climate Usulután unep, 1999). change, it is estimated that by 2030 Central 1:4,000,000 In 2012, the fao marked out the boundaries America will produce less than 0.5% of the 0 150 San Miguel of the four most affected countries (Guatemala, planet’s greenhouse gases (ghg).2 On this basis, San Ramón Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua) and de- the resources allocated to the adaptation and Kilómetros Océano Pacífico fined the Dry Corridor as “a group of ecosys- mitigation of climate change for the Central tems in the eco-region of dry tropical forests American region would be expected to be in in Central America” (van der Zee Arias, 2012, line with that reality. However, in practice, this Simbología 2013). Figure 1. Map of the Central American is not the case; according to a recent study3 by Dry Corridor based on the Climate Risk Index the Central American Institute for Fiscal Stud- Límite internacional Corredor seco centroamericano Proyección y Datum: WGS84 (1999) and the municipalities visited in each ies (icefi), an InspirAction partner organisation Fuente: ciat−WORLD BANK − UNEP (1999) country. Source: ciat, World Bank and unep in Guatemala, between 2003 and 2016, Central Límite departamental Municipios visitados Cartografía digital por: (1999). America only received 211.5 million dollars, that Geóg. Paula M. Pérez−Briceño The Central American region is classified is 0.7% of the funds approved at the global level as highly vulnerable due to its geographical for adapting to or helping to mitigate climate 92°W 88°W 84°W location, atmospheric dynamics, soil type change. and terrain (ipcc, 2007). The countries in the area rank highest on the GermanWatch Figure 1. Map of the Central American Dry Corridor based on the Climate Risk Global Climate Risk Index (gcri). For the pe- 1 Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the Interna- Index (1999) and the municipalities visited in each country. Source: ciat, World riod 1997-2016, Honduras was ranked as the tional Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and Bank and UNEP (1999). country most affected by extreme weather the World Food Programme (WFP), with the coope- events, while Nicaragua was fourth, Gua- ration of the International Organization for Migration (iom) and the Organization of American States (OAS). temala was eleventh and El Salvador was “Food security and emigration: why people flee and sixteenth. the impact on family members left behind in El Salva- According to data from the fao, 62% of dor, Guatemala and Honduras.” households in the driest areas of the Dry Cor- 2 Acosta L, Mora J, Ordaz JL and Ramírez D., Nicara- ridor depend on corn, bean and sorghum pro- gua: efectos del cambio climático sobre la agricultura. CEPAL (2010). duction, 80% of households that depend on 3 Molina Escalante L, Castaneda Ancheta R, Financia- the production of basic grains live below miento climático y descentralización energética en the poverty line, and 30% of them live in ex- Centroamérica (icefi, 2017).

12 13 The Fifth Assessment Report of the ipcc (2014) assessed the key risks of climate change 1.2. for Central America. For this region three key risks were identified: (1) water availability in semi-arid and glacier-melt-dependent regions Climate migration and flooding and landslides in urban and rural areas due to extreme precipitation (2) decreased food production and food quality, and (3) the spread of vector-borne diseases in altitude and latitude (Climate and Develop- ment Knowledge Network, 2014). The ipcc also notes that in Central America increases 1.2.1 Terminology, legal context and In this research, the term “migration” was in temperature and drought will decrease ag- figures chosen, as opposed to “displacement”, to ricultural productivity in the short term (by define the variable to be studied, in line with 2030) and affect the food security of vulner- Every second one person leaves their home due the definition developed by the International able regions. Subsequent climate models to climate change-related causes, according to Organization for Migration (iom). In this re- at more precise scales present conclusions the 2017 United Nations Frontiers 2017 report, port, climate change-induced migration is in line with those of the ipcc (Imbach et al. which analyses the environmental issues affect- a sub-category of the environmental migra- 2018).4 ing the planet; one of these issues is migration. tion category. Calvo-Solano, Quesada & Hidalgo (2017) com- The iom’s 2016 Atlas of Environmental Migra- This term is used to refer to four patterns: piled a list of climate-related impacts and dam- tion states that, in 2015, 19 million people were (i) people displaced by climate-related dis- age in the agricultural sector as an indicator of displaced by climate disasters across the world. asters, who have to move temporarily; (ii) food security in the region; in 2015, Nicaragua This figure does not include displacements people forced to migrate more permanently lost 50% of basic grain harvests in the depart- caused by drought or slow-onset environmental due to recurrent events; (iii) people forced ments of Carazo, Estelí, and Chinandega Boaco; degradation. to migrate due to greater environmental deg- in 2014, El Salvador lost 90% of its bean harvest; radation and (iv) people who “choose” to in Honduras, 60% of the corn and bean harvests Both the Overseas Development Institute (odi) move as an adaptation strategy, in response were lost in 2016; and in Guatemala 82,000 and the Internal Displacement Monitoring Cen- to environmental pressures and other fac- tonnes of corn and 118,299 tonnes of beans tre (idmc) warn that climate change will increase tors (Wilkinson et. al 2016). Therefore, in this were lost, representing a financial loss of $133 the figures of displacements associated with dis- study, the terms environmental migration million in 2016. asters.5 According to the idmc, in 2016, 98% of and climate migration will be used but not A real reduction has also been observed in new displacements associated with disasters displacement, as the former is a more inclu- sowing intentions in the Dry Corridor, as the estry and fishing sectors (Carazo & Pentezke, were caused by risks related to climate6 or to sive term, which includes voluntary and farmers are aware of potential adverse con- 2012). meteorology, such as storms, floods, forest fires forced population movements, while the lat- ditions that would prevent their crops from — Social conflicts caused by disputes over and severe winter weather conditions. It also ter is limited to only forced population move- succeeding (iica, 2014). Most studies on the im- water sources: due to the length and extent states that the ten largest displacement events in ments (iom, 2004, p.19). pacts of climate change in the area also mention of drought, the flow of various springs and absolute terms were weather-related. According However, it should be stressed that there environmental degradation caused by the declines in river levels. This situation causes to this organisation, in 2016 there were 24.2 mil- is no officially agreed definition or a generic, over-exploitation of resources and absence a lack of water, rationing and loss of pressure lion new internal displacements associated with uniform legal definition of the term “migrant” of planning as factors that worsen the natural in micro-irrigation systems. This issue causes disasters, while in 2017 the total was 18.8 mil- (unhcr, 2016). The unhcr, for example, un- resources, health, food production and food se- clashes between farmers and/or the commu- lion. These figures, which do not include inter- derlines the importance of using the term curity crises (Vargas, 1997). nity, thereby creating insecurity and present- national migration or migration associated with “climate-displaced people” to refer to invol- To summarise, climate change and environ- ing signs of an underlying problem with a slow-onset disasters (such as rising sea levels), untary movements to promote specific legal mental degradation cause: major social dimension (cepredenac, crrh indicate the scale of the phenomenon. protection (unhcr, 2008). and cac, 2002: 39). Although the 1951 Convention relating to — Increased food insecurity due to the sig- — Deaths and decline in quality of life: the Status of Refugees does not allow this nificant decrease in basic grain yields as a human lives are lost mainly due to flooding status to be granted to people who are dis- consequence of drought; this leaves a high in the Caribbean area, as well as accidents placed for climate or environmental reasons, percentage of the Central American popula- involving small vessels that attempt to some progress has been made in attempting tion without access to a basic family food bas- enter the colder, more distant and deeper to give these people legal protection; for the ket, which would enable them to meet their waters of the Pacific Ocean because species first time, the New York Declaration for Refu- minimum nutrition requirements. migrate towards those areas. There has also 5 Amy Kirbyshire, Emily Wilkinson, Virginie Le Masson gees and Migrants recognised displacement — Job losses in the agricultural, livestock, for- been an increase in contagious diseases, and Pandora Batra ( January 2017), Mass displacement in response to the adverse effects of climate such as malaria, dengue and cholera in dif- and the challenge for urban resilience. London: Over- change, natural disasters caused by natural ferent areas (cepredenac, crrh and cac, seas Development Institute (odi). hazards or other environmental factors (para- 2002: 40). 6 Alexandra Bilak et al. (May 2017), Global Report on graph 1); the Global Compact for Safe, Order- 4 Imbach P, Chou SC, Lyra A, Rodrigues D, Rodriguez D, Internal Displacement. GRID 2017. Internal Displace- Latinovic D, et al. (2018), Future climate change scena- ment Monitoring Centre (IDMC). ly and Regular Migration (2018), non legally rios in Central America at high spatial resolution. PLoS binding, recognized climate change as a cause ONE 13(4): e0193570. for migration.

14 15 30,000,000

25,000,000

20,000,000

15,000,000 otal number of people T 10,000,000

5,000,000

0

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

V20 Forum Members Least Developed Countries Small-island Developing states

Figure 2. Migrants from 1960 to 2000 in countries vulnerable to climate change. Source: Wilkinson et al. (2016).

In Fiji, as part of International Civil Society have become a variable needed to understand America these factors have created challenges Although migration has existed in Central Week in December 2017, more than 700 rep- migration processes. for growth and development (Climate and De- America for several decades, environmental resentatives of organisations from 109 coun- The iom acknowledges that the impact of cli- velopment Knowledge Network, 2014). changes and natural disasters have a significant tries signed a joint declaration7 to call for the mate change on migration patterns will depend Carazo et al. (2012), Crush (2013), the Inter- impact on population displacement. Guatema- Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Reg- on the physical conditions and the adaptive American Development Bank (2013)8 and giz la and Honduras are among the countries most ular Migrations to grant this protection. capacity of the affected countries and commu- in Germany (2017)9 have partially described affected by natural disasters in the region; like This document also calls for climate change nities. Less developed countries and countries the link between climate change and inter- El Salvador, they are chronically food insecure, to be included as a driver of internal and in- located in particularly vulnerable areas, such as nal, and even international, migration from the main causes of which are climate change, ternational displacement and a commitment the Small Island Developing States, (see Figure the Dry Corridor. However, few studies have monoculture and lack of access to land, espe- to consultation with impacted communities 2), as well as socially and economically margin- focused on understanding the roots of this cially for women (iom et al., 2016). Faced with in order to work actively with them and to alised groups within the affected communities – causal link, its scope and impact; nor are this reality, migration is becoming a very com- ensure that they can stay or return to their the poor, the elderly, women and children – are there separate statistics on environmental or monly used emergency strategy. homes where feasible. When migration is in- the most vulnerable (iom, 2017). climate-induced migration, and even fewer Movements have been identified from the evitable, the Declaration promotes respect on this type of migration with gender- or age- areas most affected by climate change to less af- for human rights, including non-refoulement, disaggregated data (iom et al., 2016). fected areas as people search for employment self-determination, non-discrimination, and 1.2.2 CLIMATE MIGRATION IN THE DRY to generate income and use it to purchase basic the full range of civil, political, economic, so- CORRIDOR grains. For example, movements to rural areas cial and cultural rights. dedicated to permanent and labour-intensive Studies on migration flows indicate that they Various studies (World Food Programme, 2002; 8 Vergara, Walter; Rios, Ana R.; Galindo Paliza, Luis Mi- crops, to coffee, sugar, banana and melon guel; Gutman, Pablo; Isbell, Paul; Suding, Paul Hugo; are multicausal, and there has been a tenden- Zapata, 2002; Hidalgo and Pérez-Briceño, 2017) Samaniego, Joseluis (2013), The Climate and Develop- producing areas, and to large urban centres. cy to use social or economic factors to explain have established a clear link between natural ment Challenge for Latin America and the Caribbean: Migration to other countries has also been re- them (Lacroix, 2011; Orozco & Yansura, 2014). disasters and internal and international migra- Options for climate-resilient, low-carbon develop- corded, especially to the United States and, in However, over time, environmental changes tion in the Dry Corridor. The Intergovernmental ment. Inter-American Development Bank. some cases, to . Migration between the Panel on Climate Change (ipcc) concluded that 9 Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Deve- Central American countries themselves also lopment. “Environmental Migration in Latin America” the variability of and changes in the climate in Working Group (giz) 2017: Human mobility, natural occurred, most notably the migration of Nica- 7 Declaration on Climate Induced Displacement. Inter- this region make it highly socially, economically disasters and climate change in Latin America From raguan farmers to Costa Rica (cepredenac, national Civil Society Week 2017, Fiji 2017. and environmentally vulnerable. In Central understanding to action. crrh and cac, 2002: 40; Sandoval, 2016).

16 17 Nicaragua: hurricanes and drought contribute to migration

Nicaragua is a clear example of the impact that environmen- tal changes have on migration. According to data from the iom, the number of Nicaraguans registered as living in Costa Rica in 2000 increased from 230,000 to 400,000. This rise is mainly associated with , which occurred in October 1998, and recurrent in the country. These droughts affect small-scale farmers in areas of the Dry Corridor most severely (Vega, 2011). In Nicaragua, the 2001 assessment conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (magfor) to analyse the effects of the prolonged drought, which was affecting the western and northern areas of the country, referred to losses of 18.3% of the expected corn, bean, rice, sorghum and sesame harvests (magfor, 2001). In that same year, the same communities which were affected by drought also ex- perienced the negative consequences of the drop in inter- national coffee prices, which worsened their poverty and the food crisis. Despite the aid that the governments pro- vided with the cooperation of the international community, migrants flowed from rural area to cities in search of work and food; migration also extended across the borders be- tween some countries, especially between Nicaragua and Costa Rica, as occurred in the Department of Matagalpa in Nicaragua.12

El Salvador: floods, landslides and drought contribute to migration In 2015 and 2016, two droughts struck the re- Guatemala, El Salvador and Mexico identified gion again. In Honduras, 80% of crops were lost droughts (20%), landslides (16%) and floods Migration is constantly increasing, linked not only to social in areas where beans are grown, as well as 60% (13%) as the main threats. factors such as gang violence and extortion but also to the in corn-growing areas. According to fao esti- According to the iom, the figures on climate lack of opportunities and factors such as environmental de- mates, in the Dry Corridor 3.5 million people migrants in the Dry Corridor are unclear due terioration and natural disasters. Like the rest of the Dry Cor- required humanitarian assistance (the Dry Cor- to the lack of agreement over the way that ridor, El Salvador has been profoundly affected by drought. ridor’s total population is 10.5 million).10 factors such as poverty, scarcity of natural A study by Inter-American Dialogue (2014) analysed the main According to the World Humanitarian Sum- resources and political conflicts influence the causes of migration in this country: 46% identified security mit in 2015, the most frequent emergencies nexus between environmental impacts and as the main cause and placed unemployment second (16%). in the region are related to natural events ex- migration. The mara gangs and insecurity have an effect on internal mi- acerbated by climate change. The impact of It can be concluded that evidence already ex- gration, but in recent years climate impacts have also been these events is worsened by the populations’ ists from the four countries that environmental added to the causes of migration. vulnerability, which is due to their poor re- changes, combined with the lack of an appropri- In 2001, drought wiped out agriculture covering a large sponse capacity and poverty. During a consul- ate State response, shape migration patterns. It is part of the national territory, followed by a cycle of floods tation11 conducted by the iom and the World a common practice in the region for a number of in the farming area of Bajo Lempa and landslides. Economic Vision organisation in the run-up to this Sum- family members to migrate for work. This type of and food insecurity caused by natural phenomena and the mit, the populations of Costa Rica, Honduras, population movement is not normally regarded as massive destruction of homes, job losses, the abandonment migration but as labour circulation, as the workers of agriculture and lack of investment in new production in- do not intend to permanently change their place frastructure are direct causes which prompt entire Salvador- 10 fao. Dry Corridor. Central America: situation report, of residence. However, due to climate change an families to migrate. June 2016. and natural disasters, it can be stated that this 11 Report of the Survey under the Consultation with movement displays certain features of migra- the Affected Communities of Latin America and the tion: a significant number of the people who Caribbean, THE VOICE OF THE COMMUNITIES OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, TOWARDS moved have not considered returning to their THE WORLD HUMANITARIAN SUMMIT. February and place of origin, as they fear that their families 12 Vega García, Heidy. Migración ambiental inducida por variabilidad March 2015. iom and World Vision. will suffer again if they return. climática: El caso del Corredor Centroamericano de la Sequía. 2015.

18 19 Guatemala: intensification of historic migra- tion 1.3.

Despite the fact that migration has been a historical and con- tinuous process in Guatemala due to internal armed conflict Integrating a gender and the spiral of violence in the seventies and eighties, its pat- terns have changed to include environmental deterioration. In 2014, over 70% of Guatemala’s staple food harvest failed13 perspective into (UN). This affected more than one million people directly and increased food prices, especially in the Dry Corridor. The migration of family members (mainly men) in search climate migration of temporary employment (sugar cane and coffee picking) is a common and widespread practice in most families, and the income generated enables them to access food and basic goods. A recent Mesoamerican Famine Early Warning Sys- For many years, the debate on climate change change. In Latin America, women lead between tem (mfews) report stated that these temporary workers paid little attention to gender inequalities, 8% and 30% of agricultural undertakings, and are paid an average of 95 quetzales per day, which enables which meant that it was addressed as a neutral the number is rising as a result of the migration them to feed their family for 5-7 days (Action against Hunger, issue in terms of gender; it required technical of men to cities (Casas, 2017). This reality makes 2010). solutions and a market-based approach (Roden- them highly vulnerable to natural disasters and berg, 2009), which usually prioritised produc- climate change. In 2008, after Cyclone Nargis tive work and made women’s tasks invisible.14 struck the Ayeyarwady Delta in Myanmar, 87% However, given the roles which are assigned to of single women and 100% of married women them socially, in recent years further research lost their main source of income (Blomstrom et Honduras: intensification of drought has been conducted on the different impacts on al., 2009). men and women. Generally, the gender-spe- However, care should be taken not to make gen- The lack of access to land and other productive assets, the cific division of work, the unequal access of eralisations regarding the role of women as vic- lack of access to basic services, environmental vulnerability, men and women to resources and decision- tims of natural disasters, and there is a great need low agricultural productivity and limited job opportunities making power make women more vulner- for disaggregated statistics, which are not always outside agriculture are some of the factors which hamper able to climate change and its effects, and available, in order to draw relevant conclusions. rural development and cause high levels of emigration from their ability to respond is limited (hbf 2010; For example, there are specific situations, such the country (Central American network of Rural, Indigenous Oxfam 2010). It has also been reported that the as Hurricane Mitch in Nicaragua (1998), during and Farming Women). majority of victims of natural disasters are usu- which a higher number of men died (Bradshaw, Temporary migration to cut sugar cane and pick coffee, ally women, due to their limited mobility and 2001) than women17, which shows once again that an important process that eases the situation, generates a their role as care-givers to children, the sick generalisations cannot be made about the role of significant surplus of workers, due to the migration of signifi- and elderly, which means that women try to women as victims of disasters. cant numbers of people from the north-west of Nicaragua, protect their family members before themselves It is not possible to understand climate change where drought has also affected crops severely. This surplus (iom 2008b; Oxfam 2010; IUCN). For example, and human mobility separately from the cultur- labour has decreased opportunities and reduced salaries per in the 2004 tsunami in Asia, in some regions of al, social, political and economic context within person (Action Against Hunger, 2010). “People used to mi- India, women accounted for almost 80% of the which they arise. Natural disasters do not affect grate because of a lack of opportunities or violence, but in victims (iom 2008b).15 The undp also warned in everyone equally. Inequalities which exist in the last five years environmental factors and food security 2010 that women are fourteen times more our societies and unequal access to resources, have started to be discussed too. We have observed a lack of likely than men to die in a natural disaster.16 opportunities and capacities affect men and public policies that prevent migration” stated Dowal O’ Reil- It is clear that women’s lives and social women differently. The traditional roles and dif- ly Becerra (project coordinator at the Centre for Research roles are profoundly related to changes ferent responsibilities that are assigned to each and Promotion of Human Rights [Centro de Investigación y in the climate and environment. In the ag- gender are also components which reflect the Promoción de Derechos Humanos], CIPRODEH). ricultural sector, rural women are the main spectrum of climate change and affect the deci- producers of staple foods; this sector is highly sion to migrate (iom, 2017).18 vulnerable to natural disasters and climate Although there are an increasing number of studies on the different impacts of climate change and natural disasters, as well as new approaches which regard women not only as 14 Gonda, Noémi. Género y Adaptación al Cambio Climá- tico. Puesta en común y sistematización de experien- victims but also as the driving forces behind cias sobre la integración de la perspectiva de género en la adaptación al cambio climático en el ámbito rural en Nicaragua. Managua (Nicaragua) 2014 15 Jungehülsing, Jenny., Women who go, women who 17 Sarah Bradshaw and Ángeles Arenas., Socio-economic stay: reactions to climate change. A case study on mi- impacts of natural disasters: a gender analysis. (United gration and gender in Chiapas. November 2010. Nations, May 2004) 16 Gender and disasters. Bureau for Crisis Prevention 18 Ibid 13 13 un Guatemala: Reporte de Situación No. 1 Sequía (2014). and Recovery. undp, 2010.

20 21 Women’s unequal access to land in the Central America Dry Corridor

if women farmers had the same access as Salvador (2007) and 8% in Guatemala (2003). men to productive resources, there would Women access land in marginal and uncer- be between 100 and 150 million fewer hun- tain ways through rents and/or loans from gry people. Furthermore, increasing harvests relatives, landlords, friends or neighbours. on farms managed by women would reduce These forms of access to land generally make famine by between 12 and 17 percent (fao, women more vulnerable, as they do not have 2011). control over the land or over the rules and prices of the rents and/or loans. This makes The reality for women in the Dry Corridor the processes of production planning and has historically been marked by unequal investment difficult and also makes the cost successful adaptation initiatives, there is still access to land. It is very important to analyse of land more expensive, according to a study little evidence on climate migration with this link, as most women’s work in rural areas conducted in 2008 in Nicaragua by the ngo a gender perspective. Despite the fact that is related to the land, whether it is paid work femuprocan.21 forced migration caused by disasters contin- (agricultural) or a direct means of subsistence ues to increase, there are no systematic data or for her and her family in the form of unpaid Equality between women and men in land statistical records on internal and cross-border work. ownership continues to be one of the greatest migration, on which governments could base challenges for rural development, as it affects their policies, and even less disaggregated data During the various agricultural reform pro- the decisions and climate change adaptation available. cesses which took place in the 1960s in all activities that women can undertake. There Climate migration is often associated with Central American countries, land was registe- is a perception among women who own a lack of employment options in agriculture red in the name of the head of the family (the their own land that this gives them deci- and unpredictable harvesting seasons due to man). In recent years, attempts have been sion-making powers over production and rain and drought, which are directly linked to made to include women through laws that their income. Gaining access to land also climate change or worsening environmental recognised equal rights, but very little land creates independence, which is expressed in conditions. In most cases in which migration is was left to distribute, and the implementation the ability to make decisions and undertake linked to a lack of employment opportunities or of such laws has not been straightforward activities on their own. In addition, women the gradual deterioration of livelihoods in the under the pressure of market rules. There is agree that these elements have a positive medium and long term, it is men who tradition- still a deep split between formal equality and influence on their self-esteem and security. ally migrate, while women stay behind to take real equality, and, in practice, rural women However, as noted by the recmuric, it must care of the home and family. As their husbands have increasingly less access to land, which be acknowledged that land on its own is not are away, they find that they need to take on is of worse quality, and less legal certainty. enough. Without the necessary productive in- a more authoritative role with their children In addition to legal barriers, there are cultu- vestment, financial services, technical assis- (Nawyn, 2010). Dreby (2006) and Kibria (1994) are currently increasing due to the economic ral barriers (for example, in inheritance cases, tance and market access, land ceases to fulfil have shown that the other members of the fam- opportunities for migrant women in the areas despite the equal rights granted by law, many its social function and is abandoned or sold. ily or society find it difficult to accept these of domestic work (Mattingly, 1999), caregiving widows continue to transfer the land to which changes in roles, which places an additional (George, 2005) and sex work (Lutz, 1997 and they are entitled to their sons, so that they will burden on women. Hondagneu-Sotelo, 2011) or also in the case of be responsible for running the family farm).20 Depending on the context, “rural feminisa- short-distance migration. tion” (if there is more male migration) can have This has also been observed in Central Amer- Lack of access to land is connected to patriar- both positive and negative outcomes in terms ica (FLACSO, 2014). When a family separates, chal practices, which have historically gover- of empowerment and gender equality. These and it is the woman who migrates, the phenom- ned both rural and indigenous communities. outcomes do not only depend on whether more enon of ‘transnational maternity’ (Hondagneu- According to data collected by the fao, only men or women migrate but on the roles and po- Sotelo, 2011) or ‘transnational households’ 23% of women in Nicaragua own their land sitions that the migrants held in the community (Orozco, 2007) often occurs, where the woman (2011), 14% in Honduras (2015), 11.5% in El and in the family before migrating, as well as continues to meet her children’s economic and the way in which these roles and positions are emotional needs as far as possible, and other filled in their absence19. women, normally grandmothers, take over the 20 Guereña, Arantxa. “Tierra para nosotras. Propues- Looking beyond climate migration, there are responsibility of caring for children. Some stud- tas políticas de las mujeres rurales centroamericanas 21 Las mujeres rurales y el acceso a la tierra: El caso de para el acceso a la tierra” produced by the Central las socias de femuprocan. International Foundation a higher number of publications on the poten- ies have shown that when the father migrates, American Network of Rural, Indigenous and Farming for Global Economic Challenge (Fundacion Internacio- tial impacts of female or male migration, which they generally form new sentimental relation- Women (Red Centroamericana de Mujeres Rurales In- nal para el Desafio Economico Global, fideg). Nicara- are relevant in the context of climate; for exam- ships in the receiving country, send fewer remit- dígenas y Campesinas). recmuric gua. 2016. ple, the “feminisation of migration” patterns tances or stop sending them at all; in contrast, migrant mothers under the same circumstances never stop doing so (Foner, 2009). 19 iom Migration, environment and climate change. Case According to data from the Food and Agri- Studies in South America. (2017) culture Organization of the United Nations,

22 23 1.4. An overview of for climate change mitigation and adaptation, international, regional as well as in technology transfer and capacity- building. In November 2019, an initial report will evaluate the progress made in implement- and natural institutions ing this plan, which also stresses the need to increase the availability of sex- and gender-dis- aggregated data. and policies Although both topics also feature in the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda adopted by the United Nations, migration is not linked to climate change or gender. In sdg 13 on climate change, women are mentioned in goal 13.B as This section provides an analysis of the interna- unfccc documents, but it was the cop16 in one of the groups to focus on when creating tional, regional and national institutional and 2010 which first recognised climate change- mechanisms for raising capacity for effective regulatory frameworks which apply to the three induced mobility in the Cancún Adaptation planning and management in least developed variables of gender, climate change and migra- Framework. At cop18 in 2012, an advisory countries and Small Island Developing States. tion. It was based on previous reviews carried group was created to address this issue, but The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda re- out by civil society organisations, such as the little progress has been made since then. The fers explicitly to disaster-induced displacement prisma organisation in its study on ‘Institu- 2016 , which was adopted as a factor that could reverse much of the devel- tionality and governance in the Central Ameri- at cop21, refers to the vulnerability of mi- opment progress made (paragraph 14). can Dry Corridor” 22, the State of the Nation grants in the preamble, and the text on Loss With regard to migration, the iom has Programme in its “2016 State of the Region”23 and Damage includes a request to establish a been discussing the links between climate or “De la práctica a las políticas: experiencias task force under the supervision of the War- change and migration since 1990; its specific latinoamericanas en género, cambio climáti- saw International Mechanism for Loss Migration, Environment and Climate Change co y agricultura” (From practice to policies: and Damage, with a mandate to develop Division carries out investigations, promotes Latin American experiences in gender, climate recommendations for comprehensive ap- development and coherence in public policies change and agriculture”).24 proaches to prevent, minimise and ad- and institutionally builds public officials’ ca- dress displacement related to the adverse pacities in these areas. In some research related impacts of climate change. This working to climate migration, recommendations that in- 1.4.1 At the international level group presented its recommendations at clude gender perspective and stress the need cop24, which was held in 2018 in Katowice for more disaggregated data are already being There are many regulatory and legal frame- (Poland). incorporated. works which cover the topics of gender, cli- The gender issue arose for the first time dur- With respect to the international process on mate change and migration, although mainly ing the 2001 unfccc negotiations, but it was climate change risk management, the Sendai separately. Both gender and migration have not until 2010 that gender equality was ad- Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015- their own international policy processes and dressed substantially (Blomstrom, E and Burns, 2030 (sfdrr) refers to climate change-related were both gradually introduced into the United B, 2009). By mid-2016, the unfccc had 59 gen- displacement after disasters and migration, Nations Framework Convention On Climate der mandates in a number of decisions and but it does not address the link between mi- Change (unfccc). programmes (Gender Climate Tracker, wedo) gration and climate change in as much detail.25 In 2008, climate-induced migration and dis- and requested countries to include it both at The sfdrr stresses the importance of the par- placement were mentioned eleven times in the national level and in financing mechanisms, ticipation of women and calls, inter alia, for such as the Green Climate Fund (gcf) or the transboundary cooperation to be promoted Global Environment Facility (gef). The Paris to reduce the risk of displacement (paragraph 22 Salvadoran Research Program on Development and Agreement mentions gender equality and the 28) and encourages the “adoption of policies the Environment. Institutionality and governance in empowerment of women in the preamble, in and programmes addressing disaster-induced the Central American Dry Corridor. 2014. 23 State of the Nation Programme on Sustainable Human Article 7 on adaptation and in Article 11 on ca- human mobility to strengthen the resilience of Development (Programa Estado de la Nación en Desa- pacity-building. affected people and that of host communities” rrollo Humano Sostenible, Costa Rica). Quinto Infor- The most significant step was certainly the (paragraph 30). The UN’s New Urban Agenda me Estado de la Región / pen conare. – 5th edition. adoption of the Gender Action Plan at cop23 addresses the issues of climate change, gender – San José C.R in Bonn (2017) which outlined specific activi- 24 Witkowski, Kelly; Blanco Lobo, Montserrat. De la prác- tica a las políticas: experiencias latinoamericanas en ties and working groups over the following two género, cambio climático y agricultura. European years focused on including the gender per- 25 UN Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction Union. – San José, C.R.: iica, 2017 spective in the unfccc at all levels, in funds 2015-2030. (2015).

24 25 and migration separately without making the the interaction between these variables: “Due necessary links. to its effects on resources, climate change will The Nansen Initiative, launched in 2012 by make social challenges such as poverty reduc- the Norwegian and Swedish Governments, tion and governance more difficult to overcome. was endorsed by 109 States from around These changes may have long-term social, polit- the world and led to the adoption of the ical and security impacts. Uncertainties include Agenda for the Protection of Cross-Border the effect that climate change, or environmental Displaced Persons in the Context of Dis- degradation, may have on migration at differ- asters and Climate Change in 2015 and, in ent levels – local, national, regional or inter- 2016, the launch of the Platform on Disaster national” (Central American Commission for Displacement, which works to implement the Environment and Development and the Central agenda. Instead of proposing a new binding American Integration System, 2010). international convention for cross-border The ercc does mention “the recognition that displacement in the context of disasters, the the most vulnerable populations in the region Agenda is based on an approach focused on include indigenous communities, populations effective practices that States and (sub)re- of African descent, rural and urban women, gional organisations can integrate into their children and the elderly, and families in pover- own regulatory frameworks. It also stresses ty” (ccad, 2010). Perhaps more revealingly, this that it is important to “collect, consolidate framework policy (ercc) also recognises the and analyze gender- and age-disaggregated role of women as essential agents of change for data regarding the overall number of people the generation of good practices and policies. displaced in disaster contexts, both internally and across international borders, based on clear criteria and effective methods”26 and 1.4.3 At the national level mentions the necessary participation of women in all identification and decision- El Salvador making processes. Under the Nansen Initiative a Central Amer- In 2015, El Salvador adopted the National Cli- ica Regional Consultation was held in 2013; it mate Change Plan and the Ministry of Agricul- resulted in the creation of a Guide27, which in- der perspective is practically absent from this incorporated into its action plan), and it is re- ture (mag) also established an “Environmental cludes the flexible application of existing mi- Guide. garded as a highly useful tool for including gen- strategy for adaptation to and mitigation of gration categories, temporary admission and Finally, as regards gender, although the Con- der when planning policies to combat climate climate change in the farming, forestry, fisher- stay when waiting for humanitarian visas to be vention on the Elimination of All Forms of Dis- change.29 ies and aquaculture sector”. However, further issued, as well as the temporary suspension of crimination against Women (cedaw) does not Through the Central American Integration progress is required towards legislation which return to countries affected by disasters. In No- mention migration, it does include a general System (sica), the Council of Ministers was ensures improved mechanisms for adaptation vember 2016, the Regional Conference on Mi- recommendation (number 26) on the status of created to implement the Environmental Plan to climate change and a comprehensive risk gration, which was held in Honduras, provided migrant women. for the Central American Region (parca) 2012- management strategy, which would help to cre- an opportunity to further develop the measures 2014 and the ercc. These strategies urge the ate the necessary conditions to prevent, adapt related to protection and migration described international community to acknowledge the to and mitigate climate disasters. At present, re- in the Guide (a piece of work which served as a 1.4.2 At the regional level region’s high vulnerability to climate change, active approaches based on short-termism and basis for the Costa Rican authorities to ensure with a view to enabling greater cooperation and on coping with emergencies are implemented a better informed and prepared response to In recent years, a certain amount of effort has financing to reduce its negative impact (State of without a preventive approach. any type of displacement that Hurricane Otto been made in the Central American region to the Nation Programme, Costa Rica, 2016). The efforts made by the State to make equal- caused in November 2016) and to set future incorporate gender considerations into climate The ercc, which is a climate change policy ity and the elimination of discrimination against goals at the regional level.28 However, the gen- change, agriculture and food security policies. framework for the four countries, only men- women a fundamental requirement in its public The Regional Climate Change Strategy (ercc), tions the effects of climate change on migration policies should be highlighted: the gender per- which was adopted in 2010, is a good example tangentially, which shows the lack of clarity on spective is part of three approaches neces- 26 Agenda for the Protection of Cross-Border Displaced of how a gender approach can be integrated sary for well-being outlined in El Salvador’s Persons in the Context of Disasters and Climate Chan- into a policy document on climate change (it is 2014-2019 Five-Year Development Plan. The ge. Nansen Initiative (2015) 29 Gumucio T, Tafur M, Loucel C, Twyman J. 2016. In- Ministry of Agriculture has a Gender Unit and, 27 Regional Conference on Migration (RCM), A guide to clusión del enfoque de género en políticas de cambio in 2009, created the National Board of Rural effective practices for RCM member countries: Protec- climático: Un análisis de siete países latinoamerica- tion for persons moving across borders in the context una nueva herramienta de protección para el despla- nos. Copenhagen, Denmark: cgiar Research Program Women (Mesa Nacional de Mujeres Rurales) of disasters. San José (2016) zamiento transfronterizo inducido por desastres en las on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security with representatives of various national wom- 28 Walter Käelin and David Cantor. La Guía de la CRM: Américas (2017) (ccafs) en’s organisations. This initiative successfully

26 27 included rural women in the programmes and Honduras Plan, and d) Guatemala’s Intended Nationally De- in the agricultural and food package delivery termined Contribution. register for families affected by the impact of Honduras is the most vulnerable country to cli- At cop23 in Bonn (2017), Guatemala presented climate change; it is also attempting to increase mate change in Central America and has high lev- the National Climate Change Action Plan the number of land ownership deeds granted to els of poverty; 40% of households live in extreme (PANCC), a very ambitious project which, women30. poverty. Although it has a broad policy frame- inter alia, aims to reduce emission by 11% by In addition, the Women’s City (Ciudad Mujer) work to reduce its vulnerability to climate change 2030. The pancc includes the National Council programme, which has six offices in the coun- (2014 Climate Change Law, the National Climate on Climate Change (cncc) to coordinate matters try and is organised by the Secretariat for Social Change Strategy and the 2018 National Adaptation relating to climate change, a National Climate Inclusion, includes activities aimed at economic Plan), in reality the budget allocated to combating Change Information System (snicc), which pro- empowerment and the promotion of women’s its effects is insufficient. In 2017, the total budget vides statistical information and reports, as well as rights, as well as comprehensive assistance in for investment in issues related to climate change the creation of the National Climate Change Fund, gender-violence matters or specialised sexual was equal to 2% of the national budget.32 Further- which will administer and implement resources and reproductive health services. more, gender perspectives are not included in its to prevent, plan and respond to the impacts of However, the main challenge is achieving an climate policies, although advances have been climate change on the country. It is estimated that effective link between gender, agriculture and achieved in incorporating them into policies relat- around 100 million dollars will be needed to im- climate change policies. ing to food security by including gender in their plement this plan;35 however, the allocated budget action plans.33 in 2017 for protection and care of the environment Honduras has a good number of legal instru- was 0.13% of gdp.36 At cop23, the former Minister Nicaragua ments, policies and programmes which acknowl- for the Environment and Natural resources, Syd- edge the need to change unequal gender relations ney Samuels, made a further call for its status In Nicaragua, the level of economic growth in rural areas and to enhance the role of rural as a particularly vulnerable country to be recog- achieved (sustained growth of between four women, such as the Equal Opportunities Law nised, in line with the principle of the common and five percent in recent years), which is above (2000), the Policy for Gender Equality in Hon- responsibilities of developed countries (the main average in Latin America, was made possible, to duran Agriculture (1999-2015) or the 2nd Equal causers of climate change) and demanded finance a large extent, at the expense of the increasing Opportunities Plan (2010-2022), but, in practice, to make the Green Climate Fund operational. and accelerated deterioration of the country’s there have been no significant changes due to a The principles that govern the pancc include natural resources. Livestock farming, coffee and lack of political will, poor interinstitutional coor- comprehensiveness, which also encompasses the sugar growing, and gold mining are dominated dination, limited systems for monitoring, evalua- need to consider cultural and ethnic relevance, as by the large industries without real regulations progress has been made on this matter, and var- tion and social auditing, and the meagre budget, in well as the gender perspective in the design of that guarantee environmental protection and ious civil society stakeholders have been calling addition to the low participation of rural women any actions, an approach which is mentioned on the rights of the population. for a Climate Change Law to strengthen the en- in decision-making bodies34. various occasions throughout the document. The country has mortgaged its economic vironmental legal framework in this area.To this With regard to incorporating the gender per- and social “successes” by turning its back end, in February 2018, the Nicaraguan Climate spective, the 2016 adoption of its first Gender on the sustainable development of its nat- Change Alliance (Alianza Nicaragüense ante el Guatemala Equality Policy in the area of food security, nu- ural resources. In the face of the country’s Cambio Climático, ANACC), representing over trition and rural development by the Ministry of environmental crisis, the Ministry of the Envi- 50 social organisations, submitted a Draft Gen- Guatemala has developed various political, legal Agriculture, Livestock and Food (maga) is also ronment and Natural Resources, the National eral Law on Climate Change to the First Sec- and strategic instruments concerning climate noteworthy. As for the inclusion of a gender ap- Water Authority and the National Forestry In- retary and the Environment Committee of the change, including: a) the Framework Law to Reg- proach in climate change policies37, three poli- stitute have been unable to implement effec- Nicaraguan National Assembly, and they hope ulate the Reduction of Vulnerability and Obliga- cies on climate change, four on food security, one tive public policies in the medium term and that the Government will take it into considera- tory Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Change on forest ecosystems and one on risk manage- have very limited budgets.31 tion. Internationally, Nicaragua initially re- (Decree 7-2013 of the Congress of the Republic); ment refer to a gender perspective; however, it is Although the Government presented its first fused to sign the Paris Agreement because b) Law to Promote the Establishment, Recovery, not clearly integrated in all the other levels of the public policy instrument directly related to cli- it was not ambitious enough, but in October Restoration, Management, Production and Pro- policies’ implementation. mate change in 2010, the National Strategy for 2017 it finally decided to accede to it. tection of Forests in Guatemala, “PROBOSQUE” the Environment and Climate Change (ENACC), Furthermore, in 2010, it adopted Law 717 (Decree 02-2015 of the Congress of the Republic), which has been in force since 2015, hardly any Creating the Fund for Land Purchasing with the goal of which is to recover 1.2 million hectares Gender Equality for Rural Women, which was by 2010; c) the National Climate Change Action proclaimed as an important change for women 30 De la práctica a las políticas: experiencias latinoameri- in terms of land ownership. However, the budg- canas en género, cambio climático y agricultura / Kelly et is too low to implement the Law, and almost 35 Plaza Pública. “Guatemala y su multimillonario plan Witkowski and Montserrat Blanco Lobo (eds.); Euro- 32 Honduras trabaja contra el cambio climático. El Heral- para reducir la contaminación”. November 2017 pean Union – San José, C.R.: iica, 2017 no progress has been made towards its imple- do Newspaper, 2017 36 Prensa Libre. “Guatemala invierte poco en proteger el 31 Balance de la gestión ambiental en Nicaragua al 2016. mentation, as criticised by the main rural wom- 33 Ibid 29. ambiente”. January 2017 Humboldt centre. en’s organisations in the country. 34 Ibid 20 37 Ibid 29.

28 29 2. Case studies In this chapter, the main findings from the four case studies will be presented. The results from each country are shown separately, and in the fo- llowing chapter the results will be analysed in an integrated manner.

Each case study consists of two parts:

1. Climate migration and gender impacts. 2. Adaptation and resilience from a gender perspective.

30 31 “Climate change affects water: we used to find water springs, but it is much more complicated now, as we have to find them deep in the ground or walk very far to find them. It also affects the crops and livestock. There is a food shortage, and we are losing our jobs. We don’t sow or grow an- ything. Our self-esteem has dropped. We have been changing the sowing seasons, and instead of two harvests, El Sal we now only have one...” (Silvia Azucena García, de Usulután)

limate change is already a reality in El which are the main source of proteins and Salvador. According to data gathered calories and provide 50% of the daily caloric in the National Environment Strategy intake per capita, especially in rural areas. drafted in 2010 by the Salvadoran Gov- This situation has the greatest impact on popu- Cernment, in the last six decades the average an- lations in rural areas, the majority of which are vador nual temperature in El Salvador increased by engaged in subsistence farming, and, more spe- more than 1.3°C and climate scenarios suggest cifically, women, who represent 51% of the rural that there will be further increases of between population38 and who have low fixed incomes 2°C and 3°C in the next 60 years, depending on and are not landowners. global efforts to mitigate global warming. More- The main conclusions drawn from the visits over, the risk of disasters is increasing quickly, to the departments of Usulután and San Miguel as many environmental threats re-emerge more (48 women and 10 men) close to the border be- often and are less predictable as a result of cli- tween Nicaragua and El Salvador were: mate change; according to the 2017 National Vulnerability and Risk Assessment, which is — Different impacts of climate change: pro- produced by the Ministry of the Environment gress has been made in acknowledging the and Natural Resources, 88.7% of the territory impacts that climate change has on women (where 95.4% of the population is settled) is re- (it takes longer to find water, food and care garded as a risk area. Changes in crop productivity resulting from shifts in climate variables also have a significant social impact, which is visible in 38 Salvadoran Institute for the Advancement of Women (Instituto Salvadoreño para el Desarrollo de la Mujer, health: there is an increase in respiratory isdemu). 2013. Situación de las mujeres rurales salva- and diarrhoeal diseases, more severe short- doreñas en el ámbito económico. Sistema Nacional ages of foods such as corn, rice and beans, para la Igualdad Sustantiva.

32 33 for the family), but this is not addressed in sus). As they are not owners, they have less “During the sugar cane harvest season, the majority 2.1.2. Climate change adaptation and resi- relation to the topic of migration. power to decide what and how to plant; these of temporary workers who come to El Salvador are lience from a gender perspective — Climate migration: some of the communi- factors increase their vulnerability and limit Nicaraguan. They also work in livestock farming, ties establish a link between migration and their abilities to become more resilient.40 generally in rearing and milking activities, in the At government level, the Ministry of Agricul- climate effects, particularly drought, but The groups interviewed thought that women northern area of La Unión. Dollarisation41 seems to ture has introduced policies with priorities for violence continues to play a more significant were more vulnerable than men to the effects be an incentive” the fight against climate change and food secu- role in migration than the climate variable, of climate change because they are in charge rity. The initiatives developed contain inclusive, and there are established patterns of male of health and food security in the communi- (Reina Isabel Romero, from Usulután). equality and citizen participation approaches migration. There are reports of some cases of ties. Men have more opportunities to choose (see 1.4). Work is being carried out involving the migration caused by extreme meteorological to work, but this is more difficult for women exchange of native seeds as a climate change phenomena exacerbated by climate change. as they are responsible for household duties Climate migration adaptation strategy and a contribution to food — Climate change adaptation: progress has and caring for children. Women are aware security through the National Centre for Agri- been made in improving coordination bet- that the effects of climate change have meant In the communities of Agua Fría and Alto cultural and Forestry Technology (Centro Na- ween local Governments, national institu- a heavier workload for them because of the Nuevo, men and women migrate, whether due cional de Tecnología Agropecuaria y Forestal, tions and civil society to propose measures lack of rain and water in the wells; they must to climate change or the dryness of the soil and centa), the first government institution which for climate change adaptation focused on walk long distances to source water or pay lack of conditions conducive to production. has a gender policy and a Gender Department. women, such as native seed banks, which are high prices for it. Although their inhabitants have been given new centa is attempting to identify seeds which linked to food security. Women are imple- Almost all of the people interviewed in the land to live off, they cannot support themsel- are more resistant to climate change and pro- menting agro-ecological practices to improve communities of Cantón las Cañas, Colonia ves there; for this reason, they sow their crops mote the exchange of seeds. After conducting their food security, but they need more ins- Nueva Belén and Colonia Prado in San Miguel elsewhere or look for a way to move from one various investigations, it has given farmers basic titutional support and a more cross-cutting confirmed that they had a relative or very close place to another. In these places the land is not grain seeds, such as beans and corn, which approach to the issues of climate change, friend who had migrated. Although almost 30% fertile and climate change adaptation has been adapt to the lack of water and nutrients in the gender and migration. of interviewees mentioned the climate variable shrouded by poverty. soil. centa notes that women have significant (crop failure due to environmental factors, knowledge about the land and are more open including climate change) the rest cited inse- In some communities, migration is caused by to being involved in research. In one of its pro- 2.1.1. Climate migration and gender im- curity related to violence and unemployment extreme meteorological phenomena exacerba- jects, they are collaborating with local Govern- pacts as the causes. They all referred to long-term ted by climate change. In 2015, at the end of the ments in the department of Morazán, which is migration and the United States as the destina- dry season, there was a climate event called near San Miguel. The ultimate goal is to create “Climate change affects productive activities and tion chosen by the vast majority. There are no Mar de Fondo (swell), which increased the size a seed bank for basic grains such as beans and the food that goes on the table” official statistics, but the communities of San of the waves; waves of up to 3 metres high co- corn, which would help food security and ben- Miguel and Usulután thought that mostly men vered around 300 metres of the beach and des- efit more and more women and men farmers. (Iris Griselda Gómez, from San Miguel). migrated, and there has been a significant in- troyed the homes of more than 200 families crease in youth migration. in 4 communities in the coastal area of the “The idea is to use these seeds, which are much The people interviewed in the departments municipality of San Francisco Menéndez (De- more resistant to climate change, and exchange the of Usulután and San Miguel pointed out that “In Conchagua, it has always been the man who mi- partment of Ahuachapán). As it is located close seeds, so that we all benefit”. in the last five years the rain has arrived ear- grates and the woman who stays; families are brea- to the border with Guatemala, one of the shel- lier than usual, in January, which has had a king up. Parents worry, and they want young people ters for affected families was set up there. This (Ana Xiomara Ruiz, from Usulután) significant impact on crops and agricultural to leave because of crime. When a child turns 12 or climate disaster resulted in migration to Gua- planning. With regard to fishing, they stressed 14, we have to see how we can send them to another temala. The Environmental Observatory of the centa has expressed its intention to pro- that fewer fish are caught because the waters municipality or to another country” Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resou- duce a new report on the situation of women have warmed up. rces (MARN) suggests that the increase in faster in rural areas in order to have a diagnostic as- San Miguel is one of the departments in El (Santos Ruiz López, Conchagua). and higher waves is due to climate change and sessment which would help to meet the needs Salvador with the highest percentage of the the El Niño phenomenon, which causes the sea of women as regards climate change and their female rural population – 53%; in Usulután Some areas in San Miguel and Usulután also level to rise. Furthermore, the encroaching sea abilities to tackle its impacts. It has also stressed the percentage of rural women is also high at receive migrants. The migrants are Nicaraguan affected the mangrove ecosystem, on which the need to continue developing methodolo- 52%. Despite their contribution to food pro- temporary workers, who migrate to these re- more than 1,700 families depend; the increa- gies to facilitate the equal participation of men duction, they are not regarded as farmers gions of the Salvadoran Dry Corridor searching se in salt water destabilised the biophysical and women in order to achieve food and nutri- but as “housewives”.39 Land ownership plays for employment opportunities, such as livestock conditions of the mangrove, thereby affecting tion security and sovereignty, as well as cre- a significant role: only 15% legally own land farming, sugar cane cutting and other agricul- the reproduction of species such as crabs and ate spaces for women in which it can promote suitable for agriculture (digestyc, 2010 cen- tural jobs. In general, they stay in the country shrimps, which are a source of subsistence and the development of associative processes.42 for six months and then return to Nicaragua. income for the families who live nearby.

39 un Women, Voces desde el terreno: 30 historias de mujeres emprendedoras (2016) 40 Ibid 20. 41 El Salvador is a dollarised country. 42 Ibid 20.

34 35 ening interactions between institutions, with “There was only a trickle of water in the river. We Women sweet chilli producers working meetings on specific themes, which organised ourselves in the community to start a can then be transferred to the institutions’ cleaning process, and we restored the spring. The “Summers are very dry here. We planted ve- final decisions. This enables a more rapid re- river was like it was before. Fish and shrimp stocks getables in January and February; the weather sponse to the needs of citizens’ groups, espe- also recovered” was very hot and it didn’t work. Now we have cially consultative women’s groups,” stated changed the sowing dates, and production has a municipal representative. Some effort has (Ana Maritza Joya, San Miguel) improved We plant during the second sowing been made in exchanging native seeds and pro- season. We have a drilled well which supplies us tecting springs. The Salvadoran Ecological Unit (Unidad with water” Alliances between institutions and local com- Ecológica Salvadoreña, unes), an InspirAction munities have enabled work to be carried out partner in El Salvador, is a grassroots civil so- (Milagro del Carmen Moreira, a sweet chilli far- to improve the socio-environmental surround- ciety organisation, which performs interesting mer in the El Brazo canton, department of San ings and, by doing so, prevent migration. governmental and policy advocacy work on cli- Miguel) Women participate actively in some initiatives, mate issues; together with other organisations although better coordination is required in it enabled the adoption of the National Climate This pilot experience with women sweet chilli order to enable more women to become in- Change Plan in 2015. Although this plan does producers in a mesh house (a structure which volved in these spaces and put their knowledge not address climate migration, it has managed is similar to a greenhouse) with the technical to use. As part of its model for the empower- to incorporate some gender elements, thanks support of centa and financial support from UN ment of women in socio-productive activities, to contributions from various feminist organisa- Women through Ciudad Mujer San Miguel, the initiatives launched by Ciudad Mujer to tions; they are, however, still insufficient. brought about an important change for them; install water reservoirs should be highlight- unes emphasises the importance of obtain- in just two years of entrepreneurship they have ed. This technology has been promoted to har- ing more climate evidence in order to formulate achieved economic independence and sales in vest rain water, and women have been given more specific policies and measures. For exam- the municipality of El Tránsito (Usulután) of up to incentives to install a reservoir on the farms. ple, they are carrying out monitoring work 2,900 dollars, in addition to the knowledge that Women have also been involved in initiatives on wells in order to record information on they have acquired in preparing the soil, plan- to protect springs. water reduction; this work must be conducted ting, etc. In addition, women take part in other actions in coordination with the relevant national bod- led by municipalities, although the gender per- ies, and work is required, for example, on re- “They trained us to prepare the soil, apply fo- spective is not always present in all of the initi- forming the Irrigation Law with the Ministry of liar fertilizers and we worked on demonstration atives. The following initiatives are particularly Agriculture, to prevent further damage to the plots. Once we had been trained, they gave us noteworthy: sugar cane industry. They also work to improve support for the mesh house and we sowed 2,000 climate information. They have installed rain Nataly sweet chilli plants, which are resistant to — Use of seeds adapted to dry areas and seed gauges in 8 communities, and women are high temperatures. We work and we use part of exchanges for the future creation of a seed responsible for monitoring rainfall patterns. what we earn to live off and we save the rest. bank; In this way, they can take decisions on whether Our self-esteem has improved considerably.” — Campaigns to prevent post-harvest burning; or not to use water and produce risk maps in — Proper management of solid waste, coor- order to be better prepared. One of the main challenges is making it possible dinated by the Municipal Women’s De- Other ngos such as Fundesyram are working for more women to become involved in projects partments; on projects targeting vulnerable groups, by pro- like this one and share their knowledge with — Soil remediation practices (they are promo- moting sustainable production systems in agri- other women, in order to form networks which ted as part of the natural fodder), reforesta- culture, creole or native seeds and projects to enable them to build their resilience to climate tion activities and installation of retaining increase food security. They have a wealth of change and create strategies which help them to walls to prevent flooding; technology, which is helping the communities stay in their territories. — Strengthening organisation and capacity- to tackle climate change, especially communi- building for management, with an emphasis ties in the Dry Corridor through the promotion on the empowerment of women, of Eco-communities. The aim of the prisma At the local level, the interviewed Govern- — Incentives for agro-ecological crop manage- Foundation was to encourage dialogue between ments noted positive aspects such as the ment: reduction in the use of harmful pesti- stakeholders, engaging the local, territorial, na- existence of Women’s Departments or the En- cides, eco-community initiatives, support for tional, regional and global levels, to generate vironment Department, which receive support basic grain crops for food security, especia- public policies. from centa and the Secretariat of the Presi- lly for farming in the second sowing season dency. However, there are limited relation- (when the rain is more regular), comprehen- ships between these Departments, and there sive capacity-building for women, etc. have been no cross-cutting discussions on cli- mate change, gender and migration. “We learned to save water and look after it; and to The local Governments consulted state that maintain water wells like pools, which help us with they are promoting actions aimed at climate the crops and for use in the home” change adaptation and the sustainable devel- opment of natural resources. “We are strength- ( Julia Elizabeth Alvarado, Leader of Usulután)

36 37 “Climate change affects us women because we are responsible for buying the products and cultivating the land; because of the effects of climate change, there is now less work, and an economic crisis means that we have to migrate... there is total unemployment.” NICA A woman from San Ramón)

icaragua’s geographical position makes — Impacts of climate change on food secu- it vulnerable to extreme climate events rity: the people interviewed in the regions (storms, hurricanes, floods, drought, of San Ramón and Somoto clearly associate etc.) and it is ranked as the fourth most the impact of climate change with the long RAGUA vulnerable country to natural disasters in the and extreme drought experienced in recent N gcri. It emits 0.03% of global emissions and has years, accompanied by very hot weather and 0.1% of the world’s population. The Nicaraguan unpredictable rain. Its effects are visible in Institute of Territorial Studies (Instituto Nica- the decrease in production and crop failure, ragüense de Estudios Territoriales, Ineter) stated especially the corn and bean basic grains, that the country is losing 337 million dollars each which affects its food security and sovereign- year due to the effects of climate-related events, ty. Most interviewees pointed out that other such as hurricanes, drought and floods. anthropic factors, such as deforestation, The driest areas of the Nicaraguan Dry Cor- mining, the use of agrochemicals or the un- ridor have been struck by the worse drought controlled burning of waste catalyse climate in recent years due in part to the strong el change or exacerbate its impacts. They also Niño phenomenon in 2014. In addition to cli- mention the impact of mega-projects, which mate change, which is affecting rainfall pat- pollute the land and water, as a serious ad- terns and degrading the land, the impacts ditional problem for communities. of worsening drought are significant and — Different impacts of climate change: the include basic grain crop failures (corn and majority of people interviewed confirmed beans), water shortages and an increase in that women’s workloads increase if there is a diseases and epidemics in people, animals shortage of food or water and the increase in and plants. diseases related to the temperature rise. This The main conclusions drawn from the field also increases the inequalities which already work in Nicaragua were: exist as a consequence of the structural in-

38 39 justice suffered by women (patriarchal land with the drought in recent years. In Achi- Patriarchal land access practices access practices, more precarious jobs, ex- ote Telpaneca they described how “every- cessive workload in the home, etc.). thing dries up, the trees become dry; we Access to resources is closely linked to pa- — Climate migration: some cases of climate- fail because there is no rain, we do not have triarchal practices. In terms of access to land, change induced forced displacement were enough, so the crops fail, the plants do not the mayor’s office in the municipality of San identified among the people interviewed or produce as much (beans do not either) Ramón acknowledges that only 3% of land is in their acquaintances, following landslides and the animals die; we are in a crisis.”44 women’s names, and even when they are ow- caused by localised rain. They also men- Women explained that to respond to this ners of small plots, very often the husbands tion cyclical labour migration of men and situation their children have to go out to find take control of what the women produce, women inland or to nearby countries (El money however they can to send it to their leaving them without economic resources; Salvador, Costa Rica) and even internation- families. they then become forced to migrate to other al migration (Spain, United States, etc.), The people interviewed confirmed that the regions to find work as domestic emplo- and that the environmental variable is not effects of climate change are more evident yees. the only contributing factor. If the women for women and deepen the inequalities migrates, she runs the risk of suffering la- which already exist as a consequence of In 2005, 19.9% of agricultural landowners re- bour, sexual and social abuse (in the maqui- the structural injustice suffered by them gistered in Nicaragua were women (fao). Ac- las, agricultural companies, in their new (lack of access to land, precarious jobs, cording to statistics for 2011 from the National home, on transport, etc.); if the women excessive workload in the home, etc.). Institute of Information Development (Instituto stays behind, she must ensure the fam- Nacional de Información de Desarrollo, inide), ily’s food security with increasingly scarce “There was inequality before, and now with cli- 23.3% of agricultural producers were women, resources in an environment in which she mate change it has doubled or tripled because which does not mean that all of them held land also experiences gender discrimination. the water sources are becoming more and more ownership certificates. According to a study by — Climate change adaptation: there are polluted or dry, and that means that women have the ngo femuprocan49, the percentages are lower some seed bank or water collection initia- to walk further to collect those resources. Fur- in the departments of Madriz (18.6%) and in tives aimed at involving women in building thermore, given their role as carers, they have Matagalpa (21.7%). It is also interesting to note resilience comprehensively, and not only in to spend more time caring for people who are the difference according to the size of the land the form of voluntary work which increases ill (flu, Zika, respiratory and skin diseases).”45 owned, as women always have the smallest their workload. A number of ngos launch plots of land: 48.5% are owners of plots of 0.5 initiatives with a gender perspective and “We have to resolve this problem among all those blocks or less (around 4.5 metres2) and only work very closely with the concept of new involved because we are the ones who suffer the 7.6% own plots of 500 blocks or more (from masculinities to change macho culture, most; we, the women, are responsible for growing 300 m2). which is deeply entrenched in Nicaraguan the crops, for water supplies, obtaining credit, bu- society. ying the products, etc.” The topic of access to land is essential because it creates a circle of poverty: (Esperanza López Figueroa, from Los Limones)46 2.2.1. Climate migration and gender im- “If we ask for a loan, they don’t give one to us because pacts In all communities, women agree that they we don’t have land to grow crops on.” (Eusebia Marti- have to walk further to collect the water that nez, from Los Limones, San Ramón focus group). Both the grassroots women and municipal au- they use to prepare food, do the laundry, for thorities interviewed referred to the impact children’s hygiene, food production, etc. As a The options are limited; although Law 717 exists that humans have on the changes in the result, drought affects women more. “We have to help rural women to apply for loans and buy environment and climate. to walk further and further to collect the small land, it has not been implemented. amount of water that we need for cooking.”47 “Consumerism and capitalism also exacerbate cli- The macho culture also has an influence on “When we don’t have land, we don’t have anything to mate change: they make things worse, we are lo- women, as they are forced to adapt to this answer with, and the banks don’t give us a loan – then sing trees, is it a double blow... What’s more, we new situation: “it is common all over the re- we have to find ways to support ourselves – we use no longer know which the productive seasons gion for the mother to be the last to eat; she cardboard, seeds, glass bottles and we make things to are. This directly affects production, which our serves the food and waits to see if the others sell.” livelihood depends on; it affects diversity and are still hungry, especially the children; there- all the species that live in that area are disappea- fore, they end up eating less because of the (Karelia Maritza Blandón, from El Plomo) ring; there used to be a bird that would tell me food shortages.”48 when it was going to rain and when the produc- tion season was, but it’s not there anymore.”43

Almost all the people interviewed imme- 44 Achiote Telpaneca Focus Group. diately link the concept of climate change 45 FEM, from its diagnostic assessment on water and cli- mate change. 46 Women’s focus group in San Ramón. 47 Women’s focus group in San Ramón. 43 Testimony from the ngo odesar. 48 odesar 49 Ibid 21.

40 41 Climate migration In the communities of San Ramón and culture, which is deeply entrenched in Nica- Madriz they also mentioned the environmen- raguan society. The interviewees described how natural disas- Migration occurs on a large scale in Nicara- tal degradation caused by extractive indus- fem, in collaboration with fcam and unag, ters (such as landslides after heavy rain) were gua, mainly within the country to cities and try. The invasion of mega-projects creates an has recently implemented various seed causing forced migration, although normally coffee growing areas. As for international additional major problem for communities. bank projects with a gender and climate to nearby towns: “We are blocked in and there migration, migrants look for temporary jobs, The municipality of San Ramón would like to change perspective in the region of So- are lots of landslides; we have to rebuild houses mainly in the agricultural sector, in neigh- maintain its two large nature reserves, which moto, and they would like to continue the but in a new place, so people are leaving tem- bouring countries and also go to the United are affected by water pollution caused by native seed projects, in which women have porarily to look for work to obtain resources.50”. States (although after Trump’s election, it industry, especially coffee harvesting. River learnt how to improve some types of ceased to be a priority destination) and Spain.. pollution is one of the most serious prob- seeds with new technologies. They are Although San Ramón mayor’s office ack- lems, but the Government of San Ramón also working with organic vegetable gardens nowledges that the impacts of climate chan- “When women migrate, it’s not the men who look does not take effective measures to resolve and agri-food chains (from 2014 to sell cof- ge are apparent, it believes that the feeling of after the household but the women’s mothers. it. Illegal logging in forests, which also exac- fee at a fair price). The unag also works with attachment to the land, which comes from the This creates a double burden: adult women with erbates climate change, is another problem. seed banks and promotes community devel- indigenous tradition of the Pachamama, is still their own family and job who also look after their opment with a gender and resilience per- stronger than migration. However, according daughter’s children”. spective. For example, in Achiote Telpaneca, to data provided during interviews conducted 2.2.2. Adaptation and resilience from a men and women take part by selecting seeds by the ngo odesar, 10% of people from San (Fundación entre Mujeres) gender perspective in a seed bank project to improve production Ramón are migrating – at least one person in and, by doing so, prevent migration. Women each family – and it pointed out the need to Some interviewees stated that migration “Although the problem of climate change affects are very involved in this project, but the re- carry out a study on migration in that town in affects similar percentages of women and communities, women, men and young people, sults of seed banks will not be seen for some order to better understand the environmental men, but disaggregated statistics with which there is political will within both the central Gover- time. causes. to explore this phenomenon further were not nment and the municipal Government to promote The municipality of San Ramón has some found. Rural women migrate to cities for work initiatives which contribute to the sustainable de- resilience programmes aimed at adapting to In the interview with fcam, migration caused as domestic workers or they go to the maqui- velopment of the environment through different climate change, but when the projects finish by climate change and extreme drought was las. Young and single women migrate, as well laws, policies and programmes in San Ramón, in (water conservation, rainwater harvesting, identified, and it was noted that women as mothers, who sometimes take their chil- addition to the Municipal Development Strategic etc.) and the community is responsible for migrate to Spain, whereas men migrate dren with them, and, if they cannot do so, they Plan (pedm).” maintaining them, problems of continuity cyclically to Costa Rica for the coffee har- leave them with other women in their commu- arise. It was not possible to visit all of the vest. This movement is cyclical, as the workers nity, usually grandmothers. With respect to re- odesar projects, but several women-led projects return to their communities at the end of the mittances, it was mentioned that, faced with were seen in action in the area: three coffee season. In some testimonies it was mentioned climate uncertainty some young people do not The Sound of the Bell Foundation (Fun- cooperatives run by women; a lending bank; that, due to migration to Costa Rica for the co- look for work or try to develop new livelihoods. dación Sueño de la Campana), odesar and a group of women who make crafts using re- ffee harvest, there was a shortage of workers They prefer to invest their remittances in unag launch initiatives with a gender ap- cycled paper, and another craft project using in Nicaragua and crops were ruined in many consumer goods rather than in agricultural proach and work very closely with the con- fabric at the municipality’s entrepreneurial places. The reason for this is that in Costa Rica production. cept of new masculinities to change macho school. payment is in dollars and is higher than in Ni- caragua. Either one person or the whole family may migrate to work during the coffee harvest. Families often take their children out of school Seed bank in Naranjo: climate change resilience led by women so that they can help their parents during the harvest season. The seed bank in Naranjo (Matagalpa) is an responsible for planting the seeds and use a example of a community project in collabora- range of strategies to tackle climate change, As Somoto is twinned with two towns in the tion with a local ngo (odesar), which tackles such as storing all the seeds. They try to use Basque Country, women usually choose this food security, fights to build climate change varieties and native seeds; now “we have both destination in Spain when they decide to mi- resilience, supports community development types in the native and domesticated seed grate and look for employment as domestic and strengthens women’s leadership. Seed bank, as well as red beans and white chillies.” workers. Spain is also one of the migration banks help to boost production, storage, and destinations mentioned by women from San improve and exchange native and domestica- One of the challenges is the water shortage, Ramón, as well as and Costa Rica. ted foreign seeds among farming families and which is linked to the problem of not owning With respect to the cause of migration, the their communities. their own land. There is water or water sources communities talk of economic reasons, which on private land, but the community cannot use are not easily separated from low agricultu- They have been running for two years with them. ral production, the deterioration of the envi- 24 families involved (management board of ronment and the effects of climate change. two men and three women, including the pre- sident). The bank loans the seeds which are stored and which adapt the best (native seeds and varieties) at a price of two for one (more 50 Women from the Assembly of the Farmers and Ran- attractive price than the market). Women are chers Union (unag).

42 43 “Heatwaves affect the entire corn planting area. Last year, they affected 60-70% of the yield. Many families migrated between 2015 and 2016 because there was only one successful harvest each year, and if there is no rain you can’t plant more.”

(Alba de Jesús Gonzales, HON from Namasigüe, Choluteca).

espite emitting only 0.05% of global The main conclusions based on the findings CO2 into the atmosphere, Honduras in Honduras are as follows: features at the top of many lists of DURAS the most vulnerable countries to — Impacts of climate change: it is evident in Dclimate change, including the GermanWatch the regions visited in irregular rain and very Global Climate Risk Index (gcri). Hurricane long and extreme periods of drought, and it Mitch, which struck Honduras in 1998, caused affects food security (loss of basic grains in 6,500 deaths and agricultural crop losses all regions, in addition to coffee in Langue), of 70%. Between 2014 and April 2016, Hon- the availability of water and health (increase duras suffered one of the longest droughts in respiratory and skin diseases). on record, and the country’s “dry corridor” — Different impacts of climate change: experienced the worse consequences. The water and food resources are increasingly drought that Honduras is experiencing has scarce, and women are affected most (more significantly reduced harvests, causing in- time spent carrying out their duty of col- creased food and nutrition insecurity and lecting water and obtaining food). Women poverty, among other effects. As a conse- who are not landowners must give 50% of quence of crop losses, prices have increased what they produce to their landlord and by between 14% and 20%, which is making are producing less and less, which affects it more difficult for people to purchase the their quality of life. In addition to the im- products in a basic food basket. In response pacts of climate change, the extractive pro- to this situation, families, especially in rural jects (hydroelectric, mining, monoculture areas, are choosing to reduce the number and expansion, etc.) oblige women to defend quality of meals, thereby increasing malnutri- their territories. tion rates. Paradoxically, in 2017, there was — Climate migration: the lack of resources more rain than usual. makes a large proportion of the population

44 45 migrate. Women migrate in equal numbers In addition to the impacts on food security, Climate migration Impacts of mega-projects to men, and they are very often at risk of the people interviewed in all the communi- sexual and labour abuse in the jobs to ties also found a direct link between climate In the Marcala region, the crops which produced Apart from climate change, communities, which they migrate temporarily. change, which is reflected in the increase in sufficient yields in previous years to sell them and community leaders and organisations inter- — Climate change adaptation: The central heatwaves, and the rise in respiratory dis- generate extra income are now only enough for viewed in Honduras, identified the wave of Government is not allocating sufficient eases in the elderly and skin diseases in chil- survival. For example, in the community of Las concessions granted for mega-projects in vul- funds to climate change adaptation initia- dren. “It is getting hotter and hotter, and it Flores, the families produce enough for food, but nerable areas with natural resources as a se- tives (the gender perspective is not present seriously affects the skin of those who have in order to earn extra money for their other needs, rious problem. During the research, we had either) and it delegates the task of project to walk far to go to work or school.” “Climate such as health, education and clothes, there is access to many testimonies from people com- implementation to local Governments. In change reduces production and also causes an established temporary work pattern whereby plaining about mining projects in the southern the Marcala region, the positive impacts of new diseases.” “Droughts are lasting longer. people move temporarily to Comayagua and region of Choluteca (municipalities of El Triun- agricultural cooperatives led by women are This year was different (more rain), but the Olancho between December and March to work fo, El Corpus, Urucui and Marcovia); various apparent. farmers were scared to sow crops because of on coffee plantations or women work as kitchen organisations, including the Association of the droughts between 2012 and 2016.52” assistants54. Whole families migrate temporarily, Women Defenders of Life (amdv), the Human Environmental changes have an impact on as the children also help to pick coffee. Schools Development Centre (cdh) and the National 2.3.1 Climate migration and gender im- the entire family, but the consequences are have had to be more flexible in understanding that Board for Disaster Risk Management (mnigr) pacts greater for women. “Women who are not most students will be absent during the coffee are opposed to these projects and complain landowners must give 50% of what they pro- picking season. that the employment generated by these “When we see that we cannot produce any more, duce to their landlord. As they are producing projects is minimal and short-lived, while the and plant pests win, we migrate and, very often, we less and less due to drought, this affects their People also migrate for the same reasons in Lan- negative impacts from a socio-environmental get it wrong”. quality of life.” In the Choluteca focus group, gue, and women are directly affected by the need perspective are multiple and lasting. the tension created by falling employment to move to earn money; in this case, women Woman from Marcala. and earnings for the family provokes domes- migrate temporarily, but rather than being away The environmental damage that these pro- tic violence against women. With respect to from home for months or years they migrate on jects cause affects women’s abilities to pro- In the coffee-making region of Marcala, al- gender, lack of access to land also has an im- a daily or weekly basis to melon plantations. They vide food and water for their families and though the soil could still be considered wet, pact, placing Honduran women from the Dry return home late at night, which erodes ties with communities. As land and water is lost, the its irrigation level has decreased dramati- Corridor in an even more vulnerable position. family and with their place of origin. work that women have to do to fulfil their role cally for coffee growing, the region’s greatest In Choluteca, where drought is most ex- in the home increases, although it remains source of income. The communities of Mar- treme, the impact is reflected in women’s It is clear that the lack of opportunities in their invisible and is not valued (for example, ma- cala feel the effects of climate change on their heavier workload: “we have to carry water communities obliges women to migrate, albeit king food last longer, finding new water re- livelihoods: “last year it affected the coffee from further away because the wells dried temporarily, and to look for work mainly in the sources, etc.). Faced with this difficult reality, plantations – not enough beans grew, 15% of up”53, and their food security is even affected. maquilas, agriculture or as domestic employees many women have become leaders in defen- the harvest failed; the same thing happened in cities. In several focus groups, people repeate- ding their communities’ natural resources, to the basic grains; elote corn was the only “There are places in Choluteca where pregnant dly said that women who leave to look for jobs but they are victims of harassment, stigma- maize variety left and the guineo (banana) women eat ripe mangoes with salt and yellow mom- were victims of unfair salaries and poor working tisation, physical and verbal abuse, and are was frozen (burnt) by the extreme heat, and bin leaves because natural disasters and drought conditions (excessive hours, threat of dismissal subjected to threats of sexual violence, cri- there were also major losses and they couldn’t prevent us from planting.” when pregnant, etc.). They also mentioned cases minalisation and murder as they challenge be sold.”51 of long-term migration, “when we see that we the passive role that they should perform in (Ángela Calix, from Marcovia) cannot produce any more, and plant pests win, theory.56 “Heatwaves affect the entire corn planting area. we migrate and, very often, we get it wrong”55. Last year, they affected 60-70% of the yield. Many The situation in Honduras is linked to serious families migrated between 2015 and 2016 because Climate change also affects the decisions of peo- violations of human rights and, in particular, there was only one successful harvest each year, ple who cannot migrate due to a lack of resour- of the rights of people who defend the land and if there is no rain you can’t plant more.” ces, as their livelihoods become more precarious. against a Government which continues to pro- Similarly, due to increased drought and flooding, mote the expansion of extractive projects (hy- (Alba de Jesús Gonzales, from Namasigüe, Choluteca). families of migrants who receive remittances do droelectric, mining, monoculture expansion, not want to use them to cultivate the land; instead, etc.), a model which is destroying the land and As they cannot produce food, the farmers they spend the remittances, as they feel uneasy also causing climate change. must look for other forms of subsistence. and hopeless about the unpredictable climatic According to the Deputy Mayor of Langue: cycles. This makes it more difficult for families to “Climate change affects the farming economy boost their income and for migrants to save their and, therefore, it deteriorates because peo- money when they return home. There is also a lack ple who live off daily wages sell their animals, of a savings culture, which means that remittan- land and furniture to buy things such as beans ces are not always invested in productive assets and food, which they used to be able to pro- but rather used to purchase unnecessary goods. duce.”

52 Testimonies from the Langue focus group. 54 Marcala focus group. 56 Honduras: the deadliest place to defend the planet. 51 Testimonies from the Choluteca focus group. 53 Women’s focus group in Choluteca. 55 Marcala focus group. Pg. 29. 2017 Global Witness.

46 47 2.3.2 Adaptation and resilience from a gen- In contrast to these two cooperative initiatives der perspective led by women, the two experts consulted57 from the Women’s Rights Centre (cdm) organisation It was discovered that the central Government stressed that most adaptation or food security is not allocating sufficient funds to climate projects in the country do not have a strong change adaptation initiatives and it delegates gender perspective when it comes to formulat- the task of implementing these projects to local ing the project phases. Cooperation initiatives Governments. tend to be very masculinised and, as women’s roles are not understood (timetables, needs, etc.) they ultimately involve extra work for Marcala Community: agricultural coopera- pacity-building process is being able to choose them, which discourages women; for this rea- tives with a gender perspective which seeds are adapting best to the changes son, these projects do not continue once they in the climate. One of combrifol’s main chal- have been implemented. combrifol (Regional Mixed Cooperative “Bri- lenges is helping its members to purchase For example, when training is scheduled, sas de la Frontera”) land. The process of restoring the land using the fact that women do not only have to find organic fertilisers and native seeds takes time transport but also have to be able to leave their It is a cooperative made up of Lenca small pro- and the benefits are seen in the long term, and children in the care of someone else, and find ducers with the aim of mitigating the causes members feel that “it is not worth improving time to leave food prepared, etc. is not taken of poverty. Three years ago, a Gender Commit- the land with organic products if the landown- into account. Many projects benefit men in the tee was formed because of the need to view ers are not going to let us work the land next end as most women are not landowners and are women “not as heads of households but as year.” The advancement of these initiatives is not eligible for many of these benefits. Finally, heads of the land.” The Committee has a Man- also hindered by the constant struggle against while they generate benefits, many projects do agement Board of four women and is support- machismo; for example, in the municipalities not have stages for raising awareness among ed by the Marcala Municipal Office for Women of Santa Helena and Yarula it has not been families (especially husbands), and, therefore, and the Prosecutor’s Office in gender violence possible to carry out the Committee’s activi- there is a risk that they will take the produce cases. The committee works to provide train- ties because husbands do not give their wives from the women because they have cultivated ing to women on preventing violence, sus- and daughters permission to attend. “men’s land”. tainable and organic agricultural practices, The interviewees also explained that creative managing funds and loans, etc. comucap (Coordinator of Women Farmers of ways have to be found to produce crops which La Paz) are physically close to women’s houses so that Since the Committee was formed, the Chair they have effective control over them and can and Treasurer of the Board have identified pro- It was formed in 1993 as a process of empow- include tending to the crops in their many du- gress made in increasing productivity, organic ering women to stop them from being depend- ties. Awareness should also be raised among the production methods and the empowerment of ent on their husbands. The project evolved other family members (mainly husbands) of the women (as part of mixed-gender training, peo- into the creation of a coffee-producing coop- value of women’s work so that respect for their ple are educated on women’s rights to make erative, under the premise that independence time and decision-making power increases. decisions about the land and resources in the is not possible if women do not have effec- home). The Committee has helped to increase tive control of resources. comucap’s activities the number of women who receive loans to are guided by the principle of environmental acquire seeds, birds, pigs and plant coffee, conservation. Each producer who joins signs which represents a major step forward for their a letter in which they commit to plant fifty food sovereignty. trees each year, and the cooperative helps the women to acquire eco-stoves to reduce log- As production on the land and food security ging; both examples are measures to mitigate has increased, families have decided to plant climate change. crops in their region and not to migrate. In Marcala, families associated with the coopera- In the words of the President of comucap, the tive experience a lower rate of migration than cooperative’s production model is aimed at in- the general population. “There is not a lot of volving all family members in production, so migration; regionally, people migrate much that their ties are strengthened, everyone’s more. In the mountainous area, a lot of people work is valued and food and economic security migrate to the United States, Spain, Tegucigal- is improved. They are also fighting to eliminate pa or San Pedro (Sula). Here, most of the popu- salary inequality (in the La Paz region, women lation does not even go to Comayagua to plant are paid 60 lempiras for a quintal of coffee, coffee”, explains the Chair of the Cooperative. while men are paid 100 lempiras). Further- more, women are empowered in their rights, The Committee encourages women to plant so that in the event of a separation or abuse native seeds, which is a good method of they can resort to the law and exercise their adapting to climate change as part of the ca- rights, thereby ensuring their livelihoods. 57 -Interview with Pilar Euraque and Hogla Teruel.

48 49 “I remember 25 years ago the weather was stable. We all knew that on 3rd or 4th May it would rain, and we prepared ourselves. Then came a period of 6 or 7 years with a lot of rain. From 2012 onwards, drought came and we have had permanent drought. We are not well now, we either have too much water or we have drought” GUATE ( Juana Ramírez, comunidad de Jocotán)

n Guatemala, in less than a decade, the sig- According to data from the World Food Pro- nificant negative effects of several extreme gramme (wfp), almost one in two children hydrometeorological events have been ex- under the age of five (49.8%) suffers from chron- perienced; for example, Hurricane Mitch in ic malnutrition; in the Jocotán department the I1998, drought in 2001, and the devastating ef- figure is 67%. 43% of the population is rural, fects of Tropical Storm Stan in 2005. Extreme and indigenous women make up over half of events are recurring more often than those re- this population. Women experience different MALA ported in the past, despite the fact that Guate- forms of discrimination which limit the exercise mala produces only 0.04% of total greenhouse of their rights and freedoms. gases. In the study conducted in Guatemala the fol- Geophysical characteristics are not the only lowing trends were identified: factors that determine the country’s risk of suf- fering the effects of climate change; other social, — Impacts of climate change: Lack of rain environmental and economic factors (high rates has caused farmers to sow only in the se- of poverty with estimated figures of between cond growing season (only one harvest per 59.3% inhabitants living in poverty and extreme year), which is seriously compromising their poverty according to data from the Guatemalan food security, thus worsening their poverty Government and 70.5% according to the annual situation. reports of the Economic Commission for Latin — Different impacts: women are most affected America and the Caribbean (eclac), lack of by water shortages. land-use planning, deforestation, soil loss and — Climate migration: men commonly migrate degradation, malnutrition and food security, in search of employment (temporary jobs du- the concentration of inhabitants around cities ring the coffee and sugar cane harvests) and in high-risk areas, etc.) cause the impacts of ex- return with resources for the family. treme events to be even more devastating. — Climate change adaptation: the collection,

50 51 protection and exchange of native seeds, interviewed, a family of five needs 20 quintales 2.4.2. Climate change adaptation and resi- prevents women having to carry water is re- which are more resistant to climate change, of corn and 5 quintales of beans to make three lience from a gender perspective garded as a priority, as women are the ones are good practices together with reforesta- meals a day, but they only produce around 6 or who suffer most from the lack and pollution tion and building women’s capacities. 7 quintales of corn and barely 30 pounds (0.14 In the interviews, the concept of “defending of water. An initiative of this type requires quintales) of beans. the body like a territory” was emphasised the direct involvement of the public sector, Similarly to the rest of the communities in strongly as part of the indigenous female ngos and the communities. Although some 2.4.1 Climate migration and gender impacts which interviews were conducted in El Salva- identity and the demand to make their body projects have been carried out to build reser- dor, Honduras and Nicaragua, the lack of rain a concrete space in order to care for it and voirs to store water, these technologies have In the communities of Jocotán and Camotán has caused farmers to sow only in the second “maintain it in a healthy and happy state”. not worked as planned, as the materials used mainly corn, beans and coffee are grown (coffee growing season (only one harvest per year), For indigenous women, defending the land have not been able to resist the onslaught of is grown on a smaller scale due to the effects which is seriously compromising their food se- territory is defending the body territory it- natural phenomena because they are not the of rust, a fungus which affects coffee leaves). curity, thus worsening their poverty situation self, because they do not regard territory as most suitable materials. Timely follow-up Vegetables are grown, but they are vulnerable and giving rise to temporary or, in some cases, only a physical space but as a whole, which has also not been arranged, and people have to pests and the effects of extreme weather permanent migration. Many men secure tempo- is also connected to the intangible: it is the stopped using them. (torrential rain and the subsequent periods of rary jobs during the coffee and sugar cane har- history, memory, culture, roots and spir- Environmental adaptation practices includ- drought). “Maicillo”, small corn grown from a vests; they earn below the minimum wage and ituality which form each people’s world ed replacing hybrid seeds with native seeds, native seed, is planted the most. “This type of have no employment rights. vision. They attach importance to relation- varieties which are more resistant to climate corn had been lost and was hardly ever planted. The lack of water in homes is another serious ships which do not involve abuse or vio- change. Interactions between different com- But it is recovering now”, said one of the women problem, which has worsened as a result of cli- lence, relationships towards gender equality munities in order to exchange native seeds interviewed in Jocotán. Women stated that 2017 mate change and has major consequences for and decent opportunities for all men and have proved successful. “We have to experi- was the first year in which they had good rain, women. women. Based on this concept, women ment and see what the land gives us; for this which they had not had for fifteen years. refer to the recovery of native seeds as reason, sharing with other farmers is very “There is not enough water for everyone; there is in- climate change adaptation practices. In important and it allows us to be more certain “Sown land uplifts us. There is drought here, and equality in water use. Women and young people can the community of Jocotán a project to en- as to what might work. In this way, we learn there is either no water or high rainfall. We have walk for up to 5 hours to bring water back. If there sure that drinking water reaches homes and a lot.” been through a period of many years with not a lot isn’t any water we walk for up to 8 hours to find it. We of water.” get up at 2 o’clock in the morning. If there isn’t any, we have to go and buy it in the village; they sell it for Grain stocks and native seed banks (El Rodeo) ( Juana Ramírez, community of Jocotán) 5 quetzales for a bag of 5 litres or 1 quetzal for a small Women mentioned a wide variety of native bag. The children get ill, or sometimes the water from the participants. The reserve was established with seeds that are more resistant to climate change, Families who have small plots of land for the wells or rivers is very dirty”. contributions from the men and women farmers subsistence farming do not produce enough such as black corn, bejuco beans, barco, petaca themselves and an initial donation from a coo- beans, chajan, etc. and they explained the ad- to meet their basic needs. According to esti- (María Corina Ramírez Hernández, from Matasano- peration project (275 quintales of maize and 38 vantages of using these seeds, namely that their mates of representatives of some of the ngos Jocotán) quintales of beans) in 2015. They are well orga- production cycle is short and they are resistant nised (treasurer, management) and hold monthly to drought and pests. In 2012, they had the op- meetings to take the most important decisions. Climate migration Male migration leaves women in a more vulnera- portunity to learn about successful experiences ble position, as for periods of three tosix months in Honduras with seed banks, and they thought The aim is to continue strengthening experien- Interviewees link migration to the fact that “it is they have fewer resources with which to meet that it could be a good measure for climate chan- ce, knowledge and capacities in order to do so. either possible or not possible to harvest”. When their family’s needs. Opportunities for women ge adaptation in their community. In farms, they are trying to diversify with fores- the land does not produce as much as before, to organise themselves to find solutions to this try, fruit and vegetable crops. However, one of men decided to look for work in nearby compa- shortage are limited because they have to care for In El Rodeo, women have a community plot the main challenges noted is access to land. “It nies, for example, sugar companies. Most men children and seek immediate alternatives in order where they sow maize and beans, and also store is possible to produce and exchange seeds, but move within the communities of the Dry Corri- to survive. seeds, and they have another larger facility, which this needs to be connected to the land as a right.” dor, and, in some cases, when the coffee harvest is working very well and is now one of the lar- takes place these areas receive migrants from The women interviewed also mentioned that men gest seed reserves in the area. “The idea was to Honduras. “Here men are in charge of sowing the migrate to other countries, mainly the United Sta- be able to sell seeds cheaper, and we are selling crops, and they are also the ones who migrate to tes, and that the men do not come back or forget them 10 quetzales cheaper than on the market. go to work and earn money to maintain their fa- about their families. When this happens, women Seeds are bought in cash,” pointed out one of mily. They go for days or months at a time to earn assume the role of head of the family, and they money.” commented on the problems concerning land ownership that they face. Women suffer doubly “The men are only at home when it rains and they can sow because they are not landowners and witness the the land. If there is no work in the fields, they go to Hon- displacements of their partners. duras or farms in Esquipulas (Guatemala) temporarily and then come back. Young sons also move to wherever there is work”

(María Corina Ramírez Hernández, from Matasano-Jocotán)

52 53 3. Conclusions

54 55 ll the communities visited clearly Gender and climate change identified climate change as the cause of increased drought, more All of the interviewees mentioned the im- extreme temperatures, flooding portance of equality and that machismo is the Aand changes in rain patterns. In several main obstacle to its achievement; they also focus groups and interviews, people explained stressed the importance of education in over- that periods of rain and drought were coming existing power relations, which favour much more predictable a decade ago than men. at present, and they linked this irregular- The interviews revealed evidence of extra re- ity with climate change. There have even sponsibilities that women take on as a result of been changes in rain patterns in wetter areas, shortages. For example, in Honduras, testimo- burning and poor management of solid waste, climate variability: they spend more time en- which have had negative consequences for the nies were given about pregnant women being both by some communities and companies, suring the supply of water, providing their fami- inhabitants’ livelihoods. For example, in the obliged to eat mangoes and yellow mombin were identified; these practices are a direct lies with basic food and caring for sick people coffee-making region of Marcala (Honduras), leaves as their main food source as there were cause of the decline in the quality of life among of all ages as a result of an increase in illnesses the soil could still be considered wet, but its no other alternatives. They also clearly linked populations in the Dry Corridor. Furthermore, related to the temperature rise (respiratory dis- irrigation level has decreased dramatically for climate change (testimonies in Honduras and the communities interviewed in Nicaragua and eases, skin diseases and diseases such as the coffee growing, which is the region’s greatest Nicaragua) with more extreme heat and more Honduras also mentioned that agro-industry, zika virus, chikungunya and dengue, caused by source of income. respiratory diseases among the elderly, skin mining and hydroelectric mega-projects, higher numbers of mosquitoes). In all the countries it was evident that the ir- diseases in children and higher rates of vector- inter alia, posed an additional threat to their When food is increasingly scarce, women al- regular rain patterns and drought directly and borne diseases (zika, chikungunya and dengue) livelihoods. The national Governments sup- ways eat last and, in terms of production, the severely affect the rural economy, as men and related to increased numbers of mosquitoes. port these mega-projects and grant concessions main problem continues to be land ownership: women farmers do not know when to sow With regard to terminology, the communities without sufficiently regulating the activities con- most women do not own the land which they or harvest. A clear example of this was iden- linked the term migration with cross-border, ducted by these companies or consulting the cultivate and must give 50% of their harvest to tified in the first half of 2017 when no crops long-term population movements, while they communities in advance. the landowner (testimonies gathered in Hondu- were planted during the first planting season in used the term displacement to refer to move- The projects, which often cause pollution ras). The decline in crop production reduces any of the areas visited, as they did not think it ment from the place of origin to other areas of and destroy water sources, only offer tempo- their income. In addition, tension created in the would rain because it had not rained in the last the country (for example, cities with maquilas rary jobs while permanently eliminating natu- family, as a result of reduced production and three years; it did rain, however, and this op- or coffee-growing regions) where people would ral resources. All of these impacts affect life in lack of employment and income, provokes do- portunity was lost. go to work for short of long periods of time. For the communities directly and, due to the close mestic violence against women. In response to climate change, the people in this research, as stated at the beginning, the link between the land and water, women have The questions posed at the beginning of the the Dry Corridor no longer harvest twice a year; term “migration” was chosen instead of “dis- taken a very active role in defending their ter- research will be answered below. The ques- they now only sow in the second growing season placement” to define the variable studied, in ritories, in regions like Marcala (Honduras), for tion on recommendations for public policies (second harvest). The fact that there is only one accordance with the iom definition. example. This serious problem may also trigger to approach climate change from a gender sowing season per year compromises food In addition to climate change, anthropic ac- migration, but this is beyond the scope of this equality perspective will be analysed in Chap- security and deepens poverty due to food tivities, such as deforestation, uncontrolled study. ter 4.

56 57 the coffee-harvesting season; in the region studied in depth either, although extreme 3.1. of Marcala (Honduras), students are absent meteorological phenomena related to clima- from school for periods of three to four te change, such as hurricanes or landslides, months, from December/January to March. have been partially identified as a cause. Environmental In both countries, interviewees also men- In Nicaragua, some cases of forced migra- tioned an increase (with no statistical basis) tion were identified among the interviewees migration patterns in the number of women who migrate tem- or their acquaintances, following landslides porarily to work in agriculture, as domestic caused by heavy rain. Testimonies were also employees in cities or in the maquilas; they collected in El Salvador about extreme me- and different return home for the second growing season teorological phenomena exacerbated by cli- (second sowing and maize or bean harvest, mate change. In 2015, a climate event called which usually starts in October). Furthermo- Mar de Fondo (swell) caused waves to reach gender impacts re, fcam indicated that Spain is the interna- up to three metres and destroyed more than tional destination to which women from San two hundred families’ homes in four com- Ramón and Somoto migrate for domestic munities in the coastal area of the Ahuacha- work, and some interviewees also mentioned pán department, close to the border with Most of the statistics and earlier studies re- El Salvador. According to the findings from the United States as a migration destination. Guatemala. This climate disaster caused part viewed on migration in the Central America Dry the field work, in Honduras and Nicaragua In the Honduran municipality of Langue of the area’s population to migrate, as they Corridor identified the “search for opportuni- this phenomenon affects a similar propor- a particular phenomenon occurs among had lost their homes in Guatemala. ties” or “lack of livelihoods or employment” as tion of men and women, although there are women: although the displacement is not key factors in explaining migration. They did specific trends in each country, while in Gua- temporary in terms of being away from home During the research some testimonies were not explore how climate variables could influ- temala and El Salvador migration continues for months and/or years, they travel to plan- also gathered in the Salvadoran communi- ence the decline in livelihoods. There was also a to be a male practice. tations, particularly melon plantations, on ties of Agua Fría and Alto Nuevo, where per- lack of data disaggregated by gender, ethnicity a daily or weekly basis; returning home late manent migration is linked to the dryness of and age. at night erodes family ties and represents al- the soil and the inability to produce crops, in The testimonies gathered in the four countries Nicaragua and Honduras most a separation from their places of origin. combination with high rates of poverty. revealed an increase in migration related to the lack of employment possibilities in agricul- In the areas visited, migration affects both The increased incidences of drought and ture or uncertainty about rain or drought men and women, although the communities Guatemala and El Salvador flooding is also affecting the use of the re- during harvesting seasons, which were said had noticed an increase in the number of mittances which migrants send to their fami- to be directly linked to climate change or women deciding to migrate temporarily. In Guatemala, it was discovered that tem- lies. As was discovered in Honduras, there worsening environmental conditions. Public porary migration for work continues to be are families who no longer want to use policies at the national, regional and local levels It was clear that men migrate from Nica- an essentially male practice. The impacts of the remittances received to cultivate the are not sufficient to curb this phenomenon and ragua to El Salvador, specifically to San drought worsen poverty and hunger, which land because of the risk of crop failure, disaggregated statistics are required to deter- Miguel, to find harvest work (sugar cane causes mainly men to migrate in search of and they invest the money in consumer mine the actual scope of this climate migration. harvest). One of the reasons for this is temporary jobs (sugar cane and coffee) to goods. There is also a lack of a savings cul- Through fieldwork, it was possible to establish that payment in El Salvador is in dollars Honduras or Nicaragua. Although in many ture, as was evident in Nicaragua and Hon- relationships between climate change and two and is higher than in Nicaragua. Migration cases people noted that payments are below duras, where remittances are not always types of migration, temporary and permanent to Costa Rica (another dollarised country) for the minimum wage and they do not have invested in productive assets but rather used migration: employment created by the coffee harvests employment rights, this income helps them to purchase unnecessary goods. These com- was also mentioned. Families from Marcala to access food and basic goods. bined factors make it more difficult for fami- (Honduras) explained how the crops which lies to increase their income. A. Temporary migration produced sufficient yields in previous years In El Salvador, some of the communities to sell them and generate extra income now (especially in San Miguel) do establish a link Due to climate uncertainty, which causes only guarantee enough food for survival, and between migration and climate effects, par- Gender-differentiated impacts of mi- irregular rain patterns, among other things, as they need extra income to cover other ticularly drought, but violence continues to gration temporary migration during the first sowing needs, such as health, education, clothes, play a more significant role in migration than season has increased. There used to be two etc., they resort to temporary migration. the climate variable, and there are mainly Many of the women interviewed stated that harvests each year, but people now only male migration patterns. They also mentio- when they migrate they are faced with poor plant crops in the second sowing season Both in Nicaragua and in Honduras, more ned long-term migration and stated that the conditions in precarious employment and even (second harvest) because of climate change. whole families migrate temporarily for the United States was the destination chosen by abuse from their employees, yet they cannot Communities in the Dry Corridor no lon- coffee-picking season, and, in particular, the vast majority. even demand their rights through fear of repris- ger risk planting crops in the first sowing women and children migrate because of the als; this is the case of workers in the maquilas or season and migrate to look for other sou- high demand for workers to pick this crop. in the agriculture sector, where the bosses are rces of employment. In the four countries, Some schools in places of origin described B. Permanent migration men and there are very strong power relations. people normally migrate to other regions how they have had to adapt school calendars Most people interviewed connected migra- within the same country or to neighbouring and make timetables more flexible as chil- Permanent migration related to climate tion to negative effects such as family break- countries, most frequently to Costa Rica and dren and young people are absent during change in the Dry Corridor has not been down, drug addiction, and the tendency for

58 59 Central American Dry Corridor Honduras, Guatemala, migrants’ children, who usually stay in the care of other women from the family or communi- El Salvador and Nicaragua ty, to drop out of school. Ties with family and their place of origin also become eroded when the temporary migration does not involve being Temporary away from home for months or years but days —> INTERNAL or weeks, as was observed in the Honduran Rural: in Nicaragua and Honduras, entire families migrate (women and children) municipality of Langue, where women return to harvest coffee Consequences home late at night. Urban: migration of women in Honduras and Nicaragua in search of domestic If the woman migrates, care-related du- Migration Migration ties are left to other women in the com- or factory work Female (Honduras and Nicaragua) munity (grandmothers, sisters, etc.), while —> Neighbouring countries Costa Rica and El Salvador men do not become involved in this area. —> Work associated with family care remains in the hands Both in Honduras and Nicaragua the phenom- —> INTERNATIONAL Spain (women for domestic work) or the USA of other women in the community (grandmothers, sisters …) enon of the “feminisation of migration” (see 1.3) rather than men becoming involved in these tasks emerged; the references in the bibliography de- Permanent scribed this as the increase in the percentage of Nicaragua and El Salvador: eextreme events related to climate change Male (El Salvador and Guatemala) women migrants, but it also refers to the fact (hurricanes or landslides caused by heavy rains) —> Women take on economic activities previously that this feminisation is part of the global care done by men (in addition to their traditional tasks) chain, in which care duties are transferred from one home to another according to power struc- tures (gender, ethnicity, class, migratory status, etc.) and in which women continue to be re- sponsible for reproductive work and domestic well-being (Orozco, A.). This was seen in Nicara- gua in particular; when a woman leaves to look for work, her children mainly stay in the care Disease Food Insecurity of their grandmother or other women in the New diseases due to increased numbers of mosquitoes: family, even if there is a father who should still One and a half million people without access to food be responsible for them. Nicaraguan women Zika y Chikungunya Previously two harvests a year, now just ONE (due to climatic uncertainty) from San Ramón take the decision to migrate 30% of homes suffer from extreme poverty as domestic employees to Panama, Costa Rica The land: largely in the hands of men or Spain; similarly, as Somoto is twinned with two towns in the Basque Country, women usu- ally choose this destination in Spain when they decide to migrate and look for employment as domestic workers. Con sequences When men migrate, women take on more Consequences work in addition to the work that they al- —> WOMEN always eat last: higher rates of malnutrition ready had. In Guatemala, women state that —> Women dedicate more time to looking after for periods of between three and six months sick people, sacrificing time and rest they have fewer resources with which to meet their family’s needs; those who experience per- manent migration mentioned how they began to play the role of head of the family as well as Unemployment problems that they encounter regarding land ownership. Women suffer doubly because they (Fall in production/income) are not landowners and witness the displace- 60% losses in bean and corn ments of their partners. In countries like Hon- Available Water Land Ownership Consequences duras, women farmers who are not landowners harvests (Honduras 2016) —> Just 20% of properties in Nicaragua are owned by women —> More domestic must give 50% of what they produce to their Consequen ces —> 14% in Honduras (FAO, 2005) violence against women landlord, and they are producing less and less, —> Women dedicate more time to sear- due to the effects of climate change, which af- ching for water —> 6 hours per day fects their quality of life. Consequences Forced to hand over 50% of the harvest to the landowner

60 61 Good Practices in Adaptation / Resilience to deal with the impacts of 3.2 climate change and prevent migration with gender elements

Women’s climate change 1. Native seed exchanges and banks

adaptation and resilience Project Status (completed, ongoing, Project Goal / Priority Who is participating planning stage, identi- (adaptation, mitigation, food in the project Results/Impact/Chal- Short description of the project Country actions fied as possible solution security, gender equality, water (ngo, government, lenges but resources are harvesting, etc.) community, other)? lacking)

Seed varieties which are Production and dissemination of more resistant to climate seeds by centa: The National Centre for change are being sought, Agricultural and Forestry Technology and seed exchanges are shares beans and corn that adapt to Central Government, . being promoted, in order Creation of a seed bank . the lack of water and nutrients in the National Centre for Agricul- to contribute to food of basic grains, such as beans soil with farmers from Morazán (near El Salvador In process tural and Forestry Techno- security. and corn, which contribute to San Miguel). They are provided with logy, local governments . food security. In the four countries visited, people referred However, these practices are not always the seed if they commit to contribute in Morazán. centa notes that women to the elimination of the first harvest of the successful. None of the initiatives identified to the centa and create a seed bank and have significant knowled- year as a “forced” adaptation measure due explicitly addresses the three topics of gen- provide other women and men farmers ge about the land and with seeds. are more open to being to increased drought. Women who sowed der, migration and climate change, probably involved in research. crops twice a year generally lost the first har- due to a lack of awareness of the interlinkag- vest as a result of drought, which prompted es between these three elements. Interesting them to take the decision to stop sowing crops national policies to combat climate change in the first season. This adaptation measure with gender equality approaches were identi- It is possible to produce means that they must make do with only one fied; for example, El Salvador and Guatemala and exchange seeds, but Recovery of native seeds in El Rodeo: annual yield, which reduces their income and include references to gender perspective in this needs to be connec- Women mentioned a wide variety of ted to the land as a right. also compromises their ability to meet their their National Action Plans against Climate native seeds that are more resistant to Identified as a . Women need to have climate change, such as black corn, possible solution . basic needs and their livelihoods. Many fami- Change, but there is still a long way to go Guatemala Not applicable Not applicable access to land ownership bejuco beans, barco, petaca beans, but resources are lies said that adapting to climate change while until these policies are fully effective. and the resources to chajan, etc. Farms are becoming lacking. develop the land so that living in poverty (negative adaptation) is what Some local Governments are collaborating more diversified with forestry, fruit and these practices are able obliges them to reduce their consumption with ngos to better understand the different vegetable crops. to develop enough to of goods, services and other investments in needs of each community, particularly those improve livelihoods. health and education, and women and chil- of women, and this could result in more ho- dren suffer the most. listic policies and actions. Some experiences Seed Bank in Naranjo, Matagalpa: Women are creating and promoting cli- which integrate a gender perspective to a It has helped the The bank loans the seeds which are mate change adaptation initiatives, in order greater or lesser degree can be identified: community so that it stored and which adapt the best Tackles food security, fights can continue developing to remain in their territories with their fami- (native seeds and varieties) at a price to build climate change res- agriculture; young people of two for one (more attractive price odesar (ong) . lies. These adaptation measures to build — The combrifol and comucap agricultural Nicaragua Ongoing ilience, support community are starting to become than at the market). Out of 90 houses with the community resilience in the communities of the Dry cooperatives in Honduras, which are sup- development and strengthen involved, but they face in the community, 24 families are women’s leadership. two challenges: water Corridor are mainly focused on: native ported by the Marcala municipal office for involved, and there is a management scarcity and not owning seed exchanges and banks; water collec- women board made up of three women and their own land. tion using water reservoirs and through — the seed banks in El Salvador supported by two men. water harvesting and work by organised the National Centre for Agricultural and For- Seed bank and community develop- women, for example, in cooperatives. estry Technology (centa), the first Govern- Tackles food security; pre- No results have been ment, Achiote Telpaneca, Madriz: The vents migration by improving achieved yet, but the The potential to adapt crops municipality by ment institution which has a gender policy community grows seeds in plots and Currently being unag (ong) Nicaragua production; support commu- aim is to create a seed selects them to improve and adapt implemented with the community municipality, offering opportunities to diver- and a Gender Department, and the seed nity development and streng- bank that will have a them to the land and climate; women sify specific crops in each of them, is one of bank in Matagalpa, Nicaragua. then women’s leadership. genuine impact. are closely involved in the project. the proposals outlined by Bouroncle et al. — water reservoirs in El Salvador with the sup- (2017).58 port of the Ciudad Mujer programme, which has six offices in the country and is led by the With a gender and climate Seed bank in Somoto: Develop seed change perspective to tackle Secretariat for Social Inclusion. banks and continue the native seed food security, strengthen fem, fcam, unag projects, as part of which women Nicaragua Planning stage No results yet. women’s leadership and pro- and women’s groups 58 Bouroncle et al. 2017: Mapping climate change adap- learn to improve certain seeds using mote their rights and gender tive capacity and vulnerability of smallholder agri- new technologies. cultural livelihoods in Central America: ranking and equality. descriptive approaches to support adaptation strate- gies. Climatic Change 141:123-137

62 63 2. Water collection using water reservoirs and through water harvesting 3. Work by organised women, for example, in cooperatives

Project Status (completed, ongo- Project Goal / Priority Who is participating Project Status ing, planning stage, (adaptation, mitigation, food in the project (completed, Short description of the project Country Results/Impact/Challenges Who is participating identified as possible security, gender equality, (ngo, government, ongoing, planning Project Goal / Priority (adaptation, Short description of the in the project Results/Impact/Chal- solution but resources water harvesting, etc.) community, other)? Country stage, identified as mitigation, food security, gender equality, project (ngo, government, lenges are lacking) possible solution water harvesting, etc.) community, other)? but resources are Satisfactorios: en tan solo dos Women sweet chilli producers in El lacking) años de emprendimiento han Brazo (San Miguel): Pilot experience logrado tener independencia with women sweet chilli producers Desarrollo rural de las económica a través de las ventas in a mesh house (a structure which familias y comunidades Varias ong de base, Ciudad El Salvador Ongoing de chile en el municipio de El is similar to a greenhouse). They desde un enfoque de Mujer y centa Women satisfied with Tránsito (Usulután). Ciudad Mujer: Work is carried received training on how to prepare género the comprehensive ser- El principal reto es la incorpora- out to maintain water wells like the soil, apply foliar fertilizers and set vices that are provided ción de más mujeres y beneficiar pools for crop production as part up demonstration plots. Provide comprehensive, decentralised to them. Decentralised a más familias. of its model for the empower- Local and central services to women with low incomes institutions have offices ment of women in socio-produc- El Salvador Ongoing Government, as well as and living in poverty, to offer them to provide assistance for tive activities, the handling and strategic partners. A través del trabajo de las coopera- development opportunities. business initiatives and tivas, las asociadas han logrado prevention of violence against Desarrollo rural de las prevent/provide assis- preservar la seguridad alimentaria women and care for women’s Agricultural cooperatives with a familias y comunidades ong de base (comucap . tance in cases of gender Honduras En Desarrollo propia y de sus familias. Además, children. gender perspective in Marcala. desde un enfoque de y combrifol) violence. tienen cada vez más acceso a género créditos, al contar con el respaldo de la cooperativa.

Monitoring shallow wells: Group of Eco-Craftswomen, “Mu- Women have their own salaries information is recorded on water jeres del Promo”: crafts business and the project helps to raise Prevents migration; reduction in wells, in coordina- using local seeds, established 12 years awareness among the commu- women’s economic tion with the relevant bodies. ago; it has grown in response to the nity, especially among young development; preser- Rain gauges were installed in need to migrate and the business now people, about their culture, which ves and recognises Grass-roots women . 8 communities, and women also provides training to women and Nicaragua Ongoing is linked to the preservation of na- their indigenous roots, with local ngos are responsible for monitoring is an example of respect for nature tural resources and the health of culture and respect for rainfall patterns; in this way, they and ancestral culture: 80% of the the environment. The challenges Deal effectively with the impacts of . the environment; prevents can take better decisions on National Government,. seeds (30 different seeds) are local and are a lack of resources with which El Salvador Planning stage climate change and establish . No results yet. deforestation; whether or not to use water and ong unes adolescents are involved in helping the to purchase their own trees and measures to tackle drought. produce risk maps in order to be women to gather the seeds. how to tackle climate change. better prepared. .

A reform of the Irrigation Law is being negotiated with the Mi- nistry of Agriculture, to prevent damage to and effects on the sugar cane industry. A best practice with a rights and feminist ap- tect communities’ livelihoods and empower proach would ensure that women participate women, by giving them spaces and resources to fully in decision-making, that projects do not implement their own solutions. The ngos con- Creation of water reservoirs: create more work for women (up to a triple sulted reported that opportunities for women The community of Jocotán and several more in the Dry Corridor day’s work) and that traditional stereotypes to organise themselves to find solutions are lim- regard a project to ensure that which take away women’s autonomy and dis- ited because they have to care for children and drinking water reaches homes empower them are eliminated. There is still a seek immediate alternatives for survival, such and prevents women having to Tackle drought with the assistance of Results were not . Guatemala Suspended Several grass-roots ngos carry water as a priority; they technology for water storage. as expected. lack of awareness about how to involve women as temporary migration. identified the following main fully, partly due to the patriarchal understand- One of the most obvious obstacles to women failures of the existing project: ing of women’s work (care, domestic and infor- implementing climate change adaptation strat- use of unsuitable technology and mal), which is not considered to be “work” and egies is the lack of land in their name, which materials and a failure to monitor the project’s implementation. is still invisible. Many institutions continue to is a widespread problem in the four countries formulate changes from a ‘women’s perspec- visited (see 4.3). The various political initiatives After the start of and tive’, without actually considering the changes aimed at promoting change in this area have Water conservation in San during the 2015 drought, Ramon: the municipality worked they did not have an im- in gender roles or whether or not the policies had mixed results; for example, in El Salvador with 20 people to provide trai- Prevent the impacts of future pact, but in 2016 people promoted reinforce traditional roles instead of the number of women involved in land own- ning in water conservation and droughts; store rainwater, which . Local government . that conserved water for Guatemala Complete encouraging equality. ership programmes has increased, whereas in on a project to build small ponds benefits the community and meets . of San Ramon March and April were in the Dry Area (Municipality of its needs. able to make it go fur- There are numerous reasons why people Nicaragua, Law 717 Creating the Fund for Land San Ramón) for watering crops ther. It is expected that migrate in most cases, one of which is climate Purchasing with Gender Equality for Rural and the use of animals. the impacts on women change; to help counter these factors there is Women has not been implemented due to lack will be measured. a need for comprehensive policies which pro- of fundsand political will.

64 65 Women’s leadership and effective participation in 1institutions and projects with a gender perspective • Develop projects within the framework of • Reform and allocate financial resour- the Adaptation Fund or the Green Climate ces to national legislative frameworks Fund (gcf) to capitalise on the gcf gender- governing land ownership in order to equality mandate, for example, by developing close the gender gap in access to land statistics and/or implementing pilot projects on ownership. If they do not own their land, mitigation, resilience and adaptation which pre- women continue to be excluded from for- vent displacement and help women to adapt. To mal consultation processes to determine this end, governments need more training and their climate change adaptation needs 4. support so that they can gain access to finance and gain access to agricultural credit. For for these types of projects. Progress is also re- example, Nicaragua adopted Law 717 Crea- Recommendations quired towards greater transparency in the ope- ting the Fund for Land Purchasing with ration of all the mechanisms, Gender Equality for Rural Women in 2010, which would have an impact on access to fun- but no progress has been made due to an for public policies to address ding for civil society and projects led by women. insufficient budget allocation.

• Increase mandatory training on gender • Increase institutional and budgetary climate change from a gender and climate change for staff involved in de- support provided by local Governments cision-making processes relating to national to women’s initiatives for climate chan- climate change policy and migration policy in ge adaptation, especially initiatives rela- equality perspective El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras and Guate- ted to agroecology, seed banks and access mala, and at a regional level, to ensure that a to non-polluting energy sources and tech- gender focus is included in their action plans. nology, without overlooking social policies The Regional Climate Change Strategy (ercc) is which would assist women in these proces- a good example to follow, but further training ses (support for childcare during periods is still required in order for it to be implemen- of temporary migration, improvement in ted properly. In addition, the Global Compact labour rights in temporary jobs, etc.). In the for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migrations en- Honduran community of Marcala, the joint dorsed by the United Nations notes the im- work of the Municipal Office for Women and portance of developing migration policies the combrifol agricultural cooperative is an ublic policies at international, national Climate change adaptation and mitigation with a gender perspective in order to address example of good practice. and local level must take into account strategies cannot be successful if they fail to women’s specific needs and vulnerabilities. the fact that the effects of climate integrate women’s knowledge about their change accentuate already existing environment and their capacities to re- inequalities.P However, it is necessary to stop spond to the challenges of climate change. It regarding only women as victims of climate is essential to involve them in the design, moni- change, since this could have a profoundly toring and implementation of public policies on negative impact by deepening the traditional climate change and migration at an internation- divide between gender roles, which increases al level, and also at a national and local level in inequality. the countries of the Central America Dry Cor- Women have been continuously implement- ridor. ing strategies to adapt to climate change for Some recommendations to improve the inte- decades, but they are also made invisible in gration of a gender perspective in public poli- their homes and at the community level; giv- cies to combat climate change are divided into ing them greater visibility and supporting these three areas below. initiatives is an essential part of the fight against climate change.

66 67 3Coherent policies and evaluation

• Improve coordination between the va- women, in order to implement holistic ap- rious institutions and stakeholders in- proaches in the planned actions through, for volved in the three topics covered in the example, mixed or interdepartmental com- study: promote collaboration between ins- mittees. titutions and international processes which address the different factors that trigger mi- • Evaluate the economic, migration, cli- gration; for example, collaboration with the mate and gender policies which are cu- Food and Agriculture Organization of the rrently in operation at a national and United Nations (fao) on food security issues, regional level to: the International Organization for Migration (iom) or the Office of the United Nations High 1. Understand their impact on local communi- Commissioner for Refugees (unhcr) to build ties, focusing on human and women’s rights; joint solutions. It would also be beneficial 2. Ensure that their implementation is not wor- to have spaces for coordination with other sening women’s living conditions and that Research and disaggregated statistics institutions, such as the Convention on the they meet the national commitments made 2 Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination under international frameworks (the United against Women (cedaw) or the United Na- Nations Framework Convention On Climate • Develop databases, historical and specific series which include disaggrega- tions Commission on the Status of Women Change, the 2030 Agenda, the Sendai Fra- ted data to determine the actual scale of climate change and related internal, (csw), in order to address cross-cutting ap- mework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the New cross-border and international migration. Obtaining reliable data (supported proaches. At a national level, better coor- Urban Agenda, etc.); by expert teams with proper training and adequate budgets) and more studies on dination is required between the different 3. Identify, share and replicate strategies which the gender perspective in climate migration is essential in order for local and na- departments responsible for agricultural, achieve national targets, especially relating to tional Governments to be able to formulate adequate response policies, with the forestry and land-use planning issues and climate change and the Sustainable Develop- support of international institutions. the departments which defend the rights of ment Goals (sdg).

68 69 5. Anex I 6. Bibliography

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74 75 InspirAction is a Spanish Non-Governmental Development Organisation with a very clear objective: end poverty in all its forms. We are part of Christian Aid and therefore can count on 70 years of experience in the field of emergency relief, long-term sustainable development and campaigning for the world’s most impoverished and marginalised groups.

InspirAction never remains silent. We are not afraid to report any injustice because all injustice hurt us. Together, we implement real and practical solutions through more than 500 local partner organizations working in 49 countries around the world. We are experts in political advocacy and mobilisation for the fight against climate change with a gender focus, for gender equality and for the fight for the implementation of human rights for everyone.

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The Christian Aid International Foundation (InspirAction) is registered in the Registry of Foundations of the Ministry of Health, Social Policy and Equality (Spain) since 5 February 2009 with number 08-0383.

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