INTERNATIONAL Journal of Wilderness

AUGUST 2001 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2

FEATURES 26 Visitor Experiences of Stress and 3 EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES Reported Hassles in the Shining Rock Protecting Mountain Wilderness Wilderness Area BY ALAN EWERT BY RUDY SCHUSTER and WILLIAM E. HAMMITT

4 SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES To Rekindle Love of the Beautiful Mountain Wilderness in South Africa in Public Policy and Professional 30 BY WILLIAM R. BAINBRIDGE Performance BY MICHAEL FROME 35 The Mountainous Wildlands of Italy BY FRANCO ZUNINO STEWARDSHIP 8 Wildlands in the Northeastern 40 National Parks and other Protected United States Areas in Mountains BY CHRISTOPHER MCGRORY KLYZA BY LAWRENCE S. HAMILTON

11 Wilderness Management in the WILDERNESS DIGEST Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park 43 Announcements and BY MARETHA SHROYER, MARTIN ENGELBECHT, and Wilderness Calendar ODUMELENG KAKETSO 46 Letters to the Editor 16 Which World? Which Wilderness? Book Reviews or Getting Back to the Right Cronon 47 BY GENE BAMMEL Wilderness Comes Home: Rewilding the Northeast Edited by Christopher McGrory Klyza REVIEWED BY CHAD DAWSON SCIENCE AND RESEARCH Hikers’ Perspectives on Solitude Continental Conservation: Scientific Foundations 20 of Regional Reserve Networks and Wilderness Edited by Michael E. Soulé and John Terborgh BY TROY E. HALL REVIEWED BY JOHN SHULTIS 25 PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD A Little Corner of Freedom: Russian Nature WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE Protection from Stalin to Gorbachëv Amphibians and Wilderness By Douglas R. Weiner REVIEWED BY J. CHRISTOPHER HANEY BY PAUL STEPHEN CORN

Front cover photo of the Drakensberg Mountain Wilderness in South Africa and inset photo of bushman pictographs in Lesotho, southern Africa, both © 2000 by Vance G. Martin. International Journal of Wilderness The International Journal of Wilderness links wilderness professionals, scientists, educators, environmentalists, and interested citizens worldwide with a forum for reporting and discussing wilderness ideas and events; inspirational ideas; planning, management, and allocation strategies; education; and research and policy aspects of wilderness stewardship.

EXECUTIVE EDITORS Alan W. Ewert, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., USA Vance G. Martin, WILD Foundation, Ojai, Calif., USA Alan Watson, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont., USA John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C., Canada EDITOR-IN-CHIEF John C. Hendee, Director, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Moscow, Idaho, USA CO-MANAGING EDITORS Chad Dawson, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA Steve Hollenhorst, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA PRODUCTION EDITOR Kurt Caswell, Cascade School, Whitmore, Calif., USA WEB MASTER Wayne A. Freimund, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA ASSOCIATE EDITORS—INTERNATIONAL Gordon Cessford, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand; Karen Fox, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Les Molloy, Heritage Works, Wellington, New Zealand; Andrew Muir, South African Wilderness Leadership School, Durbin, South Africa; Ian Player, South Africa National Parks Board and The Wilderness Foundation, Howick, Natal, Republic of South Africa; Vicki A. M. Sahanatien, Fundy National Park, Alma, Canada; Won Sop Shin, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Korea; Anna-Liisa Sippola, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland; Pamela Wright, Bamfield Marine Station, Bamfield, B.C., Canada; Franco Zunino, Associazione Italiana per la Wilderness, Murialdo, Italy. ASSOCIATE EDITORS—UNITED STATES Greg Aplet, The Wilderness Society, Denver, Colo.; Liz Close, U.S. Forest Service, Washington D.C.; David Cole, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont.; John Daigle, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Lewis Glenn, Outward Bound USA, Garrison, N.Y.; Glenn Haas, Colorado State Univer- sity, Fort Collins, Colo.; Troy Hall, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Va.; Dr. William Hammit, Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.; Greg Hansen, U.S. Forest Service, Mesa, Ariz.; Dave Harmon, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, Oreg.; Bill Hendricks, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Calif.; Ed Krumpe, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Jim Mahoney, Bureau of Land Management, Phoenix, Ariz.; Bob Manning, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; Jeffrey Marion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Leo McAvoy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Michael McCloskey, Sierra Club, Washington, D.C.; Chris Monz, National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, Wyo.; Bob Muth, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.; Connie Myers, Arthur Carhart Wilderness Training Center, Missoula, Mont.; Roderick Nash, University of California, Santa Barbara, Calif.; David Ostergren, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Ariz.; Marilyn Riley, Wilderness Transitions and the Wilderness Guides Council, Ross, Calif.; Joe Roggenbuck, Vir- ginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Holmes Rolston III, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Mitch Sakofs, Outward Bound, Garrison, N.Y.; Susan Sater, U.S. Forest Service, Portland, Oreg.; Tod Schimelpfenig, National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, Wyo.; Jerry Stokes, U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C.; Elizabeth Thorndike, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; Jay Watson, The Wilderness Society, San Francisco, Calif.

International Journal of Wilderness (IJW) publishes three issues per year Submissions: Contributions pertinent to wilderness worldwide are (April, August, and December). IJW is a not-for-profit publication. solicited, including articles on wilderness planning, management, and allocation strategies; wilderness education, including descriptions Manuscripts to: University of Idaho, Wilderness Research Center, of key programs using wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and Moscow, ID 83844-1144, USA. Telephone: (208) 885-2267. Fax: environmental education; wilderness-related science and research from (208) 885-2268. E-mail: [email protected]. all disciplines addressing physical, biological, and social aspects of wilderness; and international perspectives describing wilderness Business Management and Subscriptions: WILD Foundation, P.O. worldwide. Articles, commentaries, letters to the editor, photos, book Box 1380, Ojai, CA 93024, USA. Fax: (805) 640-0230. E-mail: reviews, announcements, and information for the wilderness digest are [email protected]. encouraged. A complete list of manuscript submission guidelines is available from the editors. Subscription rates (per volume calendar year): Subscription costs are in U.S. dollars only—$30 for individuals and $50 for organizations/ Artwork: Submission of artwork and photographs with captions are libraries. Subscriptions from Canada and Mexico, add $10; outside North encouraged. Photo credits will appear in a byline; artwork may be signed America, add $20. Back issues are available for $15. by the author. All materials printed in the International Journal of Wilderness, copyright World Wide Website: www.ijw.org. © 2001 by the International Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. Individuals, and nonprofit libraries acting for them, are permitted to make Printed on recycled paper. fair use of material from the journal. ISSN # 1086-5519.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS • Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute • Indiana University, Department of Recreation and Park Administration • National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) • Outward Bound™ • SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry • The WILD® Foundation • The Wilderness Society • University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center • University of Montana, School of Forestry and Wilderness Institute • USDA Forest Service • USDI Bureau of Land Management • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service • USDI National Park Service • Wilderness Foundation (South Africa) • Wilderness Inquiry • Wilderness Leadership School (South Africa)

2 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 FEATURES

EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES Protecting Mountain Wilderness BY ALAN EWERT

Go forth into the mountains and get their good tidings; Let the winds blow their freshness into you; And the storms their energy. —John Muir

uir had it right! Good things can happen to wilderness-based ecosystems, even in the mountains, can be people when they visit the mountains. Given ineffective in preserving species or other ecosystem compo- M their remoteness, lack of agricultural develop- nents unless they are large enough, represent “effective” con- ment, and often, inclement weather, much of the world’s tiguous blocks, and are properly managed. wilderness and many undeveloped landscapes are in or close This issue of the International Journal of Wilderness is dedi- to mountains. Mountain landscapes account for approxi- cated to wilderness in mountainous areas, particularly those mately 20% of the world’s acreage and are home to at least areas outside of North America. Maretha Shroyer and her 10% of the world’s population. While their remoteness and colleagues discuss the issues and challenges facing the extremes in climate protect them from the level of human Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in Africa. William Bainbridge development experienced in lower regions, mountains are provides a synopsis of mountain wilderness areas in South being developed and exploited. The human tendency to- Africa and a historical account of the wilderness manage- ward growth and expansion coupled with the “bank” of ment movement. Franco Zunino describes the mountain- natural resources in mountainous areas (hydrologic, min- ous wildlands of Italy, their problems, and management eral, and harvestable resources) exacerbate the pressures opportunities. Lawrence Hamilton, vice-chair of the World on mountain locales. Conservation Union’s (IUCN) World Commission on Pro- Inevitably this pressure also occurs in areas with wilder- tected Areas, describes issues and challenges recognized ness designation. Whether an area is a de facto wilderness by the IUCN relative to the management of mountain wil- or an officially designated mountain wilderness, increas- derness areas. ingly they are exposed to a variety of threats to ecosystem integrity, resiliency, and cultural heritage. These threats are ALAN EWERT is an executive editor of IJW. E-mail: not just economic in nature, but also include overuse and [email protected]. impacts from tourism and recreation. For example, Denniston (1995) reports that visitation to the European REFERENCES Alps exceeds 100 million visitors per year and that ski re- Bader, M. 2000. Wilderness-based ecosystem protection in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. In Wilderness Science in a Time sorts in Colorado divert two to three times the amount of of Change Conference—Volume 2: Wilderness within the Context of water for making snow compared to 10 years ago. Larger Systems, compiled by S. F. McCool, D. N. Cole, W. T. Borrie, Mountain wilderness is increasingly the last bastion of eco- and J. O’Loughlin. May 23–27, 1999; Missoula, Mont. Proceedings system protection. That is, since these areas were the last to RMRS-P-15-VOL-2. Ogden, Utah: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 99–100. be exploited and developed they are less damaged and, hence, Denniston, D. 1995. High Priorities: Conserving Mountain Ecosystems and should be the first to be protected. But as Bader (2000) notes, Cultures. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Paper: #123.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 3 FEATURES

SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS To Rekindle Love of the Beautiful in Public Policy and Professional Performance

BY MICHAEL FROME

t the turn of the 20th century John Muir commented generation can leave is on the abundance of wilderness still evident across not a world at war, nor Athe North American continent. Now, at the outset a nation in debt to of the 21st century, this is no longer the case. Whatever wild support a nuclear star- country remains is plainly vulnerable to human intervention. wars system, nor the I don’t mean only wilderness as defined and classified by law. settlement of outer The truth is that all places of scenic and natural beauty are space, transporting all being reduced in number and degraded in integrity. our worldly problems I believe the responsibility of our generation is to see to the rest of God’s that future Americans enjoy the same opportunities for soli- universe, nor the tude and the same sense that nature prevails that we have breeding of test-tube known. Charles Evans Hughes, governor of New York in babies and robotic the first decade of the 20th century (and later chief justice drones. Our most pre- of the Supreme Court), had it right at the dedication of cious gift to the future Palisades Interstate Park when he said: is a point of view em- bodied in the protec- Article author Michael Frome. Photo by J. Eastvold. Of what avail would be the benefits of gainful occupation, what would be the promise of prosperous tion of wild places that communities, with wealth of products and freedom of no longer can protect themselves. exchange, were it not for opportunities to cultivate the I have spent much of my life in the cause of preserva- love of the beautiful? The preservation of the scenery tion. Once, while in northern Minnesota, I found myself of the Hudson is the highest duty with respect to this thinking about Arthur Carhart, the pioneer in wilderness river imposed upon those who are the trustees of its protection. During the period he worked for the Forest manifest benefits. Service as a landscape architect, from 1919 to 1923, he President Theodore Roosevelt in that same period ex- was dispatched to the Superior National Forest, in Minne- pressed virtually the same idea in talking of the big trees of sota, with directions to prepare a plan for recreation devel- California: “There is nothing more practical than the opment. His bosses wanted to build roads to reach every preservation of beauty,” he said, “than the preservation of lake and to line the shores with thousands of summer anything that appeals to the higher emotions of mankind.” homes. Carhart, however, recognized that the area could We need to believe and echo these words, and to re- be “as priceless as Yellowstone, Yosemite, or the Grand kindle love of the beautiful in public policy and profes- Canyon—if it remained a water-trail wilderness.” He per- sional performance. The most important legacy our sisted, won support, and laid the basis for establishment of

4 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 what we now call the Boundary Wa- I have asked different kinds of and spirit, and reaching out to others ters Canoe Area Wilderness. people, at all stations of life, what wil- to do the same. Shortly before Carhart left, Sigurd derness means to them. They made We are now paying the price for in- Olson arrived on the scene. Over the beautiful statements, usually simple dustrial progress with its overdevelop- years Olson would stand in meeting yet lofty and profound, which I be- ment and overconsumption, flirting halls urging that natural values be pro- lieve can be summarized in the follow- with our own inevitable Bhopal or tected from assorted mining, dam ing two excerpts: Chernobyl or some other toxic disas- building, logging, and motor boating. You get away from your ter. But the most serious effect is in It wasn’t easy, and sometimes he was tradition and lifestyle in a the psychology of people. How sad treated to scorn and derision. Carhart wilderness and you find out in that we should accept alienation from later paid tribute to Olson for leading a hurry who you are and what the Earth; that we should even coun- a small group, which held, as he said, you’re capable of, what are the tenance talk of “acceptable risk” in “a thin line of defense protecting this real issues in life. What really terms of hazardous production mate- frightens you will come to the exquisite wilderness until help could surface. rials, or “acceptable change” in terms rally to save it.” of wilderness use. Wilderness is necessary. It What was it they found worth de- Critics sometimes demand to know represents that part of America fending? Based on my experience, I call that once was and always will of me, “Well, exactly how much wilder- it the feel of freedom above all else. Free- remain. We don’t have to be like ness do you need?” While recognizing dom from crowds, cars, and mechani- the Europeans. We don’t have to that it can’t all be wild, I feel reluctant cal noises. Freedom that comes from wish for that type of land to answer; what counts more is whether doing for one’s self, without dependence representation. We’ll have it. each succeeding generation must settle Wilderness is forever. on technological support. Freedom in for an increasingly damaged world, re- nature, derived from being among crea- The very idea of wilderness en- flected in degraded, circumscribed liv- tures that get up and fly when they want riches my body, mind and spirit, but ing. I can’t juxtapose resource to, or run, swim, wiggle, dive, and crawl, it also elevates me to look beyond my commodities against wilderness when all admirable modes of self-propulsion. own wants and needs. The American the great value of wild country lies in In the northern Minnesota wilderness I tradition has sought the transforma- its freedom, challenge, and inspiration. feel free to pick and savor wild blueber- tion of resources; TWA, however, I believe the feeling to conserve is ries; free to swim in cool waters, cool stimulates a fundamental and older deep-rooted in the minds and hearts of and dark, almost as pure as in the days tradition of relationship with resources people, more than the urge to exploit of the Chippewa Indians. themselves. A river is accorded its right and degrade. We need to spark the posi- Wilderness is an embodiment of to exist because it is a river, rather than tive. “To do good works is noble,” wrote freedom. The Wilderness Act (TWA) for any utilitarian service. Through Mark Twain. “To teach others to do good of 1964 is an extension of the charter appreciation of wilderness, I perceive works is nobler, and no trouble.” Gov- handed down by the Founding Fa- the true role of the river, as a living ernment and, indeed, all institutions are thers with its guarantee of life, liberty, symbol of all the life it sustains and what we want them to be. It all begins and the pursuit of happiness. We need nourishes, and my responsibility to it. with thee and me. I see the movement to safeguard the sources of freedom, Thus I feel that we need a revolu- to protect and preserve ever strength- challenge, and inspiration. The Con- tion of ideals and ideas—a revolution ening until it succeeds. stitution is recognized as a sacred of ethics to sweep the United States But we have a long road to travel to document guaranteeing freedom of and the world, because the same forces realize the promise of the promised expression, though it requires con- are at work everywhere. We must al- land. I’ve learned that even the experts tinual testing and defending. Wilder- ter the superconsumptive lifestyle that understand very little about wilderness ness is equally sacred, in my view—a makes us enemies of ourselves, a reserves: of how to manage and inter- living document of land and people. lifestyle that confuses a standard of liv- pret wilderness so it will always be Wilderness I equate with freedom ing with quality of life. That kind of wild; of its abundant benefits to soci- from want, war, and racial prejudice, revolution begins with the individual, ety; of how to apply the lessons of and the freedom to cultivate one’s inside oneself, with one’s own ecosys- wilderness to make the whole Earth a thoughts in one’s own way. tem, finding the unity of body, mind, better place to live.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 5 advanced bit by bit, building his up- Wilderness areas are not playgrounds, nor theme per body, ultimately making history in 1991 when he and a partner climbed parks, but sanctuaries, meant to be forever. the 3,500-foot granite face of El Capitan. Then two years later he pulled himself to the summit of Half TWA has proven successful, inso- of all religions, as in the sacred sites Dome, though it took 13 days to make far as furnishing the techniques for that hold meaning still to Native it. “I’ve always believed that true ad- preservation of large tracts of federal Americans, wilderness evokes the ac- venture involves discovering things lands. From that foundation a few tive soul, freeing it to respond to the about yourself as you edge ever closer states have developed their own ini- Earth as alive, poetic, dramatic, musi- toward the boundaries of your per- tiatives in protecting wild places. Now cal. Wilderness breaks down artificial sonal limits,” Mark wrote later. “I there is great opportunity and need for barriers between people bred to be- learned plenty about myself on El the states to do more, and for local lieve they are different from each other Capitan and Half Dome.” communities to identify and to pro- by reason of class, color, race, or gen- Overuse and misuse clearly deplete vide statutory protection for smaller der; wilderness is teaching, real teach- the visible physical resource that tracts still in a relatively untouched ing, through which the physically and people care about, but it does some- state. Nature belongs where people mentally disabled learn to overcome thing to the invisible spirit of place as live, not as something remote or be- limitations, and the abled learn to well. Native Americans have that an- yond reach. think differently about competency. cestral sense, honoring the Earth and Wilderness, however small or large, But, of course, in a sacred place all life life as divine gifts. Here on the North- wherever it may be found, is the sa- is sacred, and the humblest are holy west Coast where I live Native people cred place for renewal and healing, and blessed. for centuries have sought the giant where the words education and recre- Wilderness areas are not play- cedar, hemlock, and Douglas fir of the ation take on different meaning. A psy- grounds, nor theme parks, but sanc- cold rain forest, not simply for canoes chologist might prescribe a wilderness tuaries, meant to be forever; they are and longhouses, but as source of a sa- experience because of its freedom from priceless time capsules for tomorrow cred state of mind where magic and evidences of critical or harmful human that we are privileged to know and beauty are everywhere. In The Vanish- actions, or to find release from stress enjoy today. By that I mean a wilder- ing American, Zane Grey’s hero, through stillness and solitude in the ness is ideally suited to exercise the Nophaie, most loved to be alone, out primeval. There are no social values body in a test with nature, stimulate in the desert, “listening to the real to conform to; it is classless—all par- the mind with new learning, and chal- sounds of the open and to the whis- ties become essentially equal, benefit- lenge the spirit of the individual to pering of his soul.” Grey wrote that na- ing from cooperation rather than connect with something larger than ture was jealous of her secrets and competition. The individual acquires himself or herself, and more lasting spoke only to those who loved her. a sense of scale, conceding there is than all the mechanization of life and The Rainbow Bridge, just north of the something larger and longer-lasting work at home. Arizona-Utah border, curving upward than anything he or she has known As evidence, I cite the experience to a height above 300 feet, once was a before and feeling that he or she be- of Mark Wellman and the lessons from sacred destination for religious pil- longs at the bosom of a much greater it. Mark was an accomplished Califor- grimage, reached by toil, sweat, endur- whole—and at peace. nia mountaineer who broke his back ance, and pain, proving to the pilgrim “The one thing in the world, of value, in a climbing accident in 1982 and was that the great things in life must be is the active soul,” wrote Emerson. left without the use of legs. He lost earned. That makes sense even to the “This every man [and woman] is en- direction in his life, lived in pain, lone- European mind, for as Jung wrote, titled to; this every man [and woman] liness, and shattered dreams—until he “There is no birth of consciousness contains within him [and her], al- found his new beginning in Yosemite. without pain.” Now, by contrast, how- though, in almost all men [and Living and working in the park, Mark ever, the impounded waters of Glen women], obstructed, and as yet un- pushed himself to see as much as hu- Canyon Dam have made painless vis- born.” As in the ancient sacred places manly possible in a wheelchair. He its possible, via boat on the reservoir

6 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 called Lake Powell to the Bridge Can- eling with Wilderness Inquiry, a non- In sum, the wilderness experience yon landing, then walking about one profit group that mixes people with leads beyond the world of aggression, mile. Surely some element of critical and without disabilities; I mean that beyond history, beyond science. This value—the sense of connecting with participants include wheelchair users, type of experience is still available for spirit—is lost. deaf, blind, and mentally retarded. me, but I recognize that I must meet Although sacredness sustained in Wilderness on our trip became more the sanctuary in the wild on its terms, wild places cannot provide a quick than a physical or intellectual experi- rather than on my terms or those of fix for the ills of society, it can bring ence, but also a place to think differ- my own mechanistic society. I appre- new understanding at a very per- ently about physical competency and ciate that we need to walk lightly, more sonal level. Society divides by eco- accomplishment. We worked on po- lightly, and, hopefully, to learn that the nomics, race, and religion, gender tentials rather than limitations while gods walk on every road and every and sexual preference, and by physi- paddling, portaging, doing camp road is sacred. cal ability. Much of the time people chores, and sharing songs and sunsets. feel separate and fearful, as children Committed climbers and kayakers MICHAEL FROME is an author, educator, of different gods, of greater and may prefer wilderness where they ex- and tireless guardian of the environmental lesser gods. Wilderness evokes the pose themselves to physical risk—that commons. Former Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin declared in Congress: “No unity and wholeness of creation, a may be their sacred space—but when writer in America has more persistently and community of brothers and sisters people of mixed ability live, work, and effectively argued for the need of national all kin, all equal, sharing in common play together, they expose themselves, ethics of environmental stewardship than origin, common destiny. too, learning to rise above the barriers Michael Frome.” He lives in Bellingham, I learned this anew in 1992 in the of modern society, and to recognize Washington, USA. E-mail: Boundary Waters of Minnesota, trav- that every life has meaning to it. [email protected].

Chad Dawson and Steve Hollenhorst Named IJW Co-managing Editors The International Journal of Wilderness editorial board has named Dr. Chad Dawson of the State University of New York (SUNY) at Syra- cuse and Dr. Steve Hollenhorst of the University of Idaho as co- managing editors. Dawson will be responsible for overall content of IJW, including article acceptance. Hollenhorst will be responsible for the Wilderness Digest section of each issue and wilderness steward- ship articles. Both Dawson and Hollenhorst have served IJW as asso- Chad Dawson. Photo courtesy ciate editors during its six years of publication. John Hendee, current of Chad Dawson. managing editor, will continue as editor-in-chief. Professor Dawson teaches recreation and wilderness courses in the College of Environmen- Steve Hollenhorst. Photo courtesy of Steve Hollenhorst. tal Science and Forestry at SUNY. He also guides graduate students in wilderness recreation management research. He has traveled extensively in U.S. wilderness and has participated in wilderness research studies. He is co-author with John Hendee of the forthcoming 3rd edition of the textbook Wilderness Management: Protection and Stewardship of Resources and Values. Dr. Hollenhorst is professor and head of the Department of Resource Recreation and Tourism at the University of Idaho. Formerly at West Virginia University, he regularly leads field courses to wilderness and protected areas in the United States and around the world. Dr. Hollenhorst’s teaching and research interests are in wilderness and protected area policy and management. Short news articles for the Wilderness Digest can be sent to [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 7 STEWARDSHIP

Wildlands in the Northeastern United States

BY CHRISTOPHER MCGRORY KLYZA

ilderness protection and management in the the state. New York State established the Adirondack and United States often focuses on the West where Catskill Forest Preserves in 1885 to protect these lands and W four federal land management agencies con- added a “forever wild” clause to the New York Constitution trol over half the land in 13 states. In contrast, these same in 1894. There are 17 wilderness areas in the Adirondacks agencies manage about 2% of the land in the nine states of totaling 1,071,590 acres, five of which exceed 100,000 the Northeast. This difference in ownership explains the acres. Canoe and primitive classified lands receive virtually low amount of federally designated wilderness in the North- the same protection as wilderness (72,049 acres). Wild for- east states, only 205,000 acres. Nevertheless, federal own- ests (1.2 million acres) add to the wildland landscape. The ership and wilderness is important in the Northeast. Catskill Park has both wilderness (118,000 acres) and wild Furthermore, several of these states have significant state forest areas (155,000 acres). The protected wilderness and wildland and wilderness programs. Following is a brief wild forest in the Adirondack and Catskill Parks are the review of the nine states. core of a potential wildlands system of the Northeast.

New York Pennsylvania New York includes one federally designated wilderness. In Allegheny National Forest has two designated wilderness the Adirondack and Catskill Parks, there are 1.26 million areas. Pennsylvania state forests total nearly 2.1 million acres of state wilderness and combined with wild forest- acres, primarily in north-central Pennsylvania. The state lands (which cannot be harvested or developed) the amount has an administrative wild areas program (110,000 acres) of protected wildlands rises to 2.9 million acres, or 9.5% of on these forests where existing roads may remain open and timber harvesting for forest health and wildlife habitat im- provements are permitted. The state park system totals over 283,000 acres, and there are 1.4 million acres of game lands throughout the state. More wildlands, in north-central Penn- sylvania, would be an important link to the wilderness of the Catskills and Adirondacks to the north, and to the central Appalachians to the south.

Maine Federal wilderness in Maine totals less than 20,000 acres in two areas. Baxter State Park is the largest wilderness in the Northeast outside the Adirondacks and covers nearly 205,000 acres with most managed as wilderness (176,139 acres). Maine has two remote recreation roadless areas on its public reserved Avalanche Lake in the High Peaks Wilderness of the Adirondack Mountains, New York State, lands, totaling roughly 13,000 acres. The Allagash Wilder- USA. Photo by Chad Dawson. ness Waterway (nearly 23,000 acres) in northern Maine was

8 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 created by the state legislature and added to the National Wild and Scenic Despite the common conception of the Northeast as River system. However, the Allagash Wilderness Waterway protective land being entirely developed, significant wildlands exist corridor is narrow and augmented by in the region. regulations in a half-mile corridor on each side of the river. Northern Maine is a potential core of wildness in the primarily as state forests, state parks, preservation area of 368,000 acres Northeast, especially because of the and wildlife management areas. Ver- where little new development is al- possibility for public acquisition of vast mont wildland and wilderness help lowed. State conservation lands total amounts of private land. connect New York areas with those in over 600,000 acres. New Hampshire. New Hampshire Connecticut New Hampshire has four federal wil- Massachusetts and Rhode Island derness areas totaling over 100,000 Massachusetts has one federal wilder- These two states have no federally des- acres and the highest level of federal ness. The state has a wildlands pro- ignated wilderness. Connecticut state ownership of any state east of the gram on its 535,000 acres of state conservation lands total nearly 210,000 Rocky Mountains (over 13%) due to lands. This program is an administra- acres. Although roughly 9% of Rhode the White Mountain National Forest. tive classification on state forest and Island is in public ownership, the par- The state owns relatively little public state park lands. The backcountry ar- cels are all relatively small. It is unlikely land. The White Mountain National eas in the program, primarily for that the Connecticut or Rhode Island Forest can serve as an anchor for wild- primitive recreation, total roughly landscape will be a significant part of lands recovery, and emphasis must be 6,000 acres. “rewilding” in the Northeast. placed or connecting it to other North- eastern wildlands to the east and west. New Jersey Conclusion New Jersey has two federal wilderness Despite the common conception of the Vermont areas. The Pinelands National Reserve Northeast as being entirely developed, Six wilderness areas in the Green covers over 1 million acres, nearly one- significant wildlands exist in the region. Mountain National Forest total nearly quarter of New Jersey. The Reserve is In a broad corridor from northern New 60,000 acres. State conservation lands, a joint federal-state-local regional open England, through the Adirondacks and totaling 310,000 acres, are classified space planning project with a core Catskills, and down through central

Table 1—Acreage of public lands and wilderness in the Northeast

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 9 private land areas to serve as buffer zones to adjacent ecological reserves or sensitive areas. More states need to establish wilder- ness programs such as in New York, which is the only state in the Northeast with a statutory or administrative wil- derness program. Additional wilderness could be designated in the Northeast on federal and state lands and, in certain areas, private lands that could be pur- chased. Lands in the nine Northeastern states could be woven into a more comprehensive approach to wilder- ness based on designing ecological reserves to protect biological diversity, rewilding lands to wilderness, and a

The Great Gulf Wilderness in the Presidential Range of the White Mountain National Forest, New Hampshire, USA. Photo by landscape of ecosystem-based forest- Chad Dawson. land management.

Pennsylvania, the chance for a large, ment could include protecting represen- CHRISTOPHER MCGRORY KLYZA is connected wildlands landscape is real. tative ecological communities, protect- professor of political science and environ- mental studies at Middlebury College, Such wilderness can be based on exist- ing large core reserves where natural Middlebury, Vermont 05763, USA. E-mail: ing federal and state lands in the North- processes can largely determine the [email protected]. He is editor of the east. A regional strategy for land landscape, creating corridors to connect new book Wilderness Comes Home: acquisition, protection, and manage- protected areas, and using easements on Rewilding the Northeast (see review in this issue). 7th World Wilderness Congress to Convene in South Africa he 7th World Wilderness Congress (WWC) will convene for African protected areas; presentation of new models for ef- in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, in South Africa, Novem- fective education and training that enhance wildland benefits Tber 2–8, 2001. Organizers of the event say the focus is for human communities; and shared agendas, developing a wild- Wilderness and Human Communities—The Spirit of the 21st lands agenda for the upcoming Rio+10 Congress (2002) and Century, a response to “continuing and mounting crisis that threatens the World Parks Congress (2003), also in South Africa. wildland areas and the services they provide to human society.” A four-day Wilderness Working Session will follow with ex- The WWC will devote the initial two days to a World Wil- perts and professionals meeting with the public on a range of tar- derness Summit to address alarming environmental reports from geted subjects, plans, and models. Technical and Science Symposia the World Resources Institute, United Nations Environment meet in the afternoons. Finally, the Cultural Program will run Programme, World Watch, World Wildlife Fund, and others. through every day, including the International Environmental Film The summit will include leaders in politics, business, science, Festival (a judged competition), the award-winning AGFA Wild- education, field management, nongovernmental organizations, life Photography Exhibition, and other ethnic and contemporary and rural development. The agenda is based on enhanced pro- entertainment, music, and exhibitions. tection for wilderness and wildland areas in Africa and interna- Local wilderness areas, private protected areas, and national tionally. It highlights the fundamental services these areas parks will be the venue for on-site trips and discussion sessions. provide to all human communities and their irreplaceable bio- Participation is limited to 800 delegates. logical, economic, cultural, and spiritual benefits. Other action For more information contact Kathleen Du Bois, e-mail: objectives include wildland political initiatives in southern Af- [email protected]. Or stop by the website at rica; privately owned wilderness, a model for designating and www.worldwilderness.org. managing wildlands in perpetuity on private land; a new fund

10 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 STEWARDSHIP

Wilderness Management in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

BY MARETHA SHROYER, MARTIN ENGELBECHT, and ODUMELENG KAKETSO

Abstract: The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) is unique, as it was the first transfrontier park in Africa and the only park in South Africa where wildlife still migrate in herds. The KTP combines South Africa’s Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and Botswana’s Gemsbok National Park into a single ecological unit. The Kalahari is a harsh and unforgiving wilderness. This article highlights wilderness management strategies, suitable for a harsh environment, where natural processes are still able to follow a natural cause, without the interference of human beings.

Introduction The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) comprises 3.62 million hectares of predominantly pristine wilderness, where wildlife can move unrestricted and undisturbed. The absence of human-made barriers, except to the west where the international boundary with Namibia is demarcated by a fence, and in the south where a fence partially separates the KTP from private farms, provides an area large enough to maintain two ecological processes: the large-scale no- madic and migratory movements of wild ungulates; and unrestricted predation by large mammalian carnivores (Na- tional Parks Board et al. 1997). Until recently, some Kalahari lions have not had contact with modern humans, and re- searchers found interesting behavior patterns displayed by these lions (Dr. Paul Funston, pers. comm.). The single- Subgroup of Suricate (Suricata suricatta) on the alert for possible sources of danger. Photo by Piet Heymans. most important factor for this phenomenon in 2000 is the vast size of the conserved area, almost twice the size of Kruger National Park. vegetation and wildlife have adapted special strategies. Sur- The reason for the high degree of naturalness in the park vival strategies in this waterless environment with extreme is the harsh conditions. There is no surface water, and tem- temperature fluctuations include animals being predomi- peratures vary greatly—from –15oC on winter nights to 42oC nantly nocturnal versus diurnal, the implementing of en- in the shade on summer days when the ground-surface tem- ergy-saving strategies, and evolutionary adaptations. peratures exceed 70oC. The groundwater of the Kalahari Tourists to the KTP should be well prepared. Management tends to be highly mineralized (South African National Parks has structures in place to safeguard visitors, providing they [SANP] 1999). Survival in these conditions is difficult, and stay on the tourist road network. Should unauthorized travel

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 11 ecological unit to be known as the etation. The northwest orientation of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. This parallel dunes reflects the origin of pre- agreement was signed by then Presi- vailing winds that were instrumental in dent Mandela and President Mogae. their formation. The South African Parliament ratified the agreement in September 1999. The Wilderness Concept Kalahari Landscape in the KTP The wilderness concept in the KTP dif- Many atlases refer to the Kalahari as a fers from the general U.S. criteria in desert, but strictly speaking it is a terms of zonation, access, and related semi-arid savanna. The sand is colored recreational activities in that wilderness a rich Venetian red by an iron oxide and nature conservation are managed An adult male lion. Photo by Piet Heymans. layer that persists due to lack of rain, in an integrated manner. In the KTP, and was deposited by the wind into four-wheel drive vehicle trails and rus- on remote patrol tracks by an unsup- long, roughly parallel northwest/ tic camps are acceptable in wilderness ported vehicle encounter mechanical southeast dunes. These dunes are sta- zones. The rationale is that, due to the problems, chances for survival are bilized by vegetation in the park. Af- remoteness and harsh environment, the slim. The same applies for managers ter a heavy rainfall, water is held for a area would be inaccessible to visitors under these conditions. limited period by permanent calcare- without motorized transport, and if visi- Although the Botswana and South ous pans. tors are excluded from the major por- African wildlife authorities have coop- Dryness is the distinguishing fea- tion of the park, the park cannot be erated in the management of the two ture of the Kalahari. Nowhere in the financially sustainable. parks since 1948, it was only in 1998 entire KTP is there any natural surface On the other hand, not classifying that this agreement was formalized. In water. The two rivers defined on maps, the vast natural landscape as wilder- April 1999 Botswana and South Af- the Nossob and Auob, are somewhat ness, as a result of four-wheel drive rica signed a bilateral agreement un- of a misnomer, as they are both nor- vehicle trails, is an oversight. The dertaking to manage their two mally dry. It is only in years of par- Kalahari truly is a wilderness where adjoining parks, Gemsbok National ticularly good rains that the Auob the human footprint has been negli- Park in Botswana (28,400 km2) and yields a limited flow of surface water. gible over the years, mainly because it Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in The Nossob flows once every 50 years. is so difficult to survive in this harsh South Africa (9,591 km2) as a single The sand mantle of the conservation environment. The only people who area in the Kalahari basically displays have managed to survive here are two distinguishable landscapes (Van der hunter-gatherers: the San who entered Walt and Le Riche 1999). A virtually the area approximately 4,000 years ago dune-free, regular undulating landscape and the BaKgalagadi who arrived with abundant trees is encountered east about 2,000 years ago (SANP 1999). and north of the Nossob River. To the The impact of sand tracks and west and the southwest the sand is ar- gravel tourist roads are negligible, ranged in a parallel dune pattern negative impacts on the wildlife in this throughout, some 800 kilometers in large area. The major negative impact is length and 100 to 200 kilometers wide, Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), male. Photo by Piet Heymans. small animals and birds occassionally with grass being the predominant veg- getting killed on the roads. The benefits of roads to wild animals are that they Should unauthorized travel on remote patrol tracks provide tracks of cleared areas with good visibility for both predator and prey by an unsupported vehicle encounter mechanical species and road verges provide habitat for ground squirrels, yellow mongoose, problems, chances for survival are slim. rats, mice, snakes, geckos, and birds.

12 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 Wilderness Qualities 2. Wilderness or and Tourist Infrastructure low-use zone area. Ungraded tracks in the KTP for four-wheel drive In the large pristine wilderness areas vehicles and rustic of the KTP there are no roads, fences, camps to accom- windmills, survey beacons, or any hu- modate people on man modifications. Only natural tracks are permit- sound is present, and these areas are ted. A field ranger free of air, water, and soil pollution. accompanies all Surrounding the pristine wilderness groups, and visitor are areas with sandy tracks, mainly numbers are lim- used for patrol purposes, and graveled ited. Off-road driv- Two subadult lions engaged in playing, an important activity for developing survival tourist roads, mainly on the periph- ing is restricted. skills in adulthood. Photo by Piet Heymans. ery of the park or along riverbeds. Ungraded tracks Artificial water holes are present will be monitored throughout the park. These artificial for the first year to water points were sunk to support live- ensure the environ- stock farming before the park was pro- mental impact is claimed in the 1931 (SANP 1999). acceptable. There- These water points are presently main- after, a three-year tained to prevent water-dependent an- monitoring plan telope such as the blue wildebeest from will be followed. A following their natural migration route minimum of two southward for water, now blocked by vehicles is permit- fences on the boundary of the park. ted to ensure safety Tourist roads are graveled and in case of break- routed to incorporate artificial water downs. Adult Lioness (Panthera leo) and subadults at water hole. Photo by Piet Heymans. points, visited by water-dependent 3. Natural Environ- wildlife species and migratory and ment or medium-use zone Wilderness Management resident birds. Many birds are able to area. Normal tourist roads and drink the salty water with no detri- a three-kilometer strip on either Strategies mental effect on their health, as they side of the road falls into this The management strategies for wilderness excrete excess minerals through orbital category. zones in the KTP are summarized below. salt glands. Furthermore, water holes 4. Visitor services or developed •Water points. The existing water provide excellent game-viewing in a areas. This category comprises rest points will be maintained, but no predominantly wild terrain. camps, administration buildings, additions will be made. The effect information centers, and tourist of piomes (induced impact on artifi- Zoning of the KTP infrastructure and facilities. cial water points) is continually monitored. The zoning scheme includes four types Buffer areas adjoin the conserva- • Buildings and construction. of areas (National Parks Board, et al. tion area. In the southeast of the KTP, Conventional tourist camps or 1997): wildlife management areas form a buffer zone between wilderness ar- personnel accommodation will 1. Special protection area. This cat- eas and Botswana landowners. A be excluded. Rustic camps, lim- egory is characterized by the ab- contractual national park, managed ited to four-wheel drive vehicle sence of human-made structures jointly by the Mier and San has been users, and simple research camps and all forms of tourism. Access is proposed on the southwestern are permissible. limited to staff and approved re- boundary; land-use issues are cur- • Roads and tracks. All existing searchers. rently being discussed. graded service roads may be used,

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 13 properties and/or infra- The vast size of the conservation area structure are threatened, is conducive to the sustainable oc- or when sensitive river- currences of large numbers of wild ine vegetation communi- animals, numbers which are “self- ties are endangered. regulatory.” • Resource utiliza- • Overflying. Only official aircraft tion. No harvesting of are allowed to overfly wilderness wood, grazing of cattle, areas at low altitudes. Other air- or removal of natural craft may overfly (in transit) at an products is permitted in altitude of not less than 2,000 feet wilderness areas. above ground. Official aircraft are •Wildlife manage- used for monitoring purposes, for Open tree savanna on the undulating plains with camelthorn (Acacia eriloba) and ment. Wildlife is moni- research (radio telemetry), and for sourgrass (Schmidtia kalihariensis) the dominant species. Photo by Noel van Rooyen. tored for disease, but a game counting purposes. “no-interference” strat- • Poaching. Poaching is not a major but no additions will be made. Only egy is followed. In general terms, problem in wilderness areas due to the tourist roads and the road along animals are predominantly disease- remoteness and low habitation the western border are graded. free with a low occurrence of mange along boundaries. Regular patrols Boundary roads are reserved for and rabies. In instances where ra- are undertaken on a continuous antipoaching, with some excep- bies is suspected the animal is de- basis, and joint patrol with South tions. Off-road driving is restricted. stroyed and samples sent in for Africa and Botswana antipoaching Four-wheel drive vehicle trails are analysis. Carcasses are burned. units takes place on irregular fre- on ungraded tracks. Night driving •Problem animals. Predators such quencies. is restricted to existing roads. as lion, cheetah, leopard, caracal, • Alien plants. Prosopis species are • Borders and fences. Existing and spotted hyena pose a threat to under control. Argemone and fences along the park border will livestock of farmers living adjacent Salsola species are controlled where be maintained. No other barriers to the park. KTP management does possible. All eradication of alien will be erected, although Botswana not pay for loss of domesticated ani- plants is done by hand, without the would like to extend their fence mals in South Africa or Namibia. In use of herbicides or pesticides. line in the south in order to curtail Botswana, payouts are made for • Malaria. There is a low frequency movements of stock-raiding lions. stock losses; however, illegal claims of malaria in the park. Other that •Fires. Natural fires (lightning-in- are stressing the system and it might notifying visitors to take prophy- duced fires) are allowed to take their change in future. Neighbors are edu- lactic medicine, no specific man- natural course, but are monitored cated concerning the importance of agement action is taken. and only controlled if neighboring wildlife conservation whenever pos- sible by the SANP Social Proposed Tourism Ecology Department in South Africa and the Development Wildlife Conservation In addition to game-viewing in their Education Division in own vehicles, visitors to the KTP can Botswana. enjoy night drives with experienced • Quarries. Quarries rangers aboard park vehicles, or in wilderness areas are groups can undertake excursions to not permitted. All former rustic camps in wilderness areas with sites adjacent to the tour- a trained tracker. Tourist infrastructure ist road network will be is predominantly in the South African rehabilitated. side of the park, while the majority of • Culling. A no culling the wildlife is in the Botswana side due Bare pan with Sporobolus spp. and Salsola spp. on the edge. Photo by Noel van Rooyen. wildlife policy is followed. to the differing habitats. The South

14 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 African side consists of Nama Karoo and Arid Savanna biomes (Lovegrove 1993), while the Botswana side has a Nowhere in the entire Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is greater rainfall gradient to the north- there any natural surface water. east, making the habitat more suitable for sustained use by wildlife. A need has been identified to im- Conclusion prove the linkage between the South The KTP is largely wil- African and Botswana sides of the park derness. It is a harsh en- via a tourist road. This road will have to vironment where only traverse through pristine wilderness. A genetically strong indi- road is planned from Mabuasehube in viduals that are eco-typi- Botswana to the Nossob valley. cally adapted to the Day walks and wilderness hiking environment survive. trails could be established to provide the Wildlife species living in adventurous tourist with a “close to na- the Kalahari are adapted ture experience” in difficult-to-survive to conditions of drought, conditions. A “pack it in, pack it out” fire, and lack of food at policy will be followed, and all partici- certain times of the year. View of the Auob River with camelthorn (Acacia eriloba) and grey camelthorn (A. pants will have to carry their own wa- haematoxylon). Photo by Noel van Rooyen. Traversing the vast ter and be accompanied by an distances of the Kalahari on foot is a experienced ranger as dangerous ani- tough and risky situation, even for ex- MARTIN ENGELBECHT is the conservation mals are present throughout the park. manager at Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, perienced rangers, as a result of harsh A walking trail in riverine areas is un- South African National Parks, Republic of climatic conditions, lack of water, and der consideration. South Africa. Telephone: 054 5612001. the presence of predators. Access to the Training courses in tracking and Fax: 054 561 2005. E-mail: driese@parks- wilderness is not practically possible sa.co.za. field-guiding by experienced Bushman without a vehicle for either management or Mier trackers could provide income- or visitor use. ODUMELENG KAKETSO is a manager in generating opportunities to local people the Department of Wildlife and National KTP management allows limited ac- and expand a visitor’s knowledge base Parks, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, cess by four-wheel drive vehicles in wil- regarding nature and wildlife. Republic of Botswana. He can be reached derness zones, unlike the generally Environmental Impact Assessments via Tsabong. Telephone: 09267 540221. accepted standard for pristine wilder- (EIA) are mandatory for all develop- ness, which excludes motorized access. The authors wish to thank Uwe Hass of ments on the South African side of the As a result of the type of landscape, the Realtime, S.A., for sponsoring this park. Currently, Botswana is not un- research, and the Wilderness Leadership roads, which predominantly consist of der obligation to undertake EIAs, but School Trust for administering the project. sandy tracks, are only visible from the all new developments are subjected to air and within a narrow margin on ei- approval by the Transfrontier Manage- REFERENCES ther side of a road. With such vast areas Lovegrove, B. 1993. The Living Deserts of South- ment Committee. under a nature conservation ordinance, ern Africa. Vlaeberg, South Africa: Fernwood Press. the emphasis is on monitoring natural Proposed Management National Parks Board, Republic of South Africa, phenomena, with minimal active man- and Department of Wildlife and National Initiates for Wilderness Zones agement strategies employed. Parks, Republic of Botswana. 1997. A need has been identified to refine the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park Management Plan. MARETHA SHROYER is an independent zonation in terms of categories of wil- South African National Parks. 1999. Kgalagadi derness that reflect degrees of wilder- wilderness and wildlife researcher. She can Transfrontier Park: Travel Guide. Pretoria: ness, ranging from pristine to modified, be reached at 2 Chudleigh Court, Carstens S.A. National Parks. Street, Tamboerskloof, Cape Town, 8001, according to international acceptable Van der Walt, P., and E. Le Riche. 1999. The South Africa. Telephone and Fax: 27 (0) 21 Kalahari and its Plants. Pretoria: published wilderness classification criteria. 426 2746. E-mail: [email protected]. by authors.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 15 STEWARDSHIP

Which World? Which Wilderness? or Getting Back to the Right Cronon

BY GENE BAMMEL

Editor’s Note wilderness (e.g., removal of indigenous people, predator In 1996, in the first issue of the journal Environmental His- extermination, recreation impacts); and (2) it leaves no room tory, William Cronon wrote an article titled “The Trouble for a nature ethic in those places where we do reside. Thus, with Wilderness; or, Getting back to the Wrong Nature.” we are excused to despoil places of non-nature (culture/ The essay was based on a book edited by Cronon Uncom- society) because they have “fallen” and are not worthy of mon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, and excerpted in protection. Wilderness gives us false comfort in the belief the Sunday New York Tames Magazine. The article was fol- that there is a pristine “nature” out there beyond our reach. lowed by an equally provocative critique by Samual P. Hays Cronon concludes by calling for an expanded ecological titled “The Trouble with Bill Cronon’s Wilderness.” The ar- ethic that embraces all places as places of nature, and rein- ticles stimulated what came to be known as the “great wil- tegrates human life into ecological thinking. derness debate” that has raged in academic, management, Beginning with Hay’s critique, Cronon’s article has re- and advocacy circles ever since. ceived bitter backlash from ecologists and wilderness ad- To summarize the debate, Cronon “deconstructs” wil- vocates who argue that it blatantly ignores the biological derness by arguing that rather than offering an antidote or reality of wildness (can you socially construct a wild griz- counterbalance to industrial capitalism and ecological ex- zly?) and provides wrongheaded academic support for ploitation, wilderness might very well serve the same ends. antiwilderness forces. He reaches this conclusion by emphasizing the bifurcation In the following article, Gene Bammel takes a philosophi- of nature and culture, or nature and society—an ideologi- cal looks at the debate from outside both factions. (See the cal construct—that effectively removed humans from that December 1999 IJW for a book review by Greg Aplet of which we consider nature. The problem Cronon sees in The Great New Wilderness Debate, J. Baird Callicott and this “construction” of nature are twofold: (1) it denies ob- Michael P. Nelson, editors.) vious acts of human management/actions that influence —Steve Hollenhorst, IJW co-managing editor

illiam Cronon is a heretic. A heretic is usually to God. Cronon takes the received wilderness doctrine someone who started out sharing the common, and says that he too is a true believer: he knows the W received traditions and then subverted them. delights of a misty waterfalls in a Sierra canyon, and in Martin Luther was a pious Catholic monk, until it the presence of the irreducibility of the nonhuman, he has dawned on him that justification was by faith alone, and experienced something profoundly Other than himself neither good works nor sacraments made one pleasing (Cronon 1995).

16 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 Luther’s reformation was successful, Worldview II is a social-traditional Lastly, Worldview IV—the view that in part because of the shortcomings of approach, in which truth is found in Cronon supports—is that truth is so- the official Church, partly because the the heritage of U.S. and Western civi- cially constructed. This view has been vision he conveyed was consistent with lization. Subscribing to this point of explained best by Thomas Kuhn long-neglected aspects of Christianity, view are those wilderness advocates (1962), who suggested that we all op- and partly because his insights coin- who regard the writings of Thoreau, erate within some given paradigm, we cided with the nominalist philosophi- Muir, and Leopold as almost divinely have a picture that we apply to reality, cal perspective of his time. Cronon’s revealed truth. There is a sacred tradi- that helps us solve our everyday prob- appeal derives from his embrace of a tion, a way of doing things, a heritage lems. Philosophically, this worldview worldview—that reality is a social con- that deserves reverential awe, and all dates back to Immanuel Kant (1973), struct—long ignored by wilderness en- this is kept alive in the enthusiastic who said we never know things-in- thusiasts, but which enjoys broad writings found in various popular wil- themselves; we only know the con- intellectual support today. My critique derness journals. On the larger stage, structs of things our own mind of Cronon rests largely with this social Allen Bloom’s book The Closing of the imposes. (Wilderness becomes a so- construction worldview. American Mind (1987) is an early re- cial construct, a picture we impose The world is a very simple place for statement of the absoluteness of our upon a given reality, to make it com- those who have only one worldview. literary heritage. More recently, Martha prehensible.) Among the happiest people I have ever Nussbaum, in Cultivating Humanity There are two issues on the front met have been nomads and Bedouin (1997), speaks in terms of reform in burner. First of all is the philosophi- who enjoyed a very simple, and very liberal education, while really defend- cal issue of our appropriation of real- absolute worldview. We inhabitants of ing the role of tradition in coming to ity. Do I really know things, or do I the modern, Western world are not so grips with everyday reality. know only the (social) constructs of fortunate. Whether we realize it or not, we all have, as Walter Truett Ander- son (1995) pointed out, four different Wilderness can also be a source of personal renewal, of worldviews, which we slip in and out of, often unconsciously. spiritual exploration, of personal “at-one-ment” with the Worldview I is the world inhabited by those of us who think we are prac- nature of which we are a part. titioners of modern science. It is a sci- entific, rational approach, in which “truth” is found through methodical, Worldview III has been called “neo- my own mind? And more importantly, disciplined, replicable inquiry. We can romantic,” because truth is found ei- is there a reality out there that is in- for example “know” the actual carry- ther through attaining harmony with dependent of my judgment, not de- ing capacity of an area, the amount of nature, or through spiritual explora- pendent upon my mind or my plant and animal life a given area can tion of the inner self. Anyone familiar presence for its continuing reality? sustain, without detriment to the with the writings of Gary Snyder will This is a central philosophical issue, biota. Those for whom biodiversity is know how perfectly his writings epito- and will not be solved in the confines the primary justification for wilderness mize this approach. Wordsworth is still of this article. But it must form the regard this worldview as deserving the model of the neo-romantic, while mental backdrop of those who would supremacy. For many scientists, this the writings of those who explore the understand Cronon, his popularity, worldview becomes a kind of absolute, inner self fill entire sections in book- and the reaction to him. because it provides something as close stores. The masters of the art include As in most philosophical debates, to absolute truth as one can possibly Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, The Evolving there is some truth on both sides. I come. The stubborn, irreducible facts Self (1993);, James Hillman, The Force can make statements about the world of the physical world support this of Character and the Lasting Life (1999); that are accurate statements about point of view. As Wittgenstein (1999) Ken Wilber, A Theory of Everything what is really going on “out there.” expressed it, “The world is everything (2000); and Jon Kabat-Zinn, Full Ca- When I say: “Water boils at 100ºC,” I that is the case.” tastrophe Living (1990). have said something that is true about

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 17 propose that we conceive of wilder- ness as an area that must be treated as The world is a very simple place for those who have an end in itself, and not as mere means. Since wilderness is not a per- only one worldview. son, persons must act as guardians of wilderness, much as someone might be “appointed” a guardian for some- the world, it is not just a social con- come to share his convictions. In a one unable to engage in self-care. And struct. A roomful of people claiming word, not only are some social con- this brings me to my second point. that water boils at 50ºC will not make structions of reality superior to other Writers as diverse as Christopher it so. On the other hand, there are social constructions, some have such Stone (1974) and Martin Heidegger things that we do make so by agree- usefulness, so much correspondence (1949) have pointed out that human ing to see them in a certain way. to the way things ought to be, that they beings are in some sense the shep- Aestheticians struggle with the state- should push away or dissolve other herds of being, because perhaps trees ment “Beauty is in the eye of the be- social constructs. and other natural objects do have holder,” because there is a certain For those who would validate wil- “standing,” legal rights, objective le- degree of “social construct” in terms derness, its objective reality, its onto- gitimacy in the real world. of what we accept as beautiful. For logical primacy becomes the critical Is wilderness a social construct? example, someone may make you a issue. Wilderness, areas that are “for- Yes it is, but it is also an objective gift of music regarded by the giver as ever wild,” areas where humans are reality that can be appropriated by beautiful, but you may find it displeas- visitors who do not remain, areas various scientific disciplines. It is ing. Landscape architects and interior where mining and logging and road also subject to the interpretations decorators both have certain canons building are not permitted, wilderness that our traditions have placed upon of what is commonly regarded as must have some legitimacy in its own it, and the Thoreauvian vision helps pleasing, but both acknowledge that right. It is not just a social construct, many not only to understand wil- “individual tastes” may not cotton to not just a historical accident, not just derness, but to come to grips with the common canons. a “landscape of choice for elite tour- their lives amidst an urban civiliza- So, what is wilderness? Is there some- ists,” nor just a “place of recreation,” tion that has gone global, yet seeks thing intrinsically valuable about wil- but something that should be left as it succor from wild nature. Wilderness derness? Or is wilderness, as Cronon is, something that has the same right can also be a source of personal re- suggests, a “social construct” that our to exist as human beings. newal, of spiritual exploration, of culture has imposed upon us? Curi- And with that reference to human personal “at-one-ment” with the na- ously, social constructionists are not rela- beings, we come back to Immanuel ture of which we are a part. Cronon tivists. A genuine relativist will say: any Kant, as both the ultimate originator is right on many issues, and there is view is as good as any other; you are of this strange idea of the social con- a great deal of admirable subtlety in entitled to your point of view, as I am to struct, and as the author of a poten- his expression of his point of view. mine. The relativist says: do not argue tial solution to the problem. Kant says It is in the initial assumption that religion or politics, because your point you must treat persons as ends in wilderness is only a social construct of view is relative to your upbringing themselves, and never as mere means. that he goes astray. Aristotle (1987) and current mindset, which is inevita- In this regard, Kant is as guilty as the is still the master of objective real- bly different from mine. Truth cannot rest of the Western tradition in sup- ism, of affording a primacy to the be attained, but agreement can, whether porting human exceptionalism—that world “out there” that our minds re- by force, the tyranny of numbers, or the humans are somehow not just a part ally know. I do not know what he capacity to shout more loudly than the of nature, but superior to it. But, hav- would make of our modern, Kantian opposition. ing established that there is something notion of social construct. I think Cronon, like other social construc- in nature that must be treated not as he would be unhappy with anyone tionists, is not a relativist. He believes a mere means, but as an end in itself, who thought that was the only ap- his statements are “true,” and that oth- why not extend that concept to in- proach to reality. Aristotle was fond ers, once properly enlightened, will clude something like wilderness? I of saying: “A small mistake in the

18 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 beginning is a great one in the end.” be said about all our reflections about REFERENCES Not to realize that we have many wilderness. Muir and Thoreau, Anderson, Walter Truett, ed. 1995. The Truth About Truth. New York: Penguin/Putnam. approaches to reality is no small Leopold and Zahniser and Marshall, Aristotle. 1987. A New Aristotle Reader, edited mistake; it is the tumor that spreads all offer us helpful incentives to grasp- by J. L. Ackrill. Princeton University Press. its malignancy over any attempt to ing what wilderness “really” means. Bloom, Allan. 1987. The Closing of the Ameri- can Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster. make “social constructionism” the But there is no substitute for the ex- Cronon, William. 1995. The trouble with wil- only way to view reality. perience of the thing-in-itself. What I derness; or, getting back to the wrong na- It is a little known fact that Martin experience, and what I want future ture. In Uncommon Ground: Toward Luther was invited by the Catholic generations to be able to experience, Reinventing Nature, edited by W. Cronon. New York: W. W. Norton. Church to the Council of Trent in and the intrinsic value of biodiversity, Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1993. The Evolving 1545, an invitation that Luther did not is no mere social construct, no mere Self. New York: Harper-Collins. accept. Had he done so, the valuable “resource,” but the anchor and bed- Heidegger, Martin. 1949. Existence and Being. correctives of the Protestant Reforma- rock of reality. Perhaps, like the her- Chicago: Regnery. Hillman, James. 1999. The Force of Character tion might have been incorporated esy of Martin Luther, the heresy that and the Lasting Life. New York: Random into the main body of the Church, and William Cronon spreads will be a use- House. the great schism might have been ful corrective, bringing us all back to Kabat-Zinn, Jon. 1990. Full Catastrophe Living. New York: Dell. avoided. The heresy that Cronon a more accurate understanding of the Kant, Immanuel. 1973. Critique of Pure Reason, spreads has much to offer wilderness wilderness that is the substrate of our edited by N. Kemp Smith. New York: advocates, for there is a sense in which biological existence. In every ortho- Macmillan. wilderness is a “social construct,” it is doxy, heresy serves a useful function. Kuhn, Thomas. 1962. The Structure of Scien- tific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chi- in a way what we make it out to be. It brings the true believers back to the cago Press. But we must also be aware of the real- authentic bedrock of their belief and Nussbaum, Martha. 1997. Cultivating Humanity. ist response: what we make it out to practice. Perhaps Crononism will serve Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. be is limited by the shortcomings of the same useful function. Stone, Christopher. 1974. Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural our understanding of what the thing- Objects, Los Altos, Calif.: Kaufmann. in-itself really is. GENE BAMMEL is a West Virginia Wilber, Ken. 2000. A Theory of Everything. Philosophy perpetually renews it- University professor emeritus and president Boston: Shambhala. self by returning to its roots and an- of the Sage Program at the University of Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1999. Tractatus Logico- Arizona. Philosophicus. Translated by C. K. Ogden. choring itself in reality. The same must New York: Dover.

From BOOK REVIEWS on page 48 striking similarity between rhetoric of closed ecosystems (biocenoses) benefit of ecosystems ecology. This book will Stalin’s Plan for the Great Transforma- or hinder nature protection? not resolve the quandary posed by the tion of Nature and the modern Wise- A Little Corner of Freedom confirms “does nature need people?” or “do Use Movement? Do Western that wilderness and other forever-wild people need nature?” polemic. But it environmentalists realize that “wild- protections are not aberrations of could prompt some lively debate. lands,” “reserve networks,” and other Western culture. The previous century Reviewed by J. CHRISTOPHER HANEY, conservation jargon originated inde- of Russian nature protection also hints Ecology and Economics Research Depart- pendently in Soviet Russia a half-cen- at a radically different model for wil- ment, The Wilderness Society, 900 17th tury ago? What motivated local party derness, a vision fixed in ecological Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20006, officials to protect nature reserves from functionalism. Russian zapovedniki of- USA. Telephone: (202) 429-2641. FAX: (202) 420-3958. E-mail: fer a remarkably fresh defense of wild “takings” by the central Politburo? In [email protected]. the end, did the Russian paradigm of places rooted in the “what” and “how”

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 19 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Hikers’ Perspectives on Solitude and Wilderness BY TROY E. HALL

Abstract: The role of user encounters in shaping a wilderness experience and sense of solitude was investi- gated in Shenandoah National Park using open-ended interviews with 117 groups of hikers. Among those feeling that they had had a wilderness experience, 44% said the lack of encounters contributed to this sense, while 52% of those who did not have a wilderness experience cited crowding or encounters. The majority reportedly experienced solitude, although many said solitude only occurred at times or places during the hike.

The Issue of In some wilderness areas, managers have assumed that Wilderness Solitude outstanding opportunities must be provided everywhere, at Wilderness managers today are all times. Others argue that if most of a wilderness remains embroiled in debates over pro- unused, the wilderness does provide outstanding opportuni- viding solitude in wilderness. ties for solitude, even if it has several heavily used destina- The 1964 Wilderness Act tions. Whether managers decide to manage for solitude (TWA) declares that wilderness everywhere or just in some places, they must evaluate oppor- must provide outstanding op- tunities that exist. Usually this has been accomplished by portunities for solitude or monitoring encounters between groups (Cole 1997). Encoun- primitive and unconfined rec- ters are objective and measurable, and early research suggested reation. In the past, when wil- that they affect the quality of wilderness experiences. Most derness provided low-density research has focused on refining techniques for obtaining in- recreation, meeting this re- formation about visitors’ standards for acceptable numbers of quirement was not difficult. user encounters (Manning et al. 1996; Vaske et al. 1986). However, as use has increased, Based on such research, many wilderness managers have es- solitude has become a conten- tablished standards for encounters, and some are actively tious goal, with polarized de- monitoring encounter levels (Watson et al. 1998). bate about the proper course However, some have questioned whether encounters are of action. For example, the an accurate or adequate indicator for solitude (Patterson Mount Baker Snoqualmie Na- and Hammitt 1990). Hollenhorst et al. (1994) argued that tional Forest received national solitude and crowding are not opposites. Roggenbuck et attention and criticism over al. (1993) determined that encounters were “rated among Article author Troy Hall. Photo courtesy of Troy plans to reduce use at popular the least important influences” on experiences. With the Hall. areas in Alpine Lakes Wilder- exception of several studies (Hammitt and Brown 1984; ness. The repercussions of attempting to guarantee soli- Hammitt and Madden 1989), relatively little research has tude by reducing use at popular destinations are potentially been done on how wilderness visitors define and experi- great—displacing many to achieve moderate gains in soli- ence solitude. tude, while impinging dramatically on visitors’ freedom This study sought to investigate wilderness hikers’ experi- (Cole 1997; Cole et al. 1997). ences of solitude, to understand what factors contributed to

PEER REVIEWED

20 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 those experiences, and to understand Table 1—Factors influencing whether a hike felt like a wilderness experience. the extent to which encounters with other groups detracted from the sense Factors Contributing to a Feeling of Wilderness Percent (41 groups) of solitude. Natural setting features (trees, scenery, rocks, water, wildlife) 51 People (seeing no one, seeing few others, not being crowded) 44 Methods Human influences (unmanaged, no developments) 27 The research was exploratory, using a Access (challenging trails, remote, rugged) 22 series of open-ended questions to elicit perceptions and descriptions in visi- Experiences (escape, peace, harmony) 15 tors’ own words. Semi-structured exit Sounds (water, wind, natural sounds) 12 interviews were conducted with Factors Detracting from a Feeling of Wilderness Percent (46 groups) backcountry and wilderness hikers at Access (not remote, trail too developed or maintained) 83 23 trailheads in Shenandoah National People (too many people, crowded, large groups) 52 Park during October 1997. All trails provided access to wilderness, al- Experiences (too safe, easy hike, too short) 26 though in some cases the wilderness Sounds (sounds of cars) 20 boundary was more than a mile from Human influences (evidence of people, developments) 15 the trailhead itself, and it was not pos- sible to ascertain with certainty that all groups entered wilderness. Table 2—Elements in personal definitions of wilderness (100 groups). Interview questions first asked what contributed to and detracted from a Elements Percent hiker’s overall wilderness experience. Lack of human influence (no developments, untouched, uninhabited) 60 Hikers were asked whether their trip felt Natural setting features (trees, scenery, rocks, water, mountains) 53 like a wilderness trip to them—why or Wildlife 47 why not—and to explore their personal Experiences (solitude, peace, harmony) 37 definition of wilderness. Hikers were asked if they experienced a sense of soli- Access/Location (remote, difficult access, large area) 36 tude during their hike and to explain People (few encounters, no people) 25 why or why not. Finally, hikers were asked whether they felt at all crowded, bers disagreed, which was rare, all yes, 39% had some members who said and whether they paid any attention to answers were coded for the group. no, and 16% had some members who the number of other groups they en- Groups could give more than one type gave a qualified answer (“in some ways countered during their hike. of answer to a question; thus, percent- yes, some ways no”). Forty-one groups Interviews took about 8–10 min- ages can sum to more than 100%. In (35%) listed a diversity of factors that utes. Tapes of the interviews were tran- tables, percentages are based upon contributed positively to a feeling of scribed, resulting in more than 200 those groups providing codable an- wilderness (see Table 1), such as natu- pages of text. Several readings resulted swers to each question, with responses ral setting features and lack of many in a refined coding manual that cap- such as “I don’t know” eliminated. encounters. For those who did not feel tured the full range of responses in that they had experienced wilderness, mutually exclusive categories (Strauss Results wide trails, proximity to Skyline Drive, and Corbin 1990). All interviews were A total of 117 groups were interviewed and the presence of other groups were coded, with each meaningful element (91% response rate). Group sizes most important. of a response classified (i.e., a single ranged from one to six people (60% When asked to define wilderness in statement could be assigned multiple were in groups of two, while 11% were their own words, 17 groups said they codes). The unit of analysis was the individuals traveling alone). When could not. The rest gave answers simi- group—if anyone in a group volun- asked whether the hike had felt like a lar to TWA definitions (see Table 2). teered a response, that answer was wilderness experience, 55% of the Although lack of physical modification coded for the group. If group mem- groups had some members who said and presence of natural features were

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 21 the most common descriptors, encoun- did not. Most groups simply answered When asked what contributed to a ters featured in about one-quarter of the “yes” or “no,” but some qualified their sense of solitude, 68% mentioned definitions. Thirteen percent specifically answers. For example, 25% said they people, mainly that they had seen only mentioned the terms solitude or isolation. had experienced solitude, but only at a few or no other groups (see Table Most groups (91) had members who certain times or places such as “for a 4). About one-quarter said solitude said they had experienced solitude dur- few minutes,” “during the last half of came during times that they were away ing their trip, whereas 34 groups had the trip,” or “on the trail down, but from other parties. Those who said members who did not (see Table 3). not up.” Of those not experiencing they had not experienced solitude gen- Eight groups had some members who solitude, 16% pointed out that they erally said it was because they saw a experienced solitude and others who had not expected it. lot of other people. Although a few said that interactions within their group prevented a feeling of solitude, Table 3—Reported experiences of solitude or lack of it while hiking. such factors were less important than Did Experience Solitude Percent (91 groups) intergroup encounters. Unqualified “yes” 64 Several other factors contributed to Qualified “yes” 25 a sense of solitude, including quiet or natural sounds and being away from Adamant “yes” 17 sounds of civilization or cars. Others Did Not Experience Solitude Percent (34 groups) referred to the natural setting, usually Unqualified “no” 84 forests, water, or mountains. Several Didn’t expect it 16 referred to experiences, such as feelings Qualified “no” 7 of calm or peace. About 16% answered this question by describing sitting qui- etly in some place, usually with a nice Table 4—Factors contributing to a sense or absence of solitude. view, “I just felt like we were the only people in the area, it was wonderful.” Factors Contributing to a Sense of Solitude Percent (91 groups) Most groups (89%) answered affir- Presence of people or encounters 68 matively when asked if they had “paid Saw few people 39 attention to the number of other Saw no one else 24 groups around.” Interestingly, 42% followed up by spontaneously stating During times away from people 24 the number of encounters they had. Didn’t hear people 3 For example, a typical statement was, Quiet/natural sounds 42 “we saw one, two, three guys back- Natural setting 32 packing and two people and a dog, so Personal experiences 28 we’ve seen five people.” This tendency Being still/observing 16 apparently occurred when the num- Being away/remote 11 ber of encounters was relatively small; above about six to eight groups, people Factors detracting from a sense of solitude Percent (34 groups) were more likely to say they didn’t Presence of people or encounters 85 keep track of the number of people Saw a lot/too many people 62 they met or that there were “a lot.” Talking amongst selves 12 Answers to the question about feel- Own group size 9 ing crowded were largely consistent with responses about solitude: 79% of Saw more people than expected 3 groups had members who did not feel Experiences (easy, short) 15 crowded, while 28% had members Sounds (cars) 12 who felt crowded. Most of those who Management setting 6 felt crowded offered qualifications to

22 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 their answers. For example, 42% of that opportunities for these groups said they felt crowded “in solitude do not exist places,” implying that they didn’t feel when the number of crowded in other places. Many ex- encounters are high, plained that they expected (or didn’t but visitors themselves expect) what they encountered, or may feel that they have compared the trail to more or less experienced solitude to heavily used trails. In fact, one-quar- some degree. Managers ter of all groups (both those who felt might consider asking crowded and those who didn’t) an- visitors directly whether swered by comparing their hike to they felt they had “out-

another place or time, such as “Well, standing opportunities Solitary hiker on the Riprap Trail, South District, Shenandoah National Park. Photo by I’ve been on this trail probably at least for solitude.” Mary Cottone. a dozen times, and today was the most crowded I’ve ever been.” What Other Factors What Is the Relationship Contribute to Solitude? Between Solitude and Crowding? Discussion and Conclusions Many respondents described feeling The relationship between solitude and How Important Are Encounters solitude during episodes when they crowding was generally strong among to a Feeling of Wilderness? were still, away from other groups, and Shenandoah hikers; however, indi- Shenandoah hikers reported that en- in the presence of natural settings, natu- vidual factors (past experience and ex- counters or lack of encounters affected ral sounds, or quiet. Given the range of pectations) influenced feelings of their feeling of being in the wilderness comments received in this study, further crowding more than solitude. Many (40–50%), and 25% said that low research should investigate whether people qualified their answers about numbers of encounters were impor- people are indeed more likely to expe- crowding by contrasting this trip to tant to defining wilderness. Answers rience solitude in certain settings (e.g., other times they have visited or other to this open-ended interview question undisturbed views or near water). At places they have been. Also, many hik- were unprompted, so encounters ap- Shenandoah, for example, the effect of ers felt solitude during episodes in pear salient. traffic noise from Skyline Drive seemed which they were away from others, to interfere with solitude. even if they had—across the whole How Important Are Encounters to a Feeling of Solitude? One-quarter of hikers who said they experienced solitude qualified their an- swer; many described times or places where they experienced solitude. Thus, having high overall numbers of encoun- ters across the whole trip did not pre- clude some experience of solitude. Descriptions of solitude episodes vol- unteered by several respondents suggest that the pattern of encounters may be more important than the number of en- counters. For such individuals, many encounters all at one time, followed by long periods of seeing no one, might be more likely to promote a sense of soli- tude than the same number of encoun- ters that occur one after another. Furthermore, managers may conclude Hikers crossing a stream on the Slaughter Trail, Central District, Shenandoah National Park. Photo by Steve Bair.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 23 trip—many encounters. Thus, a moni- toring approach that evaluates solitude opportunities solely on the basis of the number of encounters per day would not have captured important experi- ential dimensions for many hikers. This study suggests that indicators might be expanded to include other more subjective indicators, such as “the longest period of time without seeing others.” Using such an indica- tor, a manager might conclude that some opportunities for solitude were available. The desirability of expand- ing the objective and subjective indi- cators to measure solitude should be Day hikers on Hawksbill Summit, Central District, Shenandoah National Park. Photo courtesy of Shenandoah National Park. debated.

TROY E. HALL is an assistant professor at tions of privacy in wilderness environments. ported encounters, and their relationship to the University of Idaho, Department of Leisure Sciences 6: 151–166. wilderness solitude. Journal of Leisure Re- Resource Recreation and Tourism, Moscow, Hammitt, W. E., and M. A. Madden. 1989. search 22: 259–275. Idaho 83844, USA. E-mail: Cognitive dimensions of wilderness pri- Roggenbuck, J. W., D. R. Williams, and A. E. [email protected]. vacy: a field test and further explanation. Watson. 1993. Defining acceptable condi- Leisure Sciences 11: 293–301. tions in wilderness. Environmental Manage- Hollenhorst, S., E. Frank, III, and A. E. Watson. ment 17 (2): 187–197. REFERENCES 1994. The capacity to be alone: wilder- Strauss, A., and J. Corbin. 1990. Basics of quali- Cole, D. N. 1997. Solitude: researchers con- ness solitude and the growth of the self. In tative research: grounded theory procedures tinue to delve into solitude components of International Wilderness Allocation, Man- and techniques. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Wilderness. Signpost for Northwest Trails agement, and Research, edited by J. C. Publications. (January): 33–34. Hendee and V. G. Martin. Fort Collins, Vaske, J. J., A. R. Graefe, B. Shelby, and T. Cole, D. N., A. E. Watson, T.E. Hall, and D. R. Colo.: International Wilderness Leadership Heberlein. 1986. Backcountry encounter Spildie. 1997. High-use destinations in (WILD) Foundation: 234–239. norms: theory, method and empirical evi- three wildernesses: social and biophysical Manning, R. E., D. W. Lime, and W. Freimund. dence. Journal of Leisure Research 18 (3): impacts, visitor responses, and manage- 1996. Crowding norms at frontcountry 137–163. ment options, Intermountain Res. Sta. Re- sites: a visual approach to setting standards Watson, A. E., R. Cronn, and N. A. Christensen. search Paper INT-RP-496. Ogden, Utah: of quality. Leisure Sciences 18 (1): 39–59. 1998. Monitoring inter-group encounters in USDA Forest Service. Patterson, M. E., and W. E. Hammitt. 1990. wilderness. Fort Collins, Colo.: USDA Forest Hammitt, W. E., and G. F. Brown. 1984. Func- Backcountry encounter norms, actual re- Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

24 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Amphibians and Wilderness BY PAUL STEPHEN CORN

he decline of amphibian species has emerged as a major global conservation issue in the last decade. T Last year, the Department of the Interior (DOI) ini- tiated a major national initiative to detect trends in am- phibian populations and research the causes of declines. The program, conducted principally by the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey (USGS), emphasizes lands managed by DOI, but collaboration with the Forest Service is encouraged to increase the scope of inference about population trends. Although am- phibians are not usually the first group of animals that comes to mind when one thinks of wilderness, conservation of am- phibian populations is clearly a wilderness issue. The two largest wilderness areas east of the Mississippi nonnative fish on aquatic systems have made management of River have high amphibian species diversity: Okefenokee recreational fishing in wilderness increasingly controversial. Wilderness, Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge (GA), and In October 1998 I organized a workshop of researchers Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness, Everglades National and managers to discuss current research and management Park (FL). Twenty species (15 frogs and toads, and 5 sala- alternatives (see Ecosystems issue 4, volume 4, Summer 2001). manders) occur in the Everglades, and at least 38 species (21 Two papers discuss management issues: (1) a look at the his- frogs and toads, and 17 salamanders) occur in the Okefenokee. tory of fish stocking in California and (2) a review of case law, The USGS Florida Caribbean Science Center is developing agency policies, and federal-state agreements relating to The monitoring programs for both areas, despite daunting logisti- Wilderness Act and fisheries management. Four papers present cal obstacles (http://www.fcsc.usgs.gov/armi). research results on: (1) fish introductions, including effects Although amphibians have comparatively low diversity in on amphibian populations, (2) effects on native fish down- high-elevation wilderness areas and backcountry areas of na- stream from headwaters lakes, (3) alteration of algal commu- tional parks in the western United States, many of these spe- nities and nutrient cycling, and (4) recovery of plankton cies occupy important ecological niches. Knowledge about communities following removal of trout. the status of amphibians in these areas is important, because Other threats to amphibians occur in wilderness, such as a high proportion of western amphibian species have under- saprophytic chytrid fungus, which has been associated with gone recent declines, often in protected habitats. declines of amphibians in relatively undisturbed forests in Until 150 years ago, more than 85% of high-elevation lakes Central America, Australia, and western North America. Con- and ponds in the western United States were fishless. Amphib- servation of amphibians in the face of pathogens and other ians were the dominant aquatic vertebrates in these waters stressors, such as global change, that occur across wilderness before nonnative trout were stocked to establish recreational boundaries, will be extremely challenging. fisheries. Grazing by tadpoles influence algal communities, and the aquatic larvae of ambystomatid salamanders are vora- PAUL STEPHEN CORN is a research zoologist with the Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey. He can be cious predators. Stocking fish into previously fishless waters has reached at the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, P. O. large effects on amphibians and other aquatic biota, and on Box 8089, Missoula, Montana 59807, USA. Telephone: (406) 542-4191. ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling. The effects of E-mail: [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 25 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Visitor Experiences of Stress and Reported Hassles in the Shining Rock Wilderness Area

BY RUDY SCHUSTER and WILLIAM E. HAMMITT

Abstract: This article describes the nature of hassles experienced by visitors in a southern U.S wilderness area, defined as irritating, frustrating demands and situations during a recreation experience. Of the 486 respondents, 87% indicated that a hassle was experienced. The greatest sources of hassle were litter and other impacts from human use of the resource. A visitor education program is recommended to achieve the management goal of reducing the amount and intensity of hassles.

eople experience stress in everyday life and cope with coped with, but may be it; recreation in wilderness environments is no ex- considered regular events Pception. Stressful situations and the stress process in a wilderness context. have the potential to negatively affect a recreation experi- For example, traveling ence. A better understanding of the stress and coping process off-trail might create a in recreation activities can help managers to design route-finding hassle, management techniques that reduce perceived stress and nearby campsite users enhance visitor experiences. Providing information concern- may cause irritating ing the stress process will help recreationists to mitigate noise, and seeing litter in stressful situations and improve their overall experience. the backcountry might Stress and coping theory (Kaplan 1996; Lazarus and be frustrating. In addi- Folkman 1984) has been used to understand recreationists’ tion, situations used to appraisal of stressful situations, coping processes, response describe conflicts in out- to stress, and the outcomes of the process. Hassles are a door recreation settings form of stress. The daily hassles concept was developed by can be sources of hassles,

DeLongis (1985), DeLongis and others (1988), Kanner and such as user crowding or Article co-author Rudy Schuster. Photo others (1981), and Lazarus and others (1985). Hassle vari- negative interactions be- courtesy of Rudy Schuster. ables measure the immediate and multiple pressures that tween horse riders and occur during the recreation experience and the disruption hikers. Hassles represent specific attributes of the outdoor associated with them. The hassles concept suggests that recreation experience that may negatively affect the experi- every day demands on a person have a greater overall effect ence, and when taken collectively, could have a significant- than larger life events. disruptive impact. The definition of hassle used here is the irritating, frus- Previous studies used the stress and coping model to trating demands or situations that occur during recreation investigate recreation conflict; according to stress theory, experiences; they can range from minor annoyances to fairly recreation conflict was methodically treated as a stressful major pressures or problems. A wilderness visitor might major life event (Lazarus and Folkman 1984; Schneider experience numerous events that must be appraised and 1995; Miller 1997). The work reported here expands upon

26 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 previous studies and promotes the berry pickers, and hunters). Commer- weekend backpacking (45%), day hik- “hassle” concept for recreation stress cial groups requiring special use per- ing (39%), and backpacking trips research. The primary objective of this mits or groups who had leaders/ longer than one night (13%). Other article is to provide information that facilitators were not included in the activities reported were: blueberry will aid in the management of stress- sample. A mail survey was used with picking (5%), wildlife viewing (2%), related hassles in wilderness areas. up to three reminders. car camping and hiking (2%), and photography (2%). Visitors could par- Study Area Results ticipate in more than one activity on The Shining Rock Wilderness Area A total of 713 surveys were mailed; the same trip. (SRWA) consists of 18,700 acres and 486 surveys were completed and re- Twenty-seven percent of respon- is located in the Blue Ridge Mountains turned (adjusted response rate of dents were on their first visit to the of western North Carolina. The SRWA 68%). While 424 (87%) indicated that SRWA; 73% had been to the area pre- is located within four hours’ driving some sort of hassle was experienced viously. Most of the respondents spent time from multiple urban centers, at the study site, only the results from five days or fewer per year within the shows signs of previous human activ- a screened sample of 388 respondents designated SRWA boundaries (56%) ity, and receives a high amount of rec- who had no missing data in the sur- or in the buffer zone (38%). Overall, reation use. The dominant uses within vey were used here. about three-quarters of respondents the SRWA include day hiking, back- The three most frequently partici- had more than one year of experience packing, berry picking, and hunting. pated-in activities in the SRWA were in the SRWA and buffer zone. Mountain-bike and horse use are per- mitted on trails surrounding the SRWA. Table 1—Sources of hassles in the SRWA reported by respondents. The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) manages the SRWA and surrounding Source of Hassle Percent (n=388) buffer zone for dispersed recreation use. The SRWA has a group size limit Litter 46 of 10 people, and the buffer zone a Noise from other people 44 group size limit of 25. In the buffer Damage to the resource (plants, trails…) 36 zone, trail blaze-markers and signs are Too many people at campsites 36 provided, but trails are not marked Vehicles near the Wilderness Area 26 within the SRWA. Campsites are not Too many people on the trail 26 designated in either the SRWA or Dogs or other pets 25 buffer zone, and due to high and con- sistent recreation use, many sites have Route finding/navigation 24 become regularly used, with some Behavior of other people 23 posted for closure due to severe im- Weather conditions 20 pacts. Recreationists in the SRWA and Hunters 18 buffer zone must cope with hassles Equipment problems (tent, backpack…) 10 themselves since little on-site assis- Traveling to the area 7 tance is available. Developed facilities 7 Methods Group troubles (disagreements, arguments) 6 A survey of visitors to the SRWA and Traveling home after the trip 6 surrounding buffer zone was con- Personal ability to complete desired task 6 ducted from July through November Mountain bikers 5 of 1999. Sampling was conducted at Things were not as I hoped they would be 5 four different trailheads and designed Planning the trip 3 to increase the diversity of users in the Other 24 area (e.g., summer and fall hikers,

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 27 need to not leave litter, to remove lit- ter left by others, and to remind other visitors to pack it out. Other frequent sources of hassles were “noise from other people” and “behavior of other people” in the SRWA and can be addressed with edu- cational programs as well. Information can be directed at increasing aware- ness that many people share the SRWA, and the actions of one indi- vidual, or group, have the potential to negatively impact many others. The educational campaign could contrast the differences between a wilderness environment and other recreation set- tings to highlight the idea that what is appropriate behavior in one area might Entrance to the study area. Photo courtesy of Rudy Schuster. not be in the other. Two often reported sources of hassles were “too many people at A checklist of 21 possible sources one-quarter noted the hassles as low campsites” and “too many people on of hassle was included on the survey, (19%) to very low (5%) intensity. the trail,” even though there are group- plus an open-ended “other” category. size limits in the SRWA and buffer The single greatest source of hassle was Management Implications zone, and a permit is required for com- litter (see Table 1). The seven most fre- mercial groups to use either area. In quently reported hassle sources were Based on Sources of Stress some cases, larger groups may be un- associated with interactions with other The main source of hassle at the SWRA aware of their impacts on other people or the result of high levels of was litter and is typically from hikers recreationists. Educational programs recreation use in the SRWA. Route who drop items, campers who do not can make larger groups and commer- finding and navigation may have been clean sites thoroughly, or visible toilet cial permit holders more aware of the a frequent source due to the fact that paper from inadequate burial of hu- hassles (social impacts) experienced by trail markings and signs were not pro- man waste. The most effective man- other recreationists and methods of vided within the SRWA. agement tool may be education efforts reducing hassle situations. Respondents expected the types of directed at increasing visitor awareness Dogs and other pets were a fre- hassles experienced to occur occasion- of the problem and leading to self- quently reported hassle during the on- ally (58%), frequently (21%), every imposed behavior modifications site contacts; two sources of trip (5%), or never (16%). When (Schneider 1995). The SRWA is man- dog-related stress were fear of un- asked if this sort of hassle was experi- aged directly and indirectly for dis- leashed dogs and pet feces on the trail. enced in the past, 30% reported never, persed recreation. Education efforts Given the dispersed management 42% indicated occasionally, 21% re- can highlight the benefits to visitor techniques, one solution is to increase ported frequent occurrences, and 7% wilderness experiences of the indirect visitor awareness of the need and rea- indicated that it occurred every time. management techniques and in the soning for the use of leashes and clean- Many respondents indicated that process emphasize the responsibility ing up after animals. hassles were of moderate intensity of the recreationist to help maintain The use of four-wheel-drive ve- (41%), slightly more than one-third acceptable conditions. Information hicles near the SRWA was a frequent thought the hassles were of high (23%) should make recreationists aware of reported hassle. Permits could be re- to very high (12%) intensity, and about litter as a source of hassles; hence the quired to use the unmaintained road

28 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 leading to the SRWA, or it could be perience; thus, reducing the need for management approaches, (3) the rea- closed to vehicular traffic. Better man- management intervention. However, soning for the educational programs, agement of vehicle use in the area more than a cursory level of knowl- (4) the role of the visitor in fostering would likely contribute to the reduc- edge is recommended; signs at the appropriate behaviors among all visi- tion of other stress sources because trailhead may not be adequate. The tors, and (5) the benefits to visitors for vehicles increase the amount of hard- reasoning for regulations or the need taking an active role in reducing the goods that people bring to campsites, for “appropriate” user behavior must proliferation of hassles. such as radios, barbecue grills, and be evident. The responsibility for picnic tables. Probable positive side stewardship can be promoted by RUDY SCHUSTER is employed at the Parks, effects would include reduction in lit- highlighting the visitor’s stake in the Recreation, and Tourism Management ter, noise, and crowded conditions on management process. Self-imposed Department at Clemson University and can be reached at Lehotsky Hall, Room 263, trails and at campsites. behavior modification can lead to Clemson University, Clemson, South fewer occurrences of hassles, which Carolina 29634, USA. Telephone: (864) Summary should lead to less detraction from 656-0112. E-mail: [email protected]. A better understanding of stress situ- the recreation experience. ations can help managers to reduce Indirect management is more ap- WILLIAM E. HAMMITT is a professor in the the amount and intensity of per- propriate in a wilderness setting; thus, Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Manage- ment Department at Clemson University. ceived hassles and enhance visitor a visitor education program is recom- experiences. Information concern- mended to achieve the management This research was supported in part by ing recreation related hassles can goal of reducing the amount and in- funds provided by the Aldo Leopold help recreationists themselves to tensity of hassles. SRWA visitors can Wilderness Research Institute, Rocky mitigate hassle situations and im- be made aware of (1) the sources of Mountain Research Station, Forest Service, prove satisfaction of the overall ex- hassles to visitor, (2) the educational U.S. Department of Agriculture.

REFERENCES DeLongis, A. M. 1985. The relationship of uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Miller, T. A. 1997. Coping behaviors in recre- everyday stress to health and well being: Behavioral Medicine 4 (1): 1–39. ational settings: substitution, displacement, inter- and intra-individual approaches. Kaplan, H. B. 1996. Perspectives on psychoso- and cognitive adjustments as a response to Unpublished dissertation, University of Cali- cial stress. In Psychosocial Stress: Perspec- stress. Unpublished dissertation, University fornia, Berkeley. tives on Structure, Theory, Life-Course, and of Montana, Missoula. DeLongis, A., S. Folkman, and R. S. Lazarus. Methods, edited by H. B. Kaplan. San Di- Schneider, I. E. 1995. Describing, differentiat- 1988. The impact of daily stress on health ego: Academic Press: 3–24. ing, and predicting visitor response to on- and mood: psychological and social re- Lazarus, R. S., S. Folkman. 1984. Stress, Ap- site outdoor recreation conflict. Unpublished sources as mediators. Journal of Personality praisal, and Coping. New York: Springer dissertation, Clemson University, Clemson. and Social Psychology 54 (3): 486–495. Publishing. Kanner, A. D., J. C. Coyne, C. Schaefer, and R. Lazarus, R. S., A. Delongis, S. Folkman, R. Gruen. S. Lazarus. 1981. Comparison of two modes 1985. Stress and adaptional measures. of stress measurement: daily hassles and American Psychologist, (July) 770–779.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 29 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Mountain Wilderness in South Africa

BY WILLIAM R. BAINBRIDGE

Introduction some 6.7 million hectares, The Republic of South Africa (SA) is fortunate that, according covering about 5.5% of the to Wells (1995), it has one of the best-managed protected country (Department of En- area systems in the developing world. He states that this sys- vironment Affairs and Tour- tem enables our country to play a leading role in achieving ism 1996). This protected the aims of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Commis- area system has been built on sion on National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN 1994), traditions that date back to and the implementation of such global environmental im- the private hunting reserves, peratives as the conservation of biological diversity, as advo- which had a conservation cated by the Rio Conference and Agenda 21 (United Nations function, that were set aside 1993). The first protected areas on the African continent were by early black leaders such proclaimed in Zululand in 1895; since then a total of 422 as King Shaka. Toward the

individual areas have been proclaimed, with a total area of end of the 19th century, con- Article author Bill Bainbridge. cern was expressed by the colonial white governments at the widespread carnage wrought by hunters who killed for gain on a massive scale, which eventually led to the declaration of the first reserves in Zululand, but these afforded protection to only a small por- tion of the present SA. By the end of the 19th century, most of the great herds that once roamed this country had all but disappeared, and some large mammal species such as the white rhinoceros were already thought to be extinct (Pringle 1982). However, major advances have been made in this coun- try since that time, especially in the advancement of wild- life science and establishment of effective protected area agencies, which have led to the establishment of the present system. Our protected areas are now increasingly receiving recognition by international tourists and lovers of wildlands, especially since the recent recognition by UNESCO of the first SA Natural World Heritage Sites. Two of the most im- portant protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal Province, the Greater St Lucia Wetland and Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Parks have recently received World Heritage Site status. Both of these incorporate extensive wildernesses—the latter con- De facto wilderness in the Mnweni area, Drakensberg Mountains of KwaZulu-Natal Province, tains four designated mountain wilderness areas (KwaZulu- South Africa, at the interface of the Subalpine and Afro-alpine Belts. Photo by John Hone. Natal Nature Conservation Service 2000).

30 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 SA was also the first African coun- try to establish wilderness areas as part of the national protected area system, inspired by the passage of The 1964 Wilderness Act in the United States, and in recognition of the rapid rate of landscape transformation that was impacting on the wild lands for which Africa had an international reputation. The first attempts to set aside wilder- nesses were made in the 1950s by the Natal Parks Board, now KwaZulu-Na- tal Nature Conservation Service (KZN NCS), in portions of Lake St Lucia Reserve in 1955, and the Umfolozi Game Reserve in 1957. Both areas were protected by administrative ar- rangement, however, and only recently has legal protection been mooted for Bushman rock art in the Cederberg Wilderness Area, Northern Cape. Photos by Vance G. Martin. these areas (Bainbridge 1984). At the same time a national author- ity, the then Department of Forestry, portant mountain systems of the coun- secured an amendment in Parliament which had custody of extensive high try (Ackerman 1976). to the Forest Act of 1968, which pro- altitude natural areas known as moun- The concept of wilderness conserva- vided the first legal instrument for the tain catchment areas, was also consid- tion amongst professional foresters in designation of wilderness in the coun- ering use of the wilderness concept for SA developed in the early 1970s under try. This remains the legislation, the long-term protection of these sen- the leadership of Danie Ackerman, sec- amended over time, under which the sitive ecosystems. SA is a land of lim- retary for forestry, who was aware of the present wilderness areas on state forest ited water resources—only 20% of the strong support for wilderness conser- land are protected (Ackerman 1972). country receives rainfall in excess of vation in the United States at that time. The department then established re- 800 mm per year, and water is con- He was aware that relatively large por- gional teams for the purpose of plan- sidered a limiting factor to the indus- tions of the natural areas in the SA state ning and managing its natural areas, trial economy. The country forests still retained much of their origi- which comprised natural forests, coastal experienced a series of severe droughts nal character and was determined to ecosystems, and mountain catchments. in the 1930s, when the government ensure the long-term protection of this These teams were also tasked with the of the day decided to protect all pub- resource, which he perceived to have selection of the most suitable portions licly owned mountain catchments as inestimable value for our people. From of the natural areas for designation as part of the national forest lands, and his experience in the United States, he wilderness areas. The criteria employed ensure the optimum runoff of clear resolved to seek a means of obtaining for the selection of the new wildernesses water. Mountainous land in private secure legal protection for the wild ar- was largely based on protocols devel- ownership was purchased and added eas in the state forests. This was achieved oped in the United States, modified to to the area to be managed by the de- in 1971, when the minister of forestry suit local conditions (Bands 1977). At partment for conservation of the wa- ter resources, protection of the natural communities, and public outdoor rec- South Africa was also the first African country to reation. Within 40 years, the depart- ment had custody of almost 1 million establish wilderness areas as part of the national hectares of high altitude catchment protected area system … areas, distributed over the most im-

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 31 porated wilderness in the even Ntendeka lies in hilly country, international system six and it conserves one of the most im- years later (IUCN 1994). portant Afromontane natural forests in Subsequently, the criteria KwaZulu-Natal. for the selection and 1973 was a momentous year for management of wilder- wilderness conservation in SA, when ness areas were formalized the first three wildernesses were pro- in an SA national system claimed in terms of the provisions of (Department of Environ- the Forest Act for the protection of mental Affairs and Tour- important high altitude catchment ar- ism 1996). This system eas. The first two were Mdedelelo and is largely based on the Mkhomazi both in the Drakensberg

Zulu village in the Drakensberg Mountains, near Royal Natal National Park, Kwazulu criteria employed for Mountains of KwaZulu-Natal, fol- Natal. Photo by Vance G. Martin. designation of the state lowed by the Cederberg in the moun- forest wilderness areas. tains of the Western Cape. that time, “wilderness area” had not yet Since 1971, 11 wilderness areas While the total extent of the desig- been accepted as a protected area cat- have been designated in terms of the nated wildernesses is small (less than egory; this only occurred following the Forest Act (see Table 1). All but one 5% of the total protected area system), third World Wilderness Congress held (Ntendeka Wilderness Area) protect they play a very significant role in all in Scotland in 1983 (Bainbridge 1984). high altitude ecosystems in the prin- the accepted conservation functions of The IUCN Commission on National cipal mountain systems of the country, protected areas. Some of the most im- Parks and Protected Areas first incor- spread over four provinces. However, portant functions are the following.

Table 1—The Mountain Wilderness Areas of South Africa. Conservation of Wilderness Resources Wilderness Area Area (ha) Mountain Range Management Authority The wilderness areas protect high alti- tude landscapes, which, at the time they Designated areas were proclaimed, were some of the last Boosmansbos 14,200 Langeberg Western Cape Department of the near-pristine, largely unmodified of Nature Conservation wildlands in the country. They were Cederberg 71,000 Cederberg amongst the few areas that had not been Doringrivier 11,000 Outeniqua occupied by technological humans, be- Grootwinterhoek 19,200 Grootwinterhoek ing generally unsuited for agriculture Groendal 28,900 Grootwinterhoek Department of Economic Affairs, other than seasonal grazing, and, thus, Environment & Tourism, the landscapes have not been trans- Eastern Cape formed as in most other parts of the Mdedelelo 27,000 Drakensberg KwaZulu-Natal Nature country. Most of the subcontinent was Conservation Service originally occupied by the San people, Mkhomazi 48,000 Drakensberg also known as Bushmen. The Bushmen Mlambonja 14,000 Drakensberg are recognized as the autochthonous Mzimkulu 28,300 Drakensberg inhabitants, who were present for very Ntendeka 5,230 Drakensberg extensive periods (over 8,000 years) Wolkberg 22,000 Wolkberg, Dept. of Nature Conservation, prior to the arrival of the Iron Age people Strydpoort Northern Province and the settlers, and before that, vari- ous Stone Age cultures. Yet throughout Candidate area this extended period, the San have left Baviaanskloof 177,500 Baviaanskloof DEAET, Eastern Cape little evidence of their occupation, other Totals 466 330 9 than the art painted or engraved on rock

32 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 surfaces—a bequest to posterity of an identified in southern art treasure, now considered to be a Africa (Davis and national heritage (KZN NCS 2000). Heywood 1994), but a Africa stands out among the conti- number of these are nents due to the manner in which its under threat as a result landscapes were formed, and which, of large-scale habitat according to Partridge and Maud modification or trans- (2000), are unique on the planet. Its formation. Cowling and broader face is typified by the landscapes Hilton-Taylor (1994) of the southern Africa subcontinent, have identified eight which are dominated by high plains, biodiversity “hotspots” interspersed by higher mountain mas- (Myers 1988) compris- sifs. The mountains lie in a near con- ing plant diversity cen- tinuous chain that extends from the ters considered to be entire subcontinent from Namaqualand under threat. Ten of the in the Western Cape; through the designated wildernesses Roggeveld, Nuweland, and other moun- and a candidate area tains of the Karoo regions; the Cape protect natural commu- Folded Mountains; to the Drakensberg nities in four of the eight Part of the extensive de facto wilderness in the Alpine Belt of the Maloti-Drakensberg mountain range, which spread through hotspots. Mountain Range, shared between Lesotho and South Africa, looking down into the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and SA is the only coun- KwaZulu-Natal Province in the Mnweni area. Photo by John Hone. Mpumalanga Provinces to the North- try in the world that can ern Province, not far from the Zimba- boast an entire floral kingdom within wildernesses conserve just under 300 bwe border in the north. The national its borders—the Cape Fynbos. Seven bird species, including 31 endemic wilderness system, while small in rela- wildernesses (six designated and one and 46 threatened species. tion to the total extent of this chain, nev- candidate area) protect habitats in vari- ertheless conserves some of the most ous forms of fynbos, the predominant Water Resources wild and beautiful portions of the prin- vegetation type of the Cape Hotspot. The wilderness areas are important in ciple mountain ranges of the country, This is the richest of the hotspots of conserving significant portions of the most of which characterize some of the plant diversity world- most spectacular scenery on the sub- wide, with some 8,600 continent. species, not less than 68% of which are en- demic (Cowling and Conservation of Hilton-Taylor 1994). Biodiversity Resources A wide range of fau- The wilderness system plays an ex- nal species are also tremely important role in the conser- present, ranging from vation of biodiversity resources. SA has leopard (the largest an extremely rich flora of vascular predator), eland (the plants—some 23,400 taxa (species largest herbivore), and plus infraspecific taxa). It also has one down to a wide spec- of the highest species densities in the trum of smaller species, world, and one of the highest levels of including several en- endemism (Arnold and de Wet 1993). demic and threatened However, biodiversity is not uniformly mammals. Of particular distributed, and some areas are clearly note is the avifauna De facto wilderness in the Icidi Valley, Mnweni area, Drakensberg Mountains of more species-rich than others. Seven present. For example, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, in the upper reaches of the Montane Belt, looking up to the main escarpment. Photo by John Hone. centers of plant diversity have been the four Drakensberg

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 33 primary water source areas of the sures in a few select shelters be- REFERENCES country. As examples, the Cederberg queathed by a now-extinct culture, Ackerman, D. P. 1972. The proclamation of wilderness areas by the Department of Wilderness Area conserves the high adds significantly to the quality of the Forestry. South Africa Forest Journal 82: catchments of the Olifants River, of experience provided. An interesting 19–21. considerable significance for water development has been the use of wil- Ackerman, D. P. 1976. Control of water catchments by the Department of Forestry. supplies for intensive agriculture in its derness for therapy and healing pur- South Africa Forest Journal 98: 24–27. lower reaches and domestic supplies. poses, involving street children and Arnold T. H. and B. C. de Wet. 1993. Plants of The Drakensberg wildernesses con- others who have been subjected to southern Africa: names and distribution. serve the headwaters of the four most social trauma. Pretoria: National Botanical Institute. Mem- oirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa important rivers of KwaZulu-Natal, on 62: 825 pp. which depend much of the industrial Conclusion Bainbridge, W. R. 1984. Management objec- tives and goals for wilderness areas: wilder- and agricultural economies of the While the national wilderness system province, as well as most of the urban ness areas as a conservation category. In forms only a small part of the overall The Way Ahead: Proceedings of the 3rd and rural settlements. protected area system, it nevertheless World Wilderness Congress, edited by plays a major role in the conservation Vance Martin and Mary Inglis. Bands, D. P. 1977. Planning for a wilder- Wilderness Experience and protection of the natural ecosys- ness area. South Africa Forest Journal The wilderness areas are the only pro- tems, biodiversity, water, and other 103: 22–27. tected areas in the country that spe- natural resources of the mountain sys- Cowling, R. M. and C. Hilton-Taylor. 1994. Pat- cifically aim at the provision of tems of South Africa. In addition, it is terns of plant diversity and endemism in southern Africa. In Botanical Diversity in wilderness experience that enables its the only protected area category in the Southern Africa: An Overview, edited by B. citizens to experience wild country on country that specifically aims to pro- Huntley. Strelitzia 1. Pretoria: National Bo- foot, to commune with nature, to en- tect the unspoiled natural character of tanical Institute. Botanical Diversity in South- ern Africa. pp 31–52. joy freedom and solitude, as well as the landscapes conserved within it. In Davis, S.D. and V.H. Heywood, eds. 1994. the spiritual, aesthetic, and mystical 2000 World Heritage Site status was Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Strat- dimensions of wilderness—within a accorded by UNESCO to the egy for rheir Conservation. Oxford Univer- mountain environment. The opportu- Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park in sity Press, Oxford. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tour- nity to appreciate the rare rock art trea- KwaZulu-Natal in both the Natural as ism. 1996. National Register of Protected well as the Cultural categories. This Areas in South Africa. Pretoria, South Af- park incorporates all four rica. Department of Environmental Affairs Drakensberg wilderness ar- & Tourism. 38 pp. IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area eas listed above, designated Management Categories. Gland, Switzer- over two decades prior to in- land: IUCN Commission on National Parks ternational recognition. and Protected Areas. 83 pp. KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service. They comprise a little less 2000. Nomination proposal for the than half the area of the park, Drakensberg Park. Pietermaritzburg, South thus illustrating their value Africa: KZN NCS. in protecting the resources of Myers, N. 1988. Threatened biotas: “hotspots” in tropical forests. The Environmentalist: 10: “outstanding universal 243–255. value,” for which this recog- Partridge, T. C. and R. R. Maud. 2000. The nition was accorded (KZN Cenozoic of Southern Africa. Oxford, En- NCS 2000). gland: Oxford University Press. Pringle, J. 1982. The Conservationists and the Killers. Cape Town, South Africa: T. V. Bulpin. WILLIAM R. BAINBRIDGE is a United Nations. 1993. Report of the United natural resources consultant in Nations Conference on Environment and South Africa. He is founder of Development. New York: United Nations. the Wilderness Action Group Wells, M. P. 1995. The Economic and Social Mdedelelo Wilderness Area in the northern portion of the Ukhahlamba- and a frequent contributor to the Role of Protected Areas in the New South Drakensberg World Heritage Site, South Africa, showing Mdedelelo (Cathkin) IJW. E-mail: Africa. Unpublished report. Johannesburg, Peak and adjacent peaks of the main escarpment, with Natal Bottlebrush South Africa: Land and Agricultural Policy [email protected]. (Grayia sutherlandii) in flower in the Little Berg. Photo by John Hone. Centre, 69 pp.

34 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

The Mountainous Wildlands of Italy

BY FRANCO ZUNINO

taly is a Mediterranean peninsular country of southern Areas, as described by Vance Europe, and many people believe it has only a marine Martin at the 6th World Wil- I climate and chaparral habitat. But Italy is also a moun- derness Congress (WWC). tainous country with very high peaks and glaciers, where The island of Corsica is natural, open plains are scarce. Italy is a very populated considered here not only be- country with 57 million people. Thanks to this geographic cause of its geographic consis- situation, and notwithstanding the population rate, Italy is tency and nearness to Italy, but preserving some of the few remaining wild areas of western, also because it likely has the central, and southern Europe. England, France, Belgium, the highest proportion of wild ar- Netherlands, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland have lost eas in west, central, and south- almost all their wildlands because of scarce mountainous ern Europe. The character of regions, or from an overdevelopment of mining or tourism. its indigenous people, of an- Large expanses of wild areas in southern Europe to- cient Italian roots, has been day probably exist only in Spain, in the Balkans, in traditionally one of respect for Greece, and on the French island of Corsica. This ar- the wild aspects of the land ticle refers to the largest wild areas remaining in Italy, and its resources—perhaps including nearby Corsica. But we must be clear that, more so than any other large though all these wild areas are “roadless,” they are not European community. unaltered natural landscapes. The forests have been ex- A pertinent question to ask ploited for many centuries, and some old human arti- is, “Have the mountainous re- facts exist of historic or cultural value. All such areas gions of Italy have been pre- Article author Franco Zunino near a protected may be correctly considered only as Class II Wilderness served by conscious intention, chestnut tree. Photo by Mario Norziglia. or simply due to their remote and rugged character?” The reality is that most of the wild- lands exist because natural resources are scarce or difficult to harvest. Essentially, I believe the people do not have a real “preservation mentality.” They enjoy their mountains for the well-loved sport of mountaineering and the possi- bilities for adventure, rather than for recognizing the role of mountains as habitat for wildlife and as part of an eco- system that must be valued and preserved. For the most part, the concept of wild nature has not been philosophi- cally developed by the people of my country. For example, the Italian Alpine Club is a club of moun- tain lovers, that since its founding in the 18th century has Glaciers and ibex in Gran Paradiso National Park. Photo by Alexander Marconato. worked to develop the mountains, to domesticate them, to

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 35 to wilderness preservation—environ- Italy is also a mountainous country with very high mental laws are not likely given the pre- vailing economic interests and because peaks and glaciers, where natural, open plains are roadless preservation is not a priority. scarce. As a result of these problems, our mountainous wildlands are decreasing in area and are subject to erosion from make them accessible by roads, and woods, alpine prairies, lakes and wa- construction of huts, dams, power to have huts everywhere. The object terfalls, and glaciers. In the last cen- lines and, recently, energy windmills. has been to open these areas for “per- tury, the city has come to the In addition, where there is adequate sonal conquest” in all the places of mountains, effecting an almost irre- protection, massive tourist use de- beautiful scenery: remote peaks, versible destruction of their wild creases wilderness solitude. beauty. Fortunately, While I lack an accurate wildlands through citizen action, inventory, I would like to speak briefly we can still save some of the significant mountain chains of wild and formidable Italy. The biggest are the Alps, to the mountain areas. This is north. They extend beyond our na- already underway tional boundaries, but the southern through our system of watershed is in our country. The National and Regional Appennini Mountains extend down Parks, though many ar- the peninsula. Other mountain chains eas remain unprotected exist on the large island of Sicily because there are no se- (Mount Etna and the Nebrodi Moun- rious environmental tains) and in Sardinia (Gennargentu laws to enforce roadless Mountains). In these mountains are preservation. We have located the largest and wildest areas wild flora and fauna of Italy. Similarly large alpine wild- The Abruzzo brown bear, animal logo of the Italian Wilderness Society. Photo by preservation—which lands exist in France (Vanoisse, Mount Franco Zunino. ideally would be linked Blanc e Plateau du Vercors), and in Switerland (Grand Comben- Matterhorn, Silvretta, Jungfrau- Aleschhorn), but rarely are they as undeveloped, roadless, and wild as those in Italy. In my country, the wildest of such mountainous areas is the Val Grande, in the Alps of the northern Piedmont Region. In Italy, Val Grande is symbolic of the word wilderness thanks to the battles of the Italian Wilderness Soci- ety for its preservation. This 30,000- hectare wilderness was proposed as the first Italian and European Wilder- ness Area in the 1970s, and proposed again after the WWC in Scotland in 1983. A resolution of this Congress addressed the Italian and Piedmont Regional governments’ opposition to Black pine in the Appennini Mountains, Mejella National Park. Photo by Franco Zunino. two dam projects in the valley; the

36 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 projects were stopped and the valley being about 10,000 saved. The battle for an officially de- hectares of roadless ar- clared wilderness never stopped, be- eas, divided in two cause the politicians favored schemes places by a large inter- that increased state revenue from tour- national connected ism and other job creation associated cable railway. with national park status. Today, the To the east, a large national park authorities like to use wild area with big gla- the word wilderness as an attractive ciers exists in the Gruppo tourist slogan, but they do not wish Ortles-Cevedale (Stelvio an officially designated wilderness be- National Park). The area cause it would restrict their manage- is divided by beautiful ment for tourism. valleys, rich in alpine The Val Grande Mountains National Park. Photo by Franco Zunino. Despite the opposition, we had the forest fauna such as red first officially designated wilderness and roe deer, chamois, and ibex. est area of the whole Alps: the Alpi Carniche established in 2000 in a national park These pristine areas (30,000 hectares) complex, a very rough and beautiful expanse by the park authority itself: the Caldera are unfortunately penetrated by roads of about 40,000 hectares, famous for its del Monte Somma, only 125 hectares along the valleys and with many small mountainous dolomite scenery. It is almost on the top of the famous Vesuvio Vol- alpine villages. To the south are the all protected in a regional park, with a small cano, near the city of Naples. In addi- Adamello (30,000 hectares) and the part in the largest and wildest wilderness area tion, we had two other small Brenta Mountains wild areas (20,000 of Italy: the Valmontina (3,340 hectares), es- wildernesses designated in a national hectares), all in regional parks. Far tablished as a result of an Italian Wilderness park, but by a municipality only and north and east of them are two wild Society proposal. by the park authority: Tempa del Palo areas just south of the Austrian In the Appennini Mountains, only a few and Viscigli Luonghi, of 200 and 250 boundary: the Giogaia di Tessa and wild areas remain in the central and south. hectares, designated by the Campora Cima S. Cassiano, each about 10,000 The largest is the famous Majella Mountain, Commune in the Cilento: Vallo di hectares. Finally, we have what is now a national park, where an expanse of Diano National Park. These wilder- probably the second largest and wild- about 20,000 hectares may be considered nesses establish a very important prin- ciple, following the 6th WWC resolution about Italy to “encourage all national parks, regional parks and state nature reserve authorities to offi- cially recognize wilderness areas inside their boundaries …” In the Alps are other large expanses of wildlands, such as the Gran Paradiso Mountain and National Park. It is penetrated by valleys, some with roads and towns, though it retains wild areas on the mountainsides. This Eu- ropean area is famed for its rich popu- lation of Ibex and Chamois. The roadless part may be about 40,000 hectares. Another wild area, famous for its big glaciers and the highest point of Europe, is Monte Bianco.

These wildlands are shared by France Dolomite Mountains in Alpi Carniche Regional Park. Photo by Franco Zunino. and Switzerland, with Italy’s portion

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 37 wild: the Valle dell’Argentino-Montea mountains, in the Calabria Region. A very wild area of about 15,000 hect- ares is included in the Pollino National Park and partially protected in a state nature reserve. It is populated by some of the last ancient natural stock of roe deer and black woodpecker of south Italy. In Sicily, the only large expanse of roadless area is the famous Etna Vol- cano, where a 10,000-hectares area is protected in a regional park. In Sardinia, we have two large wild ar- eas, but only one considered moun- tainous: the Supramonte plateau (20,000 hectares), so wild that today

A monumental laricio pine in the Restonica Valley, Corsica Island, France. Photo by Franco Zunino. it is a refuge for modern “desperados” and kidnappers. The area is rich in almost all the rare species and subspe- roadless. This is a mountainous area 10,000 hectare Serra Lunga-Lacerno cies of the Sardinia fauna and flora. noted for its canyons and high alpine plateau, where an alpine prairie exists Near the mountainous wild areas plateaus, with rare and endemic flora. with roughly wooded valleys of beech of Italy is an important wild place— Here some rare brown bears roam— forest. Rare species of Appennini fauna the French island of Corsica. Here is an emigration phenomenon—and the live here, such as brown bears, abruzzo the largest remaining roadless and abruzzo chamois have been restocked. chamois, wolves, golden eagles, and wild area of the European Mediterra- Another wild area, preserved peregrines. nean region. Monte Cinto is the big- through the battles of the Associazione South of these two large areas, there gest, probably 50,000 hectares, and Italiana per la Wilderness (AIW), is the is only one other that can be considered may be one of the largest in south Europe. It includes the northwest part of the island, with rough, rocky mountain slopes and long, intact val- leys. The Cinto Mount, 2,706 meters is the highest point of the island. It contains the last natural European population of Bearded Vulture outside of Spain and Greece. Next in size (about 40,000 hectares) and just to the south is Monte Rotondo-La Restonica, where a large expanse of the Corsican laricio pine forests exist, with very big trees that may be con- sidered “European sequoias.” The veg- etation is mostly chaparral or pine forest, with large expanses of high pas- ture and rocks, and small, very beau- tiful alpine lakes and streams. In the forest areas lives the endemic Corsican The vast Lacerno Plateau in the Serra Lunga. Photo by Franco Zunino. nuthatch. A third Corsican area is

38 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 L’Incudine (30,000 hectares) on the central-south part of the island, where For the most part, the concept of wild nature has not the landscape, vegetation, and fauna are similar. These three areas are all been philosophically developed by the people of my partially protected in the Corsica country. Natural Regional Park. As an Italian, I work with the AIW to protect our wild, roadless, mountain areas as wilderness. As a European, I hope that the French and Corsican environmentalists and people may forever preserve their wild areas in a future French or Eu- ropean Wilderness System. The AIW will be proud to help activate this preservation on the basis of the Ital- ian experience. We appeal to our colleagues to work with us. This would conserve the value of a typi- cal European wilderness resource both for itself and as a rich resource for appropriate tourism. In sum, wilderness is being desig- nated in Italy, but slowly, and only small areas of genuine wildland. Of these 23 areas, almost all are moun- The Valmontina Wilderness, the largest, wildest place in Italy. Photo by Franco Zunino. tainous. The largest are the cited Valmontina and the Val di Vesta (1,525 hectares) in the Alps. A third large vation of all the large wildlands men- tive use of natural resources, such wilderness is Ernici Orientali in the tioned here as Italian and European as hunting, which are restricted in Appennini, the Monte Cesima, and a environmental treasures. national parks but allowed in most recently designated Valle dell’Innola- In the mean time, the AIW has Italian wilderness areas. Capo Cosa (830 hectares) in the same proposed a Regional Wilderness Act mountainous chain of the Lazio Re- to establish Regional Wilderness FRANCO ZUNINO, a previous contributor to IJW, is the founder of Wilderness gion. These small wildernesses are Systems and is working with some Associazione Italiana and an advocate of being established with the hope that Italian regional governments to developing new and innovative ways to such examples may make it possible adopt it. Among other issues, this designate and protect wilderness in Italy. in the future to obtain official preser- draft law will address the consump- Fax: (+39) 019-53545.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 39 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

National Parks and other Protected Areas in Mountains

BY LAWRENCE S. HAMILTON

ountains, because of their three-dimensional nature as major landforms, present special prob M lems and opportunities. Lowland-based ap- proaches to mountain use and mountain-protected-areas design and management have not worked. The special fea- tures from which key issues arise include the following: • Given the worldwide shortage of water of sufficient quality to meet present and future needs, and the fact that the bulk of the world’s precipitation falls on moun- tains, high-quality water is a paramount and economi- cally valuable product of mountain protected areas. • Due to the altitudinal vegetation (and corresponding fauna) zones that characterize mountains, their different com- Article author Lawrence Hamilton. Photo courtesy of pass orientations, and the micro-relief characteristics, their Lawrence Hamilton. biological diversity is extremely high. Moreover, the level of endemism is outstanding, due to the “island” effect of mountain-protected areas planning and policy. The in- single mountains separated by lowlands. Half of the 24 volvement of mountain peoples in protected-areas plan- “biodiversity hot spots” are mountainous. ning and management is especially imperative as they • The cultural diversity of mountain peoples is a precious, know how to live with mountains. but eroding, heritage needing conservation as part of • Long-distance transport of pollutants in the atmosphere is affecting mountain protected areas more than other kinds of protected areas due to cold condensation and orographic effect. • Because of the relatively narrow altitudinal vegetational zones and diminishing space with increasing elevation, any global warming will have a major impact on moun- tain flora and fauna, and this presents real challenges to mountain-protected-areas management and policies. Where there are mountain protected areas embedded in mountain ranges, there are opportunities for gene and species migration along ranges (e.g., poleward in N-S ranges for warming, and E-W for precipitation changes), but mountain-protected-area managers need A high meadow above the cloud forest in Itatiaia National Park in Brazil’s Serra do Mar. Photo to be attempting linkages along the ranges in large con- by Lawrence Hamilton. servation corridors.

40 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 • Mountain protected areas need re- and meetings, and pro- design and enlargement down the duces publications. (See mountain, as most include only the their website at http:// summits and higher elevations of wcpa.iucn.org and click mountains with scenic, spiritual, or on “theme” and then recreational value and are inad- “mountain protected equate to protect biodiversity, cul- areas.”) tural diversity, and water resources. The Mountain Theme Larger areas could better accommo- has cosponsored or offi- date major natural disturbances and cially collaborated in continuing evolutionary processes. planning and imple- • Because these mountain protected menting several major areas tend to be in the most remote conferences and work- and inaccessible areas of a coun- shops, including: Moun- try, the reality of isolation of field tain Trans-border Pro- staff needs to be addressed by ap- tected Area Cooperation propriate networking. (Australia 1995); Trans- The Jungfrau in Switzerland is part of a proposed World Heritage Site, the Jungfrau- The remoteness of mountain protected boundary Protected Ar- Aletsch-Bietschhorn complex, with Europe’s largest glacier. Photo by J. Ives. areas means that they are the greatest eas in Europe (Czech Re- bastion of remaining wilderness—an public 1996); Linking increasingly precious commodity in an Mountain Protected Areas to Create The main and current thrust of the increasingly populous and technologi- Large Conservation Corridors (Canada, mountain-protected-areas activity is cally saturated world. World Conservation Congress 1996); III the promotion of large bioregional To address these and other issues, Simposio Internacional de Desarrollo corridors of core protected areas, the World Commission on Protected Sustentable de Montañas (Ecuador linked through nature-friendly land Areas (WCPA) of the World Conser- 1998); Workshop on Mediterranean and water management. Large vation Union (ICUN) established in Mountain Protected Areas (Italy 1999); bioregional corridors are a possibility 1992 a Mountain Theme program and and the National Mountain Conference in many areas and are being developed appointed the coordinator as vice- (United States, 2000). in places such as the Great Southeastern chair of the commission. With part- ners, the WCPA Mountain Theme has played a major role in bringing “moun- tains” as an arena of concern onto the political and societal agendas. Moun- tains have been placed alongside tropi- cal rainforests, coral reefs, and desertification in the Earth Summit’s Agenda 21, and will get center stage in 2002, the UN-declared “Interna- tional Year of Mountains.” A global network of 460 mountain- protected-area managers, researchers, and key users (e.g., mountaineers) now exists and reaches to 66 countries. This network is nourished by a quarterly newsletter—Mountain Protected Areas UPDATE. The theme promotes inter- change, park twinnings or partnerships, Duck Hole in the Adirondack Forest Preserve, New York State, USA. Photo by Lawrence Hamilton. organizes and cosponsors workshops

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 41 Escarpment in Australia, the Serra do Mar in Brazil, the Central Appenines, and the Andean Spectacled Bear Cor- ridor in Venezuela. The network strongly endorses all of the corridors of The Wildlands Project in North America.

LAWRENCE S. HAMILTON is vice-chair for mountains of the IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas and is a partner in the Islands and Highlands Environmental Consultancy, 342 Bittersweet Lane, Charlotte, Vermont 05445, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

The entrance to Mount Cook National Park in New Zealand’s southern Alps, the world’s most formally protected major mountain range. Photo by Lawrence Hamilton.

Hiking at Tsitsikama

Red saffron, white pear, candlewood, yellowwood and beech. I walk through trees whose branches reach wide as plains to envelop me. Their ancient bodies, shaggy barked, bent, thick, heavy, and huge as rhinocerous, stand at the edge of the continent, holding reservoirs of woven light and shade. Silent conduits of breath, century after century, they grow. Unconsciously, their roots sink down, holding together the earth I stand on. I pass through them without words thinking of my father, my mother. —Anna Citrino

ANNA CITRINO is a native Californian who has lived overseas since 1991. She currently lives in Singapore where she regularly bikes and walks in the local rain forest, an area that is fast shrinking. She has had poems accepted for publication in journals such as Bellowing Ark, Fine Madness, and Flyway.

42 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Announcements and Wilderness Calendar

SUNY-ESF Announces the timber corporation Boise Cascade Italy. With the theme of Global Chal- Support of IJW and the state of Idaho, which had asked lenges of Parks and Protected Area (PPA) a federal judge to grant a preliminary Management, symposium topics will Dr. William Bentley, chair of the faculty injunction barring the Clinton roadless include cross-boundary management of forestry in the College of Environ- decision from taking effect. In a five- and PPA sustainability, balancing tradi- mental Science and Forestry at the State page response submitted March 21, the tional uses, ecotourism, maintenance of University of New York at Syracuse, Bush Administration did not attempt to cultural heritage with PPA protection, announced the college will sponsor the address any of the legal claims raised social and political considerations in International Journal of Wilderness finan- by Boise Cascade and the state of Idaho, PPA management and planning, train- cially. Dr. Bentley noted, “We are pleased namely that the Roadless Area Conser- ing, communication, and public in- to contribute to the continued success vation Rule lacked specific details, there volvement and collaboration. Sardinia of the International Journal of Wilderness. was insufficient time for the state to re- is the second largest island (23,813 sq. SUNY-ESF is part of the academic com- spond, and public participation was km. or 14,764 sq. miles) in the Medi- munity providing wilderness stewardship inadequate. The roadless rules were terranean. As a result of the distance and management education programs adopted after a review that lasted more separating it from mainland Italy, it has and is part of New York’s history of wild- than two years, included scores of pub- conserved its own economy and tradi- land and wilderness protection.” lic meetings, and prompted written or tions far more than have the other re- oral comments from more than 1 mil- gions of Italy. On the northwest coast of Roadless Decision Hits lion people. Affecting one-third of the Sardinia lies the Archipelago of La Rocky Road with Bush national forests, the roadless rules are Maddalena, comprising 60 small and one of the most ambitious conservation large islands. With its deep transparent Administration actions taken by the Clinton Adminis- aqua sea and beautiful sandy beaches, By carving out a prowilderness position tration. The issue is shaping up as a this area has been an irresistible attrac- with his 11th hour action banning road- major test of the degree to which the tion for tourists, particularly those in the building and logging across some 60 current administration will take a dif- Mediterranean region and the oil-rich million acres of national forest, former ferent course. For more on the roadless countries of the Middle East. In 1996 President Bill Clinton set up President decision, visit the U.S. Forest Service the Archipelago of La Maddalena was Bush to either live with the measures or roadless website at http://roadless.fs.fed.us/. established as an Italian national park. risk being perceived as anti-environ- Source: The Wilderness Society Since that time the park has been adopt- ment. In one of his first acts in office, webpage: http://www.wilderness.org/ ing a program of management aimed at President Bush signaled his willingness ensuring long-term ecosystem integrity to fight the roadless designations by Parks and Protected Area while managing the large number of postponing implementation of the rule. Management Symposium park visitors. The deadline for presen- Then on March 16 in a federal court- tation proposals is June 1, 2001. The room in Boise, Idaho, the Bush Admin- to be held in Sardinia early symposium registration of $195 istration filed a motion to roll back the The 2001 International Symposium on is due July 15. For more information, rules even further, probably until at least Society and Resource Management will visit the symposium website at http:// early summer. The motion of postpone- be held November 7–10 at La www.cnr.colostate.edu/NRRT/SSRM. ment essentially granted a request by Maddalena National Park, Sardinia,

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 43 Alberta’s Wild Lands problems in North America, Europe, visits and in-depth case study cri- Advocate Available Online and other countries with well-devel- tiques, participants learn of assess- oped wilderness and protected area ment and planning tools, techniques The Wild Lands Advocate, the news systems. Translations of already pub- to address visitor interests and im- journal of the Alberta Wilderness As- lished articles, or summaries of these pacts, and mechanisms to reconcile sociation, is now available online at articles, are acceptable. All manu- resource protection with develop- http://albertawilderness.ca/. The scripts should be translated prior to ment pressures. The program stimu- Alberta Wilderness Association (AWA) submission. In rare instances of par- lates deliberations and interactive is the longest-standing conservation ticularly important articles, translation problem-solving, taking advantage group dedicated to conservation and can be arranged. The maximum length of the rich experiences and multiple the completion of a network of pro- is 15 pages. The manuscript style is cultural points of view represented tected areas (parks, wilderness, areas, open and should reflect a scientific among program participants. The natural areas, etc.) Formed in 1965 by popular style (avoid technical jargon) 17-day seminar will begin in backcountry enthusiasts, ranchers and accessible to a broad audience of pro- Missoula, Montana, and travel to outfitters, AWA it is the lead organiza- tected area professionals. The editors several major types of protected ar- tion in Alberta focusing on the preser- hope to publish eight of these inter- eas in the northern Rocky Mountain vation of wilderness lands and waters national articles in the next year, two region, including national parks, throughout the province. It has also each issue. Send inquiries or manu- wildlife refuges, tribal reservations, tenaciously worked for better public scripts to Ekaterina Pavlova, privately held land conservancies, policy for the conservation, manage- Biodiversity Conservation Center. and multiple use forest and grass- ment, and ecologically sustainable use E-mail: [email protected]. land reserves. At each location, re- of all public lands, waters, and wild- spected experts within the natural life in Alberta. International Seminar on resource management arena will join Protected Area Management the group to assist in the study and Russian Protected Area The 2001 international training pro- evaluation of protected area manage- Journal Seeks Article gram on the management of parks ment. For more information, visit Submissions and protected areas will be held the U.S. Forest Service Interna- Very little information is available in from August 9–25, 2001, in the tional Program website at http:// Russian related to wilderness and pro- northern Rocky Mountains of the www.fs.fed.us/global/is/ispam/ tected area issues. To help fill the void, western United States. Designed for welcome.htm. the Russian journal Okhrana Dikoi mid-career planners and managers Prirody (Protection of Wild Nature) is of nationally significant protected Pew Wilderness Center looking for articles that communicate areas worldwide, this integrated, Founded to Help Fight for the experience of protected area man- state-of-the-art course will examine agers, researchers, policymakers, and management strategies, policies, and Wilderness Protection activists around the world. Readers are innovative institutional arrange- The Pew Wilderness Center has been the staff of zapovedniki (strict nature ments to address the conservation established to protect more public preserves) and national parks, univer- and use of the world’s most special lands as part of the National Wilder- sity and institute professors and lec- places. The program is jointly spon- ness Preservation System. Its mission turers, scientists and researchers in sored by the International Program is to rejuvenate the public’s interest in various fields related to nature conser- Office of the U.S. Forest Service and the wilderness by educating a broader vation, university students, members the University of Montana, the spectrum of the populace about the of NGOs, and government officials. Of Univeristy of Idaho, and Colorado need for increased wildlands protec- particular interest are articles that dis- State University. The program joins tion. Funded by the Pew Charitable cuss the challenges of conducting and course participants with leaders in Trust, the center will accomplish its organizing protected area research pro- protected area management from mission through commissioning new grams, planning and management sys- universities, the private sector, gov- research; conducting symposia; build- tems, and reviews of the main ernment agencies, and nongovern- ing public education campaigns; col- protected area policy and management mental organizations. Through site laborating with federal agencies,

44 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 academics, environmental organiza- Latest Poll: Americans contact information for both the nomi- tions, and other organizations; and Oppose Drilling in Arctic nee and the person(s) making the nomi- producing an annual publication en- nation. Keith Corrigall worked as the titled Annual Review and Anthology of Refuge by 2 to 1 Margin wilderness branch chief for the Bureau the Wild that will chart progress in se- By a 52 to 35% margin, U. S. voters of Land Management during its forma- curing wilderness protection. “Our oppose changing the law to allow the tive years and was a strong leader and goal is to bequeath to future genera- oil industry to drill on the coastal plain advocate for wilderness protection. tions the ecological, geological or other of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, features of scientific, educational, sce- according to a new bipartisan survey by American Explorer Becomes nic and historical value that wild the Mellman Group (D) and Bellwether places contain,” said Executive Direc- Research (R). Those opposing drilling Wilderness Trust Patron tor Mike Matz. Headquartered in have much stronger opinions than those Colonel Norman Vaughan, the re- Washington, D. C., the Pew Wilder- who support it. The survey team reported nowned American polar explorer, has ness Center also maintains offices in that 41% strongly oppose such develop- agreed to become a copatron of the Seattle, Washington; Jackson Hole, ment, while just 22% strongly support Wilderness Trust (WT) with Sir Wyoming; and Boulder, Colorado. For it—a nearly 2 to 1 margin. The polling Wilfred Thesiger. Vaughan was sled more information, visit the Pew Wil- was commissioned by The Wilderness dog chief to Admiral Byrd during the derness Center website at: http:// Society for the Alaska Coalition. The first ever U. S. Antarctic Survey of www.pewwild.org/index.htm. findings come as U.S. Representatives 1928–30. The second-highest moun- Ed Markey (D-MA) and Nancy Johnson tain in Antarctica was named after him. Federal Judge Stops (R-CT) and U.S. Senator Joseph At age 90, in company with WT chair Lieberman (D-CT) introduce legislation Sir Humphrey Wakefield, he set off on Logging in to permanently protect the coastal plain the first ever ascent 75 years after Ad- Tongass National Forest by adding it to the National Wilderness miral Byrd named the mountain for Roadless Areas Preservation System. Doing so would him. Now at age 95, he still competes A federal judge halted all logging on put the area off-limits to oil drilling. in the 800-mile Trans Alaska, Nome roadless areas in the Tongass National Source: The Wilderness Society Serum Run. His 4000-mile early Forest in Alaska. The ruling came in Webpage: http://www.wilderness.org/ snowmobile record is still legendary response to a lawsuit filed by environ- along with his Iditerod records. mental groups that argued that the Nominations Requested The WT was established in 1981 U.S. Forest Service had breached en- for Keith Corrigall with the fundamental goal of provid- ing future generations with an essen- vironmental laws by writing a new Wilderness Stewardship management plan for the Tongass in tial appreciation of the environment. 1997 without considering the Award The trust’s main objectives are the roadless tracts for formal protection The deadline for nominations for the promotion of conservation of natural as wilderness areas. The judge 2001 Keith Corrigall Award for Excel- resources and the building of aware- agreed with the groups and ordered lence in Wilderness Stewardship is June ness of the continuing abuse of these the agency to write a new plan that 30. The award is given annually to an resources. The trust’s programs at the weighs whether any new wilderness individual or team of persons whose Lapalala Wilderness School focus on areas should be created. Roadless efforts to protect and/or steward wil- both conservation and the develop- areas cover about 9.4 million acres derness is worthy of special recogni- ment of effective interpersonal re- of the forest’s 17 million acres. The tion. Nominees may be professionals lationships and cross-cultural under- same tracts would be protected un- or citizens involved in wilderness standing. Since its establishment, der former President Clinton’s rule work. Submit a 500-word statement 50,000 children from all South Afri- to ban road-building on 58.5 mil- and seconding letter to IJW, Corrigall can cultures have attended courses at lion acres of national forestland, if Award, University of Idaho, Wilder- Lapalala. President Bush lets the rule stand. ness Research Center, Moscow, The first of the Sir Laurens van der Source: Wildnet Digest Idaho 83844, USA. E-mail: Post memorial lectures was held in the [email protected]. Be sure to include State Apartments at St. James’s Palace

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 45 on February 13, 2001. HRH Prince Wilderness Management tiative will be to take advantage of Charles, who spoke movingly of his the gathering of wilderness experts, long friendship with van der Post, Training at the 7th World issues, and information at the con- hosted the evening. David Rattray, the Wilderness Congress gress to supply training and expo- South African historian, spoke of the The organizers of the 7th World Wil- sure for managers who may have the link between the Zulu culture, the as- derness Congress (WCC) (November opportunity to manage and influ- pirations of van der Post, and the last- 2–8, 2001, South Africa; see IJW April ence the designation of wilderness ing friendship and mutual admiration 2001) have announced a wilderness areas in their countries. The five-day between the British and their erstwhile management training initiative in precongress session will be held in foes. This lecture was the first of a se- association with the congress. Execu- Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, begin- ries dedicated to fulfilling van der tive Director Andrew Muir confirmed ning October 28. The WILD Founda- Post’s hopes for advancing wilderness that the 7th WWC will conduct a tion and the 7th WWC secretariat are ideals by making them relevant to the precongress training session for field raising funds to supply scholarships modern world. For more informa- and management level staff from for selected participants. To apply for tion, visit the Wilderness Trust protected areas in developing coun- a scholarship, which includes the website at www.wildernesstrust.org.za/ tries in association with trainers training plus registration and support index.html. from local NGOs and international money to be a delegate to the 7th Source: Chris Blessington, Wilderness natural resource agencies. The ob- WWC, contact Andrew Muir at Trust, [email protected] ject of this technology-transfer ini- [email protected].

Letters to the Editor

Help Preserve the Svalbard Archipelago, Europe’s Last Great Wilderness

Dear IJW, impressive beauty. It is the raw wild- The World Wildlife Fund has an I am a British citizen in Norwegian ness of this land, with its enchanting Arctic Program encouraging the Nor- territory, but Svalbard has been my snowscapes and icescapes under con- wegian government to make Svalbard home for 25 years, most of which has stantly changing shades of lights, to “one of the best managed wilderness been spent dog-sledging. I run a small which so many travelers are drawn. areas in the world” by giving the en- company, Arctic Wilderness Experi- Much of Svalbard is protected in tire archipelago national park status. ence, where the emphasis is not only national parks and nature preserves. Please encourage IJW readers to write on outer perceptions, but also the in- However, Central Spitsbergen, the to the Norwegian prime minister in ner journey, often uncharted and un- largest island of the archipelago, is still support of making all Svalbard a na- explored. subject to new coal-mining enter- tional park. The address is The Prime Allow me to bring to your atten- prises, radar and satellite stations, as Minister, Jens Stoltenberg, P.O. Box tion the present struggle to preserve well as increasing tourism. It is now 8001 Dep, 0030 Oslo, Norway. the unique pristine qualities of the estimated that exhaust fumes from I urge everyone’s support. Svalbard Archipelago, also known as snow scooters exceed pollution from “Europe’s Last Great Wilderness.” coal mining. Nonmotorized tourists Robin Buzza The country (63,000 km.) is domi- are becoming increasingly critical of Arctic Wilderness Experience nated by low alpine mountains, long noise, and the Russian and Norwegian Postboks 110 N-9171 Longyearbyen fjords and valleys, and many ice caps coal companies have plans to build Svalbard, Norway and glaciers, a natural panorama of new roads through beautiful country.

46 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Book Reviews

Wilderness Comes Home: on public lands where wilderness and determining the success or failure of Rewilding the Northeast wildland areas form a core ecological contemporary wilderness manage- edited by Christopher McGrory Klyza. reserve and where ecological processes ment has not gone unchallenged (most 2001. Middlebury College Press, and integrity are being restored. The of its tenets remain unproved), and its published by University Press of New authors further argue that these core influence has been stalled by the wide- England, Hanover, New Hampshire. 336 pp., $50.00 (hardcover), $22.95 reserves are surrounded by private spread lack of awareness of its tenets (paperback). lands managed for sustainable forest and implications among both the gen- and agricultural conditions. Pristine eral public and the staff of resource Federally designated wilderness in the wilderness conditions in the Northeast management agencies themselves. northeastern United States includes is only an idea from the past, and con- Continental Conservation attempts to only 205,000 acres, and federal agen- cerns for continued human develop- address these shortcomings by review- cies manage 2 million acres, about 2% ment and population expansion in the ing the principles of conservation bi- of the region’s land area. “Pristine” and region suggest that a proactive and ology (e.g., connectivity, the Paine “primeval” are now only historic land- pragmatic approach needs to be for- effect), empirical evidence supporting scape descriptors for the Northeast mulated and implemented. The book these principles, and their ramifica- where evidence of human habitation strongly states that the rewilding of tions for protecting large-scale, healthy is endemic. However, there is some ecological conditions and processes ecosystems (e.g., corridors, ecological hope for change as the region now has can be achieved only through restoration). Another key objective is more forested area than it did 100 regionwide conservation efforts. to provide a call to arms for the tradi- years ago, and some wildlife species, Reviewed by CHAD DAWSON, IJW tionally politically inert scientist to once dwindling in numbers as the ag- co-managing editor. E-mail: take on the role of conservation activ- ricultural and forest industries ex- [email protected]. ist. The latter objective reflects the panded, have been reestablished. book’s direct link with The Wildlands The prospects for “rewilding” this Project (TWP). Continental Conserva- landscape are explored in Wilderness tion is the result of a conference con- Comes Home: Rewilding the Northeast, the Continental Conservation: vened by TWP in 1997, and spells out fifth volume in the Middlebury Bicen- Scientific Foundations of the vision of TWP: to protect and re- tennial Series in Environmental Stud- Regional Reserve Networks store the North American landscape ies. Edited by Chris Klyza, each of the edited by Michael E. Soulé and John through the creation of a large-scale, Terborgh. 1999. Island Press, Washington, 12 chapters is written by a different au- D. C. and Covelo, California. 265 pp., connected system of wildlands. thor addressing three main themes: the $25.00 (paperback). Both the conference and book were historical context of the current wild- coordinated around six topics: the com- land and wilderness resource in the re- In the last ten years, the discipline of plex issue of scale in designing reserves gion, a northeastern conservation conservation biology has become a (chapter 2), the question of whether strategy built on creating ecological re- progressively influential lens through ecosystems are regulated by “top down” serves within a mixed public and pri- which society views landscapes. Its or “bottom up” forces (chapter 3), the vate land ownership pattern, and a principles are embedded within those role of ecological restoration (chapter 4), conceptual model of conservation based of ecosystem management and are the critical importance of connectivity on a region with ecologically recovered thus increasingly used in the creation between ecosystems (chapter 6), and the and restored lands. and management of wilderness and necessity of incorporating both core The authors argue that the region other protected areas. However, the (chapter 5) and buffer areas (chapter 7) requires a rethinking of stewardship primacy of conservation biology in in creating an integrated system of

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 47 reserves. Between eight and 15 scien- evidence. One minor criticism is that civic activism must be regarded as tists co-authored each chapter, but the the potential role of traditional eco- highly implausible under Stalin or his editors and lead authors worked hard to logical knowledge is ignored; the book successors. Could any “archipelago of create a focused, well-integrated book. totally focuses on the conventional freedom” really survive the party-state? Many of the concepts articulated in empirical research tradition of ecology. Nature protection did not just en- these chapters are extremely controver- Given the growing influence of con- dure in the Soviet Union, it thrived. sial. For example, the authors contend servation biology in wilderness man- Scientific public opinion persisted due that approximately 50% of land must agement, its critical ramifications (if to clever practitioners and the oblivi- be conserved to prevent widespread proven correct) for ecosystem manage- ous machinery of a grinding state bu- anthropogenic extinction; conservation ment, the number of philosophical reaucracy. Scientists anchored activism must be pursued at spatial and tempo- and practical questions raised in the around zapovedniki, strict nature re- ral scales never attempted before (i.e., book, the pedigree of its authors, and serves without a Western equivalent. contemporary protected areas are far too the high quality and balanced ap- Zapovedniki carry great weight in the small to conserve current ecological pro- proach of the research and writing, this Russian land ethic, an ethic fostered cesses over the long term); buffer zones book demands a wide readership. It by professional societies founded in are required around core areas of pro- provides a formidable, provocative vi- the 1800s. This distinctive vision of tection to maintain the connectivity of sion of a North American landscape wildlands allowed Soviet nature pro- landscapes; the concept of sustainable that maintains the ecological processes tectionists to disguise their actions as development or harmony with nature that sustain our native flora and fauna, cultural patriotism for a beloved fa- is a dangerous myth; and top carnivores rather than becoming, like Europe, a therland. Scientists became experts at must be reintroduced into ecosystems. region bereft of wildness, lacking camouflaging their “rightful domain” To the authors’ credit, the philosophi- megafauna, and overrun with the as arbiters of resource policy. Party cal implications of these and equally weeds of introduced species. It is a bureaucrats thereby came to perceive provocative issues are usually acknowl- vision that will be near and dear to nature protectionists as harmless ec- edged and discussed, although the fi- the hearts of many readers of the IJW. centrics (chudaki) who did not merit nal positions always reflect the aims of Reviewed by JOHN SHULTIS, IJW book the extreme measures of the Gulag. TWP. Being forced to address these chal- review editor. E-mail: [email protected]. Without romanticizing nature pro- lenging issues is the primary joy of read- tectionists as complete democrats, ing Continental Conservation: so many Weiner succeeds in illuminating a re- questions are raised by the issues in- markable social movement. What, then, A Little Corner of Freedom: cluded in this book that readers are does this book portend for wilderness? Russian Nature Protection forced to question their own feelings and Much, as it turns out. Weiner offers a beliefs in these weighty matters. from Stalin to Gorbachëv too-brief contrast of Russian zapovedniki by Douglas R. Weiner. 1999. University Another major strength of this book of California Press, Berkeley and Los and U.S. national parks. But U.S. parks, is the authors’ willingness to admit that Angeles. 570 pp., $45.00 (hardcover). rooted in monumentalism, have scant the state of knowledge in conservation likeness to the ecological origins of biology currently makes the questions Weiner’s A Little Corner of Freedom sets Russia’s most protected lands. The in- raised in the book difficult if not im- out to show how Russian scientists, violable zapovedniki most resemble des- possible to answer. The authors also despite state repression during a dark ignated wilderness, reserves often acknowledge that the attempt to in- era, fought for “alternative visions of promoted today as a means to protect corporate conservation biology in wil- land use.” Weiner details the coura- biological diversity. derness management relies as much geous tactics and often idealistic aspi- A Little Corner of Freedom raises im- on human dimensions research as it rations of these practitioners of portant questions. If nature protection does on ecological research. Conse- nauchnaia obshchestvennost (scientific symbolized freedom within a Marxist quently, both the practical and scien- public opinion). The author cautiously autocracy, why then is environmen- tific components of conservation admits that revisionist interpretation talism usually attributed to the politi- biology are addressed throughout the is risky when probing a country (ac- cal left? What are we to make of the book, with several chapters providing tually countries) undergoing rapid Continued on page 19 as much practical advice as empirical change, and any sort of independent

48 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2001 • VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2