Quaternary Glaciation in the Mediterranean Mountains: a New Synthesis

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Quaternary glaciation in the Mediterranean mountains: a new synthesis

P. D. HUGHES* & J. C. WOODWARD Geography, School of Environment, Education and Development, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK *Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The Mediterranean mountains were repeatedly glaciated during the Pleistocene. Gla- ciers were present in most of the major mountains areas from Morocco in the west to the Black Sea coast of Turkey in the east. Some mountains supported extensive ice caps and ice ﬁelds with valley glaciers tens of kilometres long. Other massifs sustained only small-scale ice masses, although this was the exception rather than the norm. Glaciers still exist today and there is evidence that small glaciers were a common sight in many regions during the Little Ice Age. The Mediter- ranean mountains are important for palaeoclimate research because of their position in the mid- latitudes and sensitivity to changes in the climate regimes of adjacent areas including the North Atlantic. These mountains are also important areas of biodiversity and long-term biological change through the Quaternary ice age. All of this provided challenges and opportunities for Palaeolithic societies. This paper reviews the history of the study of glaciation in the Mediterranean mountains from pioneer nineteenth century observations through to the detailed geomorphological mapping and advanced geochronological datasets of recent times. We also review the current state of knowledge to frame the contributions presented in this volume. Lastly, this new synthesis then identiﬁes outstanding research problems and assesses the prospects for new studies of glaciation in the Med- iterranean mountains.

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The mountains surrounding the Mediterranean Sea immediately to the east of the North Atlantic were repeatedly glaciated during the Quaternary. Ocean and aligned along the low mid-latitudes, Glacial processes have been important agents of the Mediterranean basin is an important corridor long-term landscape modification and classic gla- for westerly atmospheric circulation between the cial scenery has been documented across this region. Sahara Desert and the Alps. Today, moisture-bear- As in other parts of the world, the influence of these ing atmospheric depressions – generated both in glaciers was not confined to the uplands because the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean meltwaters carried large volumes of outwash sedi- basin itself – are able to penetrate eastwards to cen- ment through the downstream reaches of river tral Asia. This situation may have been more mar- basins – this glacial signal can be traced to the Med- ked during Pleistocene cold stages at those times iterranean coast and offshore. The geomorphologi- when both the oceanic and atmospheric polar fronts cal and sedimentological record of glaciation in were much further south than today, with the for- these mountains is now providing valuable infor- mer positioned off Iberia in the North Atlantic mation on past climates because the viability of Ocean (Ruddiman & McIntyre 1981; Roucoux glaciers is closely related to atmospheric air temper- et al. 2005). atures and moisture supply. The glacial record can The mountains of the Mediterranean represent be compared with modern climate data to generate dynamic landscape systems that are highly respon- information on the nature of winter moisture sup- sive to climate change (Tzedakis et al. 2004; Regato ply (as snow) and summer temperatures during & Salman 2008; Woodward 2009; Vogiatzakis Pleistocene cold stages. These data usefully com- 2012). There is now a large body of evidence show- plement the rich body of proxy climate data that has ing that the mountainous peninsulas of southern been retrieved from other Mediterranean archives, Europe, as well as the mountains of North Africa, including lake basins, speleothems and the marine hosted biotic refugia during Pleistocene cold stages sedimentary record (Woodward 2009). (Tzedakis 1993; Hewitt 2000). It is mainly from The Mediterranean region is situated in an these refugia in southern Europe that plants and important position for understanding Quaternary animals colonized central and northern Europe dur- climate change in the northern hemisphere. Lying ing interglacials. The presence of glaciers in these

From:Hughes,P.D.&Woodward, J. C. (eds) 2017. Quaternary Glaciation in the Mediterranean Mountains. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 433, 1–23. First published online November 4, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP433.14 # 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

2 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD refugial centres during Pleistocene cold stages has (Almagia` 1918; Sestini 1933). The French scholar important implications for moisture supply as well Emmanuel de Martonne was a widely travelled as temperature; large glaciers in the uplands would geographer who undertook glacial research across have limited the availability of ‘temperate’ refugial the Mediterranean and beyond, from Morocco sites in topographically sheltered sites such as valley (Martonne 1924) to Romania (Martonne 1907, floors. Moreover, the association of glaciated 1922). Other key figures who worked across the Mediterranean uplands and their meltwater rivers Mediterranean were: Klebelsberg, who worked in with zones of Palaeolithic human activity and Spain, Italy and Greece (e.g. Klebelsberg 1928, migration routes (Woodward et al. 1995; Gamble 1930, 1931, 1932a, 1932b, 1933–1934); Suter, 1999; Gibert et al. 2003) highlights the importance who worked in Italy (e.g. Suter 1932, 1934); and of understanding environmental conditions in Med- Louis, who worked extensively in the Balkans and iterranean mountain catchments during Pleistocene Turkey (e.g. Louis 1926, 1944). Glacial research cold stages. in the Mediterranean was particularly active in the This introduction provides a critical review of inter-war period between 1920 and 1940 (see current knowledge of glaciation in the Mediterra- reviews in Messerli 1967; Hughes 2012; Ehlers nean mountains from Morocco to Turkey. The et al. 2016). Glacial geomorphological research in aims of this introduction are to: (1) provide the the region once again flourished after the Second background to the history of glacial research in the World War, especially in the 1950s, 1960s and Mediterranean mountains; (2) introduce the papers early 1970s, with notable research in Morocco in this volume; (3) examine the current state of (e.g. Mensching 1953, 1960; Wiche 1953), Monte- knowledge regarding Pleistocene glaciation in the negro (Liedtke 1962) and Greece (e.g. Hagedorn Mediterranean mountains; (4) review the recent 1969), all published in German. and current extent of glaciers in the Mediterranean As is clear from the Foreword to this volume, mountains; and (5) set out a new agenda by discuss- the most intrepid and geographically wide-ranging ing progress, problems and prospects for the study researcher in the two decades after the Second of glaciations in the Mediterranean mountains. World War was the remarkable Swiss scholar Bruno Messerli, who produced important papers on the The glacial pioneers glacial geomorphology of the Sierra Nevada in Spain (Messerli 1965a), Mount Erciyes in Turkey There is a long history of glacial research in the (Messerli 1964, 1965b), the mountains of the Leba- Mediterranean mountains. Some of the earliest non (Messerli 1966) and even the Tibesti Mountains papers on this topic are listed by country and region in Chad (Messerli 1972). Bruno Messerli’s classic in Table 1. By the end of the nineteenth century review of glaciation (Messerli 1967), based on 364 nearly all the Mediterranean mountain ranges were cited publications, was the first to illustrate the full known to have been glaciated in the Pleistocene scope of Pleistocene glacial activity across the entire (Table 1). These early glacial studies involved Mediterranean region. Messerli’s research, how- some of the key figures in geographical research in ever, was followed by a period of relative stagnation the early twentieth century, including Jovan Cvijic´ in the development of ideas and fresh approaches and Albrecht Penck in the lead up to the First that lasted for almost three decades. One reason World War and Emmanuel de Martonne in the for this very limited progress was the difficulty 1920s (Ehlers et al. 2016). Jovan Cvijic´ was one involved in dating glacial deposits and landforms of the first geographers to appreciate the extent of – a problem not restricted to the Mediterranean glaciation in southeast Europe and worked exten- mountains in this period. Mediterranean glacial sively in the Balkans in the late nineteenth and research lost momentum because most of the glaci- early twentieth centuries (Cvijic´ 1899, 1900, 1917 ated areas had been identified and the extent – if not and references cited therein). Albrecht Penck – bet- the age – of glaciation was relatively well known. In ter known for his classic glacial work in the Alps – addition, international research in key parts of the was another of the Mediterranean glacial pioneers; Mediterranean was hampered by political tensions, he worked in the Pyrenees and the Dinaric Alps such as the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s. The past (Penck 1885, 1900). Much of the glacial geomor- decade, however, has witnessed a dramatic expan- phological research in the early twentieth century sion in the number and sophistication of Pleistocene was influenced by the geopolitical framework at glacial studies. There is little doubt that this reflects that time. In northern Albania, for example, geolog- the wider availability of geochronological tech- ical investigations were dominated by Austrian niques for dating glacial landforms, especially researchers such as Karl Roth von Telegd and uranium series and cosmogenic exposure dating. Ernst Nowack (Roth von Telegd 1923; Nowack Table 1 presents a summary of some of the first 1929). In southern Albania and northwest Greece, papers reporting dates for the glacial records of studies were dominated by Italian researchers the mountain ranges across the Mediterranean. Downloaded from

Table 1. Summary of the history of glacial research in the Mediterranean mountains, listing some of the earliest publications on glaciation and glacial geochronology for each region UTRAYGAITO NTEMDTRAENMOUNTAINS MEDITERRANEAN THE IN GLACIATION QUATERNARY Location Earliest known publication Some of the ﬁrst publications Dating methods Current state of research on glaciation related to the dating of glaciation applied (see text using the hierarchy of for sources) Hughes et al. (2006a) http://sp.lyellcollection.org/

Portugal Cabral (1884) Janssen & Woldringh (1981), Vidal Romanı´ 14C, cosmogenic, TL Mapping/advanced et al. (1999), Vieira et al. (2001) Spain Prado (1860) Vidal Romanı´ et al. (1999) Cosmogenic Advanced Pyrenees (France, Spain) Penck (1885) Sorriaux (1981), Jalut et al. (1982), Uranium series, 14 C Advanced Mardones & Jalut (1983) Pyrenees (Andorra) Blade (1875) Turu (2002) 14C Advanced Maritime Alps De Lorenzo (1895) Ponel et al. (2001), Federici et al. (2008) 14C, cosmogenic Advanced Corsica Pumpelly (1859) Hewitt (2001) Cosmogenic Advanced Italian Apennines De Lorenzo (1895) Frezzotti & Giraudi (1992) Tephrochronology, Advanced Ar/Ar, 14 C Sicily Maier (1936) – Pioneer/mapping byguestonSeptember28,2021 Slovenia Bru¨ckner (1890) Bavec et al. (2004) OSL Mapping/advanced Croatia Penck (1900) Marjanac et al. (2001), Marjanac (2012) 14C, uranium series Advanced Bosnia Cvijic´ (1899, 1900, 1917) – Mapping Montenegro Cvijic´ (1899, 1900, 1917) Hughes et al. (2010) Uranium series Advanced Albania Almagia` (1918) – Pioneer/mapping Mainland Greece Cvijic´ (1900, 1917) Woodward et al. (2004) Uranium series, Advanced cosmogenic Crete Creutzburg (1928) Pioneer/mapping Turkey Ainsworth (1842) Akc¸ar et al. (2007) Cosmogenic Advanced Lebanon Diener (1886) Moulin et al. (2011) Cosmogenic Mapping Algeria Raclus (1885, p. 207, ﬁg. 67), – Pioneer Barbier & Cailleux (1950) Morocco Hooker & Ball (1878) Hughes et al. (2011a) Cosmogenic Mapping/advanced

14C, radiocarbon dating; OSL, optically stimulated luminescence; TL, thermoluminescence. 3 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

4 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD

A new phase of glacial research the widespread application of cosmogenic exposure dating in most parts of the Mediterranean. Many The timing of glaciations in the Mediterranean hundreds of dates are now available for glacial sed- mountains has been constrained using a range of iments and landforms. As a result, it is now possible approaches. Examples presented in this volume to identify a fourth meta-analysis phase because include cosmogenic nuclide exposure dating of researchers are able to explore patterns in the boulders and bedrock surfaces (Akçar et al. 2015; large number of dates now available to better under- Çiner & Sarıkaya 2015; Federici et al. 2016; Pal- stand the regional patterns of glacial advance and acios et al. 2016; Pope et al. 2015; Sarıkaya & retreat and their wider palaeoenvironmental signifi- Çiner 2015; Turu et al. 2016), radiocarbon dating cance (e.g. Hughes & Woodward 2008; Woodward of basal glacial lake deposits (Giraudi & Giaccio & Hughes 2011; Sarıkaya & Çiner 2015). 2015; Serrano et al. 2016; Turu et al. 2016), Ar/Ar dating of tephras in mountain basins (Gir- audi & Giaccio 2015), optically stimulated luminescence dating of glacio-fluvial outwash deposits Structure and key themes of this volume (Serrano et al. 2016; Turu et al. 2016) and uranium We will now examine the key themes explored by series dating of secondary carbonate cements the papers in this volume beginning in North Africa (Adamson et al. 2016; Serrano et al. 2016) in gla- and moving clockwise around the Mediterranean. cial and glacio-fluvial deposits. North Africa is represented by Hannah et al. Ten years ago we published a review article on (2016), who provide new insights into the origin the Quaternary glacial history of the Mediterranean of extensive plateau ice fields above 3500 m in the mountains (Hughes et al. 2006a). In reviewing the Tazaghart and Iouzagner areas of the Moroccan history of glacial research in this region up to that High Atlas. This is the first time that Pleistocene pla- time, we identified three distinct stages in the devel- teau ice fields have been described from North opment of this field of research: Africa. This paper also presents evidence for late (1) a pioneer phase characterized by the initial Holocene niche glaciers in the High Atlas that descriptive observations of glacial landforms were present during the Little Ice Age and, possibly, in a particular region; as recently as the mid-twentieth century. (2) a mapping phase when the distribution of The Iberian Peninsula is represented by three glacial landforms and sediments was first papers: two from Spain and one from Andorra. For depicted on sophisticated geomorphological northern Spain, Serrano et al. (2016) provide a maps; and new synthesis of the glacial history of the Canta- (3) an advanced phase characterized by a detailed brian Mountains, including the Picos de Europa understanding of the geochronology of glacial (Torrecerredo, 2648 m a.s.l.). They highlight the sequences using radiometric dating alongside early maximum extent of glaciers during the last detailed sedimentological and stratigraphic glacial cycle. Further south, Palacios et al. (2016) analyses. explore the nature and extent of glacier advances after the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) Most areas of the Mediterranean had undergone and present exposure ages from moraines dating to pioneer phase research by 2006 – this had typically the Older Dryas. This interval was characterized taken place in the late nineteenth or early twentieth by glacier advances or phases of glacier stability centuries. The results of this phase were compre- across central and northern Europe, but it has, hensively reviewed in Messerli’s landmark paper until now, rarely been documented in the Mediterra- (Messerli 1967) and we have summarized our nean mountains. Turu et al. (2016) set out detailed own literature search in Table 1. However, as evidence from an ice-marginal palaeolake sediment noted earlier, the last few decades of the twentieth record in Andorra for a much larger marine isotope century were characterized by rather limited pro- stage (MIS) 4 advance compared with that of MIS gress, notwithstanding some new mapping efforts 2. Comparison with other areas of the Pyrenees in Italy, France and Spain in particular. There has highlights the asynchronous records of glacier fluc- been a marked increase in research activity into tuations in different parts of these mountains and Quaternary glaciation across the Mediterranean raises important questions about the underlying region in the decade since we published our review causes. paper. This research is now flourishing in many The glacial history of Italy is represented by two countries and many more regions have moved papers from contrasting areas: one from the Mari- from the mapping to the advanced phase. In some time Alps, where glaciers were contiguous with places, the shift to the mapping phase was accompa- the main Alpine ice sheet, and one from the Apen- nied by the introduction of geochronological dat- nines, where discrete glaciers formed on numerous ing. A key advance of the last decade has been mountains. For the former area, Federici et al. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

QUATERNARY GLACIATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MOUNTAINS 5

(2016) provide detailed evidence of Late Pleisto- cosmogenic exposure age geochronology from the cene glaciation from the LGM to the Little Ice Bolkar Mountains of south-central Turkey with 30 Age, with moraine positions dated using exposure new 36Cl exposure ages. The paper by Sarıkaya dating (for the older features) and lichenometry &Ç iner (2015) reviews the glaciations of southern for the late Holocene moraines. Giraudi & Giaccio Turkey and neighbouring countries, including Leb- (2015) provide a much longer record of multiple anon. Recent research by the teams associated with glaciations in Italy from proglacial palaeolake these papers has established the glacial geomorphol- basins in the Apennines. These are especially inter- ogy of the mountains of Turkey as one the best- esting because they preserve a record of glaciation dated records of its kind in the world. that is commonly missing in the moraine record. Giraudi & Giaccio (2015) report evidence of major Middle Pleistocene glaciations during MIS Quaternary glaciation of the 14, 12, 10, 8 and 6. They also highlight the impor- Mediterranean mountains: the current tance of tectonic processes (uplift and/or subsi- dence) in altering the relative positions of glacial state of knowledge features in the landscape. Atlas Mountains Across the Adriatic, current knowledge of glaciations in Slovenia is reviewed by Ferk et al. (2015). The Atlas Mountains were extensively glaciated As in Italy, two styles of glaciation have been recog- during the Pleistocene. The glacial record in the nized: one connected to the main Alpine ice sheet Atlas Mountains is important for understanding and one associated with more localized glaciation the palaeoclimate of the Mediterranean during in the northern Dinaric Alps. Further south, in Mon- Pleistocene cold stages because they are the most tenegro, Adamson et al. (2016) report new evidence southerly of all the Mediterranean mountains and of glacier–fluvial interaction in the Bay of Kotor. lie between the North Atlantic Ocean, the Sahara Here, a large alluvial fan formed directly below a Desert – the largest desert on Earth – and the Med- major outlet glacier of the former Orjen ice cap. iterranean Sea. The history of glacier research in The fan is Middle Pleistocene in age and closely this region is summarized in Hughes et al. (2004, related to the largest glaciation of this region that 2011a), Messerli (1967) and Hannah et al. (2016) took place during MIS 12 (Adamson et al. 2014). in this volume. Much further south on the Balkan Peninsula, Pope The most detailed studies of glaciation are from et al. (2015) report geochronological evidence the Marrakech High Atlas, which culminate at Jebel from Mt Chelmos in the Peloponnesus, where a Toubkal, the highest summit in North Africa large ice cap, similar to that found on Mt Orjen, (4167 m a.s.l.). There has been a long history of formed during the Middle Pleistocene. However, research in this area – for reviews of the earliest Pope et al. (2015) focus attention on the timing of papers, see Dresch (1941) and Messerli (1967). A the Late Pleistocene glaciation and provide evi- series of more recent studies has presented detailed dence for an early glacier maximum dating to MIS geomorphological maps and cosmogenic ages for 3, which was followed by glacier retreat to the the landforms of this area (Hughes et al. 2011a, high cirques in MIS 2. They present the first dates 2014; Hannah et al. 2016 in this volume). confirming the presence of Younger Dryas glaciers Early research mentions significant glaciation in Greece. Bathrellos et al. (2015) have compiled in other parts of the High Atlas, such as on Irhil a database on the characteristics of cirques in the M’Goun (4071 m a.s.l.) in the NE High Atlas mountains of Greece. They discuss the potential (Wiche 1953) (Fig. 1), but no further research has effects of tectonism on these and other glacial land- been reported. Evidence of glaciation has also forms. This paper highlights some of the problems been reported in the Djurdjura (2308 m a.s.l.) and associated with the reconstruction of equilibrium Aure`s (2328 m a.s.l.) mountains of Algeria (Barbier line altitudes (ELAs) in areas of very active tecton- & Cailleux 1950 and Ballais 1981, 1983, respec- ics and assesses their usefulness for wider regional tively). Despite the relatively low altitude and comparisons. low latitude of the Djurdjura Mountains, the pres- Turkey continues to be a very active area of ence of glaciers in this area was noted as early as Pleistocene glacial research. It is comprehensively the nineteenth century by Raclus, who also provided represented here by three papers that include new a sketch map of the ‘Ancient glaciers of the Haizer regional syntheses and valley-scale case studies. Mountains’ (part of the Djurdjura Mountains) Akçar et al. (2015) focus on a case study from (Raclus 1885, p. 207, fig. 67). However, most Uludag˘ in the far northwest in which they present areas of the Atlas Mountains and adjacent chains a suite of 10Be exposure ages for one of the best- in NW Africa have never been studied for evidence dated records in the Mediterranean mountains. of Pleistocene glaciation. In this sense, large areas of Çiner & Sarıkaya (2015) present the first glacial the Atlas Mountains have not yet even attained Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

6 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD

Fig. 1. Two cirques feeding a glaciated valley (centre of image) near Irhil M’Goun (4071 m a.s.l.) in the High Atlas Morocco (31.5027 N, 26.4616 W). The valley is c. 3 km long. pioneer phase status in the glacial geomorphologi- another where researchers argue that the largest cal research hierarchy defined by Hughes et al. glacier advance is broadly synchronous with the (2006a). global LGM. This issue may have arisen due to the spatial complexity of climate and topography, Iberia and Pyrenees with glaciers behaving rather differently depending on their location. In the Pyrenees, for example, the The Pleistocene glaciers of Iberia were strongly evidence from Andorra shows that the largest gla- influenced by their proximity to the North Atlantic ciers occurred in MIS 4, whereas the MIS 2 glaciers Ocean (Fig. 2) and the pattern of Pleistocene snow- were the largest in the eastern Pyrenees (e.g. Delmas lines reflects the moisture supply over this penin- et al. 2011). There is a good deal of evidence in the sula. Some of the lowest glaciers were present in Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain that puts the north and west of the peninsula. For example, the largest glaciation of the last glacial cycle in a large ice cap (c. 66 km2) formed over the rela- MIS 3 or 4 (Jimeńez-Sańchez & Farias 2002; Ser- tively low-lying Serra da Estrela (1991m a.s.l.) in rano et al. 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016). By contrast, Portugal (Fig. 2) (Vieira 2008). The last ice cap the moraines damming Lago de Sanabria in the on the Serra da Estrela appears to be Late Pleisto- Sanabria National Park have been dated to MIS cene in age based on 14C ages from lakes and 2 (Rodrı´guez-Rodrı´guez et al. 2014) and were asso- bogs within the glacial limits as well as thermolumi- ciated with an outlet glacier draining a large ice cap nescence dating of outwash (Janssen & Woldringh (Cowton et al. 2009). In the central and southern 1981; Van der Knaap & Van Leeuwen 1997; Vieira mountains of Spain, such as the Gredos (Palacios et al. 2001). et al. 2011), Sierra de Guadarama (Palacios et al. There has been a dramatic increase in the number 2012) and Sierra Nevada (Go´mez-Ortiz et al. of publications on Pleistocene glacial records from 2012), all the current evidence points to the largest the mountains of Spain over the past 10 years, advance having taken place during MIS 2. In some most of which present new geochronological data. cases the maximum glaciation was close in time to The major and ongoing debate in this region relates the global LGM (e.g. in the Gredos and Guadar- to the timing of the maximum extent of glaciation ama), whereas in other areas it clearly predated it during the last glacial cycle. Essentially, there (e.g. the Sierra Nevada), although it was still within have been two viewpoints: one where researchers MIS 2. Domıńguez-Villar et al. (2013) have argued find an early local glacier maximum, predating the that the MIS 2 advance in central Spain predated global LGM by several to tens of millennia, and the global LGM by several thousand years. Downloaded from UTRAYGAITO NTEMDTRAENMOUNTAINS MEDITERRANEAN THE IN GLACIATION QUATERNARY http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ byguestonSeptember28,2021

Fig. 2. The distribution of Pleistocene glaciation in the Mediterranean mountains and the associated equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) at the maximum recorded phase of glaciation. This was inspired by a similar ﬁgure published by Messerli (1967, Karte 1) although it is updated and revised based on the most recent data available. It is known that the timing of glaciations varied across the Mediterranean mountains with some glaciers reaching their maximum extent in the Middle Pleistocene (Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, Greece), whilst other areas contain evidence of only Late Pleistocene glaciers (e.g. Turkey). The ELA isopleth map for the entire region is therefore diachronous but provides an indication of Pleistocene glacier distributions. Even for the last glacial cycle glaciers reached their maximum extents at different times (Hughes & Woodward 2008; Hughes et al. 2013) and a synchronous ELA isopleth map for the entire region is likely to be unrealistic. A synchronous ELA isopleth map is only possible for well-dated moraines in narrow time intervals such as the global LGM (Hughes & Gibbard 2015) or the Younger Dryas (Renssen et al. 2015), when glaciers expanded in

many areas. The legend lists key locations featured in this volume. 7 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

8 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD

The deglacial (post-LGM) history of the Spanish glaciations in the Pyrenees is still unclear, however, mountains is now well constrained, with Palacios and field evidence is patchy, with only a few radio- et al. (2016) revealing evidence for an Older Dryas metric ages published in recent years (e.g. Delmas advance. This occurred at a similar time to other et al. 2011). This is partly related to the fact that, advances across the Mediterranean associated with in contrast to the situation in Greece, for example, Heinrich Event I. However, evidence of a glacial the maximum extents of the glaciers of the last gla- advance associated with the Younger Dryas has so cial cycle in the Pyrenees were close to the extent of far proved elusive in Iberia and is not clearly the largest recorded Middle Pleistocene glaciations. recorded in the moraine succession, although it The evidence is also patchy in Iberia, with limited has been suggested for some mountains (e.g. Pala- evidence for large Middle Pleistocene glaciations. cios et al. 2012), but not others (e.g. Palacios et al. The most striking evidence is from the relatively 2011). The Younger Dryas has not been identified low-lying Sierra de Quiexa and Serra do Gereˆsin in moraine records in the Cantabrian Mountains, the NW of the peninsula, where cosmogenic but it is well represented in lake sediment records. exposure ages place the largest glaciations firmly This is surprising given the proximity to the North within the Middle Pleistocene, with a glacial chro- Atlantic Ocean, where this climatic event is usually nological record dating to at least 250 ka (Fernandez very clearly imprinted. Another potential explana- Mosquera et al. 2000; Vidal Romanı´ et al. 2015). tion is the limited dating control for the moraine This is based on a rather limited sample size (six successions in the Cantabrian Mountains. The samples using 21Ne with replicates on just two sam- Late-glacial is often associated with rock glaciers in ples using 10Be) and more research is required to test Spain (cf. Pellitero et al. 2011; Serrano et al. 2013). this finding. There is also evidence of a major glaci- In the Sierra Nevada, rock glaciers continued to ation during the Middle Pleistocene in the Canta- form until well into the Holocene, with some yield- brian Mountains of northern Spain, recently dated ing exposure ages of c. 7 ka (Go´mez-Ortiz et al. by uranium series (Villa et al. 2013). Earlier 2012). If rock glaciers were more important than research in this region had hinted at the presence glaciers in Spain during the Younger Dryas, this of major Middle Pleistocene glaciations (Gale & would have important palaeoclimatic significance, Hoare 1997) although, at present, the actual geo- especially for establishing the track of moisture- morphological evidence for moraines of this age is bearing depressions at this time. as limited as the geochronological control. Real glaciers (rather than rock glaciers) have been confirmed in other parts of the Mediterranean Maritime Alps and Apennines mountains during the Younger Dryas through cosmogenic exposure dating of moraines. Examples The glaciers of the Maritime Alps appear to show are found in Morocco (Hughes et al. 2011a), in patterns of advance and retreat that are similar to the Maritime Alps (Federici et al. 2008, 2016) other parts of the Alps. Recent cosmogenic exposure and in Greece (Pope et al. 2015). The presence of dating by Federici et al. (2008, 2012) has helped glaciers (rather than rock glaciers) in these areas constrain the timings of advances, revealing a clas- during the Younger Dryas suggests an excess of sic Alpine succession of LGM, Gschnitz (equivalent snow accumulation over the supply of debris. in time to Heinrich Event I) and Egesen (Younger Rock glaciers are commonly indicative of dry and Dryas) moraines. This work is further refined in cold conditions (cf. Humlum 1998; Hughes et al. this volume by Federici et al. (2016), who present 2003), with some still active today in the highest more ages from moraines to reinforce the view Mediterranean mountains (Ribolini & Fabre 2006; that the classic Alpine succession is evident in the Akçar & Schlu¨chter 2005). Older moraines are also Maritime Alps. present in many of these mountain areas, although the age of these glacial deposits has not yet been Western Balkans: Slovenia to Greece established (e.g. Go´mez-Ortiz et al. 2012; Palacios et al. 2012). The Pleistocene glaciers of Slovenia can be divided The possibility cannot be ruled out that these gla- into those belonging to the main Alpine chain, which ciations date to early in the last glacial cycle or to were contiguous with the main Alpine ice sheet, and one or more of the Middle Pleistocene cold stages. those in the south of the country that formed separate Middle Pleistocene glaciations have been confirmed ice masses in the Dinaric Alps. Small glaciers are pre- in the glacial geomorphological record in only a few sent today in the mountains of Slovenia (Colucci parts of Iberia and the Pyrenees. They have been 2016; Del Gobbo et al. 2016), including on the high- identified beyond the limits of the last glaciation est peak of Triglav (2864 m) and nearby Skuta in the Pyrenees, an observation that was first made (2532 m). The glacier on Triglav has decreased in over half a century ago (Barre`re 1963). The age size over the past 100 years, covering an area and succession of the Middle Pleistocene ,0.01 km2 since 2003 (Triglav Cˇ ekada et al. 2012; Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

QUATERNARY GLACIATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MOUNTAINS 9

Hughes 2014). The glacial record of Slovenia is still research is required to fully understand the extent poorly dated – as noted in the review by Ferk et al. of glaciation. (2015) in this volume – although a few ages were Evidence for large Pleistocene ice caps in Mon- presented over a decade ago in Bavec et al. (2004) tenegro has been identified on the coastal mountains from the glaciated Socˇa valley. at Orjen (Hughes et al. 2010) and Lovcén (Zˇ ebre & Lying immediately to the south of Slovenia, the Stepisˇnik 2014) and on interior mountains such as Dinaric Alps of Croatia have been studied by several Durmitor (Djurovic´ 2009; Hughes et al. 2011b), researchers. These can be divided into studies that Kucˇ-Zˇ ijovo (Petrovic´ 2014) and Prokletije (Milivo- focus on the Late Pleistocene geomorphological jevic´ et al. 2008). The Pleistocene ELAs of these record, which is well preserved on mountains such glaciers, especially those on the coast, were some as Velebit (Belij 1985; Bognar et al. 1991; Velic´ of the lowest in the Mediterranean mountains et al. 2011, Bocˇic´ et al. 2012) and Risnjak (Bognar (Fig. 2), indicating high levels of precipitation dur- and Prugovecˇki 1997). Other researchers also recog- ing cold stages with a similar pattern to that nize much larger Middle Pleistocene glaciations that observed today. The glaciated mountains of Slove- even reached offshore (Marjanac & Marjanac 2004, nia, Croatia and Montenegro include some of the 2016; Marjanac 2012). The latter studies highlight best examples of glacio-karst landscapes known in the rich body of sedimentological evidence exposed the Mediterranean region (Gams 1969; Lewin & at the present coast, including sites such as Novigrad Woodward 2009). More, where glacial deposits are visible in section. Large Pleistocene ice fields covered many parts Erratics have been identified on the islands of Krk of the Pindus Mountains in Greece, as well as on and Rab. Uranium series ages from secondary car- Mt Olympus in the northeast. The chronology of the bonates show that these deposits are Middle Pleisto- Greek glacial sequence was established in Wood- cene in age, with the oldest and most extensive ward et al. (2004) and Hughes et al. (2006b), with glaciations correlating with the largest glaciations the largest glaciations dating to MIS 12 and 6 recorded further south in Montenegro and Greece. (Fig. 3), with much more restricted glacier develop- The full extent of glaciation in this area (Fig. 2) ment during the last glacial cycle, including the remains unresolved, however, and more basic field widespread occurrence of rock glaciers (Hughes

Fig. 3. Exposure in Middle Pleistocene moraine showing limestone-rich till on the southern slopes of Mt Tymphi near the village of Tsepelovo in the Pindus Mountains of NW Greece. Photograph taken by Jamie Woodward. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

10 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD et al. 2003). The restricted nature of the Late Pleis- colder summer temperatures were unable to offset tocene glaciation in Greece is confirmed by Pope the arid climate. This may suggest that westerly et al. (2015) in this volume. These researchers sourced depressions were unable to penetrate with applied cosmogenic exposure dating to show that significant effects into the far eastern Mediterranean Late Pleistocene glaciers on Mt Chelmos in the Pel- during the Middle Pleistocene cold stages. A further oponnesus were restricted to the highest valley areas consideration is the relative influence of the Indian above 2000 m a.s.l. Further dating is required on monsoon v. climate systems from the North Atlan- the most extensive glacial deposits on Mt Chelmos tic, which are both known to affect the climate in and the surrounding areas to more clearly establish Turkey and the Near East (Bar-Matthews et al. the patterns of glaciation in different cold stages 2000, 2003). In the Holocene, for example, dry win- in southern Greece. The patterns of glaciation in ters in Turkey were often associated with cold and Greece reveal a strong west–east gradient in ELAs wet winters in the European Alps (Jones et al. 2006). (Fig. 2). This implies that, like today, moisture was Thus, although these effects are not yet understood strongly associated with westerlies and hints at a for the Pleistocene, it is likely that the climate in west–east track of atmospheric depressions through the eastern Mediterranean can be governed by rather the Mediterranean. However, questions remain over different controls than that in the west. Establishing the extent and timing of glaciations on Mt Olympus the magnitude and significance of effects on glacier (Smith et al. 1997, 2006) because there are anoma- behaviour across the Mediterranean mountains dur- lously low interpretations of ELAs in this area ing different cold stages poses a challenge for future compared with the rest of Greece. research. It should now be possible to use climate and glacier models to test some of these ideas. Turkey and the Near East Mediterranean islands: Crete, Sicily and The last decade has seen a large number of studies Corsica published in this region (Akçar et al. 2007, 2008, 2014; Sarıkaya et al. 2008, 2009, 2014; Zahno The Mediterranean islands contain some of the et al. 2009, 2010; Zreda et al. 2011; Reber et al. highest mountains in the region and many of these 2014; Çiner et al. 2015). These are either 10Be or were glaciated in the Pleistocene. Corsica, for exam- 36Cl exposure age studies. As reviewed by Sarıkaya ple, where the highest peak of Monte Cinto reaches &Ç iner (2015) and Akçar et al. (2015) in this vol- 2706 m a.s.l., was extensively glaciated and some ume, all of these data indicate Late Pleistocene gla- glaciers were up to 14 km long during the last cold ciation in Turkey. stage (Conchon 1978, 1986). The first cosmogenic In marked contrast with the records in Greece, ages from moraines in Corsica were presented by Italy and the western Mediterranean, there is cur- Hewitt (2001). This pioneering study was followed rently no published evidence of older Middle Pleis- by a larger dataset published in Kuhlemann et al. tocene glaciations anywhere in Turkey. This (2008), who applied 10Be analyses to show that suggests that the climatic controls on glaciation in the most extensive glacial phase of the last cold Turkey during cold stages were not the same as stage took place in MIS 2. On Sardinia, where the those for most other mountain areas of the Mediter- highest peak reaches 1834 m a.s.l. at Punta La Mar- ranean. Although ELA patterns do indicate a wes- mora, there is no evidence for significant glaciation. terly source for moisture during the last cold stage Nivation hollows appear to have been present in the in western Turkey (Fig. 2), the absence of an earlier Pleistocene (Messerli 1967), although the age of glacier record may be related to the relative influ- these features is unknown. ence of the westerly atmospheric circulation as the Mt Etna (3329 m a.s.l.) on Sicily is by far the primary source of moisture in different cold stages. highest mountain on the Mediterranean islands and If further research confirms that the Middle Pleisto- one of the highest mountains in the entire region, cene glaciers were smaller than the Late Pleistocene yet clear evidence of glaciation has been buried by glaciers in Turkey, it may be because the climate lava flows or obliterated by explosive volcanic was drier in the severe Middle Pleistocene cold activity, perhaps most recently in the Lateglacial stages in this region. For example, MIS 12 was (Albert et al. 2013). However, this volcano would one of the most severe glacial stages of the Pleisto- have certainly been glaciated. Neri et al. (1994) cene, with tree pollen absent from Tenaghi Philip- and Neri (2002) estimated a Pleistocene snowline pon in NE Greece (Tzedakis et al. 2003). In NW of c. 2500 m a.s.l. and Carveni et al. (2012) have Greece, the largest glacier advances were facilitated identified morphological evidence of a glacial val- by some of the coldest summer temperatures of the ley on the NE flank of Etna. Pleistocene (Hughes et al. 2007). However, unlike In Crete, the southernmost of the large Mediter- in NW Greece, the absence of similar large Middle ranean islands, evidence of glaciation is limited and, Pleistocene glaciers in Turkey suggests that much in some areas, strongly contested (Hughes & Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

QUATERNARY GLACIATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MOUNTAINS 11

Woodward 2009). Perhaps the clearest evidence of (Solomina et al. 2016). Hughes (2014) has identified former glaciation is on Mt Idi (or Mt Psiloritis, many sites around the Mediterranean where gla- 2456 m a.s.l.), the highest mountain in Crete. ciers were present during the Little Ice Age (Fig. Here, Fabre & Maire (1983) recognized a cirque 3). These include southern Spain, where the Corral with moraines at an altitude of c. 1945 m. Further Veleta glacier was present as late as the 1920s (Mes- west, in the White Mountains, Poser (1957), Bonne- serli 1967). Today, this feature is a buried ice patch font (1972) and Boenzi et al. (1982) did not find any and is technically permafrost – the most southerly evidence of glaciation. However, Bathrellos et al. known permafrost in Europe (Go´mez et al. 2001). (2015) in this volume and in an earlier paper (Bath- In northern Spain, west of the Pyrenees, ice patches rellos et al. 2014) report cirques in the White Moun- still exist, although these are not dynamic ice mas- tains. Nemec & Postma (1993) have also argued that ses and therefore technically not glaciers. How- the White Mountains were glaciated during the ever, true glaciers were present in several parts of Pleistocene and stated that ‘there is much compel- Spain during the Little Ice Age (Gonza´lez Trueba ling geomorphic indication of probable cirque gla- et al. 2008). ciers or an ice cap with glaciers’ (Nemec & Just over 20 glaciers survive today in the Pyre- Postma 1993, pp. 237–238). They studied a series nees, whereas glaciers were present on 15 massifs of alluvial fans in southern Crete and have argued in over 100 cirques during the Little Ice Age (see that they were formed by large fluvial discharges Grove & Gellatly 1995; Gonza´lez Trueba et al. associated with ice cap wastage in the White Moun- 2008; Hughes & Woodward 2009). Some small gla- tains. They dated these fans to the Middle Pleisto- ciers also survive in the Maritime Alps, the south- cene using uranium series techniques. Hempel ernmost outposts of the Alps, where 15 small (1991) recognized deposits in the White Mountains glaciers were present at the end of the twentieth cen- and on Mt Ida that he called ‘fluvial–nivale’, which tury (Federici & Pappalardo 1995). Further east in he ascribed to the Saalian glaciations on the basis of Slovenia, two glaciers have been reported in the uranium series dating. Comprehensive field obser- Julian Alps below the peaks of Triglav (2864 m vations from the highest parts of the mountains of a.s.l.) (Triglav Cˇ ekada et al. 2012) and Skuta Crete are needed to fully test these ideas (Hughes (2532 m a.s.l.) (Pavsˇek 2004), with two small gla- & Woodward 2009; Hughes 2012). Establishing ciers also present on the slopes of Canin (2587 m the true nature of the glacial record at this latitude a.s.l.) just over the border in Italy (Triglav Cˇ ekada in the eastern Mediterranean is important to better et al. 2014). To the south in Montenegro, a small gla- understand the pattern of glaciations across the cier still exists in the Durmitor Massif (Hughes entire Mediterranean region. 2007, 2008; Djurovic´ 2012) (Fig. 5). Several small glaciers survive in Albania (Hughes 2009), although the year-on-year status of these glaciers appears to Modern and Little Ice Age glaciers change fairly rapidly (Gachev & Stoyanov 2012). Many more small niche glaciers existed throughout A small number of glaciers still survive in southern the Balkans in the Little Ice Age (Hughes 2010). Europe. These are documented in Grunewald & There are no modern glaciers in Greece. Hughes Scheithauer (2010) and their locations are shown et al. (2006c) argued that the last glaciers in the in Figure 4. The majority of modern glaciers in the mountains of Greece were likely to be Younger Mediterranean mountains are restricted to the high- Dryas in age. However, Smith et al. (1997) sug- est peaks over 3000 m a.s.l. in the Pyrenees and east- gested that cirque moraines on Mt Olympus, the ern Turkey. However, in wetter areas such as the highest mountain in Greece, were Holocene ‘Neo- western Balkans, small niche glaciers survive on glacial’ in age. Recent research by Styllas et al. mountains where the peaks are as low as 2400– (2016) has confirmed the presence of permanent 2700 m a.s.l. (Hughes 2009). There are no modern snow fields in the northern cirque of Megali Kazania glaciers in the Atlas Mountains, which represent on Mt Olympus and these researchers use this evi- the southernmost of the Mediterranean mountains. dence to argue that Holocene glaciers formed in However, perennial snow fields did exist in the this cirque. The presence of Holocene glaciers on twentieth century and there is evidence for small Mt Olympus is plausible given the recent findings niche glaciers, such as that below the cliffs of Taza- from Montenegro and Albania, although there is ghart. This feature is discussed in detail in Hannah currently no unequivocal evidence for Holocene et al. (2016) and is thought to have formed during glaciers in Greece. Turkey has the largest number the Little Ice Age. of modern glaciers in the Mediterranean region – The Little Ice Age is known to have been a at least 38 have been identified. The largest glaciers period of global glacier expansion beginning in are found in southeast Turkey on mountains such as the thirteenth century (or earlier) and reaching a Cilo Sat (4135 m a.s.l.) (Hughes 2014). Turkish gla- maximum in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries ciers covered a total area of c. 22.9 km2 in 1980 12 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ .D UHS&J .WOODWARD C. J. & HUGHES D. P. byguestonSeptember28,2021

Fig. 4. Locations of modern or Little Ice Age glaciers in the Mediterranean mountains based on Hughes (2014). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

QUATERNARY GLACIATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MOUNTAINS 13

Fig. 5. Debeli namet glacier in the Durmitor Massif, Montenegro. Photograph by Philip Hughes, late summer 2006.

(Kurter & Sungur 1980). The ELA of glaciers in the Mediterranean glaciation: progress, 1950s was between 3100 and 4200 m a.s.l., with the problems and prospects lowest glaciers present on the northern slopes of the Pontic Mountains, the highest in the eastern interior One outcome of the dramatic increase in published close to the border with Iran. work on the glaciations of the Mediterranean moun- The state of the glaciers in all these areas is tains in the last decade is the emergence of impor- always changing and the total number of true gla- tant new questions. Although the pioneer phase ciers is liable to change. This is not always towards had been attained in many regions by the time of fewer or smaller glaciers despite the trend towards a Messerli’s classic 1967 review, it is only recently warmer climate. For example, the Triglav glacier in that the mapping and advanced phases have become Slovenia expanded slightly in the early part of this established. The mapping and advanced phases have century as a result of heavy snowfall in successive often occurred simultaneously because the creation winters. In most areas, however, there has been a of dating frameworks also requires accurate geo- clear trend towards glacier retreat and extinction. morphological base maps. However, it is apparent This is highlighted by the fact that there were that the recent focus on rigorous mapping and dating hundreds of small glaciers present in the Balkans has been concentrated in relatively few regions of in the Little Ice Age, yet there were fewer than 10 the Mediterranean mountains and especially in identiﬁed as active in the twentieth century (Hughes Iberia/the Pyrenees and Turkey. There have been 2010). The extent of Little Ice Age glaciers is sim- numerous studies in the last decade or so in the west- ply unknown in many areas and it is likely that ern Balkans, but large areas remain unstudied, many more sites of former Little Ice Age glaciers including most of Bosnia and parts of Greece. In will become apparent. Thus small glaciers were pre- Italy, only a few areas have seen both mapping sent from the Atlas Mountains in the west to the and dating applied to the glacial successions (Gir- Taurus Mountains in the east even during the late audi & Frezzotti 1997; Kotarba et al. 2001; Federici Holocene (Fig. 3). et al. 2008, 2012, 2016; Giraudi et al. 2011; Giraudi Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

14 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD

2012; Giraudi & Giaccio 2015). In Morocco, the availability of suitable samples often provide obsta- mapping and advanced phases are only just begin- cles to achieving this ambition. ning and here too this work is restricted to a rela- Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of Quaternary tively small area around the SW High Atlas. Areas glaciers in the Mediterranean mountains. This map that remain untouched beyond the most basic pio- is diachronous because some of these glaciers and neer observations include Algeria, Bosnia, large associated snowlines are Late Pleistocene in age areas of Albania and most of Lebanon. Some new (e.g. in Turkey), whereas others are Middle Pleisto- dating of glacial moraines in Lebanon has been pre- cene in age (e.g. in Greece and Montenegro). Other sented by Moulin et al. (2011) and is reviewed in glacier maxima that occurred within the same gla- this volume by Sarıkaya & Çiner (2015). However, cial cycle may have done so at different times detailed studies in this area are lacking and this is (Hughes & Woodward 2008). Nonetheless, the pat- likely to remain the case for some time given the tern of glaciation and the lowest Pleistocene ELAs political instability in the region. shown in this map reveal important insights into A full evaluation of the glacial history of the the key controls on glaciations: precipitation pat- Mediterranean mountains is still hampered by the terns and summer air temperatures. In general, gla- fact that large swathes remain undated. Even ciers had lower ELAs in places where the climate where mountains have many dates from glacial ter- was wetter or colder. Pleistocene glacier equilib- rains, these are often focused on well-preserved Late rium line distributions followed a similar pattern Pleistocene moraines because they offer the best to today’s distribution of precipitation. This is sig- opportunities for cosmogenic exposure dating. Con- nificant because it highlights the role of the mid- versely, where other methods have been applied to latitude westerlies on glacier formation during older moraines, such as uranium series dating in Pleistocene cold stages because the wettest areas the western Balkans, there has been only limited both today and during the Pleistocene include the progress in dating the Late Pleistocene moraine suc- western parts of Iberia, Italy, Greece and Turkey cessions. This is likely to change given the recent – areas which receive their precipitation predomi- success of 36Cl dating on limestone terrains in nantly from westerly derived depressions. In Iberia, Greece (Pope et al. 2015). Several different dating these depressions are sourced in the Atlantic Ocean. techniques need to be applied to fully understand The Mediterranean mountains that border areas of the complexity and timespan of glacial succes- major modern cyclogenesis – such as the Alboran sions in the Mediterranean mountains. For example, Sea, Gulf of Genoa, the Adriatic Sea and Aegean 36Cl dating in limestone terrains is appropriate Sea – are characterized by some of the lowest gla- for dating surfaces up to about 30–40 ka. Beyond ciers of the Pleistocene. this age range, surface weathering means that the The generalization of Figure 2 belies the fact that technique becomes both inaccurate and imprecise. glacier behaviour was very different spatially and Conversely, uranium series dating of cemented temporally across the Mediterranean mountains. moraines allows for ‘old’ Middle Pleistocene glacial Existing evidence of the glaciations across the Med- sediments to be identified and bracketed in time, iterranean reveals both similarities and contrasts. but the minimum ages generated by this approach For example, the large Middle Pleistocene glacia- mean that it lacks the precision needed to tie down tions of the western Balkans are not matched in Tur- the timing of glacier advances. Thus 36Cl exposure key or in North Africa. This may be an artefact of the age dating is probably the best approach for dating dating technique used, with the oldest moraines in Late Pleistocene moraines in the case of limestone some especially seismically and geomorphologi- terrains, whereas the technique is not viable for cally active areas being beyond the resolution of older Middle Pleistocene moraines and uranium cosmogenic exposure dating. In other situations series dating provides the best approach in these the contrasts appear to be real, such as the absence areas. These approaches should be used in tandem of Middle Pleistocene glaciations in Turkey even for successions that span both the Middle and Late though they are clearly present in Greece. Explain- Pleistocene. Similar issues can be identified with a ing this pattern represents a key challenge for any range of other dating techniques, including radiocar- pan-Mediterranean palaeoclimate modelling based bon and optically stimulated luminescence, and the on the glacier record. future study of Mediterranean glaciations should The problem of tectonics and its effects on the strive to apply multiple techniques simultaneously. landscape cannot be ignored in the Mediterranean This has now been achieved in many studies of the glacial record. The Mediterranean mountains lie in Pleistocene fluvial record in the Mediterranean a zone of ongoing and intense tectonic activity and (Lewin et al. 1991; Hamlin et al. 2000; Rowan their very existence is a product of this setting et al. 2000; Schulte et al. 2008; Woodward et al. (cf. Roberts & Stewart 1994; Faure Walker et al. 2008; Macklin & Woodward 2009). This is the 2012). Rates of uplift and subsistence vary dramat- ideal approach, but resource constraints and the ically across the region, however (Mather 2009) so Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

QUATERNARY GLACIATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN MOUNTAINS 15 that, as we go further back in time, the position of change over the timescales of the Middle and Late the land surface relative to the Earth’s geoid Pleistocene. A similar conclusion was reached becomes distorted. This effect is compounded by from the study of fluvial records across several the fact that sea-levels have also changed dramati- sites in the Mediterranean region by Macklin et al. cally during the glacial and interglacial cycles of (2002). This should therefore encourage future the Quaternary. In this volume, Giraudi & Giaccio mapping, dating and reconstruction of these glacier (2015) and Bathrellos et al. (2015) attempt to records to refine and fully test the distribution address the issue of tectonics. Hughes (2004, illustrated in Figure 2, with the goal of providing a pp. 226–227) argued that tectonic uplift in the Pin- temporally dynamic series of ELA maps for the dus Mountains of Greece is countered by lowered Mediterranean mountains. relative sea-levels during cold stages so that the Mediterranean glaciers had significant impacts effects of uplift on mountain altitudes have been on downstream fluvial regimes and sediment supply insignificant for the last 300 000 years or so. By con- (Lewin et al. 1991; Woodward et al. 2008). Several trast, Smith et al. (2006) estimated that uplift- studies have identified the impacts of glaciation corrected palaeo-ELAs on Mt Olympus were as recorded in downstream fluvial sediments (Wood- low as 500–600 m a.s.l. This is .1000 m lower ward et al. 1992, 1994, 1995, 2008; Lewis et al. than the uncorrected ELAs reconstructed for the 2009), including their role in filling polje basins in Pindus Mountains in the west. Such dramatic uplift classic karst terrains (Adamson et al. 2014, 2016). corrections complicate comparisons across wide Changes in glacial meltwater flux can have signifi- areas (hence the question mark for Mt Olympus in cant impacts on lake levels (Wilson et al. 2015), Fig. 2). In this volume, Pope et al. (2015) confront especially in limestone areas where large volumes this problem, although for the Late Pleistocene at of meltwater are transferred via subterranean karst least they consider the uplift question of negligible conduits (Woodward et al. 2008; Adamson et al. significance for reconstructing palaeo-ELAs. It can 2014; Wilson et al. 2015). From their study of the be argued that this is even the case in an area subject marine sediment record offshore of southern France, to the most intense tectonism in Greece, close to the Bonneau et al. (2014) have shown that turbidity cur- Gulf of Corinth (cf. Roberts & Stewart 1994; Piraz- rent activity was greater during the last glacial than zoli et al. 2004). For Middle Pleistocene glacier in the Holocene. They were also able to show how reconstructions this issue is potentially even more the flux of fine-grained sediment from glaciated problematic. Despite the problems in accounting for mountain catchments to offshore basins decreased tectonic uplift, Hughes (2004) and Hughes et al. significantly following glacier retreat. Linking the 2006d) argued that changes in uplift and relative onshore and offshore records of Pleistocene glacial sea-level do not affect any extrapolation of temper- activity is a key objective for future research. The ature to different altitudes if it is assumed that the mountains of the Mediterranean are known to have uplift between extrapolated points has been rela- hosted refugia for temperate flora and fauna during tively uniform. At the cirque valley scale this may glacial stages (Tzedakis 1993, Hewitt 2000) and it be a reasonable assumption, although Giraudi & is likely that glaciers were a significant influence Giaccio (2015) highlight the possibility of signifi- on the geography of refugia due to their physical cant tectonic distortions even at this scale. The presence and influence on microclimates, while importance of such local tectonic differences for also sustaining some refugia through the supply of glacier reconstructions is open to debate, largely meltwater. The interactions between glaciers and because of difficulties in establishing the signifi- Pleistocene refugia in the Mediterranean uplands cance of the impact. However, the tectonic issue is worthy of more systematic research. cannot be ignored when comparing reconstructed ELAs over hundreds of kilometres across and between massifs, especially for the older Middle Conclusions Pleistocene glaciations. For Late Pleistocene glaciations the tectonic factor is not likely to be climati- Our understanding of the Pleistocene glaciations of cally significant so that the ELAs are likely to be the Mediterranean mountains has improved dramat- comparable across mountain chains and even across ically over the last decade. This has largely resulted the entire Mediterranean region. Even for the Mid- from the widespread application of geochronologi- dle Pleistocene, the effects of uplift are countered cal techniques to date moraines and associated sed- by the fact that cold stage sea-levels were .120 m iments and landforms as well as studies of the lower than today (see discussion in Pope et al. coarse- and fine-grained outwash deposited in 2015). Although tectonics is clearly fundamental downstream fluvial systems. This volume presents in shaping the Mediterranean mountains in the lon- a large body of new work from some of the leading ger term (i.e. over the whole Cenozoic), climate is researchers in the study of Mediterranean glacia- arguably the main driver of geomorphological tions and signposts key opportunities for future Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

16 P. D. HUGHES & J. C. WOODWARD research. Much of this future activity will be driven Akçar, N., Yavuz,V.et al. 2015. Synchronous Last Gla- by the key themes of timing and palaeoclimate as cial Maximum across the Anatolian peninsula. In: well as attempts to link the terrestrial and offshore Hughes, P.D. & Woodward, J.C. (ed.) Quaternary records. Dating methods are now more widely avail- Glaciation in the Mediterranean Mountains. Geologi- able and many researchers have recognized the cal Society, London, Special Publications, 433, First published online December 11, 2015, https://doi.org/ importance of building robust geochronologies for 10.1144/SP433.7 glaciation across the region. This will provide a plat- Albert, P.G., Tomlinson, E.L. et al. 2013. Late glacial form for the development of temporally and spa- explosive activity on Mount Etna: implications for tially dynamic palaeoclimatic simulations for proximal–distal tephra correlations and the synchroni- multiple glacial phases across the Mediterranean sation of Mediterranean archives. Journal of Volcanol- mountains. ogy and Geothermal Research, 265, 9–26. Almagia`, R. 1918. Trace glaciali nelle montagne dell’Al- bania. Rivista Geografica Italiana, 25, 85–95. We thank Graham Bowden and Nick Scarle for drawing Ballais, J.-L. 1981. Recherches Geómorhologiques dans the figures. We also thank Rupreet Rai for her background le Aure`s (Alge´rie). The`se, Docteur e`s Lettres, Univer- research on the history of glacial research in the Mediter- site´ de Paris I. 561 p. ranean. This book originated in a session convened by Ballais, J-L. 1983. 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