Co n t e n t s

Preface xxv

Part I THE ENGLISH COMMON LAW: MEDIEVAL ORIGINS

CHAPTER 1 Cr i m i n a l Pr o c e d u r e a n d t h e Or i g i n s o f t h e Ju r y Sy s t e m 3 I. Kingship and Law 5 A. Anglo-Saxon Kingship and Law 5 B. Customary Law 7 C. Norman Feudalism 10 II. Local Society and Governance 13 A. the Open Field System 13 B. the Social Relations of the Open Fields 16 C. Local Courts: County and Hundred 18 D. Walter v. William Thomas (1247) 20 E. Policing Before Police: The Hue and Cry 21 F. Babington v. Yellow Taxi Corp. (1928) 23 G. the Frankpledge System 27 III. The Appeal of Felony 29 A. Jordan v. Simon (1219) 30 B. Appeal Procedure 30 C. Thomas v. Alan Harvester (1202) 34 IV. The Jury of Accusation 35 A. the Assize of Clarendon (1166) 35 B. the Presentment System 37 V. The Ordeals 43 A. Practice and Theory 44 B. Avoiding the Ordeals: Sanctuary and Abjuration 46 1. Fleta’s Account 46 2. A Bedfordshire Case (1276) 47 C. Elective Jury Trial 48 1. The Willingham Fire Case (1202) 48 2. Maitland’s Account 49 D. Abolition of the Ordeals 51 1. Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 18 (1215) 51 2. the Critique of the Ordeals 51

ix History of the Common Law

VI. Replacing God in the Judgment Seat: European and English Responses to the Abolition of the Ordeals 54 A. Europe: Professional Judges, the Roman-Canon Law of Proof, and the Law of Torture 54 B. Jury Trial: The English Response to the Abolition of the Ordeals 58 1. the Decree of 1219 59 2. the Consensual Basis of Jury Trial 59 3. de la Hethe’s Case (1221) 60 4. Compelling Jury Trial: Peine forte et dure 61 5. the Overlap of Presentment and Trial Juries 62 The Living Law: Torture and the Law Today 63 VII. The Jury System at Work in the Eyre Court 64 A. the General Eyre 64 B. the Revenue Dimension 66 C. Wiltshire Eyre Roll Excerpts (1249) 67 D. Separating the Juries of Accusation and Trial 71 VIII. Why Group Inquest? 72 A. Beyond Witnessing 72 The Living Law: Jury Unanimity Today 75 B. Judicial Economy 76 C. the Timing Thesis 77

CHAPTER 2 Ci v i l Ju s t i c e 85 I. The Writ System 87 A. illustrative Writs 87 1. Praecipe 87 2. Praecipe/ostensurus quare 88 3. Ostensurus quare 88 B. origins and Development of the Writ System 88 C. Chancery: The “Writ Shop” 93 D. The Forms of Action 96 E. Writ of Right 97 1. Protecting Landholding 98 2. trial by Battle 98 3. Jury Trial and Jurisdictional Expansion 100 F. the Assize of Novel Disseisin 101 1. Glanvill’s Exemplar 101 2. Protecting Quiet Possession 101 G. the Writ of Trespass 103 1. Vi et armis 103 2. “Case” 104 3. the Cessation of Writ Creation 105 II. Procedure Without Writ at Common Law: Instigation by Bill or Petition 105 A. Bills in Eyre 105 1. shropshire Eyre Bills (1292) 106 2. Expanding the Common Law 109 B. King’s Bench Bills 110 x Contents

III. Parliamentary Petitions 111 A. the High Court of Parliament 112 B. Case of the Disappearing Highway (1305) 114 1. Petition 114 2. response 115 C. responses to Petitions (1305) 115 1. oxford University 115 2. John of Bradley 116 3. John of Crofton 116 D. The Changing Role of Parliament 117 IV. The Common Law Courts 117 A. Formation of the Central Courts 118 1. Common Pleas 119 2. King’s Bench 119 3. Exchequer 120 B. the Nisi Prius System 122 C. Magna Carta and the Common Law 123 V. The Path Not Taken 125 A. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction 126 B. Pledge of Faith 131 1. Barbour v. Lynche (1420) 131 2. Wood v. Lyford (1464) 132 C. roman-Canon Civil Procedure 132 1. Witness Testimony: Examination of John de Draycote 134 2. Contrasting Roman-Canon and English Procedure 136 D. The Legacy from Roman Law 137

CHAPTER 3 Sh a p i n g t h e Le g a l Pr o f e ss i o n s : Ba r , Be n c h , a n d Bo o k s 145 I. The Legal Professions: Pleading and Pleaders 147 A. Pleading 147 1. St. George v. Prioress of Easebourne (1293) 149 2. Pleading to Issue 150 B. Law French 152 1. origins and Character 152 2. Mandating English: The Act of 1731 153 C. Bench and Bar 155 1. Fortescue on the Serjeants’ Order (c. 1470) 155 2. Judicial Recruitment from the Bar 158 3. the Decline of the Serjeants’ Order 161 4. Bifurcation and the Impoverishment of the Judicial Role 161 D. Attorneys 162 1. the Attorney’s Role in Litigation 162 2. Attorney and Solicitor 163 II. Legal Education 164 A. Before the Inns: A London Law School? 164 B. the Inns of Court 170 III. Early Legal Literature 177 A. the Medieval Law Books 177 1. Glanvill 178 2. Bracton 178

xi History of the Common Law

B. the Year Books: The Origins of Law Reporting 179 1. Content and Character 180 2. Who Wrote the Year Books and Why? 181 3. the End of the Year Books 185 C. the Abridgments 187 D. Littleton 189 IV. The Civilians: England’s Other Legal Profession 190 A. Careers and Venues 192 B. Doctors’ Commons 197

Pa r t II THE SECOND ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4 Th e Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Ju r i e s a n d t h e Re c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Cr i m i n a l a n d Ci v i l Ju s t i c e 207 I. The Jury of Accusation: From Presentment to Indictment 210 A. the End of the Eyres 211 1. obtaining Jurors 212 2. the County-Wide Grand Jury 213 B. indictment 215 C. indictment as Safeguard 216 1. the Statute of 1352 217 2. the Statute of 1368 218 3. Ending Lynch Justice 219 D. Procedure Without Indictment 221 1. Criminal Information 221 2. Qui Tam Actions 222 The Living Law: Qui Tam Actions Today 223 II. The Black Death (1348–1349) 224 III. Rebuilding Criminal Justice in the Localities 227 A. Policing 227 1. the Decline of Frankpledge 227 2. the Constable 229 B. the Justices of the Peace 229 1. the Origins of the Commission of the Peace 230 2. An Act Concerning Justices of the Peace (1361) 233 3. the Parish: Staffing Local Government 236 IV. Toward the Instructional Trial: Proof by Witnesses 238 A. transitioning from the Self-Informing Jury 238 1. supplementing Jurors’ Knowledge at Trial 238 2. informing Jurors Out of Court 240 3. Courtroom Testimony 242 B. Fortescue’s Account of Civil Jury Trial (c. 1470) 244 C. Compulsory Process 246 1. the Elizabethan Statute of Perjury (1563) 246 2. overcoming the Litigation Torts 247 3. silencing the Parties: Disqualification for Interest 247

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V. Civil Justice in the Central Courts 248 A. the Rise of King’s Bench 248 1. the Bill of Middlesex 250 2. Legal Fictions 251 B. From Oral to Written Pleading 253 1. Cessation of the Year Book Pattern of Litigation 253 2. From Pleading to Adjudication 255 3. From Year Books to Nominate Reports 256

CHAPTER 5 Th e Ri s e o f Eq u i t y 267 I. Emergence of the Court of Chancery 271 A. origins 271 1. Deficiencies of the Medieval Common Law 271 2. returning to the Fount of Justice 274 B. Formation of the Court of Chancery from the Council 276 1. Caseloads 278 2. the Chancellors 279 C. Early Petitions to the Chancellor 280 1. Petition of Edward Bokelond (1394) 280 2. the Writ of Subpoena 282 3. Petition of Margaret Grimsby (c. 1401–1403) 283 4. Chancery’s In-Basket 284 D. Jurisdictional Theory 286 1. “Equity Acts in Personam” 286 2. “Equity Follows the Law” 287 E. resistance to Early Chancery 288 1. Parliament Roll (1377) 288 2. Parliament Roll (1421) 288 II. Chancery Procedure 289 A. Bill and Answer 290 B. Discovering Documents 290 C. obtaining Witness Testimony 291 1. Commissions to Examine 292 2. Cook v. Fountain (1676) 292 a. Defendant’s Interrogatories (1674) 293 b. Deposition of Sir John Hobart (1674) 295 3. secrecy as Safeguard: The “Publication” Rule and its Rationale 296 4. the Defects of Chancery’s Evidence-Gathering Process 297 D. Promoting Settlement 298 E. Hearing and Decree 299 III. The Use (Trust) 299 A. Early Practice 299 B. Ecclesiastical Origins? 300 C. Petition of Thomas and Joan Godwin (c. 1396–1399) 302 D. The Uses of the Use 304 E. Common Pleas Refuses to Recognize the Use (1464) 306 The Living Law: The Rise of the Management Trust 309

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IV. Contract 311 A. Enforcing a Promise in Chancery (1468) 311 B. Conscience 313 1. the Case of the Released Executor (1489) 313 2. saving the Soul of the Wrongdoer 315 3. John Selden, “The Chancellor’s Foot” 316 4. theorizing Equity 317 5. the Lesser Courts of Equity 319 C. Provoking Assumpsit? 320 D. Relief Against Seal and Record 320 1. obligations Under Seal 321 2. Double Suit on a Sealed Instrument (1343) 323 3. Chancery Intervention 323 4. Contracts of Record 324 5. Dialogue in Exchequer Chamber: Double Suit on a statute Merchant (1482) 325

The Living Law: Confessed Judgments in Modern Law 328 IV. Chancery Supremacy 329 A. the Relations of Chancery and the Common Law Courts 329 B. the Battle of the Courts: Bacon, Coke, and Ellesmere 329 1. Using Habeas Corpus to Control the Scope of Remedy in Chancery 330 2. the Statute of Praemunire (1353) 331 3. the Res Judicata Statute (1403) 332 C. Glanvile’s Case (1615) 333 D. Decree of King James (1616) 334

CHAPTER 6 Th e Ma t u r a t i o n a n d Re f o r m o f Ch a n c e r y , a n d t h e Fu s i o n o f La w a n d Eq u i t y 345 I. Regularizing Equity 348 A. Chancery’s Brush with Extinction 348 1. Parliamentary Maneuvers for Abolition in the Interregnum 348 2. the Survival of Chancery 349 B. Doctrinalization 351 1. the Great Chancellors: Nottingham, Hardwicke, Eldon 351 2. Chancery Law Reports 353 3. the Changing Patterns of Subject-Matter Jurisdiction 354 4. Protecting Married Women’s Property 355 C. Appellate Review 358 D. Parliament Assumes the Initiative in Law Reform 359 1. the Triennial Act of 1694 360 2. implications for Chancery 360 E. the Relations of Law and Equity 361 II. Reforming Chancery 362 A. Jarndyce v. Jarndyce, Bleak House (1853) 362 B. Chancery’s Staff 366 1. the Unreformed Court 366 2. Bentham’s Reminiscence of Corruption in Chancery 368

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3. “The Masters in Chancery”: Editorial (1832) 369 4. Ending the “Old Corruption” 369 5. Creating a Chancery Bench 370 C. Chancery Procedure: A Failed System of Fact-Finding 371 1. Commissions to Examine 372 2. Delegating Fact-Finding 375 3. the Chancery Commission and the Procedure Acts of the 1850s 376 III. Fusing Law and Equity: A Transatlantic Project in Law Reform 377 A. the Elements of Fusion 377 B. Equity Courts in America 378 1. Colonial Origins 378 2. state and Federal Equity 381 C. the Field Code in New York 382 D. Fusion in England: The Influence of the Field Code 384 E. the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (1938) 386 1. “How Equity Conquered Common Law” 386 2. the Drafting and the Drafters 389 3. the Discovery Revolution 392 The Living Law: Clinton v. Jones 396 4. Pleading and Discovery 398 5. the Vanishing Trial: Reorienting Civil Procedure to the Pretrial 399

Par t III RESHAPING THE JURY

CHAPTER 7 Co n t r o ll i n g , Re v i e w i n g , a n d Su ppr e ss i n g Ju r i e s i n En g l a n d 415 I. Reversing a Medieval Jury: Attaint 417 A. Blackstone’s Account 417 B. the Failings of Attaint 418 II. Fining Jurors 419 A. Juror Misconduct 419 B. Fining Jurors in Star Chamber 421 C. Proceedings Against the Throckmorton Jury (1554) 422 D. Bushell’s Case (1670) 424 E. Vaughan’s Opinion 426 III. Influencing the Jury’s Verdict 431 A. Judicial Comment 431 B. requiring Disclosure and Redeliberation of a Proffered Verdict 433 C. Arrowsmith’s Case (1678) 434 D. Weakening Trial-Level Jury Controls 438 IV. Reviewing Verdicts: The Motion for New Trial 439 A. Wood v. Gunston (1655) 439 B. the Emergence of New Trial 440

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C. Bright v. Enyon (1757) 445 D. Chancery 446 1. Coddrington v. Webb (1691) 446 2. the Threat from Equity 446 E. the Grounds for New Trial (1794) 447 F. Fact into Law: The Increasing Detail of Jury Instructions 448 V. Formation of the Law of Evidence 450 A. origins 451 B. Cross-Examination 453 C. Ending the Disqualification for Interest 454 D. The Exclusionary Principle 455 VI. The Suppression of Civil Jury Trial in England 458 A. Blackstone on the Civil Jury 458 B. the Demise of Civil Jury Trial 459

CHAPTER 8 Ju d g e /Ju r y Re l a t i o n s i n Am e r i c a 473 I. Enshrining the Jury in State and Federal Constitutions 475 A. Colonial Experience with the Jury 475 1. the Criminal Jury: The Zenger Case (1735) 475 a. the Background 475 b. the Trial Report 477 2. the Civil Jury: Erving v. Cradock (1761) 480 B. Juries and Popular Government in Revolutionary Ideology 483 C. Jury Law Finding 484 D. Constitutional Rights to Jury Trial in Criminal Cases 485 1. The Federalist No. 83 (1788) 485 2. Jurors’ Duty to Follow Judicial Instructions on Law in Criminal Cases 486 a. Sparf & Hansen v. United States (1895) 486 b. Law Nullifying in Criminal Cases 490 c. United States v. Thomas (1997) 491 E. Constitutional Rights to Jury Trial in Civil Cases 492 1. Before the Bill of Rights 492 2. the Seventh Amendment 493 II. Shaping the American Bench 495 A. the Struggle for Learned Law 496 B. Building the State Trial and Appellate Bench 500 C. the Elective Judiciary 503 1. inception 504 2. Criticism of Judicial Elections After the Civil War 506 3. Nominating Dan Breezy 507 4. Efforts to Moderate the Effects of Elective Judiciaries 509 The Living Law: Campaign Contributions to Judicial Candidates 510 D. Separating Trial and Appellate Courts 511 III. Judicial Comment on the Evidence 513 A. Judicial Comment in the Early Nineteenth Century 514 B. Lawyers’ Rhetoric 516 C. the Political Movement to Restrict Comment 520 The Living Law: Pattern Instruction on Judicial Opinion on Facts 522 xvi Contents

IV. The Emergence of New Trial 522 A. Juror Affidavits 522 B. State v. Freeman (1824) 524 The Living Law: Juror Affidavits Today 526 C. New Trial for Verdict Against Evidence 527 D. Later Developments in Jury Control 529 V. The Composition of the Jury 532 A. Abandoning Property Qualifications for Jurors 532 B. Extending Jury Service to African Americans and Women 534 1. African Americans 534 2. Women 536 3. the Fair Cross Section Requirement 538 The Living Law: Jury Service Reforms 539 C. Expanding Voir Dire 540 The Living Law: Jury Selection in the O.J. Simpson Murder Case 542

Pa r t IV CRIMINAL JUSTICE

CHAPTER 9 Re b u i l d i n g Cr i m i n a l Pr o c e d u r e : Th e Ma r i a n Pr e t r i a l a n d t h e Al t e r c a t i o n Tr i a l 559 I. The Rise and Fall of the Court of Star Chamber 562 A. origins and Jurisdiction 562 1. Long’s Case (1607) 565 2. Coke’s Account of the Court (c. 1630) 566 B. star Chamber Procedure 569 1. the Main Elements 569 2. the Chancery Model 570 3. Smith’s Case (1586) 573 C. the Fall of Star Chamber 574 1. Enforcing the “Personal Rule” of Charles I 574 2. the Act of 1641 576 II. Investigating Crime and Preparing for Trial: The Marian Pretrial 578 A. reinforcing the Private Prosecutor 579 1. the Marian Committal Statute (1555) 579 2. Background and Purpose 580 B. the Marian Pretrial in Operation 583 1. sir Thomas Smith’s Account (c. 1565) 583 2. Binding Over: A Recognizance to Give Evidence at Assizes (1561) 585 3. An Indictment for Burglary (1567) 588 4. the Grand Jury 588 III. The Altercation Trial 589 A. sir Thomas Smith’s Account (c. 1565) 590 1. the Court 592 2. the Trial 595

xvii History of the Common Law

B. R. v. John Baltee (1678) 598 1. the Sessions Papers 598 2. the Rapidity of Trial 599 C. the Absence of Plea Bargaining 601 D. The Rule Against Defense Counsel 602 1. Hawkins’ Account (1721) 603 2. the Rationale and Scope of the Rule 603 E. the State Trials 606 1. Proceedings 606 2. sanctions for Treason 609 F. stephen’s Assessment of the Early-Modern Criminal Trial 610 IV. Trial as a Sentencing Proceeding 613 A. Discretion in the Administration of Criminal Justice 613 B. Capital Punishment 614 1. the Death Penalty: Administration at Tyburn 614 2. the Blood Sanctions and the “Bloody Code” 615 C. Mitigation and Alternative Sanctions 618 1. Benefit of Clergy and Transportation 618 2. Partial Verdicts 622 3. R. v. Elizabeth Wooly (1686) 624 4. the Sentencing Role of the Jury 624 5. Acquittal Rates 625 6. Whipping 625 7. Clemency: Trial-Based Administration of the Pardon Process 626 The Living Law: Jury Sentencing Today 627 V. The Jury-Free Realm of Summary Jurisdiction 628 A. Blackstone’s Account (1769) 629 B. Courts, Offenses, Sanctions 631

CHAP T E R 10 Th e Gr o w t h o f De f e n s i v e Sa f e g u a r d 647 I. Reforming Criminal Procedure After the Glorious Revolution 649 A. the Treason Trials of the Later Stuarts 649 B. toward Judicial Independence 655 The Living Law: Terms of Office for Judges 657 C. Confronting the Disadvantages of the Treason Defendant 658 D. The Treason Trials Act of 1696 659 1. A Charter of Defensive Safeguard 660 2. the Restriction to High Treason 663 II. The Challenge of Urban Law Enforcement 665 A. Adapting the Marian Pretrial to the Metropolis 666 1. the Court JP: Henry and John Fielding at Bow Street 667 2. the City: The Sitting Alderman 670 B. Policing 671 C. the Reward System 674 1. An Act for Encouraging the Apprehending of Highwaymen (1692) 675 2. the Thieftakers and the Reward Scandals 677 xviii Contents

B. the Crown Witnesses System 682 C. Lawyers for the Prosecution 686 III. The Emergence of Adversary Criminal Procedure 689 A. Defense Counsel 690 B. silencing the Accused 693 1. sequencing Prosecution and Defense “Cases” 693 2. Preparing Defendants and Defense Witnesses 695 3. R. v. Olander Boston (1696) 696 4. the Beyond-Reasonable-Doubt Standard of Proof 696 5. the Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 698 C. the Law of Criminal Evidence 700 D. The Nineteenth-Century Legislation 700 1. Full Defense of Counsel: The Prisoner’s Counsel Act (1836) 700 2. Competency to Testify: The Criminal Evidence Act (1898) 702 E. Appellate Review 702 1. resisting New Trial 703 2. the Court of Criminal Appeal 705 IV. The Atrophy of Criminal Jury Trial 706 A. Professionalizing the Magistracy 706 B. the Grand Jury: Obsolescence and Abolition 707 C. Plea Bargaining 708 D. Summary Jurisdiction 710 1. Why Summary Proceedings? 710 2. Public Prosecution 712

CHAP T E R 11 Am e r i c a n Cr i m i n a l Ju s t i c e 729 I. Criminal Justice in Colonial British North America 731 A. reception 731 B. Policing 733 C. Prosecution 734 D. Pretrial Procedure 734 1. Marian Pretrial Procedure in the Colonies 734 2. the Salem Witchcraft Proceedings (1692) 735 E. Criminal Jury Trial and Its Alternatives 737 1. Adversary Criminal Trial in the Colonies 737 2. summary Proceedings 739 F. sanctions 740 II. Policing 741 A. the Rise of Urban Police Forces 741 B. state Police 744 C. Federal Law Enforcement 744 The Living Law: Forensic Science 745 III. Prosecution 746 A. the Public Prosecutor 746 B. the Persistence of Private Prosecution 747 IV. Pretrial Procedure 749 A. Preliminary Examination 749 B. Charging 750

xix History of the Common Law

C. Bail 750 V. Criminal Jury Trial and Its Alternatives 751 A. Adversary Criminal Trial in the Early Republic 751 B. Plea Bargaining 755 C. Bench Trial 758 VI. Sanctions 758 A. the Death Penalty 758 1. Anatomization 758 2. the Abolition Movement 760 3. Modes of Execution 762 B. imprisonment 764 1. “Reformed” Jails and Houses of Correction 764 2. the Penitentiary 766 C. Progressive Era Initiatives 771 1. Parole and Indeterminate Sentencing 771 2. the Juvenile Court 773 D. The Collapse of the Reformative Ideal 776 VII. Constitutionalizing Criminal Procedure in the United States 779 A. the Framers’ Constitution 780 B. original Understandings 780 1. search and Seizure 780 2. Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Weems v. United States (1910) 785 3. Confrontation: Crawford v. Washington (2004) 788 4. Habeas Corpus: Boumediene v. Bush (2008) 790 C. Extending Federal Criminal Procedure Standards to the states: The Formative Era 792 D. Criminal Procedure in the Warren Court 796 E. the Long Shadow of English Criminal Procedure 798 1. Atwater v. Lago-Vista (2001) 798 2. Criticizing Originalism 801 F. the Limits of Constitutional Criminal Procedure 802

Part V AMERICAN INITIATIVES IN THE COMMON LAW

CHAP T E R 12 Le g a l Li t e r a t u r e 815 I. Law Reporting in England 817 A. the Nominate Reports 817 1. the Formative Period 817 2. Plowden’s Commentaries 819 3. Coke’s Reports 820 B. Burrow’s Reports 822 C. the Authorized and Quasi-OfficialR eports 824 II. Law Reporting in the United States 824 A. official Reports: Chancellor Kent and the New York Reports 824 B. the United States Reports 829 1. Happenstance Origins 829 xx Contents

2. Justice Story Intervenes 831 C. the Profusion of Law Reports 832 D. The West System: Regional and Federal Reports 833 E. Electronic Law Reporting 836 F. Case Law and the Theory of Precedent 837 III. Blackstone’s Commentaries (1765–1769) 838 A. the Institutionalist Tradition 838 B. Blackstone’s Influence in America 841 C. Kent’s Commentaries on American Law (1826–1830) 843 IV. Treatises, Codes, and Restatements 845 A. English and American Legal Treatises 845 B. the Decline of Academic Treatise-Writing in the United States 849 C. treatises and Codes 851 D. The American Restatements 851 1. restatement of Conflict of Laws § 325 (1934) 854 2. restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws §§ 6, 188 (1971) 854 V. Periodical Literature 856 A. Emergence of a Nineteenth-Century Genre 856 B. student-Edited Law Reviews in the United States 859 1. origins 859 2. traits 862 3. the Role of the University 863

CHAP T E R 13 Th e Re c e p t i o n a n d Re c a s t i n g o f En g l i s h La w 873 I. Law in Colonial British North America 875 A. English Law in the American Colonies 875 B. American Departures 879 II. Property Law 881 A. English Background 881 B. American Developments 881 1. inheritance 881 2. Alienability 881 3. trespass 882 III. Contract Law 884 A. English Background 884 B. American Developments 884 1. the Will Theory of Contract 884 2. third-Party Beneficiary Contracts 886 3. remedies 887 IV. Tort Law 888 A. English Background 888 B. American Developments 889 1. the Rise of Negligence 889 2. the Fellow Servant Rule and the Assumption-of-Risk Doctrine 890 3. Contributory Negligence 891 4. Proximate Cause 892

xxi History of the Common Law

5. the Erosion of the Common Law Bars 894 6. strict Liability 896 7. the Industrial Accident Crisis 898 8. Workers’ Compensation 900 9. the Litigation “Explosion” 902 V. The Law of Slavery 903 A. English Background 903 B. American Developments 903 1. slave Sales 903 2. the Master/Slave Relationship 905 VI. Conflict of Laws 908 A. Scott v. Emerson (1852) 909 B. Conflicts Questions and American Federalism 914 1. Kent and Story on Comity 914 2. the Quest for Consensus in American Conflicts Law 916 VII. Family Law 917 A. English Background 917 B. American Developments 918 1. Marriage 918 2. Divorce 920 3. Adoption 921

CHAP T E R 14 Le g a l Ed u c a t i o n 929 I. Legal Education in England in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 933 A. the Cessation of Organized Legal Education at the inns of Court 933 B. reading the Law 934 II. Legal Education in Colonial America 936 A. An Apprenticeship Agreement (1723) 937 B. the Complaints of “Tyro Philolegis” (1745) 939 C. restricting Entry: “Agreement of the Bar of New York City” (1756) 940 The Living Law: Legal Education as an Antitrust Problem 942 III. Legal Education in the Early Republic 942 A. Law in the Colleges 942 B. the Proprietary Law Schools 944 1. the Litchfield Law School 944 2. Law Office LawS chools 949 3. the Demise of Litchfield 950 IV. The Emergence of University Law Schools 953 A. the First University Law Schools 953 B. the “Text-and-Recitation” Method of Instruction 956 C. Legal Education and the Legal Profession 957 D. Legal Education at Wisconsin in the 1860s 958 V. The Langdellian Revolution at Harvard 960 A. Absorbing the Lessons of the German Research University 960 B. Langdell’s Account of His Systemic Reforms (1886) 962

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C. the Case Method 964 D. The Relations of Law School and Law Firm 966 VI. Expanding Access to Legal Education 968 A. Evening and Part-Time Law Schools 968 B. Gleason Archer’s Suffolk Law School 970 C. Law Schools for Women 974 D. African Americans and Legal Education 976 E. regulatory Standards: Which, Why, and By Whom? 977 The Living Law: Unaccredited Law Schools 981 VII. Twentieth-Century Legal Theory 982 A. sociological Jurisprudence 982 B. Legal Realism 983 C. Law and Economics 988 D. Critical Legal Studies 990 VIII. Recent Developments 991 A. Mission 991 B. Clinical Legal Education 992 C. the LSAT 992 D. The U.S. News Rankings 993 E. the “Globalization” of U.S. Legal Education 994 F. Faith-Based Law Schools 994 The Living Law: The Carnegie Foundation Report (2007) 995 G. online Legal Education 995

CHAP T E R 15 Th e Le g a l Pr o f e ss i o n 1005 I. The Antecedents 1007 A. the Profession in the Colonies 1007 B. the Legal Profession in the Early Republic 1009 1. status and Organization 1009 2. Hostility to Lawyers 1011 C. the Antebellum Legal Profession 1013 1. Admission to the Bar 1013 2. Lincoln’s Law Office 1014 3. Collection Work 1016 4. Circuit Riding 1016 D. The Sole Practitioner 1017 1. the Country Lawyer 1017 2. Gleason Archer’s Advice to Beginning Lawyers 1019 II. The Corporate Bar 1021 A. railroad Lawyers 1021 1. Cross v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé Railway Co. (1897) 1021 2. retainer Agreements 1023 B. the Rise of the Large Law Firm 1025 1. the Demand for Legal Services 1025 2. the Cravath System 1028 The Living Law: The Am Law Survey of Large Law Firms 1036 C. the Billable Hour 1038 D. The Transformation of the Large Law Firm 1041

xxiii History of the Common Law

The Living Law: Specialization Today 1045 E. the Growth of In-House Counsel 1047 III. The Plaintiffs’ Bar 1048 A. Fee Structure: Allocating Litigation Costs 1048 1. the English Rule 1048 2. the Development of the American Rule 1049 B. the Contingency Fee 1053 1. Major’s Executor v. Gibson (1855) 1053 2. the Spread of Contingency Fees 1054 C. the Tort Explosion 1056 D. Melvin Belli and ATLA 1058 The Living Law: ATLA “Litigation Groups” 1062 IV. Organizing the Profession 1062 A. Bar Associations 1062 1. samuel Tilden’s Address (1870) 1062 2. Exclusive or Inclusive? 1063 B. Legal Ethics 1067 1. the ABA Canons of Ethics (1908): Selected Provisions 1067 2. Envisioning the Canons 1068 The Living Law: Computer Software and Legal Self-Help 1071 V. Lawyers and the Administrative State 1072 A. the New Dealers: Government Lawyers 1073 B. the Rise of the Washington Bar 1076 VI. Access to the Profession 1078 A. Women 1078 1. in re Application of Bradwell (1876) 1078 2. Admission to the Bar 1079 3. Criminal Practice 1080 B. African Americans 1082 C. immigrants 1084 Epilogue: Tomorrow’s Legal History 1086

Illustrated Timeline 1097 Table of English Regnal Years 1105 Image Acknowledgments 1107 Text Acknowledgments 1113 Index 1119

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