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Home , Alexander Sokurov, Ivan Kireyevsky, Marquis de Custine, Nikita Mikhalkov, Russian Ark, Russian culture

PRESENTATION OF AND THE WEST IN MIKHALKOV'S BARBER OF AND SOKUROV'S

A Thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Master of Arts in the

Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Olha Vitaliivna Rudich, M.A. *****

The Ohio State University 2005

Master's Examination Committee: Approved by Dr. Hashamova, Adviser

Dr. Irene Delic

Dr. Alexander Burry

Adviser Graduate Program in Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures ABSTRACT

For centuries Russia and the West were engaged in relations that varied from positive to negative depending on economic, social, and political conditions. The process of Westernization strongly affects Russia at the present time, and the interaction of the two cultures to an altering of Russian cultural values. The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate that the matter of preserving Russian national identity became urgent at the beginning of the 21st Century. This thesis analyzes two contemporary films and examines how Russia and the West are presented. Both films glorify the time of Imperial Russia and the idea of Russia’s unique culture. While one director depicts the mingling of Russia and the West in a positive way, another director views as superior to other nationalities. Both films open a discussion about the influence of the West on Russia’s national identity by emphasizing the importance of preserving and its values.

ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my adviser, Dr. Yana Hashamova, for her support and encouragement while writing this thesis, and for correcting my stylistic errors.

I am grateful to Dr. Delic and Dr. Burry for providing their comments and suggestions on how to improve this thesis.

I also wish to thank Richard Lanum, Larry Lanum and Carol Ann Duckson for editing this thesis.

iii VITA

May 12, 1977 ...... Born - Chemihiv,

2000 ...... B. A. in History and ESL, Chemihiv State University

2001 ...... M.A. in Methodology of Teaching Foreign Languages and Literature, Chemihiv State University

2003 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Acknowledgement ...... iii Vita ...... iv

Introduction ...... 1

Chapters:

1. The Russia - West relations from the reign of till the present time

1.1. The Russia - West relations during the reign of Peter the Great ...... 4 1.1.1. The Western perspective on Peter the Great's reforms in Russia ...... 4 1.1.2. The Russian perspective on the reforms conducted by Peter the Great .. 5 1.2. Relations between Russia and the West in the 19th century ...... 6 1.3. Russia and the West in the 20th century, pre- period ...... 9 1.4. The Cold War period ...... 12 1.5. Post 1991 period ...... 14

2. Presentation of Russian history and culture in the two films ...... 16

3. Presentation of the West in the two films ...... 28

Conclusions ...... 35

Bibliography ...... 37

Filmography ...... 38

v INTRODUCTION

Over the centuries Russia's relationship with the West has undergone many changes. Russian intellectuals have responded to these changes in two distinctly different ways. One group, the Slavophiles, formed in the 1830s under the leadership of Aleksei

Khomyakov and Ivan Kireyevsky. The second group, the Westemizers, formed in the

1840s and had very different views about Russia's social, economic, and political direction. Chaadev, in his Philosophical Letters (1828 - 1830), correctly portrayed

Russia as caught between the East and the West, a portrayal that not only showed the enormous divide between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers of the 19th Century but remains as valid today as it was then.

Chaadev denounced the Russian people for "creating nothing great in the world history and fulfilling no great mission" (Berdyaev 26). Nevertheless, he believed that

Russia had potential for a great future, primarily due to the "burden" of its past. The

Slavophiles strongly objected to Chaadaev's theory about Russia's past but supported the idea of Russia fulfilling "the great mission" in the future. The Slavophiles believed that

Russia's greatness depended on three principles: religious orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationalism, with religious orthodoxy taking precedence, since, according to the

Slavophiles, the originality of Russian history lies in its adherence to the Eastern Orthodox . Considering the State and government evil, the Slavophils justified monarchy as a way of having only one person (a Tsar) commit the sin "of possessing authority" (Berdyaev 30).

If the Slavophils renounced the West and capitalist civilization, the Westemizers were inclined to support the idea of Russia following the West in its development.

United in their anticlerical beliefs, in politics the Westemizers split into two groups: the

"narodnik" socialists and the liberals. The "narodnik" socialists and their leader, Hertzen, believed that Russia would find progressive ways to develop, avoiding "the horrors of capitalism" (Berdyaev 35). The liberals, on the contrary, were convinced that Russia had to follow the West and adopt more capitalist, market-oriented policies.

The process of Westernization significantly affects Russia at the present time.

Along with the progressive contributions to the development of Russia, such as innovations in technology, the West also exports questionable cultural products, inexpensive and usually low quality TV, soap operas and Hollywood blockbusters.

Consequently, preserving cultural values for future generations and keeping Russia's national identity becomes a more complicated matter.

Therefore, this paper's objective is to demonstrate that preserving Russia's national identity became urgent at the beginning of the 21st Century, using two examples of contemporary Russian films, 's The Barber ofSiberia (1999) and

Aleksandr Sokurov's Russian Ark (2002). Both films attempt to reinvigorate Russian

2 national identity by emphasizing the importance of preserving Russian culture and its values. To understand the importance of these films we must first review the historical context in which they were created.

3 CHAPTER 1

THE RUSSIA - WEST RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF PETER THE

GREAT TILL THE PRESENT TIME

1.1. THE RUSSIA - WEST RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF PETER

THEGREAT

1.1.1. The Western perspective on Peter the Great' s reforms in Russia.

The first serious attempt to bring the Western way of life to Russia was made by the legendary Peter the Great. In world history Peter is best known for his attempt to modernize Russia, but because of his severe methods Peter was also viewed as a tyrant.

Hence, there is a dual perspective on Peter's character as a reformer. For example, Saint­

Simon admired Peter the Great, "this monarch, who wished to raise himself and his country from barbarism" (quoted in Wolff 203). On the other hand, faulted the

Russian tsar for lacking in humanity. "Brutality in his pleasure, ferocity in his manners, and barbarism in his vengeances mixed with so many virtues" (quoted in Wolff 204). In

Montesquieu's opinion, such measures as the trimming of beards and changing of fashion

4 in clothing were unnecessary for Russia and were imposed by tyrannical methods, "The violent measures, which he employed, were needless, he would have attained his end as well by milder methods" (quoted in Wolff204). The success of Peter's reforms was questioned even before his attempt to impose them on Russia, which lacked adequate institutions and a population ready for such drastic change. According to Rousseau, instead of improving the lives of the Russian people, Peter wanted to convert them into

Germans and Frenchmen. Rousseau gave his appraisal of Peter's reforms by writing,

"Russia will never be civilized, because it was civilized too soon. Most of what Peter did was out of place" (quoted in Neumann 83).

1.1.2. The Russian perspective on the reforms conducted by Peter the Great.

Xenia Gasiorowska studied the image of Peter the Great, which, according to her, has been created mostly by writers of historical fiction. During the reign of Nicholas I

(1825-55), Peter was glorified for his reforms and attempts to westernize Russia.

Nevertheless, over time the image of Peter the Great "inspires mystical fear, which, while seldom openly expressed, had always been felt by Peter's contemporaries and fictional characters" (Gasiorowska 34). Such a dualistic perspective on Peter and his reforms had already been presented earlier in Pushkin's The Bronze Horseman (1833). On one hand,

Pushkin considered Peter a genius, a great reformer and ruler. We see Peter as a great creator in the Prologue to the poem and we see that his efforts resulted in the beautiful city of Petersburg. On the other hand, Pushkin saw Peter's willful nature as tending toward despotism, which in the poem was protested by Evgenii, when he says, "Uzho tebe!" A negative, even hostile attitude towards Peter the Great and his attempt to

5 westernize Russia was expressed by Andrey Bely in his novel Petersburg (1914-22). In

Bely's view, during the period of Revolution 1904-1905 Russia became an "intersection" of two , one leading to the West and the other to the East, and he considered both alternatives a real disaster for the future of Russian development. According to Bely,

Peter the Great tried to bring Western civilization to Russian society, but he brought nothing more than technical progress with negative consequences, leading to the destruction of Russian culture and spirituality.

As Gasiorowska pointed out, the perception of the Tsar's image and the appraisal of his reforms shifted from positive to negative during different periods of Russian history. For instance, in pre-World War II historical fiction Peter is "neither a demigod nor a mystical Presence", but after the war, he is portrayed as a progressive reformer

(Gasiorowska 34).

6 1.2. RELATIONS BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE WEST IN THE 19rn

CENTURY

In the Nineteenth Century both Russia and America 1 showed great support and understanding for those who struggled against enslavement: of blacks in America and of serfs in Russia. Russia welcomed the abolition of slavery in America and the victory of the North. Some books by American writers, such as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's

Songs ofSlavery and Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle 's Cabin, were translated into

Russian and became very popular among Russian people. America, in turn, as Y.

Zassoursky points out in his article "Changing Images of the and the United

States," showed less interest in political, social, and economic processes in Russia of this period. The first American poet who wrote about Russia was Joel Barlow. In 1812 he went to Russia on a diplomatic mission and showed great compassion and support for the

Russian people in the war against , who was viewed by Barlow as a tyrant and

'deserved denunciation' (Zassoursky 12).

Another famous American poet, Walt Whitman, showed a great interest in the relations between America and Russia. Despite differences in political, social, and

economic conditions in the two countries, he considered the two nationalities very similar to each other, "they both have their historical and divine mission ... both peoples have their independent and leading positions to hold, keep and if necessary fight for, against

1 The terms "America" and "the West" are used interchangeably. 7 the rest of the world" (quoted in Zassoursky 13). In addition, Walt Whitman defined the similarity between the two nationalities by pointing out a territorial unity of America and

Russia and in contrast to where countries were estranged by internal conflicts and consisted of smaller territories (Zassoursky 13 ).

8 1.3. RUSSIA AND THE WEST IN THE 20rn CENTURY, PRE-COLD WAR

PERIOD

1 At the beginning of the 20 h Century America supported Russia in its struggle against the Tsarist regime, and that was also reflected in the works of some American writers and journalists. For example, in his book Ten Days That Shook the

World and Mark Twain in his essay "The Czar's Soliloquy" (1905) criticized tsarism and expressed their admiration of the and sympathy for the

(Zassoursky 13). Nevertheless, as Yassen N. Zassoursky points out, there were different views in America on the revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia. Some people, such as the journalist, John Reed, supported the ; other authors had an anti­

Soviet attitude; and some authors portrayed an objective picture of the Revolution but would not support the ' ideology (Zassoursky 14).

In turn, post revolutionary Russia expressed a two-sided attitude towards

America. On one hand, emphasized a high level of development of modem technology in America and the importance of learning the 'American way of working' in

Russia. On the other hand, Soviet Russia denounced capitalism and the division of society in two conventional stratums of the wealthy and the poor. "America has become one of the foremost countries in regard to the depth of the abyss which lies between the handful of arrogant multimillionaires who wallow in filth and luxury, and the millions of working people who constantly live on the verge of pauperism 0/. I. Lenin, Collected

Works, 1965, pp.62-63, quoted in Zassoursky 15).

9 During the period of Stalin's leadership an anti-American tendency in the Soviet policy increasingly grew and reached its peak by 1953. In Stalin's view, America was a major military rival and the only 'superpower' that opposed the Soviet Union and threatened the Soviet regime. At the same time the Communist movement was growing and turning into a political threat to the West. Nevertheless, the Soviet leaders were always aware of America's technological and industrial achievements and realized the importance of these innovations for increasing the level of production in the Soviet

Union. Therefore, Stalin dispatched his representatives to the to learn from the American experience. One such representative was Anastas , who visited many businesses while he was in America in 1936 and learned about many American products, such as the refrigerator, canned food, ice-cream, and other innovations, and first introduced them to the Soviets (Shiraev and Zubok 12).

During the Great Patriotic War (1941 - 1945) the attitude of the Soviet Union towards America shifted from hostile to more positive. The Soviet Union and the US fought together against . America's contribution of technical equipment, aircraft, food, and clothes to the Soviet Union asserted the image of the United States as a powerful and wealthy country.

When came to power he took a course on 'catching up and

surpassing America.' As Shiraev and Zubok point out, it led to the Soviet people

constantly comparing their own bleak living standards to the much higher American

ones.

IO In an attempt to explain why they never reached the American standard of living, the

Soviet citizens blamed the inadequate "existing economic and political system" in the

Soviet Union (quoted in Shiraev and Zubok 14).

11 1.4. THE COLD WAR PERIOD

The relationship between Russia and the West grew tense after Wold War II and resulted in the Cold War between the two superpowers, America and Russia. It was so tense that President Ronald Reagan portrayed Russia as an "Evil Empire". One distinctive difference in this conflict, that Neumann points out, was that "the United

States was a superpower because of its overwhelming capabilities in a number of different fields, and the Soviet Union was a superpower, first and foremost, because of its nuclear capability" (Nuemann 104).

A hostile attitude in American - Russian relations during the period of the Cold

War was reflected in film production. As Michael Rogin points out in his book Ronald

Reagan, the Movie and Other Episodes in Political Demonology, the purpose of anti­

Soviet films was to depict Communism as a threat to public stability and politically dangerous. In addition, Communism was also viewed as a threat to the private lives of many families, causing ideological discrepancies among family members. Therefore, in opposition to the Soviet image of family, in which "members turned against each other,"

America represented the image of 'the loving family' (Rogin 247).

In the American film Song ofRussia (1943) a romance develops between an

American conductor on Russian tour and a young Russian woman, a pianist. When Nazis

invaded Russia she sacrificed her marriage, left her husband, and went back to her village

to fight the Germans. Evidently, the idea of patriotism prevails over passion. In Never

12 Let Me Go (1953) we see a happier denouement. An American war correspondent managed to bring his wife, a Russian ballerina, back home after the war was over despite the fact that the Communists never permitted her to leave her country. Comparing the two films, a shift of certain values may be observed. Unlike the Russian pianist who chose her country over romance, the Russian ballerina chose to leave her country for the sake of her love and family (Rogin 248). I think there is a certain purpose in endowing the Russian women in both films with the professions of a pianist and ballerina. Dealing with art, they are more likely to be perceptible and sentimental where values are concerned. Therefore, the matter of making a choice between patriotism and family is more than a mere impulsive act of an individual. Besides personal feelings, the decision is motivated by other factors in connection to the country, such as devotion to it, recognition of its political and social system, and others.

The end of the Cold War put an end to the idea of Soviet Russia being a political threat. Presently, Russia is often seen as a learner of Western economic and political models. One important issue that Neumann raises is whether Russia, as "a learner", will remain a dominant identity in European political discourse (Neumann 107). Evidently the possibility of Russia losing its position as a superpower is causing a negative reaction in Russian.

13 1.5. POST 1991 PERIOD

With the end of the Cold War, America expanded its political and economic influence in the world. The process of globalization spread over the world and Russia was not an exception. Initially, westernization penetrated the Russian economy, but eventually it reflected in the rearrangement of social and political life. During and shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the legal system failed and mass corruption became the rule. That explains an observed nostalgia for the "old" life. The Communist system managed to avoid the extremes of poverty and kept the living standards relatively equal, although this equality was more on paper than in reality. There was a clearly privileged class, but recently the striking difference between the poor and the rich has grown rapidly. As a result, Russians blamed the West for the social conflicts, which turned into political conflicts.

According to Stiglitz's statement in his book Globalization and its Discontents, there were a lot of institutions of the Western type in Russia, but their performance in such procedures as privatization, setting free prices, and opening of private enterprises was not successful, since they were not carried out on the basis of legal principles

(Stiglitz 161).

There is no doubt that westernization has had some positive influence on Russia, for example introduction of highly developed technology, such as computers, industry machinery and other innovations. But it also brought about some discontent in the lives

14 of the Russian people. In particular, westernization effected the lives of Russian artists who, at the present time, are facing problems that include imitating the West, and having to struggle with poverty and inadequate working conditions. In his article "Artistic culture" Daniil Dondurei raised the question of Russia being an artistic colony of the

West. While all attempts are being made to develop the economy, artists and creative people are not being utilized. Under such circumstances the problem of surviving becomes urgent and gives place to business. As Dondurei points out, artists have to adjust to the demands of society and direct their skills and talents to create their products in accordance to the criteria of Western standards.

Thus, the relationship between Russia and the West can be interpreted on two levels:

1) Russians accept the Western model as an alternative to the economic gap

that emerged during the Soviet time. Now people feel pleased to have an opportunity

to reach the level of American standards of living. It also gives satisfaction to

Russians to know that they are keeping up with the more developed countries.

2) At the same time Russians blame the West for most of Russia's problems,

one of which is turning Russia into "an artistic colony" of the West. Overwhelming

Western production competes with Russian companies and results in the weakness of

the Russian economy and contributes to economic instability. The Russian feeling of

inferiority grows when they realize that they are no longer a super power. It would be

wrong though to blame only the West for westernization taking over Russia. Russians

and their reaction, whether it is positive or negative, are a part of this process as well.

15 CHAPTER2

PRESENTAITION OF RUSSIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE IN THE TWO FILMS

To resist westernization, the filmmakers Mikhalkov and Sokurov suggest that

Russians should build their future by looking to their past. Mikhalkov's film is based on two main plot lines: the first, a love story between Jane, an American woman, and

Andrey Tolstoy, a Russian cadet; the events take place in Russia, in the period of 1885, and are told by Jane in the form of flashbacks. Second, the conflict of principles between the young solder Andrew McCracken and his sergeant in their "battle" over the greatness of Mozart, and the events unfold in America in 1905. Although both plot lines develop simultaneously in the cinematic , representing Russian-American contacts and exchanges, the main focus, nevertheless, is on Imperial Russia, which Mikhalkov tends to idealize. The romance story created at the background of an epic cinematic presentation of Russian history, culture, and traditions.

Sokurov' s Russian Ark is unique in its time-and-space frame representation. It also recreates Russian cultural space, it is intimate and lyrical compared to the epic ambitions of The Barber ofSiberia. The film was shot in a single relentless take and shows the Hermitage as an "ark" where the past is preserved for future generations.

16 Every door in the Hermitage leads to a different period of Russian history. Sokurov is the Voice behind the camera and he accompanies the Marquis de Custine on his journey through the Hermitage and Russian history and culture. The "real" Marquis de Custine visited Russia in 1839 under the watch of a government official. His impressions of

Russia were influenced by his own experience of the . In Russian Ark, the Marquis de Custine visits Russia again, although this time he travels in time and

Russian history is presented as one entity of different non-chronological historical periods. As a matter of fact, people in the Hermitage are always aware of the Marquis de

Custine's presence: he communicates with them and even dances with ladies at the ball of

1913. The narrator, on the contrary, is always invisible to them and never reveals himself to the viewers. ,The Voice is merely an observer: the viewers can see what he sees, they can hear what he says, but he does not participate in the events. Nevertheless, it is clear that the narrator is Russian since the Marquis asks him to show the way when they are lost before they enter the museum: "You are in your motherland," the Marquis addresses the Voice. "You should know where to go." The fact that the Voice is familiar with the political system of the 20th century, "Our Convention lasted eighty years, a real revolution!" suggests that he is a contemporary Russian.

Moving from one room of the Hermitage to another, the Marquis, representing the

West, and the Voice, representing Russia, engage in a dialogue about Russia's art, culture, and history. Thus, the main matter of their discussion is Russian identity and influences of the West on the development of Russian culture.

17 The collection of the Hermitage paintings was started by , who in 1764 acquired over 200 paintings in order to create a great museum. Over time the collection has grown and now includes numerous pieces from European artists. But can the art, preserved in the Hermitage, be a part of Russian culture since it was founded in

European art, and to what extent would it reflect Russian identity? The theme of imitating the West is traced throughout Russian Ark. The Marquis de Custine contends, "Russians can copy the West so well, because they have no ideas of their own". In the book

Inventing ( 1994 ), Wolff emphasizes an important fact about de Custine.

The Marquis insisted on distinguishing the Russians from himself and his readers: "I do not reproach the Russians for being what they are, what I blame in them is, their pretending to be what we are" (quoted in Wolff 364). The Marquis might seem to be too judgmental of Russian people for not resisting the influence of the West, but on the other hand, his criticism brings attention to the essential problem whether Russian people

should withstand such influence. Or instead, Russians should contribute to the

development of Russian culture themselves, and thus maintain their Russian identity.

The two directors Sokurov and Mikhalkov show certain values of Russian culture

and history, contrasting them to Western ones, although they use different approaches.

Mikhalkov portrays Russia through the Russian people (narod), cadets, and Russian

traditions. Sokurov, on the contrary, dwells on legendary figures representative of

different historical periods: Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, Nicholas I, and Nicholas

II. The monarchs are not idealized; on the contrary, their images are brought down to

18 normal who create Russian history. For instance, Catherine II is shown in an informal situation when she teaches children how to bow; she also feels sick and limps when she walks.

Peter the Great is portrayed as a tyrant who brutally treats his servants and punishes them when they do something wrong. He has no mercy even to his wife when

she tries to stop him from punishing the servant. The Marquis de Custine uses the term

"tyrant" referring to Peter the Great, emphasizing that the more a tyrant is vicious with his people the more they honor him. For the Marquis Peter the Great is a man who

"killed his son, built the city on marshes and established primeval manners." The Voice

brings to the discussion about Peter some positive tsarist deeds during his reign,

emphasizing that he was the first tsar who "allowed people to have entertainment."

Despite the fact that the monarchs are portrayed as normal humans with their

flaws, nostalgia for the monarchy and Imperial Russia is still present in the film. It is

evident from the scene when Nicholas II and his family are dining, and Nicholas is

portrayed as a loving and solicitous father, forgiving his daughter for misbehaving.

Glorifying the past of the Tsarist regime, the presentation of the Romanov family

suggests the idea of Russian nationhood. On the other hand, four of the Tsar's daughters

appear in the film as angels, thus it is clear that they are doomed as well as the Tsarist

reign (Gillespie and Smimova 61). According to Pamela Kachurin and Ernest Zitser, the

nostalgic presentation of the monarch's time in Russian Ark is one-sided and inclined to

portray only the positive traits of the Tsar's regime. Such a presentation of Imperial

Russia cannot be considered consistent since the important events from Nicholas II' s

19 reign, such as firing at the demonstrators protesting the war, exploitation of the working class and others were omitted, and the family of Romano vs is depicted solely as 'saint victims' (Kachurin and Zitser 17). In polemics between the Marquis and the Voice about the political systems in Russia, de Custine gives preference to monarchy and states that he never thought that "a republic was suitable for a country as large as Russia." When the

Voice suggests to the Marquis de Custine to continue their journey in time and go forward, the Marquis makes the decision to stay in 19th Century Russia, because he sees nothing positive and promising in its future. "What will we find over there? I am staying," says the Marquis de Custine. He seems to be disappointed that "everyone can see the future, but no one remembers the past."

The concept of fatherhood, presented in the image of the Tsar, is also present in

2 Mikhalkov's film, projecting the main idea of Russia being one big family . As Birgit

Beumers writes, Alexander III is portrayed in The Barber ofSiberia like a loving father who brings his son to the parade, and acts more like a than a "god-like" monarch

(Beumers 200). For example, Alexander III covers his son's mouth when he wanted to greet the cadets the second time. At such a formal event as a parade the situation looked quite funny and caused smiles on the cadets faces. Hence, such a representation of the

Tsar has a dual function: on one hand, he is a caring father of his children, and on the other hand, he is a father of the Russian nation (Beumers 201). Mikhalkov, like Sokurov, connects the idea of nationhood to the idea of fatherhood, and the Tsar fulfills the role of a father of all Russian people. Thus, the representation of Alexander III is one-sided, as

2 As Birgit Beumers points out in her article "Sibirskii tsiriul'nik'', Mikhalkov's obsession with the theme of fatherhood and family resulted in the involvement of almost his entire family in The Barber ofSiberia. 20 was the portrayal of Nicolas II in Russian Ark. The reactionary nature of Alexander III' s reign is not reflected in the film, such as increasing censorship of the press, dismissing any liberal proposals in government, and sending thousands of revolutionaries to Siberia.

As discussed above, both Sokurov and Mikhalkov present Imperial Russia with nostalgia. Russians should cherish the values from their past, reinvent them in the present, and focus on developing their national culture, keeping national traditions and thus maintaining Russian identity. A significant part ofthis process, according to the

Marquis de Custine, is the preservation of the values of national culture, such as the national language, music, and art. In Russian Ark, much of the art that is presented is the work of famous European artists, yet it is considered the "property" of Russian culture.

Russians are proud to have the mission of preserving European art and consider it their achievement. To demonstrate this achievement, Sokurov brings attention to the painting

Danae, which in 1985 was attacked by one of the Hermitage's visitors. After he had slashed the painting and poured acid on it, Russian Conservators labored twelve years restoring the painting so it could be exhibited in 1997. Therefore, Russians are the ones who take credit for preserving Western art (Kachurin and Zitser 20).

Throughout the film there are many close-ups of the paintings, emphasizing how much the Marquis de Custine was fascinated with the works of Raphael, Rubens, Van

Dyck, and others. The Marquis is very interested in the story of how the paintings were created and their subject matter. Since de Custine is educated in the arts and is knowledgeable of nearly every painting in the Hermitage, he criticizes younger generations of Russians for not being familiar with the history of the paintings.

21 The Marquis de Custine was critical of a young Russian male who did not know anything about the apostles Peter and Paul, yet admired the Saints for their beautiful hands, thinking, sometimes all people will become like them. De Custine was indignant that the young man was ignorant of the Scriptures yet spoke about all of mankind.

Evidently, de Custine's perception of art is different from that of the young man.

Whereas the Marquis is focused on the subject matter of the paintings, the Russian man perceives the entire painting as an aesthetic object.

For Russians, the European paintings are not merely objects of admiration, but also a means for the people to express themselves. For example, the ballerina Alla

Osipenko would come to the Hermitage to talk to a particular painting, as she said, to

"express herself'. She could reveal her secret to no one, except to the painting. Another example is a blind woman who easily recognizes art pieces with the touch of her fingers

(Gillespie and Smimova 60).

Although Russians admire European art, they are proud of their own ability to create magnificent pieces of music. Because de Custine feels that European art is superior to Russian art, however, he thinks Russians are more likely to "copy the West" than create original masterpieces. When he hears the beautiful music played by the

Mariinskii Theatre Orchestra, he assumes that Glinka must be German and the orchestra

European.

Also, de Custine does not highly regard . He points out that he was not impressed by Pushkin's works when he read them in translation and did not

22 consider him as a brilliant poet. Besides the fact that literary works can be appreciated only in their original language, Sokurov shows de Custine clearly bias against Russian culture.

In Mikhalkov's The Barber ofSiberia, Russian culture and traditions disappear over time and need to be preserved as a part of Russia's identity. One such tradition is a fair that occurs during . Jane, who is ignorant of Russian culture and traditions, is impressed by the outdoor celebration with its Russian food and national clothes and rituals. Before Jane's visit to Russia she knew only that there were a lot of

", beer and ." While visiting Russia, Jane is fascinated by . At the fair she tries Russian traditional food and clothes and enjoys both. She is astonished and amazed by the tradition of fistfights between Russian men, for whom it is merely an entertainment. Even bruised, they departs screaming, "Oh, so good!" No less is she surprised to see how much vodka General Radlov drinks at the fair and how he then eats the glass he drinks from. Yet, she is mostly puzzled by the incomprehensible "."

In an interview about The Barber ofSiberia, Mikhalkov pointed out that his goal was to create images of Russian people with a "Russian soul" and show "Russian extremes" - often are viewed as absurd and nonsensical by other nationalities. For example, Jane, an American who had an affair with the Russian cadet Andrey Tolstoy, understood neither Andrey's actions nor his soul. Following his feelings for Jane and his impulses, Tolstoy had enough courage to challenge General Radlov and compete for

Jane's heart. During the performance at the theater Tolstoy openly attacks the General

23 with a violin bow, being aware that the consequences of his act could be fatal.

Mikhalkov used an interesting device in conveying the atmosphere of growing tension before the moment of Tolstoy's attack. The camera switched from Tolstoy's figure to a violin bow, which actually Andrey used as a weapon to attack General Radlov. As

Tolstoy's rage increased, so did the pitch of the violin (shown in close-up). The moment the violin music stopped, Tolstoy rushed at the General and cut his ear with the bow.

After Andrey's arrest, he made his choice not to involve Jane's name in the matter of the

Grand Duke's attack, thus leaving her out of the investigation. Sacrificing his own

welfare for his beloved, Andrey pleaded guilty to attempting to assassinate the Grand

Duke and was exiled to Siberia. Tolstoy accepts his exile with courage and remains

steadfast. When the fetters were put on his wrists his last words were "thank you." Jane

is astonished by Andrey's sacrifice for her and realizes that she does not know anything

about Russia or its people. On one hand, she is shocked that Tolstoy is ready to die for

her. On the other hand, after watching the young cadet being exiled and punished for a

crime he had never committed, she concludes that "a human life means nothing in this

country."

Even in insignificant conflicts between Andrey and other cadets or his

commanding officers, Tolstoy demonstrates a strong spirit and persistence and he always

takes responsibility for his acts without hesitation. Tolstoy's pride prevents him from

dodging his punishment; instead he ignores the guard's offer to spare him his punishment

and endures it till the end. Undoubtedly, Tolstoy is a strong character: he has enough

courage to challenge a higher-ranking officer and accept exile because of a woman. Still,

24 it would be difficult for him to face all this without his cadet friends. When Tolstoy is departing for Siberia, they all come to the station to see him off. Unable to see Tolstoy on the train, they say goodbye to him by singing a song. Many cried, since they are seeing off not only a cadet who served with them, but also their "brother." Tolstoy felt the same way about them, and his last words before departing were, "Farewell, brothers!

I love you, cadets!"

The brotherhood of the cadets is not unique to this group, because Captain Mokin most likely remembers the brotherhood from his days as a cadet. Therefore, he always protects his cadets, risking his rank and position, even when they violate the rules. The day Andrey is going into exile, Captain Mokin is at the station saluting Tolstoy, which is the most he can do for his former cadet. Captain Mo kin's devotion to his cadets and the cadets' loyalty to each other reflect their Russian soul.

A "Russian soul" is not something that you may acquire in life, but is inherited and passed down genetically. Many years later Andrey's Russian soul reveals itself in his son, Andrew McCracken, when there is a conflict between Andrew and Sergeant

O'Leary over Mozart's name. Among Andrew's division he is the only one who opposes the Sergeant and does not execute his order to repeat the words, "I do not give a shit about Mozart." Love for Mozart's music is passed down to Andrew from his father, and in the conflict with O'Leary he stands up for his conviction that Mozart is a great composer, even though as his punishment he has to wear a gas mask while exercising during a hot day. Neither does he remove it when he goes to bed. Andrew's insubordination makes the Sergeant wonder what is so magnificent about Mozart's

25 music. The conflict between the Sergeant and McCracken results in Andrew's triumph.

Having heard Andrew playing Mozart's music, the Sergeant shouted in front of everyone:

"Mozart is a great composer!" The Sergeant finds the clue to Andrew's behavior in his

Russian origin. When Jane tells him that Andrew's father is Russian, his reply is, "That explains a lot!" Andrew's principled stand reminds the viewer of Tolstoy's refusal to implicate Jane in the attempt to assassinate the Duke, suggesting that high ethical standards have passed from father to son.

Another character who reflects a "Russian soul" is Dunyasha, for her desperate love and devotion to Andrey. Even though her love is not at first returned, she always loves and supports Andrey, no matter what misfortunes he faces. Dunyasha, a servant in

Tolstoys' house, gives her last rubel to Andrey when his mother ignores his request.

Evidently, Andrey thinks Dunyasha is more than a servant; he loves her as a sister, shares with her his joy and sorrow, and counts on her to always be there for him. Her love for

Andrey is so strong that she never shows disrespect to Jane, who is her rival. Instead,

Dunyasha always stands by his choice as long as it makes him happy. Dunyasha' s

Russian soul is expressed in her "acceptance of suffering" for Tolstoy (Beumers 199).

Only a woman with genuine feelings would follow a man to Siberia and accept the severe living conditions to be with her beloved. Dunyasha is the one who follows Tolstoy to

Siberia. Jane could have done it, but she did not.

In Russian Ark, as David Gillespie and Elena Smimova point out, "the film visualizes the Russian soul in dialogue with itself, discussing its identity and future"

(Gillespie and Smimova 62). In their view, the Russian soul is represented by a

26 combination of European art and Russian music. Therefore, the journey of de Custine and the Narrator through the Hermitage is an of the Russian soul and its prospects for the future. According to Gillespie and Smimova, the future of the Russian soul is rather uncertain, because of the struggle between the influences of the West and

East. Nevertheless, the last words "Farewell, Europe" at the end of the film suggest that the Russian soul will be searching for its own course, apart from Europe. The last words as the Voice leaves de Custine and continues his way alone are, "it is for us to sail on

forever and to live forever," implying that the Russian soul is immortal and that its destiny will be self-determined.

27 CHAPTER3

PRESENTATION OF THE WEST IN THE TWO FILMS

The western characters are opposed to the Russian characters because of the vast differences in their images, values and cultures.

In The Barber ofSiberia, the West is represented by the inventor McCracken, who has created a -cutting machine, and by Jane, who comes to Russia to get financial help from the Grand Duke so that McCracken can achieve his goal. McCracken comes to Russia motivated by his ambition to accomplish a life-long goal, and he sees

Siberia as the most suitable place to introduce his invention. Jane, in turn, comes to

Russia motivated by her practical goal of making money by fulfilling the contract signed with McCracken.

Mikhalkov emphasizes Jane's foreign origin in her first scene, when he shows her aboard a train (a Western invention) that penetrates the Russian . Jane's brightly colored dresses and blonde wig also separate her from the Russian crowd. Even though many Russian women have blonde hair, it is a significant aspect of Jane's image, since we discover that she is wearing a wig to attract men and conceal her true self. Even her behavior, compared to other female characters in the film, significantly distinguishes her

28 from Russian women. For example, compared to a female principal and girls who are brought to the ball from a boarding school, Jane acts more freely and at the same time more naturally with men. Jane's smile never leaves her and men find her flirting irresistible. She intends to use her charm and irresistibility to achieve her goal.

Compared to Dunyasha's saintly character, Jane is more pragmatic. She comes to

Russia on a mission, and she is determined to succeed by any means. Jane's tragic life as a teenager, having been raped by her father and forced to sexually please his clients, turned her into a cold-hearted person who plays with other people's feelings in pursuit of her business goals. Nonetheless, Jane is not without sensitivity and genuine feelings; her character changes under the influence of Russian life and her romance with Tolstoy. She reveals her true self to Andrey and relieves "the burden of her life" that she has carried inside for many years. As she says, she knows the truth only with him and thinks that there are no people like him anymore. She is not, however, strong enough to give up her business and devote herself entirely to Tolstoy and their love. Spending a night with

Andrey does not stop her from pursuing her business goal and trying to convince General

Radlov that her love affair with Tolstoy is nothing more than a fling with a "na'ive boy".

As a result, Tolstoy distrusts her. He continues to love her even when he is exiled to

Siberia, but still he knows that she is the cause of his misery and the end to their happiness together.

Birgit Beumers sees the western characters, particularly Jane, as lacking morality and motivated solely by their business goals:

Jane and McCracken represent a world that is largely deprived of any spiritual ideals, while the

Russian cadets are endowed with a sense of honour and love for the The western 29 characters acknowledge only success in business or the achievements of goals, while most of the

Russian characters surrender to a fatalistic vision of their life, accepting suffering and solitude.

(Beumers 199)

This statement fits the characteristics of the inventor McCracken, who never reveals any of his personal feelings, but only his interest in his machine. Jane, however, is tom between her business duty and feelings for Tolstoy. I believe that she is a more sensitive character than McCracken and her feelings for Tolstoy were genuine for the following reasons: first, her affair with Tolstoy could only interfere with her goal of marrying General Radlov. Secondly, the fact that she took off her wig, revealing her true physical appearance, when she confessed her past to Tolstoy makes it believable that she was sincere. Finally, she is remorseful the rest of her life, knowing that she was the reason for Tolstoy's exile. Even after so many years of being apart, Andrey's and Jane's

feelings for each other never vanish and their love is embodied in their son Andrew.

After Jane failed to get permission to travel across Russia for many years, she sacrifices

herself to a marriage with McCracken. The story of Jane's and Andrey's love does not

have a happy ending; she leaves without seeing him and revealing her secret to him, and

he does not stop her when he sees her going away. And all that is the expression of their

strong personalities: Jane realizes that there is no place for her in Andrey's life after she

saw the pictures of him and his family.

I disagree with Birgit Beumer's statement that Jane never "understood Tolstoy's

pride and honour." When Tolstoy humiliates himself by confessing his love for Jane, she

points out to McCracken that Andrey sacrificed his honor and future for her. At that

moment she is crying, because she realizes that punishment is inevitable

30 for Tolstoy and she feels helpless, bound by the contract with McCracken. In addition,

Jane has no practical reason to cry after Radlov left other than to express her true feelings.

Along with his presentation of western characters, such as Jane and McCracken,

Mikhalkov also brings some Western elements into the film. One matter of interest is the way Russians communicate with Westerners. Jane is surprised to discover that Russian cadets are fluent in English and speak English even between themselves when foreigners are not around. For instance, in the scene when the cadets are returning from the ball and discuss Jane they speak English. Moreover, although General Radlov is not considered very intelligent he knows French, German, and a little English, while Jane and

McCracken speak only English. Overuse of English in the film could be interpreted differently. First, speaking English or any other foreign language should not be more prestigious than speaking one's native language. Thus, an important issue of valuing and appreciating the native language becomes essential and urgent. Foreigners, like

McCracken, do not even consider learning the language of the country they live in and run their business as if there is no need for it since most people surrounding them speak

English. Such a statement might seem superficial, since McCracken is the single example of a foreign businessman in the film and he is preoccupied only with his machine. Jane does try to learn some Russian words, particularly the ones that refer to things typical only of the Russian culture, such as "bliny" or the set expression "

31 prostit". On the other hand, overuse of English in the film by Russian native speakers even a guard speaks English) is an unrealistic historical representation of Russia of that time.

In the presentation of the West, McCracken is a character who introduces Western technology to Russians. His highly developed mechanism, "," created for cutting down , is undoubtedly a great achievement for the time, but produces only fear in the Russian people. When the machine is tested in Siberia, the

Russian people who live and work in the and who use only simple implements, such as axes, spades, and pitchforks, are at first amazed by the extraordinary look of the machine. But as soon as huge rotating saws start cutting the trees down, people rush away from the machine, their faces expressing horror and helplessness before the giant machine. One could say that they see the machine as destructive and a threat, or that they are simply scared of "the Barber" as something entirely unknown and new to them.

Arguably, while inventions such as "the Barber" could be beneficial, they could also threaten Russian nature.

While Mikhalkov depicts the interaction of Western technology and characters with Russian people and culture, Sokurov presents the West through its influence on

Russian culture, primarily through the paintings of European artists. In addition to admiring the paintings in the Hermitage, de Custine criticizes Russia for acquiring elements of that only damage its originality. De Custine suggests that by embracing European culture Russia also borrows its mistakes. Undoubtedly, creating original Russian art is preferable to merely copying Western styles, but the Marquis's

32 statement can still be disputed. Interaction of different cultures is inevitable with advances in communication and transportation, thus it is common for one culture to adopt a part of another culture as its own. Although the Western paintings originated outside

Russia, Russians preserved them in the Hermitage as a part of their culture.

The perception of Russia by the two characters Jane and de Custine is completely different because of the differing nature of their interaction with the Russian culture and

Russian life in general. Unlike de Custine, who travels in time through two centuries of

Russian history and merely observes it, Jane lives in a concrete period of time (in 1885) in Russia, and her experience with the Russian people and culture drastically change her life and become an intricate part of it. Also, Jane's and de Custine' s previous experiences with Russia are quite different. The historical figure Marquis had already been in Russia once before and wrote about Russia and its culture. Therefore, he has a keen knowledge about Russian history and art. In his previously mention book, de

Custine is a harsh critic of Russia and writes about the cruelty and mismanagement of

Russian rule (Hortan 2). De Custine appears in casual clothes and with uncombed hair as a protest against the aristocratic system. Sokurov's choice of the Marquis's character is not accidental, he wants to dispute de Custine's claims and support his own statement that "Russia has love for Europe, but this attachment is not shared by Europe" (quoted in

Hortan 3).

For Jane it is her first visit to Russia. Evidently, she discovers for herself a country and people of a unique culture, due to its traditions and such a phenomenon as the Russian soul. Jane is amazed by the "extraordinary country", where people "go to

33 wars singing and to weddings with tears" and despite all her efforts to understand it, she never does. Maybe foreigners are not supposed to understand the nature of Russian

culture, but simply accept it.

Both de Custine and Jane are affected by their experiences with Russian culture.

Although comparing to Jane, who is exposed to a heartbreaking personal drama, de

Custine's personality is only slightly altered. Evidently, the Marquis is affected by the

discussion with the Voice and consequently refuses to travel in the tragic twentieth

century, the time of Revolution (1917), the time of the Soviet power, which is

characterized as an 80-year-long Convention, and the time of wars (Gillespie and

Smirnova 61 ). Jane changes drastically from a strong, practical businesswoman to a

woman whose heart is broken and overwhelmed by emotions. The love affair with

Tolstoy causes her to realize the importance of high morals, which stir her soul and make

her reevaluate her own principles. She learned one truth about Russia: that your word is

worth more than "any official paper with a wax seal," even if it might have fatal

consequences.

34 CONCLUSIONS

Both films glorify Imperial Russia by emphasizing nationhood, which is presented by the idea of fatherhood. The Tsars, Nikolas II and Alexander III, fulfill the father's role and the Russian people are viewed as one family.

The presentation of Russia and the West in these two films reflects the ideas debated by the Slavophiles and Westernizers discussed at the beginning of this paper.

The Slavophiles' idea of Russia's unique culture prevails in both films; nevertheless, both

Sokurov and Mikhalkov show the influence of Western elements on Russian life and culture. In Russian Ark, the West both influences Russian art and contributes the paintings preserved in the Hermitage. In The Barber ofSiberia, Mikhalkov glorifies

Russian traditions and portrays the Russian people as having high values, but he also shows that they still interact with the West, although the West often negatively influences

Russian culture.

The two films differ in their nature and structure. Russian Ark can be characterized as a "national" film, based on a complex discussion of Russia's identity.

The Barber ofSiberia, referred to as "nationalistic" by Birgit Beumers, is a "celebration of the physical expanse of Russia and the generosity of the Russian soul" (Gillespie and

Smimova 62).

35 Sokurov sees the mingling of Russian and Western cultures in a positive light, while

Mikhalkov elevates nationalistic ideas so that Russia appears superior to the West.

Adopting the Western way of life affects the social, economic, and political

systems of Russia and inevitably alters national values as a result of the interaction of the

two cultures. Film production is one way of "inculcation a coherent sense of national

identity" (Beumers 197). Both Sokurov's and Mikhalkov's films open a discussion about

the West's influence on Russian culture and raise the question of the current dilemmas of

Russian national identity.

36 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beumers, Birgit. "Sibirskii tsiriul'nik (The Barber of Siberia)." European Cinema: an introduction. Ed. Jill Forbes and Sarah Street. New York: PALGRAVE, 2000.

Consuming Russia. Ed. Adele Marie Barker. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999.

Dondurei, Daniil. "Artistic Culture." Russian Culture at the Crossroads: Paradoxes of Postcommunist Consciousness. Ed. Dmitri N. Shalin. , Colo.: WestviewPress, 1996.

Gasiorowska, Xenia. The image ofPeter the Great in Russian Fiction. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1979.

Gillespie, David and Smimova, Elena. " and the Russian soul." Studies in European Cinema 1.1 (2004): 57-65.

Horton, Andrew James. "Elegy to history. Aleksandr Sokurov's Russkii kovcheg." < http://www.filmlinc.com/fcm/online/filmtitleindex.pdf> [Cited on April 15, 2005]

Kachurin, Pamela and Zitser, Ernest. "After The Deluge: Russian Ark and the (Ab)uses of History." NewsNet 3.4 (August 2003): 17-20.

Neumann, Iver B. Uses ofthe Other: "The East" in European identity formation. Ed. Iver B. Neumann. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Rogin, Michael Paul. "Ronald Reagan," the movie: and other episodes in political demonology. Ed. Michael Rogin. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

Shiraev, Eric and Zubok, Vladislav. Anti-Americanism in Russia From Stalin to Putin. New York: PALGRAVE, 2000.

Wollf, Larry. Inventing Eastern Europe: the map ofcivilization on the mind ofthe enlightenment. Ed. Larry Wolff. Standford, Calif.: Standford University Press, 1994.

Zassoursky, Yassen. Beyond the Cold War: Soviet and American media images. Ed. Everette E. Dennis, George Gerbner, Yassen N. Zassoursky. Newbury Park: Sage, 1991. 37 FILMOGRAPHY

Never Let Me Go (UK, Delmer Daves, 1953)

Russian Ark (Germany, Russia, Alexander Sokurov, 2002)

Song ofRussia (USA, Gregory Ratoff, 1943)

The Barber ofSiberia (Russia, France, Italy, Check Republic, Nikita Mikhalkov, 1999)

38