Air Management 1
Running head: ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO INDIVIDUAL AIR MANAGEMENT
Alternative approaches to individual air management in the fire service
William Perez
East Hartford Fire Department
East Hartford, Connecticut
Air Management 2
CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the language of others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate credit is given where I have used the language, ideas, expressions, or writing of another.
Signed:______
Air Management 3
Abstract
The problem was that the East Hartford Fire Department (EHFD) did not have an individual air management program in place to meet National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) individual air management standards and to help decrease the risk of firefighter injuries, illness, or deaths during emergency operations. The purpose of this research was to identify alternatives for complying with NFPA individual air management standards and to assist with the prevention of firefighter injuries, illnesses or deaths during emergency operations. This descriptive research project was designed to answer the following questions: What current air management technologies are available or are being used by other fire departments to reduce the risk of firefighter injuries, illnesses, or death during emergency operations? What regulations, recognized standards, and other fire department policies should be referenced when establishing an air management program? What are the essential elements of a successful air management program? How have implemented air management programs in other fire departments affected the number of firefighter injuries, illness or deaths during emergency operations?
A literature review was conducted prior to the start of the project. The procedures used to carry out the research included a questionnaire, personal interviews and telephone interviews.
While a variety of new individual air management techniques and technologies are available which may potentially save firefighters lives, the results of this research showed that most fire departments have not established air managements programs. Following this research, recommendations included creating an individual air management committee to establish a plan to develop a new individual air management program. It was further recommended to invest in new individual air management technologies. Air Management 4
Table of Contents
PAGE
Certification Statement------2
Abstract------3
Table of Contents------4
Introduction------5
Background and Significance------6
Literature Review------9
Procedures------19
Results------21
Discussion------27
Recommendations------29
References------31
APPENDICES
Appendix A: ------36
Appendix B: ------40
Appendix C: ------41
Appendix D: ------42
Appendix E: ------43
Appendix F: ------44
Appendix G: ------45
Appendix H: ------46
Air Management 5
Alternative Approaches to Individual Air Management in the Fire Service
In the United States, over one hundred firefighters die annually while on duty. The third leading cause of firefighter death on the fireground is asphyxiation (USFA, 2009). Firefighters typically either get lost or simply run out of air. In addition to this, firefighters also have a two to four times greater likelihood of contracting different types of cancer or many other illnesses and poisonings compared to the general population (Gagliano, Phillips, Jose, and Bernocco, 2006).
In recognition of this problem, the NFPA has updated many of its standards to increase firefighter safety. Particularly, NFPA 1404 Standard for Fire Service Respiratory Protection
Training (2006) mandates fire departments train in an individual air management program.
NFPA 1981 Standard on Open-Circuit Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) (2007) for emergency services adds mandatory upgrades and new technology that supports firefighter safety. The federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also have respiratory use regulations which are enforced as law in the State of Connecticut (OSHA,2009a).
The fire service is not alone when dealing with air management. Self contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) divers and underground miners are also dealing with similar safety issues. Miners are trained with a different set of guidelines because they do not always work in atmospheres that are immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). SCUBA divers are subjected to IDLH atmospheres immediately upon entering the water and from their initial training forward, the SCUBA diving culture regards the significance of air management differently than the fire service (Gagliano et al. 2006).
The problem is that the EHFD does not have an individual air management program in place to meet NFPA individual air management standards and to help decrease the risk of firefighter injuries, illness, or deaths during emergency operations. The purpose of this research Air Management 6 is to identify alternatives for complying with NFPA individual air management standards and to decrease the risk of firefighter injuries, illness or death during emergency operations. This applied research project (ARP) will use the descriptive research method and will rely on questionnaires, personal interviews, document review and data analysis and will help answer the following questions: What current air management technologies are available or are being used by other fire departments to reduce the risk of firefighter injuries, illnesses, or death during emergency operations? What regulations, recognized standards, and other fire department policies should be referenced when establishing an air management program? What are the essential elements of a successful air management program? How have implemented air management programs in other fire departments effected the number of firefighter injuries, illness or deaths during emergency operations?
The results of this ARP will be of great value to the EHFD as it implements new air management practices, and can be useful to other fire departments in the planning process and implementation of policies regarding individual air management.
Background and Significance
The Town of East Hartford is located in the North Central region of Connecticut. It has an evening residential population of approximately 50,000 and a daytime residential and transient population of approximately 70,000 (Connecticut Emergency Resource Center, 2009).
East Hartford is separated from the capital city of Hartford by the Connecticut River and is part of the Capital Region that has an ethnically diverse population of approximately 1.2 million.
East Hartford was incorporated in 1783 with mainly an agrarian based economy. The present economy is based primarily on aeronautical technology and industry. The town was enjoying a high rate of growth in commercial and residential construction until the recent Air Management 7 downturn in the economy. The town government operates with a strong mayor form of government and a town council that has historically supported public safety agencies.
Within the town there are many different types of building structures. Approximately
31.4% of the housing was built prior to 1950 and typically of balloon frame construction
(Connecticut Emergency Resource Center, 2009). East Hartford has a combination of single family, multi-family and large apartment buildings containing hundreds of units. The town has high rise buildings, many small to extremely large commercial buildings, railroad freight yards, interstate highways and large waterways including the Connecticut River.
The EHFD was organized in 1889 and began with three fire stations and 120 volunteers.
The fire department completed the transition to an all paid career force in 1940 (The Connecticut
Fire Museum, 2006).
Today, the fire department is comprised of 130 career firefighters and six civilian support personnel. The department operates from five fire stations and an apparatus maintenance shop.
The EHFD deploys five paramedic engine companies, two ladder companies, one rescue company and a shift command vehicle. The department also staffs a Fire Alarm Division,
Medical Division, Training Division, Apparatus Repair Division, Office of Emergency
Management, Information Technology and a Fire Marshal Division. The fire department protects an area of 18.7 square miles and responds to approximately 9,500 calls per year (EHFD, 2008).
Regionally, the department responds to surrounding communities on mutual aid including
The City of Hartford and The Town of Manchester and participates on the Capital Regional
Hazardous Materials Response Team and the Connecticut Urban Search and Rescue Team.
The EHFD uses SCOTT AIR-PAK model Fifty with 1200 liter (L) air bottles (Scott
Health & Safety, 2008a). The department deploys SCOTT rapid intervention team (RIT) RIT- Air Management 8
PAK air supplies at emergency scenes that contain 2400L bottles. The department’s Apparatus
and Maintenance Division is responsible for filling and testing the compressed air and complete
maintenance of the SCBA.
Every year firefighters across this nation are running out of air on the fireground (USFA,
2009). The results have ranged from near misses to fatal injuries. Gagliano calls breathing smoke
from today’s fires “the breath from hell.” (Gagliano et al, 2006). In modern times, the smoke that is released at fires has high potential to cause illness, injuries or death. Some of the toxic gases released are carbon monoxide, benzenes, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen chloride (Gagliano,
Phillips, Jose, and Bernocco, 2008). However, these are only a few of the toxic gases that are being released on today’s fireground.
Close calls with running out of air can happen anywhere, anytime and to anyone. In
March 2001 while fighting a second alarm structure fire, an EHFD Lieutenant ran out of air while in the IDLH atmosphere. The lieutenant continued to work in the IDLH atmosphere while his low air alarm was signaling him that he had only 25% of his air supply left. Not leaving enough time to evacuate, the lieutenant exhausted his air supply prior to exiting the IDLH atmosphere. Luckily, the fire lieutenant was able to exit the IDLH safely and from that learned a valuable lesson. To this day in East Hartford, it is not uncommon to hear low air alarms sounding while firefighters are still working in IDLH atmospheres.
A few years earlier in Massachusetts, a similar incident happened. Six firefighters from the Worcester Fire Department died in the line of duty when they became lost in a large warehouse filled with heavy smoke while conducting a search for reportedly trapped victims.
They died from asphyxiation (McCluskey, 2004). Air Management 9
The future impact on our fire department may be costly to our firefighter’s health or ability to survive. Our philosophy of operation states that we will work in a safe and effective manner (EHFD, 2008). Failure to adopt an effective individual air management plan may continue increase the risk of firefighter injury, illness, or death.
This research is important to the EHFD as the fire department should meet all current standards and regulations relating to individual air management programs that help increase safety to firefighters. If this lack of compliance continues, the fire department will also allow itself to be vulnerable to litigation.
This ARP is directly related to the National Fire Academy (NFA) Executive Analysis of
Fire Service Operations in Emergency Management Course. The course covers areas on risk management, legal mandates, standards and emergency operations. All which are addresses by this research (National Fire Academy,2004).
The issue that this ARP examines is related to the United States Fire Administration
(USFA) five year operation objective to reduce the loss of firefighter lives and to respond appropriately and in a timely manner to emerging issues (National Fire Academy,2008).
The goal of this ARP is to look at many aspects of individual air management in the fire service and other disciplines. The research will examine the existing body of literature on the subject and identify technologies, procedures, standards and regulations dealing with individual air management.
Literature Review
A literature review was conducted to analyze the existing body of knowledge regarding individual air management programs. The review consisted of fire textbooks, Executive Fire
Officer Papers, fire service trade magazines and journals, legal publications, consensus standards Air Management 10 and non-fire related texts and journals. Overall, there are a limited number of resources available on this subject.
A review of relevant literature to the research problem found that individual air management programs are important to reduce the risk of injuries to firefighters during emergency operations. The incidents of firefighters mismanaging air while in IDLH atmospheres continues due to the lack of adoption of appropriate individual air management programs. The third leading cause of non-traumatic deaths on the fireground is asphyxiation, typically caused by running out of air or getting lost and disorientated (USFA, 2009).
Breathing the toxic air released by modern day fires may cause short-term thermal injuries to the respiratory system (Sanders, 2007) or long-term illness such as cancer (Gagliano, et al., 2006). The possibility of toxicity to chemical asphyxiates such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide may also lead to a rapid asphyxiation at the cellular level (Sanders, 2007).
Lastly, many other deadly gasses are produced by the decomposition of plastics found in modern furniture (Fire, 1991).
In response to this problem, national consensus standards for the fire service have been revised. The NFPA provides consensus standards for the fire service on many areas. NFPA 1404
Standard on Fire Service Respiratory Protection Training 2006 Edition (NFPA, 2006) mandates yearly training in an individual air management program.
The key element to this program is for every individual to mange his or her air consumption as part of a team during a work period. Team members should rotate positions to prevent any one member from doing the heavy work and consuming their air faster than other members on the team. Other components to the training shall include exiting an IDLH atmosphere before consumption of reserve air begins. The activation of the low air alarm is an Air Management 11
immediate action item for the individual and the team. The alarm notifies team members that an individual is using his or her reserve air.
The literature review also showed that individual air management programs must reference many different standards and regulations concurrently. During the review of standards
and regulations, the author did not find a guide or single document that informs fire departments
of the specific standards or regulations that should be referenced when creating an effective
individual air management program. It would be outside the scope of this research to illustrate all
possible standards or regulations that pertain to individual air management programs, but it is
important to note for future research purposes.
The foundation of individual air management standards begins with NFPA 1001,
Standard for Firefighter Professional Qualifications (NFPA, 2008). This standard requires
firefighters to demonstrate the ability to use SCBA during emergency operations. NFPA 1500,
Fire Department Occupation Safety and Health Programs 2007 edition references the need for
the fire department to have an established respiratory protection plan. This plan would include
SCBA face piece fit testing and the use of a Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) which meets
NFPA Standard 1982, Standard on Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS) (NFPA, 2007).
NFPA 1500 also outlines care and maintenance of SCBA. NFPA 1852, Standard on
Selection, Care and Maintenance of Open Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (NFPA,
2008) is referenced for this purpose. This standard also states that breathing air used to fill SCBA
cylinders shall meet the requirements specified in NFPA 1989, Standard on Breathing Air
Quality for Emergency Service Respiratory Protection, 2008 edition (NFPA, 2008).
Finally, all SCBA purchased new shall be certified as compliant with NFPA 1981,
Standard on Open-Circuit Self Contained Breathing Apparatus for Fire and Emergency Services Air Management 12
(NFPA,2007). All new SCBA shall also be certified to the National Institute of Safety and
Health (NIOSH) standard for Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Open
Circuit Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (NIOSH, 2009a).
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American Industrial Hygiene Association
(AIHA) Z88 Accredited Standards Committee are standards on respiratory protection (AIHA,
2009). The standards are used to develop safe practices and are required for using respirators for
the protection of the respiratory system from the inhalation of particulate matter, oxygen
deficiencies, noxious gases and vapors as well as programs practices, procedures and equipment
related to industrial respiratory protection.
OSHA provides the fire service with standards where applicable. The State of
Connecticut has adopted OSHA as a regulatory agency under the Department of Labor. OSHA
respiratory protection standard 1910.134 is a multi-faceted standard which covers many aspects
of respiratory protection for the fire service; medical qualifications to wear SCBA, fit testing, use
of SCBA in IDLH atmosphere, care, maintenance and inspection are but a few aspects of what
this standard covers.
With the update of NFPA 1981, many new technologies have been added as standard
equipment to new SCBA. Technology that was optional just a few years ago is now mandated to
help increase firefighter safety. The Heads-Up Display (HUD) is a new design requirement. The
HUD allows a firefighter to see a visual display of his or her air supply. The lights are seen
through the firefighter’s face piece. This allows the fire fighter to constantly monitor his or her
air status in 25% increments. NFPA 1981 mandates that all new SCBA, regardless of
manufacturer, must also have a Rapid Intervention Crew/Company Universal Air Connection
(RIC UAC) male fitting to allow replenishment of breathing air to the SCBA breathing air Air Management 13 cylinder (NFPA, 2007). This allows RIC members to transfer air from a RIC cylinder to a firefighter who has run low or completely depleted their air supply. PASS devices have become standard equipment on SCBA. NFPA 1982 mandates that all PASS devices are an integral part of the SCBA and must activate upon opening of the SCBA cylinder valve (NFPA, 2007). This has eliminated the prior practice of firefighters failing to manually arm their PASS devices.
The use of an emergency escape cylinder such as the Ska-Pak Plus made by Scott Health and Safety has been available for a number of years (Scott Health & Safety, 2008b). These escape cylinders give firefighters, under emergency circumstances, a five or ten minute air supply when the firefighter has exhausted their SCBA supply and are trying to exit the IDLH atmosphere (Professional Association of Diving Instructors, 2006). SCUBA divers train with and have successfully used escape cylinders for many years. Miners, while working in IDLH atmospheres, routinely carry self-contained, self rescue escape bottles that facilitate their evacuation from an IDLH atmosphere. The National Aeronautical and Space Administration
(NASA) created the SCAMP (supercritical air mobility pack) breathing apparatus that uses super critical cryogenic air that provides up to 30 minutes of air. The advantage of SCAMP is its low- profile thickness of less than 5.5 inches (NASA, 2007).
The Last Chance SCBA Filter was created in Hamden, Connecticut. Replacing their air regulator under emergency situations, this filter is designed for use by firefighters when trying to escape from an IDLH atmosphere after exhausting their normal supply. It is designed to filter particles and toxic gases such as hydrogen cyanide, acrolein and hydrogen chloride while converting carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide (Ricci & Marcarelli, 2008). The device is also designed to attach directly to the SCBA mask and is solely intended for escape purpose only. Air Management 14
Others argue that they may be used to extend times. While potentially life saving, the filter does not protect from thermal insult or provide oxygen.
Similar to the HUD, LEDtronics has created LED lights that illuminate the SCBA Buddy
System indicators on SCOTT’s NxG2 SCBA and enable fire fighters to monitor each other while in IDLH atmospheres (LEDTronics, 2007). While the HUD can only be seen by an individual firefighter, the NxG2’s Buddy System Indicators are visible to other firefighters. Two LED lights are positioned on the back frame of the SCBA and when assistance is needed the LED changes colors to alert other fire fighters.
The next generation SCBA is currently being created and is set to completely change the profile and weight of the current SCBA (Stull, 2008). Recently the Department of Homeland
Security awarded the IAFF a two million dollar contract to develop a new pressure vessel that will make the SCBA lighter and thinner. The design consists of a series of air cylinders attached by a flexible connector. The profile of the SCBA is only 1.75 inches thick versus the current profile of approximately 10 inches. The weight of the new SCBA has been reduced from 30 pounds to 8 pounds. The pack is being designed for approximately a 45 minute air supply duration. The prototype models are currently being tested at the Syracuse, New York Fire
Department.
Radio telemetry systems such as the Scott Electronic Management System (SEMS) allow remote monitoring of firefighters air supplies. The system also has the capability to send visual and audible warning signals to the individual firefighter or all the firefighters at an emergency scene. Currently, firefighter global positioning systems (GPS) are being used in the fire service.
These systems will give an incident commander a three dimensional view of where firefighters are located within a certain geographical area. Air Management 15
Regardless of manufacturer, SCBA cylinders come in several different sizes. Scott Health
and Safety cylinders are supplied in 1200L, 1800L, or 2400L (Scott Health & Safety, 2008a).
The obvious advantages of more air may allow fire fighters to stay in the IDLH atmosphere for a
longer period of time to perform critical tasks. The extra air volume brings the disadvantage of additional weight. The 2400L may be too heavy and may keep fire fighters in the IDLH atmosphere too long a period of time (Gagliano et al., 2008).
There are many SCBA technologies that help fire fighters work more safely. Individual
air management programs may include different options in technology, but technology is second
to fire fighters learning how to use the rules of individual air management. Gagliano states that firefighters should know how much air they have in their SCBA and they should manage that air so that they leave the hazardous environment before their low-air alarm activates. (Gagliano, et al., 2008).
Training to exit buildings prior to low-air alarms activating is an absolute necessity.
When routinely posing the question to audiences across the country, Consolidated Fire District
#2, Prairie Village Kansas Fire Chief Phil Hodgdon asks firefighters what does their SCBA
training tell them as to when to leave the building? Consistently, nearly 100% of the time, the
answer is when their low air alarm activates. (Hodgdon, Havel, Morris, and Kuryla, 2008).
Waiting for the low-air alarm to activate may put the firefighter at the point of no return
(Glagliano et al.,2008). The point of no return for firefighters is referenced in NFPA 1404. In
short, it symbolizes the point beyond which you are unable to return from inside the hazardous
environment. NFPA 1404 recognizes important factors that effect the point of no return,
including entry points. Officers and firefighters should pay close attention to the characteristics
of the entry point such as size, location, and the possibility of a second point of egress. Air Management 16
Firefighter’s physical condition, size and type of work being performed will also contribute to the amount of air consumed and will effect the point of no return. The final aspect of the point of no return is situational awareness. Knowing where you are and monitoring changing conditions such as heat, fire growth and your air supply will enhance your chances of avoiding the point of no return.
Retired Phoenix Arizona Assistant Fire Chief Gary P. Morris argues just the opposite, stating that exiting the IDLH when an alarm activates is an indication of success. When the safety feature activates, the firefighters are heeding the warnings and taking action. If the low air warning is set at levels that do not allow enough time to exit, Morris feels that it is an issue that the NFPA should be addressing (Hodgdon et al., 2008).
If a fire fighter became trapped, lost or disoriented, they may have to resort to air conservation techniques. Using the techniques such as breathing through your nose or skip breathing may increase the emergency reserve air time to over one hour. (Smoke Divers, 2006).
Work cycles should be used to alternate firefighters conducting labor intensive work in an IDLH atmosphere. Firefighters should rotate to ensure that the heavy work load is being shared by all members on the team. This allows the member with the least air to move to the least strenuous job (Gagliano et al.,2008).
Radio, Equipment, Air, Duties, Yes (READY) checks allow fire fighters to check their equipment prior to entering a hazardous area. Checking air prior to entry allows fire fighters to recognize if their equipment is functioning properly and if the team has enough air to accomplish their assigned task. Firefighters constantly monitoring their air remain at the forefront of NFPA
1404. Air levels should be checked at entry, after periods of heavy work loads, at each change of Air Management 17
rooms or area, change of levels, during progress reports, at rest intervals, before starting a new assignment, and when a firefighter deems it necessary.
Good communication and concise progress reports to the Incident Commander (IC) are an important component of individual air management. The Seattle Washington Fire Department uses the acronym CARA (Conditions, Actions, Resources, Air) when giving progress reports to the IC (Gagliano et al.,2008).
The literature review also identified individual air management systems used worldwide including the United Kingdom (UK). In the UK system, firefighters entering a structure must hand their SCBA tag to an entry control officer. Entry control Officers are staged at each entry point of the fire building. They keep track of times on air and advise the team leaders when to withdraw from the hazardous area (London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority, 2006). A system of this type would depend heavily on significant staffing levels.
In Sweden, firefighters and officers are taught the concept of individual air management in Fire College. Their system is similar to the UK system in which the breathing apparatus leader does not enter the structure but remains outside of the structure to ensure the safety of firefighters by monitoring the time firefighters are inside the structure and breathing from their SCBA
(Gagliano et al.,2008).
The literature review also showed that individual air management programs should have supporting policies included or in conjunction with the individual air management program.
Policies outlining firefighter rehabilitation and rapid intervention crews should be components of an individual air management program. A firefighter’s ability to perform work and utilize their air is directly related to the level of fatigue. Appropriate rehabilitation procedures should be in place at all fires. When firefighters get into a mayday situation, a RIC should be standing by and Air Management 18
ready to spring into action. An effective RIC team should be prepared with the appropriate tools
and additional air supply. Many firefighters who have gotten lost or injured survive the initial physical or psychological trauma but risk injury or death from asphyxia. Their chance for
survival benefits from an effective, well trained RICA that is able to locate, protect and provide a continuous air supply to the firefighter (Galliano et al., 2008).. Additionally, wellness and fitness programs should be part of an individual air management program. Fire fighters who are in good physical shape are very efficient when using air in a hazardous area (Norris, 2008).
Finally, the literature review of non-fire service related disciplines showed that SCUBA divers face similar conditions as fire fighters when entering an IDLH environment. SCUBA divers are taught to manage their air from the onset of training and disciplined in checking their air status on a regular basis. When preparing for a dive, scuba divers preplan how much air they are going to use on a particular dive and how much emergency reserve air they will need to set aside. The use of emergency reserve air is strictly for true emergencies and is never used to exit the water unless an emergency condition exists (Professional Association of Diving Instructors,
2006). Scuba divers are also taught that the more complex and deep the dive is, the more emergency reserve will be required. Through the application of quality training and discipline, scuba divers rarely find themselves at the point of no return.
The literature review has a great impact in supporting and influencing the purpose of this applied research paper. The review showed the current problems and consequences of poor individual air management in the fire service. The review also identified essential elements of an individual air management plan and the regulation standards that should be referenced when developing an individual air management plan. Effective individual air management in the fire service is a newly identified and significant issue. Until fire departments across the nation Air Management 19
change their cultures on individual air management, firefighter injuries and death from poor
individual air management will continue to haunt the fire service.
Procedures
The research methodology utilized for this project is the descriptive research method. The
desired outcome of the research would be to identify alternative approaches to individual air
management by the EHFD. By identifying alternative approaches to individual air management,
research will help reduce the risk of firefighter injuries, illness, or death. These procedures will
try to answer four research questions regarding individual air management technologies
including, regulatory standards, program elements and effectiveness.
After an extensive literature review, the author developed a seventeen point
questionnaire. The questionnaire included demographic information regarding individual air
management program elements and program effectiveness, individual air management
technology and existing supportive programs (see Appendix A). It was created to explain the
rationale behind the questionnaire and a hyper link was added to the text to connect the
participant directly to the questionnaire (see Appendix B). The questionnaire was created on a
web-based service called “Survey Monkey” which can be found at
http://www.surveymonkey.com. After completion on April 9, 2009, the cover letter containing the link was sent via email with an April 22, 2009 return deadline. Based on the author’s own experience, the deadline date was chosen because the majority of questionnaires or surveys are typically answered during the first ten days of the request. Prolonging the deadline would also add no benefit to the research. The questionnaire was sent electronically to each of the 203 fire departments and fire districts within the state of Connecticut via the Connecticut Fire Academy list service (CFA, 2009). The questionnaire was also sent to other fire departments across the Air Management 20
country using an email list of 632 Executive Fire Officer Program students and graduates provided by the National Fire Academy. The questionnaire was also posted on the National
Society of Executive Fire Officers website (SNAFU, 2009). During this research, the author felt that it would be appropriate to send questionnaires to fire departments without regard to demographics. Information gathered from any fire department could be useful regardless of the specific department or community demographics. Procedures and processes can be customized to fit most departments.
A total of 230 questionnaires were completed and returned with one survey completed via a phone interview. The author was not able to determine how many persons actually received the questionnaires because of the inability to track responses that were generated from the
NSEFO’s web site. The data from the responses were compiled, reviewed and analyzed to answer the four questions.
The author conducted a personal interview with New Britain Connecticut Fire Chief
Mark Carr on April 1, 2009. Chief Carr was chosen because of his recent experience in creating an individual air management program and his recent ARP on individual air management in the fire service (see appendix C). A second phone interview was also conducted with Bernard
Vignali, Occupational Safety and Health Worker, Connecticut Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Division on April 1, 2009. Mr. Vignali was chosen for his first hand knowledge of Connecticut OSHA regulations and standards (see appendix D). The author also conducted a personal interview with Kenneth Vancara, PAD1 Master Scuba Diver on April
1, 2009. Mr. Vancara was chosen for his vast experience with scuba diving around the world to include technical diving and mix gas diving (see appendix E). Finally, the author conducted a phone interview of Seattle Washington Fire Department Captain Michael Gagliano on April 22, Air Management 21
2009. Captain Gagliano was chosen because he is a pioneer in the fire service on individual air management (see appendix F). Captain Gagliano is a published author on individual air management and is considered a leader in the field. The comments and input given by all persons interviewed helped the author in answering the four research questions.
During the course of research, the author encountered two specific limitations: the questions on the questionnaire assumed individuals were able to understand the intent of the questions and the individuals would answer the question in a truthful and honest manner.
Reviewing the questionnaire after it was sent for completion and given the opportunity, the author would have asked specific follow up questions or phrased some questions differently.
Starting with the first box of the first demographic question, the author asked to provide the name of the fire department. This question was ambiguous and received either the name of the person or the intended answer, the name of the fire department.
Ms Christine Hickey of Bolton, Connecticut was contracted to proofread this ARP for grammatical errors, punctuation errors and format errors. She has a Master’s degree and Sixth
Year Professional Diploma in School Psychology.
Results
The results were extracted and analyzed from the questionnaire and interviews conducted
by the author. The general demographic information provided was as follows: a total of 230
questionnaires were completed and returned to the author with one completed via phone
interview. Two hundred twenty three respondents completed question 1, fire department contact
information.
Question Two asked for the population of the community served by the department. A
large group of respondents served communities with a population of 10,000 – 30,000. This Air Management 22
accounted for 19.6% of responses. Two hundred twenty-five departments answered this question.
The population range went from less than 2500 to greater than 8 million (see figure 1).
Community Population
>250,000
125,000-250,000
75,000-125,000
50,000-75,000
30,000-50,000
10,000-30,000
2,500-10,000
-2,500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Number of Responses
Figure 1.
Question Three of the questionnaire asked the total number of firefighters in their department.
Two hundred twenty-seven answered the question with 27% being in the 50-100 fire fighter range (see figure 2). Air Management 23
Department Size
70
60
50
40
30
20 Number of Responses of Number
10
0 1-25 25-50 50-100 100-150 150-300 300-500 >500 Firefighters
Figure 2
Question Four of the questionnaire asked if the department was career, volunteer, or combination. Two hundred twenty-four answered the question: 61% career, 4.5% volunteer and
34.5% combination. Other responses were industrial fire fighters, some were student residents and others were part-time.
Research Question One
Questions 10 and 11 were used to answer research question one.
The HUD, electronic individual air management, remote air level monitoring, firefighter global positioning systems, and firefighter locator system constituted the majority of responses for available individual air management technology. A summary of other available technology can be found in Appendix G. Air Management 24
Individual air management technologies currently being used by most respondent fire departments are integrated PASS devices and rapid intervention packs. The technologies and response percentages are shown in figure 3 below.
Air Management Technology Utilization
250 Electronic air management system
Heads up display (HUD) 200 Emergency escape air cylinders
150 Buddy breathing systems
Rapid intervention air pack 100
Rapid intervention crew/Universal air connection (RIC/UAC) 50 Integral pass device
Firefighter personal global 0 positioning system
Figure 3
The results also identified that 46.7% of the respondents use 1800L SCBA cylinders, 46.2% use
1200L and 15.6% use 2400L SCBA cylinders. When compiling the data, it was identified that only 10% of respondents possess the technology to remotely monitor their firefighters SCBA air consumption during emergency operations.
Research Question Two
Following an extensive literature review, the author used interviews and questionnaire questions 14, 15, and 16 to answer research question two. During an interview with Captain
Michael Gagliano, the author determined that NFPA 1404 is the basis of most individual air Air Management 25
management programs but other NFPA standards such as NFPA 1500 and NFPA 1981 should
also be referenced when developing an individual air management program (see Appendix F).
The author interviewed Bernard Vignali and summarized that the regulations Connecticut fire departments must follow when developing an individual air management plan are OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.134, Respiratory Protection (OSHA, 2009a), and OSHA standard 29 CFR
1910.156, Fire Brigades (OSHA, 2009b). The highlights of these standards are the use of SCBA
fit testing, medical education, IDLH procedures, care and maintenance of SCBA, training, air
quality monitoring and record keeping (see appendix D). The results also showed that 30% of the
questionnaire respondents have a RIC as part of their individual air management program, 67.0%
stated that they had a RIC policy but it was not included in an individual air management
program, and 3% stated they had no RIC policy at all. When asked about accountability systems
as part of their individual air management program: 26.9% responded that they incorporated
accountability into their individual air management program, 71.7% stated that they had a policy
but not incorporated in an individual air management program, and 1.8% responded they had no
accountability system at all. Question 16 of the questionnaire asked if a formal rehabilitation
policy was part of their individual air management program. 22.8% of respondents answered yes,
56.3% said they had a formal firefighter rehabilitation policy but not part of an individual air
management program and 21% of respondents answered that they had no rehabilitation policy.
Research Question Three
Interviews and questions on the questionnaire were used to answer research question
three. The author interviewed Chief Mark Carr, Captain Michael Gagliano and Kenneth Vancara.
The complete interviews can be found in the appendices. The results summarize that 47.7% of
respondents have an individual air management program and 53.2% do not. Other departments Air Management 26 are currently working on one or are training with a policy. The core of successful individual air management program begins with an individual air management philosophy throughout the department and buy-in at all levels of the organization. Education on individual air management, training, physical fitness, situational awareness, the adoption of the Rules of Air Management
(ROAM), good communication and appropriate work cycles tops the list of essential elements of a successful individual air management program. The results also showed that most departments
(61.6%) do not mandate that firefighters exit an IDLH atmosphere prior to the activation of the
SCBA low air alarm.
The questionnaire asked respondents what effect their individual air management program has had on firefighter injuries, illness, or death during emergency operations. The majority (61.3%) stated that they were unsure, 32.4% believed that the program had a reducing effect, and 7.2% stated that there was no benefit. The dilemma with this research question is the difficulty in quantifying a benefit. Some respondents stated that they were not collecting injury data or that they do not have a good data tracking mechanism. Other departments recently implemented their individual air management program with no new injury data yet collected.
Other departments have had an increase in the number of “mayday” calls with successful rescue, but are unable to correlate that directly with their individual air management program. The author believes that the question as stated failed to adequately address the core issue and would have asked different questions if given the opportunity in the future. The policy of individual air management in the fire service is a fairly new concept and some time must pass before departments begin recognizing and reporting a decrease in firefighter injuries, illnesses, or deaths during emergency operations. The resultant list of essential elements of an individual air management program can be found in appendix H. Air Management 27
Discussion
Comparing the literature review and the results of the study confirms the need for an
effective individual air management plan. The recent and growing trend in the fire service is
effective individual air management. The fire service is aware of the dangers in breathing toxic air. Short and long term effects to health have been documented and the NFPA has introduced and integrated updated standards that require fire departments to implement individual air management plans. Gagliano states that individual air management plans are a necessity during his interview (see appendix F).
Confirming that fire departments should have comprehensive individual air management
plans, Vignali states fire departments may hold both criminal and civil liability when failing to
have an individual air management plan. Vignali recommends complying with statutes first, then move toward complying with all relevant individual air management standards (see appendix D).
Gagliano recommends a RIC and firefighter rehabilitation program to compliment an individual air management program (Gagliano et al., 2008). In comparison, the results of the questionnaire show most fire departments either have RIC and rehabilitation programs as part of their individual air management program or have them as stand alone complimentary programs.
Individual air management programs have benefited from new technologies and the results of the questionnaire show that many of the new technologies for individual air management are already being used by many fire departments. The next generation SCBA is currently being tested and the near future holds great promise for increased safety and comfort for firefighters (Stull,2008). In contrast, Gagliano (see appendix F) during his interview with the author states that technology is not the answer. The adoption of the ROAM will save more lives than any new technology, only requiring discipline and training. Technology sought after by fire Air Management 28
departments is already being addressed by NFPA 1981 (NFPA,2007). The overwhelming majority of respondents would likely deploy technology that NFPA 1981 mandates. The heads up display requirement seems to top the list for most departments regarding useful technology.
The questionnaire results and literature review also indicate there are many important elements in an individual air management plan. Gagliano suggest that an individual air management plan should be based on a department wide philosophy of individual air management (see appendix F). Many respondents of the questionnaires also point out that an
individual air management philosophy with buy-in at all levels is the key to a successful
individual air management program. The author concludes the adoption of the ROAM is the
most simple and important element in the creation of an effective individual air management
plan. If all else fails and fire fighters follow the ROAM, they will be function in a much safer
manner (see appendix F). The results of the questionnaire agree. There is no cost to have and use
the ROAM; it only requires adoption, implementation and practice.
Others do not agree with this premise. Assistant Chief Morris states the opposite
(Hodgdon et al.,2008). He believes that having firefighters wait until they hear a low air alarm
before leaving the IDLH atmosphere is acceptable. Morris feels that the burden should be on the
NFPA to change the low air alarm setting to allow enough time to evacuate the hazardous area.
Vancara contradicts this notion and states firefighters should not be allowed to use their
emergency air for routine exits of the IDLH area. Vancara states the SCUBA culture teaches
from the very beginning to never use the emergency air unless it is a true emergency. The
emergency air is just that, emergency air. Firefighters should plan ahead, similar to scuba divers, and know exactly how much air should be left in their cylinders when exiting the hazardous atmosphere (see appendix E). Air Management 29
The author believes and agrees with the questionnaire results and that preparing the work
force prior to the creation of an individual air management plan would be beneficial for the
process. Getting buy-in from all levels at the onset of the process is also important and Carr states, the best way to get buy-in is to implement training strategies that give firefighters hands- on experience in difficult individual air management scenarios (see appendix C). The author speculates that establishing an individual air management program would be well received within the department. Several implications for the EHFD come from the results of this research
project. Meeting legal mandates and national standards should be a priority for the EHFD.
Keeping our firefighters safe while working in a hazardous environment should be our number
one goal. It is clear to the author after this research that new technologies and the implementation
of programs geared toward increasing firefighter safety is the new paradigm shift most fire
services will encounter during the next few years.
Recommendations
Based on this study, the author is recommending the EHFD use alternative approaches to
individual air management. This can be accomplished through the following recommendations.
The first implementation component would be to establish an individual air management
policy committee that would initiate the task of creating an effective individual air management
plan. The cost of using a committee for this purpose should be investigated prior to formation.
The committee should examine any existing policies and incorporate appropriate content with
the new EHFD individual air management plan. The new plan should meet all applicable,
mandated regulations and standards. Finally, a comprehensive training plan should also be
established to incorporate individual air management theory, legal mandates and standards, case
studies on individual air management and SCBA practical evolutions. Air Management 30
The author recommends to other researchers conducting research on this topic to ask for existing individual air management policies or programs from other departments and believes this research has proven the need for individual air management programs. Finding literature for this research was limited at this time and the author believes that future readers or researchers will find more available data as individual air management in the fire service progresses to where it should be.
In conclusion, it is the author’s wish that future readers of this research will find that the
USFA has accomplished its goal of reducing firefighter fatalities (National Fire Academy, 2008).
Air Management 31
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Air Management 33
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and Health. Northampton, MA:Author.
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Air Management 35
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Air Management 36
Appendix A
Survey from www.surveymonkey.com
1. Please provide your Fire Department contact information. Name: City/Town: -- select state -- State:
2. What is the population of the community your department serves? -2,500 2,500-10,000 10,000-30,000 30,000-50,000 50,000-75,000 75,000-125,000 125,000-250,000 >250,000 Other (please specify)
3. What is the total number of firefighters in your department? 1-25 100-150 >500 25-50 150-300 50-100 300-500
4. Is your Department: Career Volunteer Combination
Other (please specify)
Air Management 37
5. Does your department currently have an air management program in place? Yes No Other (please specify)
6. If you answered yes to question #5, has it helped decrease the risk or number of injuries, illnesses, or deaths during emergency operations? Yes No Not sure Other (please specify)
7. Briefly list what you believe are the most important elements of a successful air management program. One Two Three Four Five
8. Does your department train firefighters specifically on managing and monitoring their SCBA air during emergency operations? Yes No Other (please specify)
9. Does your department mandate firefighters to exit an IDLH atmosphere prior to the activation of the SCBA low air alarm? Yes No Other (please specify)
Air Management 38
10. Does your Department utilize any of the following air management technologies? Please check all that apply. Electronic air management system Heads up display (HUD) Emergency escape air cylinders Buddy breathing systems Rapid intervention air pack Rapid intervention crew/Universal air connection (RIC/UAC) Integral pass device Firefighter personal global positioning system Other (please specify)
11. Briefly list what current air management technologies you believe would help your department reduce risk of injuries, illness, or even death during emergency operations. One Two Three Four Five
12. What size SCBA cylinder does your department utilize during emergency operations? 1200L (30 min) 1800L (45 min) 2400L (60 min) Other (please specify)
13. Does your department have the ability to remotely monitor your firefighters' SCBA air consumption during emergency operations? Yes No Other (please specify)
Air Management 39
14. Does your department currently have a rapid intervention crew (RIC)as part of your air management program? Yes, it is part of our air management program No, it is a stand alone policy or part of another policy We do not have a RIC policy Other (please specify)
15. Does your department currently have an accountability system as part of your air management program? Yes No, It is a stand alone policy or part of another policy No, we do not have an accountability system Other (please specify)
16. Does your department have a formalized emergency operation firefighter rehabilitation policy as part of an air management program? Yes No, it is a stand alone policy or part of another policy No, we do not have an emergency operation firefighter rehabilitation policy Other (please specify)
17. Please add any final comments about air management that you feel are important.
Air Management 40
Appendix B
Town of East Hartford 31 School Street - Fire Headquarters East Hartford, CT 06108
Melody A. Currey, Mayor Telephone: (860) 291-7400 John H. Oates, Fire Chief Fax: (860) 282-9706
April 9, 2009
Dear Chief,
I am currently enrolled in the National Fire Academy’s Executive Fire Officer Program which requires an applied research project. My project consists of researching successful air management programs. The information gathered for this project will assist the East Hartford Fire Department in developing our air management program.
I am attempting to gain sufficient data in order to identify the essential elements of a successful air management program.
I fully understand the demands of your busy schedule. I have made the questionnaire as concise as possible. There are no required answers to this questionnaire, so you can skip questions you may not be able to answer. I am very grateful for your time in helping us with this questionnaire and would greatly appreciate your response by April 22, 2009.
Your participation in this questionnaire will require you to go to the attached hyperlink, complete the questionnaire and click “Done” at the end of the questionnaire.
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=bmEfdW_2bbmPs1Ki9BTWwW4A_3d_3d
Your help in this applied research project will not only assist the East Hartford Fire Department but also any other department that finds the information beneficial. Thank you in advance for your help and cooperation.
With my appreciation,
William Perez Assistant Fire Chief Air Management 41
Appendix C
Personal Interview
Interviewee: Mark Carr, Fire Chief New Britain Fire Department
Date: April 1, 2009
Location: New Britain, CT
Question #1: Since the development of your air management program, what do you feel are the most important elements of the plan?
Answer: I feel that accountability, internal and external communications, logistics, equipment, and staffing are the most important. Also, the cultural aspect and paradigm shift of how we historically handle air management should be considered.
Question # 2: During the development phase of your air management program, what processes did you use or have in place to help facilitate program development?
Answer: We used a centralized process with the development of our air management plan. We also wanted a standard operating procedure with greater flexibility.
Question #3: What lessons did you learn during the development of you air management plan?
Answer: Prepare the workforce prior to the creation of an air management plan. Be prepared to assist in changing belief systems. Target your informal leaders and get them on board. Study your resource implication. If feel the best way to get buy-in is to implement training strategies that give firefighters hands-on experience in difficult air management scenarios.
Air Management 42
Appendix D
Personal Interview
Interviewee: Bernard Vignali, Occupational Safety and Health Worker Connecticut Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Division
Date: April 1, 2009
Location: Phone Interview
Question #1: Which Connecticut OSHA regulations should we be following when developing our air management program?
Answer: The primary Connecticut OSHA regulations that pertain to air management programs in the fire service would be found in 1910.134(Safety) and 1910.156(fire brigades)
Question # 2: What should be the priorities regarding regulations and standards when developing our air management program?
Answer: The EHFD should concentrate on Connecticut OSHA regulation first, since they hold the weight of law. Fire service air management standards should be taken into consideration also, since liability may be shared by your organization for not following consensus standards.
Question #3: What processes are available to assure that the EHFD’s new air management program is compliant to all appropriate Connecticut OSHA regulations?
Answer: Connecticut OSHA will provide a free consulting service in which a representative will review all aspects of your air management program and give recommendations on program regulation compliance.
Air Management 43
Appendix E
Personal Interview
Interviewee: Kenneth Vancara, PADI Master Diver
Date: April 1, 2009
Location: Personal Interview
Question # 1: What are the important elements of air management in SCUBA to prevent illness, injury, or death while diving?
Answer: Planning in advance, advance contingency planning, thorough equipment checks prior to dive, redundant air supplies on dangerous dives (cave and wreck diving), pre-dive emergency air limit, good physical conditioning, examine divers pre-dive stress levels, pair new divers with experience divers, and use the buddy system at all times.
Question #2: What air management techniques are used in SCUBA diving to prevent illness, injuries or death?
Answer: Relaxed and well rested while diving, situational awareness, consistently monitoring air supply, monitor air supply more often if deeper dive, good communication with dive buddy, stay with dive buddy at all times, carry a small pony emergency air bottle, follow pre-dive plan closely and mentally prepared for using emergency low air procedures.
Question #3: What alternatives do SCUBA divers have during no air emergency while diving?
Answer: Most important is to not get in that situation. Use spare pony bottle, buddy breathe off your buddy, find pockets of air to breathe (wreck dives) breath air from buoyancy controller, and rapid emergency ascent if possible (very danger
Air Management 44
Appendix F
Personal Interview
Interviewee: Michael Gagliano, Fire Captain Seattle Fire Department
Date: April 27, 2009
Location: Phone Interview
Question #1: Since the development of your air management program, what do you feel are the most important elements of the plan?
Answer: An air management philosophy trough-out the fire department, adopting the Rule of Air Management (ROAM), buy-in at all levels, training with emphasis on air management, appropriate work cycles, and good fire ground communications with progress reports to include air supply. You also want to have alarm free fire grounds. You want firefighter to react at the sound of alarms not become complacent because it is the norm. Technology itself is not the answer. The adoption of ROAM will save more lives than any new technology, only requiring discipline and training.
Question # 2: During the development phase of your air management program, what processes did you have in place to help facilitate the program development?
Answer: We already had a mandatory rule to be on air as soon as member was in an IDLH atmosphere. The process started at the Training division then move up and down the chain of command. A series of case studies were used to set the stage and present the ROAM to the entire fire department.
Question #3: What lessons did you learn during the development of you air management plan?
Answer: We should have worked harder at first to get Administration’s support. Also, laying the ground work by involving respected informal leaders would have developing and implementation much more effective. We also learned that we had some unexpected positive consequences such as, improve situational awareness and decreased tunnel vision at the fire ground.
Air Management 45
Appendix G
Air Management Technologies
1. Electronic air management system with remote air monitoring capability and alert
capability.
2. Fire fighter global positioning system with three dimensional coordinates.
3. Heads up display.
4. Emergency buddy breathing system
5. Large SCBA cylinders 1800L or 2400L cylinders
6. Emergency escape cylinders
7. Emergency escape air filters
8. Integrated pass device
9. Rapid intervention packs and RIC/UAC connections
10. Fire fighter tracking device
Air Management 46
Appendix H
Elements of a Successful Air Management Program
1. Philosophy of air management in the fire department
2. Buy in from all ranks
3. Training on air management
4. Appropriate work cycles
5. Adoption of the “Rule of Air Management”
6. Good fire ground communication
7. Awareness of air supply at all times
8. Compliance with department air management policies and directives
9. Change in beliefs and attitudes toward air management
10. Keeping crew integrity
11. Commitment by all to an air management philosophy
12. Education on air management
13. Fire fighter fitness
14. Situational awareness training
15. OSHA compliance and NFPA compliance to air management programs
16. SCBA maintenance programs
17. SCBA air quality monitoring
18. Proper rehab procedures integrated with an air management program
19. RIC training and integration with an air management program
20. Education on air consumption dynamics Air Management 47
21. Use of Air
22. Adequate staffing on scene for crew rotation
23. Personnel accountability
24. Flexible and dynamic air management programs
25. The use of an air accountability person on scene during emergency operations