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BETWEEN NATION and STATE Nation, Nationalism, State, and National Identity in Cyprus MX-0721353'0 Middlesex University Nicos

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BETWEEN NATION and STATE Nation, Nationalism, State, and National Identity in Cyprus MX-0721353'0 Middlesex University Nicos BETWEEN NATION AND STATE Nation, Nationalism, State, and National Identity in Cyprus MX-0721353'0 The Sheppard Library Middlesex University The Burroughs. London §0 NW4 4BT Middlesex L020 8411 (5852 University http .7/1 i brary. mdx .ac. u k This book is due for return or renewal by the date stamped below. Finés will be charged for overdue items. <^ SHORT LOAN COLLECTION i LÌO/3 LF/24 Nicos Peristianis Ph.D. thesis Middlesex University 2008 BETWEEN NATION AND STATE Nation, Nationalism, State, and National Identity in Cyprus Nicos Peristianis A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements of Middlesex University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2008 Abstract This thesis is a study of the émergence and diachronic development of Greek-Cypriot nationalism, and its relation to nation, state, and national identities. The broad perspective of historical sociology is used, and the more specific neo-Weberian analytic framework of cultural transformation and social closure, as developed by A. Wimmer, to demonstrate how nationalism, as the 'axial principle' along which modem societies structure inclusion and exclusion, did not lead to the development of a Cypriot nation- state, but to a bi-ethnic national state instead; this was mainly because closure took place along ethnie and not national lines, for socio-historical reasons which the study examines. The study first explores the hotly debated issue 'when is the nation', of whether there was a Greek nation in antiquity, of which Greek-Cypriots were a part, or whether the nation's roots are traceable in Medieval times. Next, the development of national consciousness and nationalism is considered, under three différent types of regime: Düring Ottoman rule, a religious community was gradually transformed into an ethnie community; toward the end of this period, Ottoman reforms did not manage to forge a common new (Ottomanist) identity, for social closure had already progressed along ethnie Unes. In early British colonial years, ethnicity was politieized and ethnie consciousness gradually turned into a nationalist mass movement for enosis; despite the overall unity of the movement, two variants of nationalism developed, a more traditional ethnie version, characterizing the Right, and another version, imbued with territorial/civic éléments (derived from the Internationalist outlook of the communist party), characterizing the Left The anti-colonial struggle for enosis was led by the Right, and excluded the Left and the Turkish-Cypriots. The fragile consociational regime established at independence collapsed after a brief period of cohabitation between the Greeks and Turks of the island in the bi-ethnic / bi- communal Republic of Cyprus - the study analyses the causes leading to the breakdown. Between 1964 and 67, the Greek-Cypriots turned to enosis again, but after realizing the difficulties and dangers involved in its pursuanœ, Makarios sought to strengthen independence instead, while limiting the powers of Turkish-Cypriots - in effect, aiming for a majoritarian regime with minority rights for the latter. The clash between pro-independence and pro-enosis versions of nationalism was to characterize this period, leading to the coup and invasion of 1974. With the death of enosis \n 1974, Heilenocentric nationalism would give more emphasis to Greek culture and identity, whereas Cyprocentric nationalism would stress the priority of Cyprus, the state, and of rapprochement with the Turkish-Cypriots. The study utilizes data from two surveys coordinated by the author, to analyze in more depth the attitudes and discourses of Greek-Cypriots as regards their relations to the Greek nation and the Cypriot state. The graduai strengthening of Cypriot identity is seen to be connected with a new social compromise, which seems to have prevailed within the Greek-Cypriot community, stressing the importance of the Greek-Cypriot state, and which seems to be the primary explanation of why the Greek-Cypriots rejected the federai solution suggested by the UN sponsored Annan Plan, in 2004. In the same year, Cyprus became a member of the European Union, and the study considers some of the implications of this development for the future of nationalism in Cyprus. 2 Site MIDDLESEX UNIVERSITY "HE LIBRARY Accesston No. 0721353 Class 2>lo SUo^G No. Special ^ Collection Contents Page List of tables and figures 5 Acknowledgements 7 Ch. 1 Introduction 8 a) Objectives, issues, methods, overview 8 b) Approaches and théories 15 Ch. 2 Early bases of ethnie community and identity 40 a) Cyprus in antiquity: A part of the Greek nation? 41 b) The Orthodox Church: From Byzantine to European feudal rule 53 c) Greek 'nationalism'in Médiéval times? 62 Ch. 3 Ottoman rule and plural society 69 a) Ottoman conquest and 'social révolution' 71 b) Religious communities and the Orthodox Church as quasi-state 76 c) The rise of new classes and the diaspora communities 87 d) From religious to ethnie consciousness 95 e) Late Ottoman rule and the consolidation of ethnie identities 105 Ch. 4 British colonialism and irredentist nationalism 115 a) Modernity and communalism 117 b) From national awareness to nationalist movement 130 c) Changing economy and class formations 139 d) The communist party and its internationalism 144 e) The Left-Right contest and the two variants of nationalism 150 f) The anti-colonial struggle and the entrenchment of the cleavages 158 Ch. 5 The Cyprus Republic: From bi-national to national state. 165 a) Plural society and the bi-national, consociational state 167 b) The collapse of consociational democracy 172 c) The first partition: Captured state and the résurgence of Enosis (1964-74) ~191' d) Incipient state nationalism Vs militant ethno-nationalism 198 e) The crisis of national identity and of Makarios' state 212 Ch. 6 Unimaginable community: Nationalist closure and the prospects of federalism 217 a) After the coup and the invasion: The ascent of Cyprocentrism 219 3 b) The return of the Right, Hellenocentrism and neo-nationalism 227 c) Nation, state, and Greek-Cypriot collective identities 234 d) Greek-Cypriot nationalism, national closure and the rejection of fédération 256 Ch. 7 Conclusion: A post-national future? 282 a) The growth of ethno-nationalism and social closure along ethnie lines 282 b) Identifying with State and/or Nation: A cross-country comparison 286 c) Nationalism, federalism and the European Union 290 Appendices Appendix 1: Methodology of the surveys 297 Appendix 2: Party vote related to father's vote 299 Appendix 3: Criteria used in voting for political parties 300 Appendix 4: The salience of the Left-Right and of the 301 Nation-State axes Footnotes 308 Bibliography 367 4 List of tables and figures Page - Table 1.1: Attributes of ethnies and nations 26 - Table 1.2: Territorial and ethnie variants of nationalism 29 - Fig. 1.3: Five dimensions of closure 36 - Table 4.1: Growth in number of schools and students, 133 in early colonial years - Figure 4.1: Idéal and compromise positions of the two communities 161 in the late 50's - Figure 5.1: The spectrum of idéal choices and compromise positions 213 of the two communities in the late '60s and early 70s - Figure and Table 6.1: National identity of Greek-Cypriots (2000) 236 - Figure and Table 6.2: National identity by support of political party 238 among Greek-Cypriots (2000) - Figure and Table 6.3: Views about the Turkish-Cypriots by collective identity 241 - Figure and Table 6.4: Attachaient to close and distant communities 242 - Figure 6.5: The Greek-Cypriot identity dichotomy and dilemma 252 - Figure 6.6: Idéal and compromise positions of the two communities post-74 257 - Figure and Table 6.6: National identity of Greek-Cypriots in 2000 270 and 2006. - Figure and Table 6.7: Type of solution to the Cyprus Problem by party affiliation 271 - Figure and Table 6.8: Préférable settlement in case there was no Turkish occupation by collective identity 272 - Figure and Table 6.9: Désirable relationship with the Turkish-Cypriots 273 - Figure 6.10: Ranking of Greek-Cypriot stéréotypes re. Turkish- and Greek-Cypriots 274 - Figure and Table 6.11: Stéréotypes of Turkish-Cypriots by party affiliation 276 - Figure and Table 6.12: Stéréotypes of Turkish-Cypriots by collective identity 277 5 Figure and Table 6.13: Type of solution to the Cyprus Problem by collective identity (2000) 278 Figure and Table 6.14: Type of solution to the Cyprus problem by collective identity: 2000 compared with 2006 279 Table 7.1: National identity in Scotland, Wales, England, Catalonia, Euscadi and Cyprus 287 Figure A.4.1: Loyalty to Nation and/or State 302 Figure A.4.2: Responses on socio-economic issues, according to party affiliation 303 Figure A.4.3: Responses on socio-economic issues, according to ideological self-identification 303 Figure A.4.4: Responses on national issues, according to party affiliation (2000) 304 Figure A.4.5: Responses on national issues, according to ideological self-identification (2000) 305 Figure A.4.6: Responses on national issues, according to party affiliation (2006) 306 Figure A.4.7: Responses on national issues, according to ideological self-identification (2006) 306 6 Acknowledaements I would like to thank ail those who have supported me while researching and writing this thesis. First, my Supervisors: Van Coufoudakis and Mehmet Ali Dikerdem, who have provided me with invaluable comments and criticisms which have helped me to improve on earlîer drafts; also to Carol Costley for her overall support as regards the more general thesis requirements. Second, my family for their enormous patience during the long years of working on this thesis, while having to also keep up with a very heavy schedule of other professional responsibilities: Their love and understanding made it possible for me to survive through this very difficult period of my life.
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