Bibliography
What’s below is only a partial list. I’ve read many of the books that are listed but certainly not all. It’s unfortunate that some of the better books are out of print and hard to find. Even if you can find them, the cost is sometimes prohibitive. Astron- omy books do not sell like the latest Harry Potter novel. With their limited runs, the price must be higher to cover the production costs. Most of the books are available on Amazon.com or BarnesNoble.com. You can also check the web sites for some of the listed publishers.
Willmann-Bell: http://willbell.com. Springer-Verlag: http://www.springer.de/ Cambridge University Press: http://uk.cambridge.org/ Dover Publications: http://store.doverpublications.com/
Asteroids
Asteroids: A History. Curtis Peoples. pp. 280. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN: 1560983892.
Asteroids. Gehrels, ed. University of Arizona Press. ISBN: 0816506957. Out of print. Also check http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/home.htm as well.
Asteroids II. Binzel, ed. University of Arizona Press. ISBN: 0816511233. Also check http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/home.htm.
Asteroids III. Bottke et al., ed. pp. 1025. University of Arizona Press. ISBN: 0816522812. Also check http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/home.htm.
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, 5th ed. Lutz D. Schmadel. Springer-Verlag. ISBN: 3540002383.
Introduction to Asteroids: The Next Frontier. Clifford Cunningham. Willmann- Bell. ISBN: 0943396166. This is one of the best intermediate level books on aster- oids. It is difficult to find a copy. If you see it, get it. Also check http://www.allbookstores.com/
T. Rex and the Crater of Doom. Walter Alvarez. pp. 208. Vintage Books. ISBN: 0375702105. From the title and cover, you’d think this is yet another “doomsday asteroid” book. In reality, it’s a well-written account on how the theory came to be that an asteroid destroyed the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago.
181 182 Bibliography Variable Stars
Cataclysmic Variable Stars. Brian Warner. pp. 592. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052154209X.
Cataclysmic Variable Stars: How and Why They Vary. Coel Hellier. pp 210. Springer-Verlag. ISBN: 1852332115.
Variable Stars, J.S. Glasby. pp. 333. Harvard University Press. ISBN: 0674932005. Out of print but used copies can be found.
Variable Stars, Michel Petit. John Wiley & Sons. ASIN 0471909203.
Eclipsing Binary Stars: Modeling and Analysis. Josef Kallrath and Eugene F. Milone. pp. 355. Springer-Verlag. ISBN: 0387986227.
Binary Stars: A Pictorial Atlas. Dirk Terrell et al. pp. 383. Krieger Publishing Co. ISBN: 0894640410.
An Introduction to Close Binary Stars. R.W. Hilditch. pp. 392. Cambridge Univer- sity Press. ISBN: 0521798000.
Stellar Evolution. A.J. Meadows. Pergamon Press. 2nd ed. ASIN: 0080216692. A nice, easy read on the essentials of the topic without being too basic. No math. Out of print but used copies can usually be found.
CCD Imaging
CCD Astronomy: Construction and Use of an Astronomical CCD Camera. Chris- tian Buil. Willmann-Bell. ISBN: 0943396298. It may be a bit dated but Buil is one of the CCD gurus.
The New CCD Astronomy: How to Capture the Stars with a CCD Camera in Your Own Backyard. Ron Wodaski. pp. 476. New Astronomy Press. ISBN: 0971123705.
A Practical Guide to CCD Astronomy. Patrick Martinez. pp. 263. Cambridge Uni- versity Press. ISBN: 0521599504.
Handbook of CCD Astronomy. Steve Howell. pp. 176. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521648343. Bibliography 183 Image Processing
The Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing. Berry, R. and Burnell, J. pp. 650. Willmann-Bell. ISBN: 0943396670.
Practical Algorithms for Image Analysis: Descriptions, Examples, and Code. Seul et al. pp. 295. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521660653.
Photometry
Astronomical Photometry: Text and Handbook for the Advanced Amateur and Professional Astronomer. Henden, A. and Kaitchuck, R. pp. 394. Willmann-Bell. ISBN: 0943396255. As far as I’m concerned, the Bible for amateur photometrists.
An Introduction to Astronomical Photometry Using CCDs. W. Romanishin. Uni- versity of Oklahoma. Available on-line: http://observatory.ou.edu/book4512.html.
Handbook of CCD Astronomy. Steve B. Howell. pp. 164. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 052164834-3.
Solar System Photometry Handbook. Russell M. Genet, ed. 1983. Willmann-Bell. ISBN: 0-943396-03-4.
An Introduction to Astronomical Photometry. Edwin Budding. pp. 272. Cam- bridge University Press. ISBN: 0521418674.
High Speed Astronomical Photometry. Brian Warner. Cambridge University Press. ASIN: 0521351502. Out of print but used copies usually available.
The Measurement of Starlight: Two Centuries of Astronomical Photometry. J.B. Hearnshaw. pp. 511. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521403936. You have to be a serious history buff to afford the price of more than $100 but it’s a good read.
Telescope Control Software
MPO Connections. Bdw Publishing. http://www.MinorPlanetObserver.com
TheSky. Software Bisque. http://www.bisque.com
Astronomer’s Control Panel (ACP). DC3 Dreams. http://acp3.dc3.com/
Starry Night Pro. Space Software. http://www.starrynight.com/ 184 Bibliography Camera Control Software
MPO Connections. Bdw Publishing. http://www.MinorPlanetObserver.com
CCDSoft. Software Bisque. http://www.bisque.com
MaxIm DL. Diffraction Limited. http://www.cyanogen.com/
AstroArt. MSB Software. http://www.msb-astroart.com/
Photometry Software
MPO Canopus. Bdw Publishing. http://www.MinorPlanetObserver.com
AIP4Win. Willmann-Bell. http://www.willbell.com/
MaxIm DL. Diffraction Limited. http://www.cyanogen.com/
Mira. Axiom Research. http://www.axres.com/
AstroArt. MSB Software. http://www.msb-astroart.com/
IRAF. IRAF Programming Group (UNIX/LINUX/MAC). http://iraf.noao.edu/ iraf-homepage.html.
Miscellaneous
Star Testing Astronomical Telescopes: A Manual for Optical Evaluation and Ad- justment. Harold Richard Suiter. pp. 376. Willmann-Bell. ISBN: 0943396441.
Binary Maker. Binary star modeling program. David Bradstreet/Contact Software. Dept. of Physical Sciences, Eastern College, St. Davids, PA 19087. http://www.binarymaker.com
Wilson-Devinney Program. Robert Devinney. FORTRAN code available at ftp://ftp.astro.ufl.edu/pub/Wilson/lcdc2003. A Windows version (WDWint) is available from Robert Nelson, [email protected] Bibliography 185 Organization Web Sites
I’ve listed only those sites that are in English. I apologize to those who are omitted because of my inability to read or speak other languages.
Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL). http://www.MinorPlanetObserver.com
Society for Astronomical Sciences. http://www.socastrosci.org (formerly IAPPP- West)
Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers (ALPO). http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/alpo/
American Association of Variable Star Observers. http://www.aavso.org.
British Astronomical Association Variable Star Section (BAAVSS). http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~baa/
Center for Backyard Astrophysics. http://cba.phys.columbia.edu/
Association Francais des Observateurs d’Etoiles Variables (AFOEV). http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/afoev/
Group of Eclipsing Binary Observers of the Swiss Astronomical Society (BBSAG). http://www.astroinfo.ch/bbsag/bbsag_e.html
Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. http://www.rasnz.org.nz/index.htm
Astronomical Society of South Australia – Variable Star Group. http://www.assa.org.au/sig/variables/
Groupe Europeen d’Observation Stellaire (GEOS). http://www.upv.es/geos/
Minor Planet Mailing List. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/mpml/ Glossary
This glossary is by no means exhaustive. My intent was to include words used in this book that may need a little additional explanation or those words that I fre- quently encountered when starting out in lightcurve work. Books on specific top- ics such as photometry and variable stars will have more extensive glossaries.
Absolute Magnitude For a star, the magnitude it would appear if it were 10 parsecs (about 32 light- years) from Earth. For an asteroid, the magnitude the asteroid would appear if it were a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU) from the Earth and Sun, and at 0° phase angle, which would include the brightening due to the opposition effect.
ADU Analog-to-digital unit. In a CCD camera, this is the unit of value assigned to each pixel’s sum of electrons. A 16-bit ADU system has a range of values of 0–65,535. An 8-bit camera has a range of 0–255. A wider range of values allows a more pre- cise determination of the actual number of electrons stored in a given pixel. The ADU value of a given pixel can be converted back to the actual number of elec- trons (or approximately so) by multiplying the ADU value of the pixel by the gain of the camera.
Air mass The length of the path light takes through the Earth’s atmosphere. The value is 1.0 when an object is directly overhead. It approximately follows the formula of sec(z), where z is the angular distance of the object from the zenith, or the zenith distance.
Albedo The amount of light an object reflects. Values range from 0% to 100% and are usually listed in the range of 0 to 1.0.
Algol-type Binary A semi-detached binary system where the secondary star is a lower-mass subgiant that fills its Roche lobe and the primary is a more massive main-sequence star.
Alias In lightcurve analysis, a period that appears to be the true period but is not. An alias period is often found when the data set cannot uniquely determine how many cycles of the lightcurve have occurred over the total time span of the data. In this case, the alias and true periods usually have a common integral or half-integral multiple that coincides with the time between observing sessions. 187 188 Glossary All-Sky (Absolute) Photometry The process whereby the values required to convert instrumental magnitudes to a standard system are obtained by imaging stars from several locations about the sky. This method requires that sky conditions be very stable and clear.
Altitude The angular distance of an object above the horizon with
0° on the horizon 90° directly overhead If the altitude is negative, the object is below the horizon.
Amor Asteroids Asteroids having a perihelion distance of 1.017 < q < 1.3 AU. These orbits do not overlap Earth’s.
Apastron The point in a non-circular orbit of a binary star where the two stars are farthest apart.
Aphelion The point in an orbit where the object is furthest from the center of mass.
Apollo Asteroids Asteroids having a semi-major axis > 1.0 AU and perihelion distance q < 1.017 AU. These orbits do overlap Earth’s.
Appulse The close approach of one object to another, as seen against the sky. In reality, the objects may be light-years apart. The term is generally applied when planets and asteroids come close to stars or deep-sky objects. An appulse is different from a conjunction because it is the time when the two objects are closest, while a con- junction occurs when the two objects have the same Right Ascension.
Argument of Perihelion The angular distance from the ascending node of an orbit to the perihelion point. Values range from 0° to 360°. One of six elements used to define an orbit.
Ascending Node The angular distance in the plane of the ecliptic from the vernal equinox to the point where the orbit crosses the ecliptic going north (up). Values range from 0° to 360°. One of six elements used to define an orbit. Glossary 189 Aspect Angle In reference to asteroids, the angle between the line of sight to the observer versus the direction of the spin axis of the asteroid. For example, if the observer is look- ing directly along the spin axis, he’s seeing mostly one of the poles of the asteroid. The shape and amplitude of the lightcurve can be dramatically changed by the aspect angle at the time of observations.
Asteroid Literally, “star-like.” Asteroids are small non-cometary bodies that that orbit the Sun. Their sizes range from a few meters to nearly 900 km. They are believed to be left over from the early formation of the solar system.
Asteroid Belt A region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the majority of aster- oids is found.
Astronomical Unit The average distance from the Sun to the Earth, or approximately 92,956,000 miles (149,597,870 km).
Aten asteroids Asteroids with a semi-major axis < 1.0 AU and aphelion distance Q > 0.983 AU. The orbits overlap Earth’s at their aphelion points.
Average Daily Motion The angular distance an object travels in its orbit in one day, based on an average speed. Used in place of the semi-major axis as one of the six elements used to uniquely define an orbit.
µ = ( 0.9856076883)/a 3/ 2 a = semi-major axis
Azimuth The angular distance along the horizon, from due north through east, where an arc going through the zenith (overhead point) and the object meets the horizon.
0° North 90° East 180° South 270° West
Bimodal Curve A lightcurve that shows two maximums and two minimums per cycle.
Binary Star A system where two stars are gravitationally bound and orbit one another. 190 Glossary Binning The process where a, usually, square region of pixels on a CCD chip are combined during the download process or in software, to create a single, larger pixel. For example, 2X2 binning would group a square of four pixels and create a single pixel containing the total electron count from the four pixels and with an effective size that is double the actual physical pixel.
CCD Charged Coupled Device. Often used to refer to a slice of material containing an array of thin semi-conductors (pixels). The pixels rely on the photoelectric effect to convert photons into electrons and then store the electrons. After an interval of time, the number of electrons in each element is read and stored in a computer. The values are then converted by software to shades of gray or color and displayed on a computer screen. Typical CCD devices have a quantum efficiency (QE) of 50–75%, with some approaching 95%. This makes them much more efficient than the human eye, which has a QE of only 1%.
Centaurs A group of asteroids circling the Sun between the orbits of Jupiter and Neptune. They are believed to be from the Kuiper Belt and pulled into unstable orbits (106 years).
Center of Mass The point in a two (or n-) body system that is the mean position of the mass within the system. In a binary star system, the ratio of the distance from this point to each star is proportional to the ratio of the masses of the individual stars. In the solar system, the position is near but not exactly at the center of the Sun.
Class (Asteroid) The grouping of an asteroid based on its spectrum. There are many classification schemes, one of the more common ones being developed by Dr. David Tholen of the University of Hawaii. The two most common classes are S and C with the S asteroids tending to be reddish in color, while the C class asteroids have a more neutral or even bluish color. A new system, developed by Dr. Bobby Bus, is gradually replacing the Tholen system.
Close binary A binary system where, at some point in its evolution, at least one of the stars reaches its Roche lobe and transfers matter to the other star.
Cluster Variable Short-period Cepheid stars usually found in globular clusters. RR Lyrae stars.
Color index The difference between the magnitudes of a given object in two different color bands. For example, the (B–V) color index is the value obtained by subtracting the Glossary 191 magnitude of the star in the V band from the magnitude in the B band. The color index can be used to estimate the temperature of an object. For stars, this assumes that the interstellar reddening is negligible.
Commensurate Orbits Orbits where the period of one is a simple multiple of another.
Contact Binary (Also Overcontact Binary) Asteroid: A single asteroid made of two smaller bodies in contact with one an- other. Possible candidates include 4179 Toutatis and 216 Kleopatra.
Binary Star: (see page 189) A system where both stars have filled their Roche lobes. The stars are usually in synchronous rotation and have circular orbits. The most common type is the W UMa class.
Date of Osculation The specific moment for which the orbit is defined by the listed elements. Because of the influence of the Sun and planets on an asteroid orbit, the elements for that orbit are constantly changing. Therefore, it’s often necessary to know the date for which the given elements were defined.
Declination The angular distance of an object north or south of the celestial equator. Positive is north.
Detached binary A binary system where both stars are within their limiting (Roche lobes).
Differential Photometry The process of determining the brightness of an object by taking the difference between its measured value and that of a comparison star (or average of several stars). Generally, in CCD imaging, all the comparisons and targets are in the same field, thus eliminating, or mostly so, all extinction considerations. The magnitudes are not on a standard system, unless the comparison star value has been trans- formed and any color terms that might affect the differential magnitude have been taken into account.
Eccentricity The "roundness" of an orbit. Values range from 0.0 (perfect circle) to 0.999999 (highly elliptical). A parabola has an eccentricity of exactly 1.0. A hyperbola has an eccentricity >1.0 One of six elements used to define an orbit uniquely.
e = ( a 2 − b 2 ) / a a = semi-major axis; b = semi-minor axis
The semi-major axis is half the length of the long axis of an ellipse while, the semi-minor axis is half the length of the short axis of an ellipse. 192 Glossary Ecliptic The plane of the Earth's orbit as projected into the sky.
Elongation The Sun–earth–object angle, i.e., the Sun–object angular separation as seen from the Earth. At opposition, this value is near 180°. When the object is in conjunction with the Sun, the value is near 0°.
Eos Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 3.02 AU and inclina- tion of 10°.
Ephemeris A list of positions giving an object's Right Ascension and Declination and usually other information such as magnitude, Earth and Sun distance, etc.
Epoch The date for when the location of the celestial equator and vernal equinox used as the references for an orbit is defined. The current standard is J2000 which is JD = 2451545.0.
Equipotential Surface (or Equipotential) The surface on which the potential energy is the same everywhere. See the books on binary stars for a detailed discussion.
Exoatmospheric Outside the Earth’s atmosphere. In photometry, magnitudes are converted to the value they would have above the Earth’s atmosphere before and transformations are made to a standard system. This is done by subtracting the affects of extinc- tion.
Extinction The dimming of light due to its passage through the Earth’s atmosphere. This is often measured in magnitudes per unit of air mass. The effects of extinction must be removed before the magnitude of an object can be put on a standard system.
Extrinsic Variable A star where the changes in its brightness are due to circumstances other than changes to the star itself. The most common type of extrinsic variable is the eclipsing binary star, where the light changes are caused by one star moving in front of the other as seen from Earth.
Full Well Depth The maximum number of electrons that a single pixel on a CCD chip can store. Glossary 193 Full-Width Half-Maximum (FWHM) On a CCD image, the width of a star profile, in pixels, when the profile is one-half its maximum height. Seeing, a measurement of the steadiness of the atmosphere, also uses FWHM. In this case, it is the width of the profile in arcseconds.
Flora Asteroids Asteroids having orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.2 AU and inclina- tion of 5°. Named after the largest member, 8 Flora. The region is sometimes di- vided into subregions
Gain The conversion factor, given in units of electrons/ADU (e–/ADU), that relates the ADU value of a pixel on a CCD camera to the actual number of electrons stored in the pixel. For example, a common value for gain is 2.3, i.e., 2.3 e–/ADU. If the ADU value is 1000, then 2300 electrons were stored in the pixel.
Geocentric Positions as seen from the center of the Earth. Particularly important when an ob- ject is close to the Earth.
Gravity darkening The darkening, or brightening, of a region on a star due to a localized increase in the gravitational field. The effects are often seen in binary star lightcurves and are more pronounced in stars with radiative envelopes.
Heliocentric Positions are seen from the center of the Sun
Hilda Asteroids A family of asteroids whose orbits have a 2:3 commensurability with Jupiter, i.e., their orbital period is about 8 years.
Hirayama Families Asteroids with similar elements, primarily semi-major axis, inclination, and ec- centricity.
Hungaria Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 1.95 AU and inclina- tion of 23°.
Inclination Asteroids The inclination of an orbit to the ecliptic, the plane of the earth's orbit. Values range from 0° to 180°. One of six elements used to define an orbit uniquely. If i < 90°, the object's motion is prograde, i.e., it moves about the Sun in the same direc- 194 Glossary tion as the earth. If 90° < i < 180°, the motion is retrograde. All known asteroid orbits are prograde.
Binary stars (c.f. pp. 189, 191) The angle between the plane of the sky and the orbital plane of the binary system. If the inclination is 0°, the orbit is seen pole-on. If the inclina- tion is 90°, the orbit is seen edge-on.
Intrinsic Variable A star where the changes in brightness are caused by changes to the star itself, as in the case of the Cepheids or Long Period Variables (LPVs), which change size and temperature as they go through their cycles.
Instrumental Magnitude The brightness of an object measured directly from a CCD image. It does not ac- count for extinction or use any transformations to convert it to a standard system.
Julian Date The number of days since January 1, 4713 B.C. Julian Date is used since it is in- dependent of the calendar in use.
Kirkwood Gaps Voids in the asteroid belt where the orbital period for that region is an integral fraction of Jupiter's
Koronis Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.88 AU and inclina- tion of 2°.
Kuiper Belt Objects Also known as KBOs. A group of asteroids, and possibly comets, that circle the Sun at the outer reaches of the solar system, i.e., from Jupiter to well beyond Pluto. The primary Kuiper Belts lies beyond Neptune to about 50 AU. Pluto is generally believed to be the first member of this class to be discovered.
Latitude The angular distance of a position north or south of the Earth's equator.
Lightcurve A plot of magnitude of an object versus time. The period of a lightcurve is the time between successive corresponding points in the curve. The amplitude is the peak to peak difference in magnitude. Glossary 195 Lightcurve Photometry Photometry performed for the specific purpose of obtaining a lightcurve of a vari- able object and then analyzing the lightcurve for its period, amplitude, and any other information.
Limb Darkening An effect where the edge (limb) of a star looks darker because the line of sight passes through cooler layers than when looking near the center of the star’s disk. The effect is more pronounced in blue light and for cooler stars. It is seen in light- curves, especially for annular eclipses, where the bottom becomes rounded instead of flat.
Linear Regression A mathematical process that finds a line that fits the data points in a set such that the sum of the squares of the distance from each point and the solution curve is a minimum. A perfect fit has a correlation of 1 (or –1). A totally random set of data has a correlation of 0.
Longitude The angular distance of a position east or west of the prime meridian.
Luminosity The amount of energy put out by a star for a given unit of time.
Magnitude A measurement of the brightness of an object. In astronomy, the scale is logarith- mic, with a one magnitude difference representing a ratio of brightness of 2.5118 (more exactly, 10–0.4). In the astronomical scale, brighter stars have smaller mag- nitudes, with the brightest stars having negative magnitudes, e.g., Sirius has a magnitude of about –1.5.
Main sequence Based on the Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram, which plots the temperature of stars versus absolute magnitude. There is a pronounced “band” of stars going from lower right to upper left of this diagram. Stars within this band are members of the main sequence. They are generally characterized by having hydrogen cores that generate energy via nuclear fusion.
Mass Transfer The exchange of matter between two stars.
Mean Anomaly The angular distance of an asteroid in its orbit from the point of perihelion to its position on the date of osculation using an average angular velocity. Values range from 0° to 359.99999°. One of six elements used to define an orbit uniquely. 196 Glossary M = (JD −T) / µ JD = Julian Date; T = JD of perihelion; µ = average daily motion
Measuring Aperture The area on a CCD image within which the pixel values are analyzed to find the signal coming from an object. The final result is the sum of all the pixel values less the sky background. Usually the pixel values are in ADU (analog-to-digital units). They are usually converted to an equivalent number of electrons by multiplying the ADU value by the gain of the system. Gain is expressed in electrons/ADU (e– /ADU).
Monomodal Curve A lightcurve that shows only one maximum (or minimum) per cycle.
Noise (Period) Spectrum A result of Fourier analysis, the spectrum is a plot of the RMS fit of the data ver- sus the periods that generated the fit values. A minimum in the plot, i.e., when the RMS fit is closest to the actual data, indicates a possible period solution.
Nova (Novae) A star that has a sudden outburst of light, causing it to appear thousands if not millions of times brighter than before the event. Two basic types of novae are —
Classic A “one-shot” explosion caused by a star undergoing sudden fu- sion of it hydrogen-rich outer layers, leaving behind a small dense core. Dwarf A binary star where the brightening is somewhat regular and caused by the exchange of matter between a cooler, large secon- dary and its hot, small companion. The matter from the cool star is formed into an “accretion disc” around the hot star. On occa- sion, the matter in the disc “ignites,” causing the system to brighten by several magnitudes for a short time. The cycle re- peats on the order of tens of days. Opposition The time when an object's RA is 180° greater (or less) than the Sun's. It does not necessarily mean the object is exactly opposite the Sun. For that to be true, the object must be the same distance above or below the celestial equator as the Sun is below or above. In that case, the elongation of the object is 180°.
Opposition Effect The excessive brightening of an object as it nears opposition.
Offset (Lightcurve analysis) The difference between the reference magnitude for one session of data versus another. For example, if one is doing differential photometry on an asteroid and Glossary 197 the average magnitude of the comparisons is 14.000 and then 13.000 on another session, the offset for the second session is 1.000 magnitudes and would be added to the differential magnitudes of the second session so that they could be compared directly to those of the first session.
Optical Thickness The effective, as opposed to physical, thickness of a filter. Different materials have different refractive indices and so two filters, while having the same physical thickness, can change the focal point by different amounts when inserted into the light path.
Parallax The apparent shift in the position of an object in reference to a distance point caused by viewing the object from different positions when it is relatively close. Pointing your thumb upward at arm’s length provides a simple demonstration of parallax. Close one eye and note the position of your thumb against a distant building or other reference point. Then look using only the other eye. The position of your thumb appears to shift in reference to that distant point.
Periastron The point in a binary star orbit where the two stars are closest.
Perihelion The point in an orbit about the Sun that is closest to the Sun
Phase The position in a lightcurve in units of the period of the curve. This is used as an alternative to absolute time and allows data from spans greater than the period to be “folded” into a single curve.
Phase Angle The Sun–asteroid–Earth angle, i.e., the angular distance of the Sun and Earth as seen from the asteroid. At opposition for the asteroid, this value is near 0°.
Phase Coefficient A value used to compute the brightness of an asteroid which takes into account the sudden brightening of an asteroid near opposition.
Phased Plot A plot where the data along the X-axis is placed in the range of 0% to 100% (or 0 to 1.0), that being the percentage of the period of the lightcurve.
Phocaea Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.36 AU and inclina- tion of 24°. 198 Glossary Plane of the Sky A plane at right angles to the line of sight.
Population I Stars Stars that favor the spiral arms of galaxies. They are believed to be younger than those of Population II stars. In general, these stars have higher ratios of metals (elements other than hydrogen and helium) because they are formed from already processed material.
Population II Stars Older stars found in the core and halo of a galaxy.
Position Angle The angle of a line joining two objects as measured counter-clockwise from north to east.
North 0° East 90° South 180° West 270° Preliminary Designation After an asteroid is discovered, it is given a designation until its orbit is deter- mined with sufficient accuracy. After that, it is named by its discoverer or the In- ternational Astronomical Union and assigned a permanent number.
The designation consists of the year of discovery followed by a two-letter code. The first letter tells in which half month of the year the discovery was made, e.g., A is the first half of January, B the second half, and so on. The letters “I” and “Z” are not used. The second letter is the order of discovery within the half month with A being the first, etc. If many discoveries are made, subscript numbers are used. For example, HZ is followed by HA1, HB1, etc.
Primary Eclipse The deeper of the two eclipses in a binary star lightcurve, i.e., the one that causes the greatest fading of the entire system. This is usually the hotter star but not nec- essarily the one with the higher luminosity, since luminosity is based on tempera- ture and size.
Primary Star The main star in a binary system. The definition varies according to the field of study. For lightcurve work, the primary is the star in a binary system that when covered causes the deepest eclipses. In a Algol-type system, this is usually the smaller star. Generally, it is the hotter star. Glossary 199 Plutinos Members of the Kuiper Belt (KBOs) that circle at distance of approximately 40 AU. Named after the first member to be discovered: Pluto.
Radial Velocity The velocity of an object along the line of sight. In binary systems this value var- ies as the stars orbit one another. Radial velocity data is required to develop a complete model of a binary system.
Radius Vector The distance from the Sun to the Earth in astronomical units
Rectangular Coordinates Coordinates using three-dimensional XYZ coordinate system. The units are Astro- nomical Units. The positive X-axis points towards the vernal equinox, the positive Y-axis points towards the summer solstice, and the positive Z-axis points towards the North Ecliptic Pole.
Regolith The fragmented, dusty or rocky surface of an asteroid. The depth can vary from a few millimeters to several kilometers.
Right Ascension The angular distance of an object measured west to east along the celestial equator between the vernal equinox and its position. Values are in units of time ranging from 00:00 to 23:59:59.9999999...
Roche lobe The maximum volume of space that a star in a binary can attain before mass trans- fer to the other star occurs. If a star fills or overfills this lobe, there is usually a transfer of matter to the other star, assuming it does not fill its lobe as well. Tech- nically, this term applies only for stars in a circular orbit with synchronous rota- tion.
Rubble Pile For asteroids, a conglomeration of material that is gravitationally bound to form a single body. The size and rotation speed of an asteroid determine whether or not it can have such a structure, i.e., small, fast rotators must be solid (monolithic) or they would fly apart.
Semi-Detached binary A binary system where one star fills its limiting lobe while the other star is well separated from that star. The most common example is the Algol class. 200 Glossary Semi-Major Axis The average distance of an object from the Sun. Also equal to half the length of the long axis of an ellipse. Used in place of daily motion as an element to identify an orbit uniquely.
Sky Annulus The area on a CCD image within which the pixel values are analyzed to determine the average sky background. This value is then subtracted from each pixel value within the measuring aperture to obtain the actual signal value for the object.
Slope Parameter The value used to define the extra brightening of an object when it is near opposi- tion. This is the G value given in lists of asteroid orbital elements.
Spectral type The classification of a star based on its temperature. The sequence, going from hottest to coolest, is OBAFGKM. Each type can be divided into ten subtypes, go- ing from 0 to 9. A star that is A0 is hotter than one that is classified A5, which is hotter than an A9 star.
Spin Axis The axis of rotation for an asteroid. To determine the spin axis means to determine the position in the sky to which the north polar axis points.
Spousal Permission Units (SPU) Credits issued by one spouse to another so that the recipient may do something in the future, e.g., purchase a telescope, without incurring the wrath of the spouse issuing the credits. There is no actuary table that defines the number of SPUs re- quired to cover the cost any given act. Their value is often volatile and subject to seasonal if not daily fluctuations. Note that SPUs do not accrue interest and, in- deed, may lose value over time. Therefore, it is usually wise to redeem SPUs as soon as possible after they are issued.
Standard Stars Stars used to calibrate a photometric system.
Superoutburst A larger than normal outburst in a cataclysmic variable, but not on the scale of a nova.
Taxonomic Class The general classification of an object. For asteroids, this usually refers to one of several classification schemes, the most commonly used being that developed by D. Tholen. Another, more recent, scheme has been introduced by S.J. Bus. Glossary 201 Themis Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending toward a semi-major axis of 3.13 AU and inclination of 1.5°.
Topocentric Positions as seen from a point on the Earth's surface. Important for objects close to Earth.
Transforms (Transformation Values) The values required to convert a raw instrumental magnitude to magnitudes based on a standard system, usually the Johnson–Cousins UBVRI.
Trojan Asteroids Asteroids traveling in approximately the same orbit as Jupiter but preceding and following it by about 60°, i.e., in the Lagrangian Points where the gravitational effects of Jupiter and the Sun are nearly in equilibrium.
Vestoids Asteroids believed to have been created following a collision between the large asteroid, 4 Vesta, and another body. They show similar spectral signatures as well as albedos. Some have been found to be binary asteroids.
White Dwarf A small, hot, and extremely dense star nearing the end of its evolutionary cycle. It is often the remains of a main sequence star that reached giant stage and then ex- pelled its outer layers, exposing only the hydrogen-rich core.
W UMa binary A close contact (or overcontact) binary star system. The temperature of each star is less than 8000°K, the period of the orbit is less than 0.75 d, the total mass of the system is less than a few solar masses, and the mass ratio is well under 1.0. The stars are both members of the main sequence and have convective atmospheres.
X-Coordinate Coordinates using the typical three-dimensional XYZ coordinate system. The units are Astronomical Units. The positive X-axis points toward the vernal equinox, the positive Y-axis points toward the summer solstice, and the positive Z-axis points toward the North Ecliptic Pole.
Y-Coordinate Coordinates using the typical three-dimensional XYZ coordinate system. The units are Astronomical Units. The positive X-axis points toward the vernal equinox, the positive Y-axis points toward the summer solstice, and the positive Z-axis points toward the North Ecliptic Pole. 202 Glossary YORP Effect The gradual increase or decrease in the rotation rate of an asteroid caused by ther- mal emissions. The asteroid is heated on its morning side by direct sunlight. The heat build-up is released on the afternoon side, giving a slight push to the aster- oid’s rotation. Depending on whether the asteroid rotates in normal or retrograde motion, the asteroid slowly speeds up or slows down. The effect is most pro- nounced on smaller and irregular bodies. Spherical bodies are not affected or only very slightly.
YORP comes from Yarkovsky, O'Keefe, Radzievskii, and Paddick, the authors of the paper that first explored the possibilities of sunlight altering not only spin rates but spin axis orientations.
Z-Coordinate Coordinates using the typical three-dimensional XYZ coordinate system. The units are Astronomical Units. The positive X-axis points toward the vernal equinox, the positive Y-axis points toward the summer solstice, and the positive Z-axis points toward the North Ecliptic Pole.
Zenith Distance The angular distance of an object from the zenith, i.e., the point directly overhead. The value is 0° when the object is at the zenith. The value is 90° when the object is exactly on the horizon.
Zero-Point Photometry (Reductions) The constant value that is part of the transformation equation that converts a raw instrumental magnitude to a magnitude on a standard system. Once the instru- mental magnitude has been corrected for extinction and color dependency, this value is applied to put the final magnitude on the standard system. The zero-point value can change from night to night, being affected by changes in the equipment, observing conditions, etc.
Lightcurve analysis The value on an arbitrary or standardized magnitude system against which all dif- ferential magnitudes are referenced. For example, the average value of the com- parison stars for the first set of observations of a target might be 14.000.
This is taken as the reference or zero-point value. If, on another session, the aver- age is 13.000, then all differential magnitudes for that second session must be in- creased by 1.000 magnitudes so that those differential values can be compared directly to the differential values in the first session. The offset is 1.000 magni- tudes. The zero-point is 14.000. Appendix A: Constellation Names
The list below gives the name of each of the 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the official three-letter designation, and the Latin possessive.
Andromeda AND Andromedae Eridanus ERI Eridani Antlia ANT Antliae Fornax FOR Fornacis Apus APS Apodis Gemini GEM Geminorium Aquarius AQR Aquarii Grus GRU Gruis Aquila AQL Aquilae Hercules HER Herculis Ara ARA Arae Horologium HOR Horologii Aries ARI Arietis Hydra HYA Hydrae Auriga AUR Aurigae Hydrus HYI Hydri Bootes BOO Bootis Indus IND Indi Caelum CAE Caeli Lacerta LAC Lacertae Camelopardalis CAM Camelopardalis Leo LEO Leonis Cancer CNC Cancri Leo Minor LMI Leonis Minoris Canes Venatici CVN Canum Venaticorum Lepus LEP Leporis Canis Major CMA Canis Majoris Libra LIB Librae Canis Minor CMI Canis Minoris Lupus LUP Lupi Capricornus CAP Capricorni Lynx LYN Lynx Carina CAR Carinae Lyra LYR Lyrae Cassiopeia CAS Cassiopeiae Mensa MEN Mensae Centaurus CEN Centauri Microscopium MIC Microscopii Cepheus CEP Cephei Monoceros MON Monocerotis Cetus CET Ceti Musca MUS Muscae Chamaeleon CHA Chamaeleontis Norma NOR Normae Circinus CIR Circini Octans OCT Octantis Columba COL Columbae Ophiuchus OPH Ophiuchi Coma Berenices COM Comae Berenices Orion ORI Orionis Corona Australis CRA Coronae Australis Pavo PAV Pavonis Corona Borealis CRB Coronae Borealis Pegasus PEG Pegasi Corvus CRV Corvi Perseus PER Persei Crater CRT Crateris Phoenix PHE Phoenicis Crux CRU Crucis Pictor PIC Pictoris Cygnus CYG Cygni Pisces PSC Piscium Delphinus DEL Delphini Piscis Austrinus PSA Piscis Austrini Dorado DOR Doradus Puppis PUP Puppis Draco DRA Draconis Pyxis PYX Pyxidis Equuleus EQU Equulei Reticulum RET Reticuli
203 204 Appendix A: Constellation Names
Sagitta SGE Sagittae Triangulum TRI Trianguli Sagittarius SGR Sagittarii Triangulum Australe TRA Trianguli Australis Scorpius SCO Scorpii Tucana TUC Tucanae Sculptor SCL Sculptoris Ursa Major UMA Ursae Majoris Scutum SCT Scuti Ursa Minor UMI Ursae Minoris Serpens SER Serpentis Vela VEL Velorum Sextans SEX Sextantis Virgo VIR Virginis Taurus TAU Tauri Volans VOL Volantis Telescopium TEL Telescopii Vulpecula VUL Vulpeculae Appendix B: Transforms Example
The reduction steps that use the concepts introduced in the Photometric Reduc- tions chapter starting with “The Different Path” on page 48 will be covered in this and subsequent appendices. Those using MPO Canopus and MPO PhotoRed, which pre-program the reduction routines, should refer to the documentation for those programs. These appendices are for those using spreadsheets. It’s expected that you have basic skills for setting up formulae in cells that compute a result based on a combination of other cells. This example assumes that the (V–R) color index is used throughout the re- duction process. The overall process is identical if using (B–V) and/or (V–I).
Example Transforms Data
V Filter Name V R v1 v2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -8.599 -8.628 1.080 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -7.356 -7.343 1.080 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -6.231 -6.225 1.079 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -8.535 -8.540 1.080 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -7.193 -7.235 1.080 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -8.301 -8.301 1.080 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -7.787 -7.778 1.080 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -7.266 -7.284 1.080
R Filter Name V R r1 r2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -9.099 -9.104 1.079 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -8.190 -8.201 1.079 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -7.202 -7.193 1.079 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -8.991 -8.994 1.080 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -7.621 -7.625 1.079 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -8.843 -8.840 1.080 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -8.133 -8.149 1.080 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -8.048 -8.058 1.080
C Filter Name V R c1 c2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -9.667 -9.665 1.079 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -8.571 -8.558 1.079 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -7.507 -7.517 1.078 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -9.567 -9.572 1.079 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -8.221 -8.225 1.079 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -9.359 -9.354 1.079 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -8.787 -8.782 1.079 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -8.476 -8.464 1.079
205 206 Appendix B: Transforms Example
The Spreadsheet
The screen shot shows the spreadsheet developed for this reduction. Note that there are three pages in the Excel® notebook (a fourth will be added later). Each page holds the data for a separate filter. The V Transforms page is being dis- played. The R and C pages are shown below for comparison. The formula setup is identical, the difference being that the values in Columns D through J will have the data for the filter on that page. Columns B and C contain the Henden catalog V and R values. Columns D and E contain the raw instrumental magnitudes from the two images taken for the transforms reduction. Column F contains the averaged air mass for the two expo- sures.
V–
(V–R) The cells in Column J contain the difference between the catalog V and R magnitudes. The generic formula is Bx – Cx x = row number Appendix B: Transforms Example 207 The plot is a type “X-Y Scatter.” The X values are those in column J, while the Y values are those from column I. A linear trend line was added to the plot by right-clicking on a data point and selecting “Add Trendline” from the popup menu. On the options page for the trend line, those for showing the formula and correla- tion values were selected. From the trend line formula, the transform for V would be
V = Vo – 0.109 (V–R) + 21.655 where Vo is the exoatmospheric instrumental magnitude. In this example, the first- order extinction terms were set to 0.0. See “First-Order Extinctions – Are They Really Necessary?” on page 50. The pages and transforms for R and C (to V) are below. 208 Appendix B: Transforms Example
The Hidden Transforms
Remember that you need to find a second set of transforms that correlate the in- strumental color index to the standard color index (see page 56). These allow you to find the standard color index for the comparisons and target as well as the stan- dard magnitude of the comparison stars. These transforms are not used to convert target magnitudes to the standard system. The setup for this reduction is straightforward since it uses data from the original three worksheets. Use the screen shot above as your guide for the follow- ing steps.
1. Add a new worksheet and move it to the end of the notebook list. Rename it “Hidden Transforms.” 2. Copy A1:C9 from any of the other pages to the new page, i.e., Rows 1 through 9, Columns A through C. 3. From the V transforms page, copy Columns D and E (the V instrumental magnitudes) and paste them on the new page. 4. From the R transforms page, copy Columns D and E (the R instrumental magnitudes) and paste them on the new page. 5. Set up Column I on the new page. The cells in this column hold the average of the two V instrumental values, e.g,. cell I2 would have the formula AVERAGE(D2, E2) 6. Set up Column J on the new page. The cells in this column hold the average of the two R instrumental values, e.g., cell J2 would have the formula AVERAGE(F2, G2) Appendix B: Transforms Example 209 7. Set up Column K on the new page. The cells in this column hold the differ- ences between columns I and J, e.g., cell K2 would have the formula I2-J2 8. Set up Column L on the new page. The cells in this formula hold the differ- ences between the catalog V and R magnitudes for each star, e.g., cell L2 would have the formula B2-C2 9. Create an X-Y scatter plot. Use the values in Column K for the X-axis and the values in Column L for the Y-axis. Make sure you use the correct val- ues for the two axes. The solution you’re finding converts a given instrumental color index to the standard color index. If you reverse the roles of the two axes, then you won’t find the right color index values for the comparisons and target. 10. Add the trend line and be sure to include the option to display the trend line linear formula (the correlation is good to review the quality of the solution in quantitative terms). 11. From the example above, the formula to convert a v–r instrumental to (V–R) standard magnitude would be (V–R) = 0.977 (v–r) + 0.016 The slope should be close to 1.00 (here it’s 0.977), which would indicate a perfect match of your system to the standard system. If you get something significantly different, check the original data and formulae. If you still have problems, confirm that you were using the V and R as you thought. I once had the filter control software set up incorrectly and so images were being taken in R instead of V and vice versa. That makes for some very frustrating days and nights! Make sure you save the results from both sets of transforms, i.e., the primary and hidden. You’ll need them later on. Appendix C: First-Order (Hardie) Example
This example shows how to use a spreadsheet to compute the first-order extinction in a given filter using the modified Hardie method (see page 58). Recall that this method requires that you shoot two standard fields, one at low air mass and the other at a high air mass. As long as you stay more than 30° above the horizon, the goal is to get as large an air mass difference as possible. You can use the low air mass (higher altitude) field for the transformation calculations as well, thus saving you some time before starting to work the target field.
The Data
V Filter Name V R v1 v2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -8.599 -8.628 1.080 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -7.356 -7.343 1.080 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -6.231 -6.225 1.079 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -8.535 -8.540 1.080 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -7.193 -7.235 1.080 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -8.301 -8.301 1.080 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -7.787 -7.778 1.080 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -7.266 -7.284 1.080
R Filter Name V R r1 r2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -9.099 -9.104 1.079 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -8.190 -8.201 1.079 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -7.202 -7.193 1.079 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -8.991 -8.994 1.080 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -7.621 -7.625 1.079 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -8.843 -8.840 1.080 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -8.133 -8.149 1.080 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -8.048 -8.058 1.080
C Filter Name V R c1 c2 X ------LW CAS 0045 12.991 12.510 -9.667 -9.665 1.079 LW CAS 0058 14.218 13.372 -8.571 -8.558 1.079 LW CAS 0145 15.332 14.369 -7.507 -7.517 1.078 LW CAS 0249 13.091 12.626 -9.567 -9.572 1.079 LW CAS 19451 14.398 13.995 -8.221 -8.225 1.079 LW CAS 19468 13.313 12.762 -9.359 -9.354 1.079 LW CAS 19566 13.839 13.462 -8.787 -8.782 1.079 LW CAS 19822 14.309 13.538 -8.476 -8.464 1.079
211 212 Appendix C: First-Order (Hardie) Example V FILTER Name V R v1 v2 X ------AK GEM 0030 13.374 13.028 -7.966 -7.964 2.084 AK GEM 0121 14.354 13.964 -6.964 -6.936 2.089 AK GEM 0209 13.947 13.355 -7.312 -7.304 2.086 AK GEM 0221 11.530 11.239 -9.805 -9.812 2.089 AK GEM 0249 13.303 12.897 -8.011 -8.015 2.085 AK GEM 0290 14.573 13.898 -6.675 -6.681 2.091 AK GEM 0307 14.162 14.005 -7.165 -7.167 2.086 AK GEM 0349 14.002 13.676 -7.281 -7.272 2.092 AK GEM 0398 14.016 13.813 -7.283 -7.306 2.089 AK GEM 0431 12.309 12.123 -9.040 -9.033 2.092 AK GEM 0462 11.467 10.922 -9.835 -9.852 2.089 AK GEM 0499 13.549 13.242 -7.752 -7.775 2.093
R Filter Name V R v1 v2 X ------AK GEM 0030 13.374 13.028 -8.289 -8.312 2.060 AK GEM 0121 14.354 13.964 -7.377 -7.338 2.065 AK GEM 0209 13.947 13.355 -7.994 -7.949 2.062 AK GEM 0221 11.530 11.239 -10.133 -10.094 2.065 AK GEM 0249 13.303 12.897 -8.434 -8.421 2.061 AK GEM 0290 14.573 13.898 -7.451 -7.373 2.067 AK GEM 0307 14.162 14.005 -7.339 -7.311 2.062 AK GEM 0349 14.002 13.676 -7.658 -7.616 2.068 AK GEM 0398 14.016 13.813 -7.520 -7.499 2.065 AK GEM 0431 12.309 12.123 -9.211 -9.217 2.068 AK GEM 0462 11.467 10.922 -10.423 -10.389 2.065 AK GEM 0499 13.549 13.242 -8.043 -8.088 2.069
C Filter Name V R v1 v2 X ------AK GEM 0030 13.374 13.028 -9.028 -9.067 2.036 AK GEM 0121 14.354 13.964 -8.053 -8.093 2.041 AK GEM 0209 13.947 13.355 -8.504 -8.534 2.038 AK GEM 0221 11.530 11.239 -10.841 -10.883 2.041 AK GEM 0249 13.303 12.897 -9.078 -9.147 2.037 AK GEM 0290 14.573 13.898 -7.944 -7.973 2.043 AK GEM 0307 14.162 14.005 -8.184 -8.220 2.038 AK GEM 0349 14.002 13.676 -8.341 -8.391 2.043 AK GEM 0398 14.016 13.813 -8.348 -8.364 2.041 AK GEM 0431 12.309 12.123 -10.047 -10.096 2.044 AK GEM 0462 11.467 10.922 -10.970 -11.020 2.041 AK GEM 0499 13.549 13.242 -8.809 -8.860 2.045 Appendix C: First-Order (Hardie) Example 213
The Spreadsheet
The spreadsheet is going to contain three pages. Each page will hold the data for a given filter. I’ll cover the details for the V page only. The other pages are set up identically, save that the instrumental magnitudes and other appropriate substitu- tions for the given filter are made. As before, the example uses the (V–R) color index. To use (B–V) or (V–I), you would need observations in those filters and use the corresponding catalog values. Columns B and C contain the catalog V and R magnitudes of the stars. These columns are identical on all three pages. Columns D and E contain the instrumen- tal magnitudes for the given filter; two images in each filter were taken. Column F contains the average air mass (X) for the two observations. Column G contains the transform for the given filter. The value was found using the procedure covered in the previous appendix.
The general formula for the cells in Column J then becomes Bx – Hx – (Ix * Gx) x = row number
Mean X Cell F10 holds the average of the air mass values for the first Henden field. The formula is AVERAGE(F2:F9)
Mean Cell J10 holds the average of the v(adj) values for the first Hen- den field. The formula is AVERAGE(J2:J9)
The STDEV in cell J11is for information only; STDEV(J2:J9)
Mean X Cell F25 holds the average of the air mass values for the second Henden field. The formula is AVERAGE(F13:F24)
Mean Cell J25 holds the average of the v(adj) values for the second Henden field. The formula is AVERAGE(J13:J24)
The STDEV in cell J26is for information only; STDEV(J13:J24)
The plot is an X-Y scatter. For the X values, select cells F10 and F25. For the Y values, select cells J10 and J25. Make sure you select only the two cells for each axis and not the range of cells. Add the trend line and display its formula. The inverse magnitude system (bright stars have smaller numbers) makes things a little confusing by causing a trend line with a negative slope. The first-order extinction is always positive. So take the absolute value of the slope. Appendix C: First-Order (Hardie) Example 215 The R and C pages are shown below as guides for proper setup. Again, take the absolute value of the derived slopes. Also note that, as it should be, the R slope is slightly less than that for the V filter, and so k'v – k'r is a small positive number. Appendix D: First-Order (Comp) Example
In this example, you’ll see how to use a spreadsheet to compute the first-order extinction value for a given filter. This method uses the instrumental magnitude of a comparison start in the target field against the air mass for each image. To use this method, the conditions at your location during the observing run must be fairly consistent. An occasional passing cloud might be OK, but a steadily in- creasing haze is not.
The Data
The table below shows the data used for this example. Read the data from top to bottom, first column, then second, and finally the third.
X C1IM X C1IM X C1IM 2.024 -7.822 1.269 -7.933 1.089 -7.965 1.952 -7.827 1.252 -7.941 1.088 -7.962 1.889 -7.834 1.236 -7.943 1.087 -7.951 1.830 -7.845 1.221 -7.936 1.086 -7.963 1.776 -7.854 1.207 -7.945 1.087 -7.963 1.725 -7.869 1.194 -7.944 1.087 -7.959 1.679 -7.861 1.181 -7.939 1.089 -7.965 1.635 -7.872 1.170 -7.943 1.091 -7.953 1.594 -7.884 1.159 -7.946 1.093 -7.958 1.556 -7.888 1.150 -7.947 1.096 -7.963 1.521 -7.897 1.141 -7.938 1.100 -7.958 1.488 -7.885 1.133 -7.955 1.105 -7.957 1.457 -7.903 1.125 -7.961 1.110 -7.964 1.428 -7.912 1.118 -7.957 1.116 -7.954 1.400 -7.909 1.112 -7.955 1.122 -7.946 1.375 -7.910 1.107 -7.953 1.130 -7.957 1.351 -7.928 1.102 -7.958 1.138 -7.954 1.329 -7.925 1.098 -7.961 1.147 -7.955 1.308 -7.928 1.095 -7.958 1.156 -7.942 1.288 -7.929 1.092 -7.957 1.166 -7.962
The Spreadsheet
The screen shot below shows a portion of the spreadsheet using the above data. The air mass data is plotted along the X-axis, while the instrumental magnitudes are plotted on the Y-axis. The observations were made with a C filter. The proce- dure for any other filter would be identical, save that you’d use the instrumental magnitude obtained in that filter and the air mass at the time for the observation in that filter. 217 218 Appendix D: First-Order (Comp) Example
Slope Cell E2 shows the slope of the least squares solution. Its formula is SLOPE(B2:B61,A2:A61) Corr Cell E3 shows the correlation value of the least squares solution. This gives you the quality of the fit of the data to the solution. A perfect fit has a value of 1.000 (or –1.000). The formula is CORREL(B2:B61,A2:A61) The trend line for the plot shows the intercept value. It is not used, though it may be of interest since it would be the instrumental magnitude of the star outside the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that the plot has the more positive magnitudes toward the top. This al- lows finding a positive slope (remember, the first-order extinction term is always positive). However, this is not accurate in the sense that a plot of magnitudes should have brighter values at the top. This would mean the values would get more negative toward the top instead of toward the bottom. The magnitude system and standard X/Y plotting that we learned in school don’t always get along. Appendix E: Standard Color Indices
Once you’ve determined the transforms and, if necessary, the first-order extinction values, you can find the standard color indices of the comparisons and target. These values will be used in the differential formula for finding the standard mag- nitude of the target in a single color.
The Data
Three images were taken of M67, a field with very well known values, in V, R, and C to simulate a target field. Having well-known values allows you to check the results. Of course, when you work a real target field without known values, you won’t have such a check unless you also shoot an independent reference field that’s nearby.
The raw instrumental magnitudes were measured using MPO PhotoRed.
V Filter Name v1 v2 v3 X ------Comp1 -10.841 -10.839 -10.836 1.212 Comp2 -10.091 -10.091 -10.088 1.212 Comp3 -9.228 -9.228 -9.225 1.212 Comp4 -10.099 -10.098 -10.097 1.212 Target -10.167 -10.163 -10.164 1.212
R Filter Name r1 r2 r3 X ------Comp1 -11.379 -11.348 -11.367 1.215 Comp2 -10.410 -10.410 -10.407 1.215 Comp3 -9.738 -9.736 -9.728 1.215 Comp4 -10.632 -10.632 -10.632 1.215 Target -10.137 -10.130 -10.130 1.215
The Spreadsheet
The screen shot below shows the setup for the spreadsheet used to calculate the color indices of the comparisons and target. Block A1:E6 contains the instrumental magnitudes and air mass values for the three V images. Block A8:E13 contains the instrumental magnitudes and air mass values for the three R images.
219 220 Appendix E: Standard Color Indices
Cells B16 and B17 holds the V and R first-order extinction values, found with the modified Hardie method in Appendix E. The “hidden” transforms and zero-point (see page 56) are in cells B18 and 19, respectively. These values are not those from Appendix D, but were found on a different night using a different reference field. They are similar but differ by a fair amount in the zero-point values. Remember that for this particular reduction you do not average the three in- strumental magnitudes in a given color. Instead, you’ll compute the color index based on three pairs and then compute the mean and standard deviation. If you did the average first, you’d have a single value for V and R. You could compute the error of each average and propagate those through the process, but this approach is a little easier. Cells B22:B26, titled “CI1,” hold the computed color index values for the four comparisons and target based on using the instrumental magnitudes from column B. Cells C22:C26 and D22:D26 use their respective instrumental magnitudes.
Cell B22’s formula is
(((B2-B$16*E2) - (B9-B$17*E10)) * B$18) + B$19 Appendix E: Standard Color Indices 221 Note the use of the dollar sign ($) for some of the cell references. This allows copying this cell to B23-26 without having the spreadsheet automatically incre- ment references to the constants in B16:B19. You could also create a name refer- ence to the constant values. This would avoid having to edit the value in cell C22 after pasting a copy of B22, which does increment the references to the cells with constant values.
The formulae for C22 and D22 are, respectively,
(((C2-B$16*E2) - (C9-B$17*E9)) * B$18) + B$19 (((D2-B$16*E2) - (D9-B$17*E9)) * B$18) + B$19
Cells E22:E26 hold the average value for the three derived color indices in their respective rows. The general formula for each cell is
AVERAGE(BX, CX, DX) X = row number
Cells F22:F26 hold the standard deviation of the mean for each row. The general formula is
STDEV(CX, DX, EX) X = row number
As you can see, the standard deviations are very low, but that is influenced by having a minimum number of values. How do the derived values compare to the catalog values for the stars? The catalog (V–R) values are shown in cells G22:G26 and the differences, M–C, are in H22:H26. The standard deviation of the errors was 0.001 m. There appears to be a slight systematic error of 0.015 m, meaning that the (V–R) values are a little higher than their catalog values. This is accept- able, especially in light of the fact the final derivation of the standard magnitudes depends on the differences of the color indices. Thus, while systematically high by a small amount, the error between the true and derived differential color index for any one comparison and the target, i.e., (V–R – V–R), will be nearly 0. Appendix F: Comparison Standard Magnitudes
The derivation of the standard magnitudes for the comparisons uses almost the same data as when you found the standard color index of the comparisons and target. Here, you will use the same data for the V and R filters but also add the data for the C filter, which – presumably – was the primary filter for imaging the target field. This allows you to see how well the C to V reduction works and how it matches to the reduction using the V filter.
The Data
V Filter Name v1 v2 v3 X ------Comp1 -10.841 -10.839 -10.836 1.212 Comp2 -10.091 -10.091 -10.088 1.212 Comp3 -9.228 -9.228 -9.225 1.212 Comp4 -10.099 -10.098 -10.097 1.212 Target -10.167 -10.163 -10.164 1.212
R Filter Name r1 r2 r3 X ------Comp1 -11.379 -11.348 -11.367 1.215 Comp2 -10.410 -10.410 -10.407 1.215 Comp3 -9.738 -9.736 -9.728 1.215 Comp4 -10.632 -10.632 -10.632 1.215 Target -10.137 -10.130 -10.130 1.215
C Filter Name c1 c2 c3 X ------Comp1 -11.898 -11.899 -11.901 1.217 Comp2 -11.082 -11.079 -11.085 1.217 Comp3 -10.274 -10.283 -10.273 1.217 Comp4 -11.159 -11.158 -11.152 1.217 Target -11.086 -11.075 -11.087 1.217
223 224 Appendix F: Comparison Standard Magnitudes
The Spreadsheet
The general layout of the spreadsheet is the same as in Appendix G, save that the C filter has been added. Also, remember that this time you do average the values for the three instrumental magnitudes and use that single value in the reduction formula. You’re still able to find a standard deviation, which gives you an idea of the error within your measurements and reductions. A comparison to the actual catalog values is included in the spreadsheet so that you can see how well the method worked. The reduction formula is really for the comparisons only. The target is in- cluded in this exercise to see what value would be derived. In the next appendix, we’ll reduce the target by the differential formula and see how the results com- pare. Cells A1:E6 hold the V data for the four comps and target. Cells A8:E13 hold the R data while cells A15:E20 hold the C filter data. The first-order extinction and transforms values are stored in rows 22 through 24. Note that the first-order terms are the same as those used in the exercise for the standard color indices (Ap- pendix G). The transforms are from the same run that generated the hidden values used in Appendix G.
The more rigorous approach to reducing the target raw magnitudes to a standard system depends on differential photometry. This way, the extinction and zero- point terms do drop out of consideration (assuming you’re working above 30° al- titude and/or your field is not a degree or more on a side).
The Data
The following is a part of the data taken of a variable star discovered by the author. The JD is JD – 2400000.0.
Comp1 Comp2 Comp3 Target JD ------7.409 -7.611 -7.413 -7.871 53509.660414 -7.525 -7.716 -7.455 -7.961 53509.664302 -7.689 -7.901 -7.712 -8.144 53509.666234 -7.757 -7.940 -7.756 -8.177 53509.668180 -7.759 -7.947 -7.733 -8.160 53509.670113 -7.755 -7.967 -7.738 -8.177 53509.672057 -7.739 -7.950 -7.708 -8.123 53509.676795 -7.824 -8.024 -7.818 -8.232 53509.678735 -7.827 -8.028 -7.833 -8.221 53509.680668 -7.844 -8.065 -7.832 -8.230 53509.682611 -7.836 -8.030 -7.833 -8.200 53509.684557 -7.837 -8.060 -7.868 -8.216 53509.686500 -7.855 -8.061 -7.861 -8.200 53509.688444 -7.848 -8.054 -7.885 -8.207 53509.692323 -7.901 -8.100 -7.885 -8.220 53509.694267 -7.916 -8.089 -7.890 -8.172 53509.696201 -7.909 -8.099 -7.894 -8.187 53509.698145 -7.908 -8.110 -7.872 -8.160 53509.700089 -7.850 -8.056 -7.845 -8.123 53509.702035 -7.867 -8.123 -7.880 -8.115 53509.709556 -7.917 -8.153 -7.930 -8.153 53509.711479 -7.930 -8.154 -7.974 -8.154 53509.713419 -7.928 -8.151 -7.960 -8.134 53509.715367 -7.903 -8.125 -7.958 -8.114 53509.717312 -7.913 -8.160 -7.952 -8.112 53509.719268 -7.907 -8.157 -7.934 -8.108 53509.721201 -7.931 -8.166 -7.952 -8.123 53509.723144 -7.943 -8.154 -7.978 -8.101 53509.725077 -7.950 -8.174 -7.950 -8.102 53509.727011 -7.933 -8.157 -7.960 -8.093 53509.728955 -7.936 -8.158 -7.971 -8.087 53509.730900 -7.933 -8.163 -7.943 -8.076 53509.732845 -7.888 -8.121 -7.900 -8.039 53509.734789 -7.922 -8.142 -7.916 -8.026 53509.736733 227 228 Appendix G: Target Standard Magnitudes
The Spreadsheet
A portion of the spreadsheet is shown in the screen shot above. The block A1:C7 holds the (V–R) color index values found for the three comparisons and target as well as the derived standard magnitudes for the three comparisons. The Tc trans- form values were based against the (V–R) color index of the reference stars.
T/C1 Cells F22:F61 contain the derived standard magnitude based on the differential instrumental magnitudes of Comp1 and the Tar- get as well as the differential of the color indices for the two objects. The general formula is (Ex - Bx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$2) + C$2 Where “x” is the row number. Again note the use of the dollar sign ($), which allows you to enter the formula in F22 as (E22 – B22) + B$7*(B$5 - B$2) + C$2 and then copy/paste the cell into the remaining cells in column F. T/C2 Cells G22:G61 contain the derived standard magnitude based on the differential instrumental magnitudes of Comp2 and the Tar- get as well as the differential of the color indices for the two objects. The general formula is (Ex - Cx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$3) + C$3 Where “x” is the row number. Note the subtle changes required to use the data for Comp2. T/C3 Cells H22:H61 contain the derived standard magnitude based on the differential instrumental magnitudes of Comp3 and the Tar- get as well as the differential of the color indices for the two objects. The general formula is (Ex - Dx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$4) + C$4 Appendix G: Target Standard Magnitudes 229 Where “x” is the row number. Note the subtle changes required to use the data for Comp3. Mean Cells I22:I61 contain the average value of the three derived standard magnitudes for a given row. The general formula is AVERAGE(Fx, Gx, Hx) x = row number S.D. Cells J22:J61 contain the standard deviation of the three derived standard magnitudes for a given row. The general formula is STDEV(Fx, Gx, Hx) x = row number The plot is an X-Y type. Use the values in A22:A61 for the X-axis. Use the values in I22:I61 for the Y-axis. Make sure you invert the Y-axis so that lower numbers (brighter magnitudes) are at the top. The screen shot below shows the entire run as plotted in MPO PhotoRed. Try running the above spreadsheet using the data, as appropriate, from Ap- pendix I. How do the results from the differential process compare to those found for the target in the Appendix I? Appendix H: Landolt/Graham Standard Fields
The Landolt fields are the calibration fields when trying to convert the instrumen- tal magnitudes of your system onto the Johnson–Cousins system. What follows are a number of finder charts and data based on the data from the original paper by Landolt and the LONEOS catalog prepared by Brian Skiff of Lowell Observatory. The files for these can be obtained from the Lowell site
ftp://ftp.lowell.edu/pub/bas/starcats
Use an anonymous log in. Download the landolt*.* and loneos*.* files.
The lists were filtered to remove known or suspected variables and the positions updated to J2000. There are no listed errors, but they are on the order of 0.01 m and less in most cases. The unfortunate side is that the charts had to be made 1° on a side to include a sufficient number of stars. Most amateurs have fields much less than this, usually 20 arcminutes or less. The charts include a square at the center, drawn with a dashed line, that indicates a 20 arcminutes field. With careful work, you can ex- tend the number of stars you use in the transforms determination by shooting more than one area of the field through the various filters while keeping at least one star common to all the subfields that you image.
Graham Fields There are three charts included in this section that are not original Landolt fields. They are located at about –45°. These fields should not be considered true stan- dard fields, since they do have systematic errors of up to 0.02 m. However, they do serve well as secondary standards for those in the Southern Hemisphere since the field transit nearly at the zenith.
231 232 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 233 234 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 235 236 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 237 238 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 239 240 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 241 242 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 243 244 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 245 246 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 247 248 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 249 250 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields 251 252 Appendix H: Landolt Standard Fields Appendix I: Henden Charts
The following pages contain finder charts for fields where Arne Henden of the U.S. Naval Observatory – Flagstaff (now Director, AAVSO), has done high- precision photometry. The fields are distributed about the sky but, unfortunately, favor northern observers. The fields cannot be considered standard stars but “near secondary standards.” For truly accurate transforms to a standard system, you should use fields that helped define the system, e.g., the Landolt series. Still, these fields can provide a high degree of accuracy and be used by collaborations to ref- erence all measurements against the same field. Each chart is 0.5° on a side. The magnitude scaling has been exaggerated some so that faint stars are not lost. With the scaling used, naked eyes stars would be very large! However, the scaling does allow the brighter stars in the sequences to be quickly located on an image, which is the main goal. Up to 26 stars, labeled “A” through “Z”, are indicated on the chart. Only stars from the Henden sequences are labeled. The other stars on the chart are either in the sequence but too faint to be labeled or part of the MPO Star Catalog. The latter was used to include a sufficient number of additional field stars so that the field could be readily identified. Below each chart is a table that lists the RA/Declination of chart center, the name of the file from which the data was taken, the date of the file – so you know which version of the data was used, and the data for the labeled stars. The columns are —
Label B Magnitude V Error Star Name V Magnitude (B–V) Error RA R Magnitude (V–R) Error Declination If a given magnitude is empty, there was no value available from the Henden se- quence. When building the charts, there were several requirements.
1. No star was used for which there were fewer than three observations. 2. All magnitudes are the actual values from the data files. There was no con- version to R or (V–R) based on B/V magnitudes. 3. The error is not shown for a given magnitude band if the data value assigned a value greater than 9 or less than 0. You should not use the magnitude for a star if there is no error or if the error is significant.
253 254 Appendix I: Henden Charts Close but not Quite
Let me repeat something said above: these fields will give you a high degree of accuracy but – at best – using them to determine your transforms will get you close, but not necessarily on, the standard system. For truly accurate transforms, use the Landolt fields. Finder charts for some of the Landolt fields are available in the previous appendix. The charts indicate the name and data of the file from which the data was taken. It’s entirely possible the data has been updated since the chart was created. You should check Arne’s ftp site frequently for new or updated files. The URL is
ftp://ftp.nofs.navy.mil/pub/outgoing/aah/sequence/
Be aware that these fields have not been followed long enough to assure that none of the stars is variable. If you use the fields, make sure to use as large a number of stars as is practical so that you’ll have enough should you need to remove one or more stars because they are variable. Should you report observations after using these fields to calibrate your sys- tem, be sure to include a comment some where in your report that indicates which field was used, the date of the file from which the data was taken, and the stars you used to make the calibration. This allows you to correct your data should new photometry become available. Appendix I: Henden Charts 255 256 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 257 258 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 259 260 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 261 262 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 263 264 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 265 266 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 267 268 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 269 270 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 271 272 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 273 274 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 275 276 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 277 278 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 279 280 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 281 282 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix I: Henden Charts 283 284 Appendix I: Henden Charts Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs
Blue–Red pairs are used to determine second-order extinction, usually to adjust derived magnitudes for B and C filters. The second-order correction for V, R, and I is usually small and can be ignored in all but the most critical cases. Using the Hipparcos Catalog and the criteria below, several dozen pairs of stars were found. The magnitudes have been reduced from the Hipparcos to the Johnson–Cousins BVR system using formulae in the ESA documentation and elsewhere. The values should be sufficiently close to "true" magnitudes or finding sec- ond-order extinction terms. If using only the B and V magnitudes, then the pairs can also be used as secondary standards for finding transforms using the (B–V) color index. The derived R values are probably of insufficient accuracy to use the (V–R) color index and R transforms. It would make a good project to determine the quality of the R magnitudes by back-checking derived R magnitudes in Lan- dolt fields using the Hipparcos stars.
Steps used to produce the List
1. The Hipparcos file of approximately 118,000 stars was scanned to find all stars with in the range of –0.2 < (B–V)T < 1.8. This range is the same as that in the Hipparcos documentation, where reasonable conversions of Bt and Vt to Bj and Vj can be made. 2. The V magnitudes were derived by using the Hp magnitude and performing a linear interpolation using the (V–I) magnitude from the catalog against one of two lookup tables found on page 67. The tables differ depending on spectral class, with late G, K, M dwarfs be- ing treated differently from O-G5 (II-V) and G5III - M8III stars. 3. The value for (B–V)j came directly from the Hipparcos catalog (246-252). 4. The derivation of R magnitudes was made based on a linear solution found by Arne Henden:
Rc = Vt – 0.014 – (0.5405 * B–V)
5. Once all stars within the (B–V)t range were found, they were put into sepa- rate lists of blue and red stars, with an arbitrary standard of (B–V)j < 0.1 for blue and (B–V)j > 0.8 being the dividing points. This facilitated the search to find blue–red pairs by iterating through the red stars and searching for a close blue star. The red and blue stars were considered a valid pair based on the following criteria: 285 286 Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs 1. The separation between the two stars was 2 = X = 10 arcminutes. 2. The average declination of the star was –30 = D = +30 degrees. This helps assure that a pair can be found that goes through a significant change in air mass over a few hours' time from about any latitude.
3. The (Rbv–Bbv) difference was = 0.8 m. 4. The variability and proximity flags were not set or empty. 6. Blue–Red pairs found were written out to a text file with three lines per pair. 1. The first line gives the average J2000 coordinates of the pair plus the separation in arcminutes. 2. The second line gives the data for the BLUE star, which includes the coordinates, HIP number, and B, V, R, (B–V), and (V–R) Johnson– Cousins magnitudes. 3. The third line gives the same data for the RED star. With more than 100 pairs, it is not possible to include finder charts for these stars. It may be difficult to use some of these pairs, especially if you have a larger tele- scope. Remember that very short exposures can be on non-linear portions of the chip response curve, and short exposures are also subject to scintillation noise. Usually, you want to use exposures on the order of ten seconds to avoid that problem. Even with filters, it’s unlikely that you’ll be able to expose that long with stars of 6th magnitude. If these stars are too bright, you can try stopping down the telescope with an off-axis mask, which does not affect the derived values, or you can use the stars from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey in the next appendix. The R magnitudes in the SDSS catalog are probably more accurate, so try to use that catalog when working with R magnitudes. Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs 287
Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs
RA Dec. HIP B V R (B-V) (V-R) 00:25:59 -21:39:07 8.7 00:25:42 -21:37:53 2027 7.695 7.640 7.574 0.056 0.065 00:26:16 -21:40:21 2079 8.847 7.567 6.867 1.280 0.700 01:15:40 +20:27:30 8.1 01:15:28 +20:24:52 5878 7.071 6.985 6.926 0.086 0.059 01:15:53 +20:30:08 5906 8.257 7.244 6.689 1.013 0.555 02:02:48 -21:56:19 7.4 02:02:35 -21:57:56 9534 6.866 6.972 6.995 -0.106 -0.022 02:03:02 -21:54:42 9577 8.767 7.620 6.984 1.148 0.635 02:16:58 - 6:30:00 9.3 02:16:57 - 6:34:41 10640 7.360 7.304 7.271 0.056 0.033 02:16:58 - 6:25:18 10642 6.465 5.504 4.991 0.962 0.512 02:48:45 +25:07:56 6.6 02:48:45 +25:11:17 13121 5.860 5.894 5.896 -0.033 -0.001 02:48:45 +25:04:36 13120 8.499 7.465 6.923 1.035 0.541 03:54:29 + 9:12:46 8.9 03:54:45 + 9:10:39 18297 7.492 7.424 7.369 0.069 0.054 03:54:14 + 9:14:53 18252 9.722 8.719 8.198 1.004 0.520 03:58:24 -23:52:03 9.9 03:58:34 -23:47:43 18575 7.980 7.919 7.870 0.061 0.049 03:58:15 -23:56:23 18553 10.282 9.111 8.483 1.171 0.628 04:24:33 -21:48:19 8.9 04:24:41 -21:52:21 20596 8.742 8.764 8.757 -0.021 0.006 04:24:25 -21:44:17 20572 10.632 9.690 9.155 0.942 0.535 04:48:42 + 3:37:08 3.8 04:48:39 + 3:38:57 22343 7.267 7.324 7.339 -0.057 -0.014 04:48:44 + 3:35:18 22354 7.239 6.040 5.383 1.200 0.656 05:20:22 - 5:50:03 7.5 05:20:07 - 5:50:46 24891 8.127 8.177 8.166 -0.050 0.011 05:20:37 - 5:49:21 24944 8.948 7.995 7.483 0.953 0.512 05:26:10 -12:53:21 3.3 05:26:16 -12:52:25 25426 9.090 9.071 9.062 0.019 0.009 05:26:04 -12:54:17 25407 8.455 7.150 6.435 1.306 0.714 05:42:41 +18:59:02 6.2 05:42:53 +18:58:49 26925 6.644 6.659 6.663 -0.015 -0.003 05:42:28 +18:59:15 26886 8.673 7.333 6.533 1.340 0.799 05:50:31 + 1:44:21 5.9 05:50:24 + 1:46:43 27574 9.131 9.101 9.136 0.031 -0.035 05:50:38 + 1:41:58 27602 9.036 7.990 7.393 1.047 0.596 05:55:49 +12:58:56 5.8 05:56:00 +12:57:46 28064 8.164 8.165 8.145 0.000 0.019 05:55:39 +13:00:06 28029 8.697 7.692 7.163 1.006 0.528 06:00:29 - 7:31:46 7.2 06:00:27 - 7:35:23 28453 8.277 8.361 8.380 -0.083 -0.019 06:00:31 - 7:28:10 28459 8.677 7.418 6.688 1.260 0.729 06:06:45 -22:07:08 6.4 06:06:34 -22:08:41 28944 7.984 8.033 8.017 -0.048 0.015 06:06:56 -22:05:35 28983 10.140 8.774 8.052 1.367 0.721 288 Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs RA Dec. HIP B V R (B-V) (V-R) 06:07:39 + 8:14:43 6.9 06:07:27 + 8:16:14 29027 7.943 7.983 7.993 -0.040 -0.009 06:07:52 + 8:13:13 29063 9.839 8.973 8.483 0.867 0.489 06:21:32 +21:13:14 5.8 06:21:22 +21:11:59 30211 7.678 7.623 7.572 0.056 0.050 06:21:43 +21:14:28 30241 9.938 8.531 7.709 1.408 0.821 06:23:38 - 4:42:29 8.0 06:23:22 - 4:41:14 30387 6.726 6.664 6.600 0.063 0.063 06:23:53 - 4:43:43 30430 8.326 7.320 6.755 1.007 0.564 06:41:14 +24:01:16 7.5 06:41:12 +24:05:03 32004 8.679 8.662 8.640 0.017 0.022 06:41:15 +23:57:30 32010 9.097 8.077 7.542 1.021 0.534 06:42:57 -19:24:50 8.5 06:42:48 -19:21:16 32147 8.975 8.980 8.960 -0.005 0.020 06:43:06 -19:28:24 32179 9.686 8.708 8.194 0.979 0.513 06:48:24 - 4:45:34 6.9 06:48:23 - 4:42:07 32630 7.725 7.645 7.581 0.081 0.063 06:48:25 - 4:49:01 32633 9.371 8.386 7.824 0.986 0.561 07:05:35 +11:15:45 7.8 07:05:48 +11:13:26 34231 7.710 7.720 7.691 -0.010 0.029 07:05:22 +11:18:04 34189 9.790 8.864 8.395 0.927 0.468 07:06:19 + 6:07:49 7.0 07:06:33 + 6:08:27 34292 8.244 8.250 8.227 -0.006 0.023 07:06:05 + 6:07:11 34260 9.124 8.105 7.552 1.019 0.553 07:25:36 + 4:30:14 8.1 07:25:28 + 4:33:43 36031 8.614 8.530 8.467 0.084 0.063 07:25:45 + 4:26:46 36049 8.244 7.140 6.518 1.104 0.622 07:28:35 -24:09:19 8.2 07:28:19 -24:10:10 36300 8.391 8.449 8.456 -0.058 -0.006 07:28:51 -24:08:28 36347 11.113 9.974 9.549 1.140 0.424 07:43:34 - 4:41:39 2.0 07:43:32 - 4:40:50 37647 7.054 7.138 7.172 -0.084 -0.033 07:43:37 - 4:42:28 37655 7.832 6.912 6.409 0.920 0.503 07:51:46 -18:19:25 4.1 07:51:45 -18:21:27 38379 7.617 7.621 7.590 -0.003 0.030 07:51:47 -18:17:23 38383 9.594 8.559 8.001 1.035 0.558 08:00:42 +12:39:36 3.8 08:00:49 +12:40:42 39183 6.727 6.793 6.794 -0.065 -0.001 08:00:36 +12:38:30 39164 7.686 6.615 6.028 1.071 0.587 08:13:28 -22:22:09 8.2 08:13:13 -22:23:51 40248 9.099 9.069 8.991 0.030 0.078 08:13:43 -22:20:27 40295 9.906 8.635 7.939 1.271 0.696 08:31:21 - 9:23:01 7.9 08:31:13 - 9:26:25 41789 9.211 9.128 9.066 0.083 0.062 08:31:30 - 9:19:38 41814 10.262 9.189 8.554 1.073 0.635 08:40:08 +19:59:22 2.5 08:40:11 +19:58:16 42523 6.610 6.604 6.592 0.006 0.012 08:40:06 +20:00:28 42516 7.363 6.384 5.847 0.980 0.536 08:51:20 +11:46:19 4.9 08:51:11 +11:45:22 43465 9.966 10.036 9.940 -0.070 0.096 08:51:29 +11:47:16 43491 11.047 9.698 8.933 1.350 0.764 Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs 289 RA Dec. HIP B V R (B-V) (V-R) 09:01:36 -14:27:29 4.2 09:01:33 -14:29:28 44320 8.354 8.332 8.295 0.022 0.037 09:01:39 -14:25:31 44328 10.413 9.431 8.872 0.982 0.559 09:42:38 -14:03:10 9.1 09:42:33 -13:58:44 47616 7.863 7.856 7.829 0.007 0.027 09:42:43 -14:07:37 47634 9.855 8.788 8.221 1.067 0.567 10:01:29 -15:26:22 4.1 10:01:22 -15:27:14 49110 7.980 7.962 7.939 0.019 0.022 10:01:37 -15:25:29 49127 9.669 8.653 8.191 1.016 0.462 12:48:02 +13:29:18 9.6 12:48:14 +13:33:11 62478 6.491 6.476 6.457 0.015 0.019 12:47:51 +13:25:26 62442 9.042 8.053 7.515 0.990 0.537 12:47:53 -24:56:00 9.8 12:47:53 -24:51:06 62448 6.370 6.428 6.433 -0.058 -0.004 12:47:53 -25:00:55 62447 7.850 6.806 6.244 1.045 0.561 15:06:16 +28:59:30 6.0 15:06:28 +28:59:02 73931 9.089 9.226 9.243 -0.136 -0.017 15:06:04 +28:59:58 73887 10.314 9.407 8.909 0.908 0.497 15:38:45 -19:45:24 7.9 15:39:00 -19:43:57 76633 7.685 7.639 7.598 0.047 0.040 15:38:30 -19:46:52 76589 10.201 8.931 8.261 1.270 0.670 16:22:01 + 0:31:50 6.8 16:22:12 + 0:29:53 80184 7.794 7.698 7.627 0.097 0.070 16:21:50 + 0:33:46 80163 9.424 8.360 7.776 1.065 0.583 16:46:42 + 2:15:58 7.1 16:46:46 + 2:12:34 82133 8.789 8.869 8.861 -0.079 0.007 16:46:37 + 2:19:23 82126 8.874 7.900 7.407 0.975 0.492 17:03:48 +13:35:11 5.1 17:03:39 +13:36:19 83478 5.924 5.915 5.902 0.010 0.012 17:03:58 +13:34:03 83504 7.105 6.056 5.495 1.050 0.560 17:46:32 + 6:10:41 7.1 17:46:36 + 6:07:14 86993 7.727 7.753 7.747 -0.026 0.006 17:46:28 + 6:14:08 86977 8.937 7.904 7.335 1.034 0.568 18:44:32 +26:12:53 9.1 18:44:50 +26:11:55 91977 7.976 7.926 7.877 0.051 0.048 18:44:14 +26:13:51 91914 9.223 8.198 7.651 1.025 0.547 18:53:45 +15:15:45 5.8 18:53:57 +15:15:35 92741 8.612 8.515 8.499 0.097 0.016 18:53:33 +15:15:56 92718 10.894 9.567 8.866 1.328 0.700 19:01:10 +26:25:42 7.9 19:00:56 +26:27:39 93357 8.145 8.128 8.118 0.017 0.010 19:01:24 +26:23:44 93407 9.021 7.881 7.259 1.140 0.622 19:40:43 +23:43:28 2.1 19:40:39 +23:43:04 96801 6.632 6.642 6.643 -0.009 -0.001 19:40:47 +23:43:52 96818 9.145 8.208 7.692 0.937 0.516 19:43:55 - 1:58:57 5.4 19:44:04 - 2:00:22 97107 8.497 8.442 8.393 0.056 0.048 19:43:46 - 1:57:32 97082 9.469 8.363 7.739 1.107 0.623 19:59:29 + 4:00:08 9.3 19:59:10 + 3:59:33 98374 9.205 9.153 9.132 0.052 0.021 19:59:47 + 4:00:43 98417 9.668 8.550 7.889 1.118 0.661 290 Appendix J: Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs RA Dec. HIP B V R (B-V) (V-R) 20:11:49 +26:51:09 5.2 20:11:50 +26:53:45 99520 7.201 7.290 7.305 -0.089 -0.014 20:11:47 +26:48:32 99518 6.905 5.509 4.742 1.397 0.766 20:30:29 +27:54:44 9.7 20:30:13 +27:51:58 101152 7.752 7.815 7.808 -0.062 0.006 20:30:45 +27:57:30 101198 9.226 8.093 7.482 1.133 0.611 20:32:32 -28:35:54 5.1 20:32:42 -28:35:43 101367 7.375 7.316 7.272 0.060 0.043 20:32:21 -28:36:06 101340 9.596 8.549 8.025 1.047 0.524 20:36:28 +16:45:50 8.6 20:36:40 +16:42:48 101687 8.421 8.339 8.280 0.083 0.058 20:36:15 +16:48:52 101645 8.013 6.614 5.821 1.400 0.792 20:45:42 +22:58:09 5.9 20:45:45 +22:55:15 102461 7.729 7.704 7.680 0.026 0.023 20:45:40 +23:01:03 102454 8.743 7.756 7.231 0.988 0.524 20:56:31 - 3:37:05 9.4 20:56:18 - 3:33:42 103347 6.503 6.582 6.587 -0.078 -0.004 20:56:44 - 3:40:28 103384 8.336 7.265 6.657 1.071 0.608 21:02:39 +21:44:43 8.7 21:02:48 +21:48:36 103870 7.483 7.532 7.533 -0.048 -0.001 21:02:31 +21:40:51 103843 9.023 7.947 7.327 1.076 0.620 21:31:13 +28:20:38 3.4 21:31:17 +28:19:18 106253 9.736 9.746 9.835 -0.010 -0.088 21:31:09 +28:21:58 106241 9.309 8.206 7.618 1.104 0.587 21:59:14 -23:51:42 3.6 21:59:17 -23:50:00 108542 7.060 7.035 6.998 0.026 0.036 21:59:12 -23:53:24 108532 9.551 8.325 7.662 1.227 0.662 22:13:33 +21:05:19 5.8 22:13:40 +21:02:58 109732 8.068 8.076 8.059 -0.007 0.016 22:13:25 +21:07:39 109718 10.588 9.646 9.196 0.942 0.450 22:16:01 +11:46:41 2.1 22:16:00 +11:45:35 109942 7.252 7.302 7.286 -0.049 0.015 22:16:01 +11:47:46 109946 9.459 8.285 7.630 1.174 0.655 22:45:29 + 3:39:37 5.3 22:45:37 + 3:37:52 112376 7.852 7.895 7.902 -0.042 -0.007 22:45:21 + 3:41:23 112347 8.685 7.582 6.969 1.103 0.613 23:35:09 +16:27:05 3.8 23:35:12 +16:25:23 116400 8.943 8.939 8.903 0.004 0.036 23:35:05 +16:28:47 116391 9.131 7.807 7.046 1.325 0.760 Appendix K: SDSS Blue–Red Pairs
The blue–red pairs from the Hipparcos Catalog may be too bright for those using larger scopes and/or the clear filter. Furthermore the derivation of the R magni- tudes is not as certain. The following list was created by using the on-line data query utility for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. The search was limited to ±5° dec- lination and stars with a B magnitude between 10.0 and 14.0 The conversion of the SDSS magnitudes to the Johnson–Cousins system was based on the method by Jester et al as outlined on the SDSS web site at http://www.sdss.org/dr4/algorithms/sdssUBVRITransform.html In general, the RMS errors are (B–V) 0.04 (V–R) 0.03 B 0.03 V 0.01 R 0.03 The first line in each set is the average J2000 RA and declination and separation in arcminutes. The second line is the data for the blue star, while the third line gives the data for the red star.
RA Dec. B V R (B-V) (V-R) 00:55:21.56 +00:56:12.7 9.2 00:55:04.23 +00:57:44.6 13.869 13.767 12.818 0.103 0.948 00:55:38.90 +00:54:40.9 13.015 12.164 11.917 0.852 0.246
01:06:48.70 +00:46:42.3 9.8 01:06:59.34 +00:50:49.6 13.883 13.799 12.844 0.084 0.955 01:06:38.07 +00:42:35.1 13.042 12.209 12.108 0.833 0.101
02:43:01.84 +00:14:03.6 4.6 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:42:53.84 +00:15:11.3 13.924 13.085 12.899 0.840 0.186
02:43:07.22 +00:13:01.0 1.3 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:43:04.60 +00:13:06.0 13.704 12.797 12.562 0.907 0.235
02:43:24.97 +00:13:37.7 7.7 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:43:40.09 +00:14:19.5 13.457 12.583 12.557 0.874 0.026
02:57:13.73 +01:01:23.9 6.5 02:57:04.98 +00:59:00.1 13.804 13.617 12.689 0.186 0.929 02:57:22.48 +01:03:47.7 13.460 12.585 12.314 0.875 0.271
291 292 Appendix K: SDSS Blue–Red Pairs RA Dec. B V R (B-V) (V-R) 03:09:06.82 -01:10:52.4 5.6 03:09:13.82 -01:08:41.2 11.993 12.039 11.714 -0.046 0.325 03:08:59.83 -01:13:03.5 12.919 12.101 11.796 0.817 0.305
03:09:33.04 -01:08:09.8 9.7 03:09:13.82 -01:08:41.2 11.993 12.039 11.714 -0.046 0.325 03:09:52.25 -01:07:38.4 12.629 11.813 11.584 0.816 0.229
03:56:13.82 +00:29:50.8 6.1 03:56:09.04 +00:27:02.4 13.368 13.485 13.005 -0.117 0.479 03:56:18.61 +00:32:39.2 13.723 12.724 12.402 0.999 0.321
08:26:32.05 +02:51:16.6 6.7 08:26:29.05 +02:54:31.9 12.856 12.986 12.889 -0.129 0.097 08:26:35.05 +02:48:01.2 13.360 12.535 12.353 0.825 0.181
08:39:56.13 +00:46:15.2 7.6 08:40:07.85 +00:43:51.3 13.391 13.201 12.380 0.190 0.821 08:39:44.40 +00:48:39.2 13.863 12.849 12.544 1.013 0.306
08:40:59.35 +00:49:03.0 3.1 08:41:03.19 +00:50:15.5 13.762 13.803 12.837 -0.041 0.966 08:40:55.50 +00:47:50.5 13.673 12.839 12.616 0.834 0.223
08:41:02.15 +00:46:11.6 8.1 08:41:03.19 +00:50:15.5 13.762 13.803 12.837 -0.041 0.966 08:41:01.11 +00:42:07.6 13.957 13.089 12.851 0.869 0.237
08:55:24.03 +00:54:31.0 4.6 08:55:21.85 +00:52:17.7 13.751 13.755 12.846 -0.004 0.909 08:55:26.22 +00:56:44.3 13.464 12.314 11.831 1.151 0.482
08:55:37.89 +00:54:27.5 9.1 08:55:21.85 +00:52:17.7 13.751 13.755 12.846 -0.004 0.909 08:55:53.94 +00:56:37.4 13.638 12.832 12.608 0.806 0.224
09:10:26.55 +00:24:53.6 1.5 09:10:26.85 +00:24:08.0 13.847 14.016 13.224 -0.168 0.792 09:10:26.24 +00:25:39.2 13.327 12.473 12.250 0.854 0.223
09:16:44.92 +00:18:32.9 8.8 09:16:56.59 +00:21:51.3 13.845 13.693 12.879 0.152 0.813 09:16:33.25 +00:15:14.5 13.454 12.536 12.258 0.917 0.278
09:19:32.68 +00:46:41.7 8.5 09:19:41.49 +00:50:19.7 13.792 13.768 13.736 0.025 0.031 09:19:23.86 +00:43:03.7 13.410 12.374 12.243 1.035 0.132
09:24:16.92 +00:15:16.3 2.5 09:24:12.50 +00:14:39.5 13.531 13.469 12.750 0.062 0.719 09:24:21.35 +00:15:53.1 13.713 12.784 12.590 0.929 0.194
09:27:02.38 +00:25:39.1 9.9 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:26:42.99 +00:26:35.7 13.580 12.749 12.510 0.831 0.238 09:27:12.11 +00:25:10.5 4.9 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:27:02.45 +00:25:38.6 13.155 12.173 11.807 0.982 0.366 Appendix K: SDSS Blue–Red Pairs 293 RA Dec. B V R (B-V) (V-R) 09:27:37.41 +00:21:45.4 9.8 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:27:53.04 +00:18:48.4 12.814 11.946 11.572 0.868 0.373
09:39:59.40 +02:44:40.3 4.8 09:40:01.86 +02:46:58.2 12.635 12.459 11.496 0.176 0.963 09:39:56.94 +02:42:22.4 12.959 12.094 11.987 0.865 0.107
09:44:39.73 +00:56:38.8 6.3 09:44:47.79 +00:59:05.9 13.527 13.520 13.105 0.006 0.416 09:44:31.67 +00:54:11.7 13.527 12.512 12.190 1.015 0.322
09:48:49.48 +01:13:46.4 7.2 09:48:35.42 +01:12:57.1 12.775 12.905 12.901 -0.130 0.004 09:49:03.54 +01:14:35.8 13.322 12.489 12.176 0.833 0.313
10:49:56.31 +03:21:19.3 4.8 10:49:55.92 +03:18:54.4 12.961 12.762 11.904 0.199 0.859 10:49:56.70 +03:23:44.2 12.523 11.690 11.378 0.833 0.312
11:27:39.87 +03:24:41.8 8.1 11:27:52.64 +03:27:11.7 12.375 12.356 11.674 0.019 0.682 11:27:27.09 +03:22:11.9 12.378 11.456 11.047 0.922 0.409
11:30:07.51 +00:38:04.8 6.3 11:30:15.39 +00:35:37.7 13.728 13.846 13.503 -0.119 0.343 11:29:59.63 +00:40:31.9 13.448 12.588 12.278 0.860 0.310
12:02:50.71 +00:12:08.1 4.4 12:02:50.43 +00:09:55.3 13.976 13.852 13.700 0.125 0.152 12:02:50.98 +00:14:20.9 13.678 12.788 12.472 0.890 0.315
12:39:30.16 -03:00:26.9 7.6 12:39:43.47 -03:02:16.7 12.797 12.697 11.731 0.100 0.965 12:39:16.85 -02:58:37.1 13.369 12.517 12.368 0.851 0.149
12:46:59.35 +00:12:45.1 9.3 12:46:51.49 +00:08:31.6 12.985 12.844 12.175 0.141 0.669 12:47:07.21 +00:16:58.6 13.271 12.095 11.549 1.176 0.546
12:47:02.56 +00:09:56.0 6.2 12:46:51.49 +00:08:31.6 12.985 12.844 12.175 0.141 0.669 12:47:13.62 +00:11:20.4 13.656 12.564 12.206 1.092 0.359
14:29:33.08 +03:01:21.5 3.3 14:29:38.60 +03:02:16.3 13.117 12.963 12.070 0.153 0.893 14:29:27.56 +03:00:26.7 13.498 12.426 12.110 1.072 0.317
14:30:44.55 +00:12:32.9 9.2 14:30:49.39 +00:08:05.8 12.988 12.850 12.087 0.138 0.763 14:30:39.72 +00:17:00.0 13.328 12.419 12.009 0.909 0.410
14:34:00.20 +05:03:02.9 7.7 14:34:04.42 +05:06:43.9 13.189 12.996 12.180 0.193 0.816 14:33:55.99 +04:59:21.9 13.409 12.277 12.004 1.132 0.274 14:52:57.35 +00:12:31.0 9.1 14:52:58.62 +00:07:57.6 13.471 13.357 12.360 0.114 0.997 14:52:56.07 +00:17:04.4 12.696 11.809 11.327 0.887 0.482 294 Appendix K: SDSS Blue–Red Pairs RA Dec. B V R (B-V) (V-R) 14:53:05.59 +00:11:22.3 7.7 14:52:58.62 +00:07:57.6 13.471 13.357 12.360 0.114 0.997 14:53:12.57 +00:14:47.0 13.686 12.494 11.953 1.192 0.541
15:09:33.15 +03:09:06.2 2.2 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:30.75 +03:08:11.1 13.470 12.332 12.005 1.138 0.327
15:09:46.44 +03:09:41.3 5.5 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:57.33 +03:09:21.2 12.377 11.545 11.291 0.832 0.254
15:09:47.20 +03:10:35.5 5.9 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:58.85 +03:11:09.7 13.296 12.259 11.979 1.037 0.279
15:14:49.29 +00:48:40.0 10.0 15:15:03.06 +00:52:16.1 13.579 13.601 12.677 -0.022 0.924 15:14:35.52 +00:45:03.9 13.726 12.860 12.618 0.867 0.242
15:19:43.79 +00:11:37.6 8.5 15:19:56.59 +00:08:48.9 13.127 13.108 12.174 0.019 0.934 15:19:31.00 +00:14:26.4 13.231 12.431 12.075 0.800 0.356
15:20:05.87 +00:12:10.0 8.2 15:19:56.59 +00:08:48.9 13.127 13.108 12.174 0.019 0.934 15:20:15.16 +00:15:31.2 12.126 11.033 10.506 1.093 0.528
15:23:46.74 -00:29:45.2 9.4 15:23:55.85 -00:25:39.8 11.294 11.119 11.019 0.176 0.099 15:23:37.63 -00:33:50.6 13.418 12.344 12.071 1.073 0.274
15:38:26.49 +02:29:29.5 8.9 15:38:09.20 +02:28:25.4 12.802 12.603 11.914 0.199 0.689 15:38:43.79 +02:30:33.5 12.599 11.489 11.137 1.110 0.353
20:49:20.93 -05:15:51.9 4.7 20:49:19.44 -05:13:33.2 12.723 12.534 12.511 0.189 0.023 20:49:22.42 -05:18:10.5 13.287 12.285 12.118 1.002 0.167
20:49:27.30 -05:09:42.9 8.6 20:49:19.44 -05:13:33.2 12.723 12.534 12.511 0.189 0.023 20:49:35.17 -05:05:52.5 11.955 11.024 10.535 0.931 0.488
23:24:21.79 +00:06:44.6 1.3 23:24:24.37 +00:06:49.8 13.531 13.356 12.651 0.175 0.705 23:24:19.20 +00:06:39.4 12.833 11.959 11.710 0.874 0.249 Index
Flat Fields A all-sky, 40 dome flats, 40 Asteroids getting in observing run, 118 shape modeling, 7 in photometry, 37 tracking during observing run, 120 light boxes, 40 Why work, 7 twilight flats, 39 B G
Bias Frames Guiding Considerations, 96 in photometry, 36 Binary Maker, 161 H Binning, 190 Harris, Alan W., 105, 140, 142, 148 C Henden Sequences Camera charts using, 253 Considerations finding transforms, 26 anti-blooming vs. non-anti- Henden–Kaitchuck, 21 blooming, 90 download speed, 93 I Field of View (FOV), 89 focal reducers, 89 Image Acquisition Software, 99 front- vs. back-illuminated, 91 camera control, 99 pixel size, 88 Considerations software compatibility, 94 ease of use, 99 support (technical), 95 one or multiple programs?, 100 temperature regulation, 94 telescope control, 99 Comparison Stars Instrumental Magnitudes checking for variability, 129 vs. standard, 27 D K
Dark Frames Koff, Bob, 113 creating masters, 121 getting in observing run, 118 L in photometry, 37 Landolt F Standard Magnitudes charts using. See Filter wheels, 96 Lightcurves Flat fields Merging Data creating masters, 121 Clear to Johnson V transform, 50
295 296 Index using an arbitrary standard, 71 bias frames, 36 modeling a binary system from, 161 dark frames, 37 Period Analysis, 137 differential photometry, 32 Aliases, 145–54 Extinction bimodal curves, 139 comp star method, 30 finding the amplitude, 144 Hardie method, 30 level of precision, 142 flat fields, 37 using a spreadsheet, 156 measuring apertures, 41 Variable Stars pixel size vs. seeing, 36 effect of changing mass ratio, 171 seeing, 35 effect of orbital inclination, 16, 166 signal-to-noise (SNR), 33 effect of orbital shape, 15 tranforms & zero-point, 31 effect of temperature changes, 168 History, 21 limb darkening, 17, 172 Johnson–Cousins, 23 normalized flux data, 162 photographic colors, 22 reflection effect, 16, 172 using an arbitrary standard, 71 Photometry Software M available programs, 102 Considerations Manual vs. Automated accuracy, 103 full automation, 109 data exchange, 106 manual, 109 ease of use, 102 measuring images, 125 multiple sessions, 104 Measuring Apertures period analysis, 105 object and sky, 41 plotting, 106 shape, 45 reducing to standard magnitudes, size, 41 105 supported catalogs, 104 time of minimum (TOM) O calculator, 108 zero-point adjustment, 107 Observing Programs Pixel Size, 36, 88 data mining, 112 Pravec, Petr, 115 Extinction Observations comp star, 62 Hardie, 58 R Selecting Targets, 113 Observing Run Romanishin, Bill, 21, 104, 183 darks and flats, 118 Exposures S how long and often, 119 tracking asteroids, 120 Sessions transform and extinction images, 119 definition of, 123 required & suggested data, 123–25 P Signal-to-Noise (SNR) accuracy in photometry, 33 Peranso, 105 value vs. precision, 34 Photometry Skiff, Brian, 26, 152, 231 Clear to Johnson V transform, 50 Software Fundamentals Vendors air mass & extinction, 28 Axiom Research (Mira), 102 all-sky photometry, 32 Bdw Publishing (MPO), 99, 102 aperture vs. PSF photometry, 45 DC3 Dreams (ACP), 99 Index 297 Diffraction Limited (MaxIm DL), in photometry, 31 99, 102 IRAF Group (IRAF), 102 V MSB Software (AstroArt), 99, 102 Software Bisque, 99 Variable Stars Space Software (Starry Night Pro), cataclymic variables (CV), 17 99 Cepheids, 18 Willmann–Bell (AIP4WIN), 102 eclipsing binaries, 13 Standard Magnitudes LPV, 18 catalogs of (stars), 25 Mira. See LPV CCDs and, 24 modeling a system, 161 Henden sequences, 26 naming convention, 13 history of, 24 semi-regular, 18 Landolt, 25 vs. instrumental, 27 Stephens, Robert, 148 Z Zero-Point T as software feature, 107, 124 from Hardie method, 31 Telescope in lightcurve analysis Considerations, 83 applied to two sessions, 141 Optics, 83–84 for adjusting session offsets, 140 Time for finding normalized flux values, getting from Internet, 111 163 Transforms in photometry, 31 Clear to Johnson V, 50