A GLIMPSE OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MEDICINE By LYNN THORNDIKE, PH.D., L.H.D.

NEW YORK CITY A“DEFENSE OF MEDICINE” ments he accepts as an improvement / VI by Antonio Francesco Ber- in the theory of fevers the view that tini, professor of medicine, heat is not the essence but the effect published at Lucca in 16991 of fever which is produced by fermen- offers an interesting view of conditions tation of the blood,5 a step towards at the close of the seventeenth century the germ theory. He feels that his and a retrospect over the preceding age has not merely banished many years. The work divides into two vain questions from medical doctrine, dialogues between Diego, a Spaniard, but has made notable discoveries Bruno, a Frenchman, and Vincislaus as to the generation of diseases as or Wenzel, a German. Besides this well as in the structure of parts of the commendable token of an interna- body. For example, it is now realized tional outlook on the part of its Italian that it is anatomically impossible author, the work aims at literary for catarrh to descend from the brain interest and adornment, and con- through the mouth to the lungs.6 stantly quotes poetry. But its medical Surgery for its part accomplishes content is of more concern to us. feats which nature could not perform The seventeenth century is repre- unaided. Tagliacozo of Bologna has sented as a period during which the rediscovered the way to regenerate healing art had undergone many meta- the missing parts of lips and ears,7 morphoses of opinions. A few years and Borri has invented a method of ago, we are told, physicians talked replacing the humor in the eye.8 of nothing but ferments. Now they Wenzel praises the experiments of have relegated these to bakers and infusion and transfusion carried on prate instead of mechanical architec- with animals.9 ture, animal economy, and the doc- Nevertheless Bertini still finds trine of configurations of Borehi.2 grounds for complaint. He takes vig- The recent invention of the micro- orous exception to the fact that in scope has given rise to many doubts some cities barbers act as surgeons, and conflicting views.3 whereas surgeons should have under- Bertini recognizes, however, that gone a long preparation and know there has been real progress. In anatomy and Latin.10 Bertini further addition to the discovery of the circu- contends that the employment of a lation of the blood and the anatomical multitude of remedies does the patient discoveries of his age he indicates more harm than good,11 and that too other advances. The chemical medi- many books are printed, confusing cine of his century he considers as a and burdening the mind more than step forward comparable to the intro- they instruct it.12 duction of the mariner’s compass in Discussing modern medical litera- navigation.4 And despite what we ture, Bertini names three authors who have heard him say concerning fer- have written many works but each of whom he believes will owe his future spent in the New World, was returning fame to a single book which will stand to his fatherland by way of Lyons.32 out above the others. These outstand- The root ipecac is mentioned as a ing books are for Hieronymus Mer- new American remedy for dysentery.33 curialis his “De arte gymnastica,”13 for Hungarian fever is cured with sarsa- Santorio his “De statica medicina,”14 parilla, while the most ardent fever and for Prospero Alpini his “De is assuaged by use of simples of medicina Aegyptiorum.”15 While mod- the Portuguese.35 However, common ern anatomical discoveries have less- herbs in our own gardens may be as ened men’s respect for past medical efficacious as those imported from authors, Bertini maintains that the the Hesperides or New World, since works of Forest,16 Benivenio,17 Amato it is unreasonable to doubt that of Portugal,18 Schenck,19 Felix Plater,20 Nature has provided the Old World and Ildano21 will remain immortal, too with suitable remedies.36 even though penned before the Bertini has ceased to believe in discovery of the circulation of the tyriac or theriac as an antidote for blood. Certain writers on anatomy all poisons.37 It is bad for cases of before Harvey will also endure: Mon- arsenic poisoning. But his conserva- dino, Carpi, Eustachius, Colombo, tism is shown in speaking of the Giulio Casserio,22 Acquapendente, Copernican system as “justly con- Laurenzio,23 and such surgical authors demned by the Sacred Congregation as Pare, Peccetti,24 and Fallopio, and rejected by many philosophers.”38 especially since surgery has been less revolutionized than medicine by re- Refe re nce s cent anatomy. The following writers 1. Bertini , A. F., La medicina difesa delle of medical epistles will also last: calumnie degli uomini volgari e dalle Manardi,25 Lange,26 and Scolzio,27 and opposizioni de dotti, divisa in due dialoghi. Lucca, 1699, 4. the chemical works of Paracelsus, 2. Ibid., p. 28. Joannes Alphonsus Borellus Libavius, CroII, and Helmont.28 Else- (1608-1680) combined mathematical where reference is made to Croll’s and medical studies. Born at Castel- doctrine of signatures and exterior nuovo near Naples, he studied mathe- architecture of plants.29 Bertini does matics at Rome with Castelli, a pupil of not, however, regard his own judg- Galileo. In 1647 he distinguished him- self as a physician at Messina in a ment as to which medical works will violent epidemic. In 1656 he was called prove of enduring worth as infallible. to the university of Pisa where in 1665 He recognizes that posterity may he became ordinary professor of mathe- reject some names esteemed in his day matics. While in Tuscany as a result or restore others from neglect. of much dissecting he composed his “De motu animalium” which, however, American and other foreign medi- was first printed posthumously at Rome cines play a considerable part in in 1680 in two volumes by the press of Bertini’s book. The use of quinine Angeli Bernabd. Borelli also investi- has upset most theories of fevers.30 gated the digestive apparatus and We are told how the Americans cure capillarity, described the rings of dropsy.31 ’s “Observations Saturn, an eruption of Aetna, an epi- Spon sur demic at Pisa, and, like most of his les fievres” is cited for other American contemporaries, composed verses. In remedies recounted to him by a Ger- 1667, as a result of quarrels at Pisa but man iatrochemist who, after ten years alleging ill health, he returned to Messina where he became involved in Trasfondendo poi dalle vene de’ giovani political difficulties and fled to Rome. Animali nelle vene de’ vecchi il sangue a There he found a protectress in Queen fine di ringiovanirili.” Christina from Sweden but had to teach 10. Ibid., p. 161. elementary mathematics to keep from 11. Ibid., p. 288. starving and died miserably. Among 12. Ibid., p. 258. the works printed during his lifetime 13. Ibid., p. 72. Girolamo Mercuriale (1530- were: “Euclides restitutus sive prisca 1606) of Forli practiced medicine at geometria,” Pisa, 1658; “De vi percus- Padua and is said to have left a large sionis,” Bologna, 1667; “Historia et fortune. The “De arte gymnastica meteorologia incendii Aethnaei anno libri sex” was printed at Venice in 1569, 1669. Accedit responsio ad censuras 1573, 1602; Amsterdam, 1672; etc. Honorati Fabri contra librum auctoris 14. Concerning Sanctorius, a professor at de vi percussionis,” Reggio, 1670; “De Padua, see Singer, C. A Short History motionibus naturalibus a gravitate of Medicine, 1928, pp. 108-109. pendentibus,” Reggio, 1670. 15. Alpini (1553-1617) was a botanist as well 3. Bert ini . Op. cit., pp. 47-49. as physician and his “Deplantis exo- 4. Ibid., pp. 349-350. ticis,” published posthumously in 1627, 5. Ibid., p. 316. is sometimes called his principal work. 6. Ibid., p. 245. 16. Petrus Forestus or van Foreest (1522- 7. Such facial surgery had been invented in 1597) took his medical degree at the fifteenth century by Branca of Bologna and practiced at Bourges, Sicily: see my “Science and Thought in Alkmaar and Delft. His works were the Fifteenth Century,” N. Y., Colum- frequently printed through the seven- bia Univ. Press, 1929, pp. 22-23. T° the teenth century. references given there may be added: 17. Antonio Benivieni (c. 1440-1502), born Zwinger, Theodor, Theatrum vitae at Florence, is regarded by Gurlt, humanae, 1604, p. 1242; and Inven- Geschichte der Chirurgie, 1898, 1: 905- tionum sylva, 1626, cap. xi. Both works 909, as one of the founders of pathologi- use the same words: “Branca Siculus cal anatomy. Some two hundred autop- Cataneus chirurgus ac physicus eximius sies are given with his “De abditis non- suo ingenio et arte aures nasos et nullis et mirandis morborum et sana- labra quibus caesa fuerant instaurabat. tionum causis,” printed at Florence, Huius discipulus fuit Balthasar (Balt- 1506, 1507; Venice, 1516; Naples, 1519; azar) Pavonus Siculus.” Rhinoplasty is Paris, 1528; Basel, 1529; etc. It dis- also discussed in the fifteenth century cusses syphilis, gallstones, appendicitis, work of Heinrich von Pfolspeundt, ed. and heart disease. H. Haeser und A. Middeldorpf, Berlin, 18. Amatus Lusitanus or Johannes Rodericus i860. Castelli Albi (i.e. Castelblanco, his 8. Bertini . Op. cit., p. 167. birthplace in Portugal) flourished in the 9. Ibid., p. 248: “Medicina Infusoria et middle of the sixteenth century and Transfusoria invenzione maraviglievole became involved in a controversy with de’ nostri tempi ha accresciuto pregio Matthioli. His chief works are “Cen- all’ Arte. . . . hanno trovata la Medi- turies” of medicinal cures and com- cini Infusoria e Trasfusoria con infon- mentaries on Dioscorides. dere nelle lor vene vari velenosi liquori 19. Johann Schenck (1530-1598) took his a solo fine di osservare quali offese medical degree at Tubingen, practiced cagionino al sangue or troppo incagli- at Strasburg, and became municipal andolo or troppo sciogliendolo: ed all’ physician at Freiburg. incontro infondendo ne’ loro vasi sughi 20. Felix Plater (1536-1614) studied at Mont- acque e spiriti medicinali hanno osser- pellier and Basel where he became vato quali possano ritornar’ il sangue municipal physician. He wrote various incagliato alle sua naturale fluidita e medical works. quali quando e’ sia troppo sciolto 21. Fabricius Hildanus or Wilhelm Hildenius restituirlo al suo primiero unimento. (1560-1634) seems meant. 22. Julius Casserius (c. 1562-1622) of Pia- multa recentiorum errata et antiquio- cenza taught at Padua. His “De visus rum decreta reservantur.” auditusque organis historia anatomica” 26. Johannes Lange (1485-1565), born in was published in folio at Ferrara, 1600, Silesia, took his degree at Pisa in 1521 and other anatomical works in the years and became physician to the elector following. palatine. His medical epistles were 23. Andreas du Laurens, physician to Henry printed at Basel in 1554 and a number iv of France, died in 1609. He was of times thereafter. born at Arles, studied at Paris, took his 27. Otherwise Laur. Scholtze a Rosenau degree at Avignon, and practiced at (1552-1599). His “Epistolarum philo- Montpellier. The other anatomists sophicarum medicinalium ac chymi- listed are too well known to require carum . . . volumen” was printed at identification. Frankfurt, 1598; Hanover, 1610. 24. Peccettius, Franciscus, Chirurgia . . . 28. Ber tini . Op. cit., pp. 73-74. in qua omnia tam ad huius artis 29. Ibid., p. 272. theoriam quam praxim spectantia tra- 30. Ibid., pp. no, 113-114. duntur et explicantur. Florence, 1616. 31. Ibid., p. 194. The author was a physician of Cordova. 32. Ibid., p. 170. 25. The first of the numerous editions of the 33. Ibid., p. 317. “Medicinal Epistles” of Giovanni Ma- 34. Ibid., p. 215. nardi (1462-1536) who was physician to 35. Ibid., p. 277. king Ladislaus of Hungary and then 36. Ibid., pp. 271-272. taught at Ferrara was at Ferrara in 37. Ibid., p. 273. 1521: “Epistolae medicinales in quibus 38. Ibid., p. 201.

[From Boyle: Opera Omnia, Venetiis, 1697.]