Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 The Journal of Media Studies

Volume - 2

Editor Dr. P. Govindaraju

A biannual refereed journal of the Department of Communication Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Tirunelveli - 627 012, India. The Journal of Media Studies

The Journal of Media Studies

Editor Dr. P. Govindaraju A biannual refereed journal of the Department of Communication Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Tirunelveli – 627012, India.

The Journal of Media Studies (JMS) is published Biannually by the Department of Communication Manonmaniam Sundaranar University (DoC-MSU).

© The Journal of Media Studies 2011-2012 All rights reserved.

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ISSN 2249 3263

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THE JOURNAL OF MEDIA STUDIES EDITOR Dr. P. Govindaraju Professor and Head Department of communication Dean, Faculty of Arts Manonmaniam Sundarnar University Tirunelveli- 627012 EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. B.P. Sanjay Dr. K.V. Nagaraj Vice Chancellor Professor Central University of Tamilnadu, Department of Communication Thiruvarur Central University, Assam Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. C. Pichaandy Dr. G. Ravindaran Head, Professor and Head Department of Communication Department of Mass Communication PSG College of Arts and Science and Journalism Coimbatore University of Madras, Chennai Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. V. Natarajan Dr. Ashok Kumar Professor and Head Professor and Head Dept. of Mass Communication and Department of Electronic Media Journalism Bangalore University, Karnataka Periyar University, Salem Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. P.E. Thomas Authors who wish to contribute Associate Professor and Head I/C papers and subscribe may kindly Department of Communication Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore contact the editor on Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Edited, Printed and Published by Dr. P. Govindaraju Professor and Head, Subscription Department of Communication Dean, Faculty of Arts JMS is published biannually Manonmaniam Sundaranar University India: INR. 500.00 Tirunelveli – 627012 Rest of Asia: US $ 50.00 Tamilnadu – India Rest of the World: US $ 60.00 Phone: +91 9487999607, +91 9487999703 The Journal of Media Studies

Articles

1. AN ANALYSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDITORIALS OF SELECTED MALAYSIAN 279 NEWSPAPERS Haroon Hj Awang, Hamidah Abd Hamid, Adnan Hussein Kamaliah Siarap

2. COVERAGE OF DEVELOPMENT NEWS IN DINAMALAR - CONTENT ANALYSIS 290 OF HEADLINES FROM 1957 TO 1966 M. Shuaib Mohamed Haneef

3. COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF ‘SIRUTHULI’, 301 COIMBATORE Lakshmi L. Lund, Dr. P. E. Thomas

4. MEDIA LITERACY IN POST-GRADUATE VIDEO PRODUCTIONS 308 Aaron Rao, N. V. Prasad, Dr. Mahyuddin Ahmad

5. COMMON SERVICE CENTERS IN RURAL INDIA: AN EVALUATION BY 315 SEQUENTIAL MIXED METHOD DESIGN M. Maani Mabel, Dr. P. Govindaraju

6. THE IMPACT OF TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS FEATURING CHILDREN ON 329 THE AUDIENCE Dr. M. Neelamalar, Ms. P. Chitra

7. NEGOTIATING CULTURAL PRACTICES: CONSUMPTION OF TAMIL TELEVISION 340 SERIALS AMONG INDIAN YOUTH IN MALAYSIA N. V. Prasad, Dr. Shanthi Balraj, Dr. Thomas Jayaprakash Yesudhasan Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 8. LANGUAGE REVOLUTION, A NECESSARY EVIL? 349 NEW MEDIA COMMUNICATION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON LANGUAGE AND MEANING Dr. Sony Jalarajan Raj, Rohini Sreekumar

9. SEENSAY: PARTICIPATION OF THE CITIZEN MOJO IN 364 INFORMATION DISSEMINATION M. Sripriya, Dr. P. E. Thomas

10. TRIAL BY MEDIA: PROBLEM AND PROSPECTS 376 Dr. G. Rajasekar

11. PARTICIPATION OF INDIAN WOMEN IN THE NEWS PRODUCTION WITH 388 SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TAMIL NADU – A STUDY S. Jenefa, Dr. I. Arul Aram The Journal of Media Studies Message from the Editor...

Changing New Media Environment

with just an up-to-the-minute set of digital technologies, but is categorised more with newer cultural impressions and media practices. Transformation of cultures got initiated as a result of the undemanding access to the knowledge of distant lifestyles through networked computers and mobile telecommunication devices. ‘Globalization’ engendered from the meeting of the twain-local and global-that was impelled by the new media. The technology provided the avenue to the user and the user’s media practices in turn continued to reshape the technology.

This mutual trust saw the emergence of amateurs who imbibed the essential skills, over a period of time, to turn themselves into professionals. The explosive growth of the new technology users, by default, have broken down barriers- social, psychological, and cultural-with even speed and the universe of the new media today exists in more of a pluralistic and inclusive form than that of the older media.

An array of meanings emerges from the context of new media practices that support movements of manufacture and utilisation. The new media are extended feelers of the previous technologies and, they also direct and restore the interests of the older media. That the new media are a threat to the older ones, forcing them to seek innovative approaches to production and distribution (for instance, most print editions of newspapers have developed their online versions) is a supposedly overt axiom. Conversely, the ingress of the new technologies preceded relatively newer media environment which provides space for each of the media to work independently and also concertedly, when required. For, participatory and interactive media are on the threshold of cementing their own places among the numerous ones. To add, the new technology has become the common thread that connects the otherwise different activities such as banking and newspapers where IT is used to a great extent.

Discerning the ever-changing media environs, this issue of The Journal of Media Studies has also been formulated with the objective of covering as many media domains as possible in order to support all scholars working in diverse children and youth in front of the small screen, new media and language, mobile journalism, trial by media, and women in news production make up the blend of this issue, ably supported by the erudition of the seasoned scholars and the opportunity provided to the new ones. Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

One An analysis of the environmental editorials of selected Malaysian newspapers

Haroon Hj Awanga Hamidah Abd Hamidb Adnan Husseinc Kamaliah Siarapd

Abstract

An editorial is an article that states the newspaper’s opinion on a certain issue. It is the conscience. The editorials, which normally appear on the editorial page is written by a senior editorial staff or any other staff member assigned to write on a particular issue. This article examines the editorials of major newspapers (including the vernacular newspapers) that focused on environmental issues in Malaysia. Using the content analysis method, it explores the intensity and frequency and nature of the environmental issues highlighted by the newspapers in their editorials (both signed and unsigned) in 2004, 2005 and 2006. The article is based on the premise that newspapers that are concerned about the environment will carry more editorials on environment-related topics, thus setting the agenda for public discussion, or creating more awareness among their readers, or creating a platform for a forum that newspapers carry more editorials on environmental issues, mostly dealing with pollution (air, water and noise) and forestry and wildlife issues. Most of the issues raised were domestic issues with a splattering of global issues that were also relevant to Malaysia. The vernacular newspapers (Tamil and Chinese) barely showed any concern for the environment, judging from the number of editorials on the subject.

Key words: signed editorials, unsigned editorials, agenda setting, environmental issues

a. Senior Lecturer, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] b. Senior Lecturer, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] c. Professor, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] d. Senior Lecturer, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] 279 The Journal of Media Studies Introduction

The newspaper editorial is often referred as “the voice of the newspaper”. It is up to the staff to make this description accurate. Mac Dougall (1973) stated that newspaper editorial is often described as the newspaper’s conscience. The role of editorial is the result of the development of other methods by which the function of explaining, interpreting and commenting upon current happening can be performed. Editorial writing offers one of the best opportunities

An editorial is an opinion piece written by the senior editorial staff or publisher of a opinion of the periodical. Additionally, most print publications feature an editorial, followed by the letters to the editor section (Hohenberg, 1995). Garrison (1990), on his study on function of editorial and letters to the editor, revealed that editorials are either informative or argumentative. Informative editorials are able to educate the public about issues and public concerns. Argumentative editorials attempt to convince readers and listeners to accept a particular position on an issue. The editorial may not go so far as to suggest solutions or the future and pass moral judgement. Thus, editorial explain, persuade and evaluate. Besides, it promotes positions on the issues of the day.

As stated by Waldrop (1967), to a reader, the roles of the editorials are: 1. to bring order out of the chaos of glut of occurrences, save him from becoming “news drunk”, provide “a pattern of meaning in the confusion and complexity of events”. 2. to set him to thinking, free him from myths, shatter illusions, and provide a forum wherein the dialogue that is necessary for democracy held. 3. to plough and cultivate public opinion so that when decisions are to be made, the climate of opinion will depend not on emotions of the moment but on long-continued education and debate. (Waldrop, 1967)

The editorial page of a newspaper serves as a public forum, with the editorial (signed or unsigned) leading the way. Most people do not have the luxury and time to read long descriptions of events in the news column. The editorial thus set the agenda for discussion on topics deemed important for the citizenry.

The role of the media, whether print or electronic in dissemination of the message and provoking thought and positive action, which are essential if there is to be a much better understanding of the growing threats to our environment. The reporting of environmental issues constructs a public discourse of the dynamic relations between human and the world they inhabit.

According to Nunn (1979) who carried out the research on what topics the respondent would devote the most space to if they were the local editors, the environment topic was among the ten most important topics to occupy space in respondents custom tailored newspapers. This implies that the public are concerned about the environment issues that are published in the newspapers.

Karam Singh Walia (2008), a popular environmental journalist with a TV station in Malaysia, speaking at the International Training Workshop on Disaster Risks and Environmental 280 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Management, said that “the media in carrying out its functional role as a disseminator of social agents of political and economic change in shaping governmental policies and laws as well as public opinion, perspectives, and world views”. This can be done through newspaper editorials.

Environmental reporting in the Malaysian media

Environmental problems were considered less important in Malaysia in the early years after independence (Sham, 1998). However, following the transformation of the Malaysian economy, a shift from an economy once dominated mainly by rubber and tin to one increasingly dominated by manufacturing, a result of industrialization, more environment related problems surfaced, and public awareness on the issues relating to the environment raised. According to Sahabat Alam Malaysia, a Malaysian grass-root, non-governmental organization founded in 1977, in the past few years, there has been a growing awareness among the Malaysian people that the environment is a vital part of their lives, and that the public are increasingly concerned about the need to protect the environment. However, it has not been matched by visible and increased political will by the nation’s leaders and administrators to take urgent and comprehensive action to conserve natural resources, resolve pollution problems and phase out unsustainable practices and technologies (SAM 2001).

The Malaysian media started to give special focus to the increasing environmental problems in the country. One Malaysian newspaper, The Star, took the initiative to produce a series of environmental news and issues in conjunction with the World Environment Day in 1990. The paper pledged its commitment towards highlighting environmental issues in January 1992 (Ng 1994). Since then more and more print and broadcast media have been giving attention to environmental issues.

However environmental issues are often overlooked when more “exciting” news makes the headlines (Kam 2008). According to former World Wide Fund for Nature Malaysia executive director, Mikaail Kavanagh, although the media have been playing their part in highlighting environment issues they should try to widen their coverage to include areas not covered before which would create more publicity for the environment (Kavanagh, quoted in the Star August 14, 2008). Kavanagh stated that was important to communicate environmental issues to the public through the media. The mass media should not only report on catastrophes such environment. It should educate and create awareness among the public.

While there have been a few preliminary studies on news reporting of the environment in Malaysia, (see for example Mariah et al., 2004; Hamidah et al., 2005; Hamidah et al., 2010), there has been no study that examined how editorials discussed the environment.

This research

This research is part of a larger research on reporting the environment in the Malaysian media. This particular sub- research which looks at the editorials of selected newspapers in Malaysia is set on the premise that newspapers that are concerned about certain issues will highlight the issues and set the agenda for public discussion and participation. Thus a look into the editorials, the intensity and volume of environmental issues that they carry within their editorials, will reflect the paper’s concern about environmental issues. Further to that, 281 The Journal of Media Studies reporting and editorializing issues, especially controversial issues that are of public interest almost always come with its share of risks. Journalists are always reminded that truth is the best defense when they are questioned or worse sued for publishing certain allegations. So to avoid being at the receiving end of certain legal, moral, political and social consequences, media houses played safe by step-siding certain issues, relinquishing the social responsibility function of the media.

The media have a social responsibility- to inform and to educate, to tell the readers not only what is happening today but also why it is happening and what it will mean to us, today and tomorrow. News reports generally inform the masses on what happens, and probably on why that happens, but very rarely the reports will go beyond that. The job of evaluating, and putting the news reports in proper perspective should be done by the editorials. How do Malaysian newspaper editorials fare in carrying out this task?

Method

For the purpose of this research, six mainstream national newspapers in Malay (the National Language), English, Chinese and Tamil were chosen. These papers have the largest circulation and are reputed to be widely read by the various communities. The newspapers are:

1. The New Straits Times and the Sunday edition the Sunday Times – circulation 200,000/250,000 2. The Star/ The Sunday Star – circulation 309,000/358,000 3. Utusan Malaysia/ Mingguan Malaysia – circulation 256,000/300,000 4. Berita Harian/Bertita Minggu – circulation 231,000/358,000 5. Nanyang Siang Pau –circulation 50,000-100,000 6. Tamil Nesan – circulation 10,000

All editorials written on the subject of environment –local, national and global – published in the six selected newspapers in 2004, 2005 and 2006 were collected, compiled and content- environment-related issues and compare them with the number of news items published by the same newspaper for the period. The topics discussed in the editorials were systematically categorized to determine the issues and problems that were picked and given prominence by the various newspapers in their editorials.

The editorials were further analysed under different sub-topics: environment categories, geographical focus of issues raised, content of the editorial, editorial trigger and tone of the editorials.

Due to the limitation of this research – time and resources – editors of the different newspapers were not interviewed to enable them to explain their editorials or lack of them, or justify their choice of issues that they picked to be editorialized.

Findings and Discussion i. Frequency and Intensity of editorials on environment For the years 2004, 2005 and 2006, a total of 12447 news items (news and features) on environment were published by all the newspapers that were selected for this research. 282 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 However, only 67 editorials were written on various topics on the environment. The New Straits Times had the most number of editorials (43) while the vernacular newspapers almost alienated the issues. Tamil Nesan, the Tamil language newspaper did not carry a single editorial on any topic related to the environment.

In 2004, there were 3178 news and articles on the environment carried by all the newspapers under study. The Chinese daily, Nanyang Siang Pau had the most number of stories on the environment. However, not a single issue from these news stories were picked up, discussed or analysed by the editors.

The trend was also evident in all other newspapers. Only Berita Harian carried two editorials while reporting 665 news and features on the environment. The New Straits Times had 533 stories but carried only one editorial in 2004. Other newspapers did not carry a single editorial on any environment issue.

In 2005, there was an increase in the editorials written on environment, corresponding to the increased reports on the environment. The New Straits Times had 1607 news stories and 28 editorials on the environment. The Malay language newspaper, Berita Harian had 584 stories and three editorials. Other newspapers, except for Utusan Malaysia and Tamil Nesan had at least an editorial on the environment.

In 2006, more editorials were written by all newspapers. The New Straits Times had 14 editorials, Berita Harian had 11, the Star had three and Utusan Malaysia had two. Relatively, there has been an upsurge in the number of editorials written on the subject in the years 2004 to 2006. However compared to the amount of reportage of the environment, the number of editorials is relatively small.

The editorial page, if it is worth its salt, should constantly be supplementing and complementing the news columns. This requires good liaison between the news and editorial departments. The rarity of editorials in these newspapers could be concluded as absence of conviction on the part of the editorial committee who decides on the editorials to be written for the day. In all newsrooms, big or small, the topic for the day’s editorial are decided in the morning’s conference of senior editors.

While covering and publishing a news event or an environmental disaster is considered adequate for some newspapers, readers generally still want more, because “an average newspaper reader today is terribly short on time. The editorial writer can save time for him, and keep him well-informed. He can do for the readers what so few have a chance to do for themselves: research the background of news events, bringing blurred facts into focus and weigh the value of news in the scales of sound judgment”(Waldrop, 1967).

A newspaper is a citizen of its community. Failure of a newspaper to supply guidance in the maze of things, to put the pieces of an immense jigsaw puzzle together for the reader is a serious neglect of its responsibility. Editorial page educators must try to bring meaning out of this complex and dizzy world. Editorials are important because while the editorials not only tell the readers what to think and how to solve the problems (the editor is not the repository of all wisdom), the real job is to stimulate other people to think and come to their own conclusions.

So, while the volume of news on the environment was high ( the coverage are, however, confined to events and disaster) and the newspapers provide their readers news about 283 The Journal of Media Studies important events, they failed to provide informed comment about important events as evident in the number of editorials on environment-related issues. As to whether this practice was because of the editorial policy, or management interest, could not be determined here.

There might be other reasons for this. Most journalists (editors) do not have basic science knowledge. Besides, journalists are not usually trained in writing and understanding information and errors may arise in the translation of technical terms into lay language. This has been discussed by Lamay and Everette (1992); they stated that the interaction between media, society and science in environmental news is itself a problem. Expertise in all three is required for adequate coverage, and often this has been lacking.

Another reason for this could be an assumption that their readers are not interested in environment-related issues. Thus the editors tend to give priority to the more colorful political the content of a newspaper is being determined by the economics of the news organizations, where media tend to focus on more sensational stories that involve controversies, attractive

Other factors that are of concern to journalists in Malaysia are government ownership of the media through proxies and legal controls which impede freedom of the press. Journalists have to struggle with government censorship, high-level private interference including ownership and advertising, political interests and pressure from their competitors (Siti Aishah, 2009). ii. Environmental Categories

Based on the 67 editorials collected, disaster and pollution (water, air and noise) are the two leading categories ( both at 25.4 %) raised and discussed in the editorials. This could be due to several reasons, for instance the occurrences of several massive environmental catastrophes such as tsunami and landslide. The tsunami, an environmental tragedy which occurred on December 2004 had shocked the world with thousands of victims and became the massive environmental catastrophe for the decade. This tragedy was widely reported, commented, discussed and analyzed. All Malaysian newspapers took up the issue in their editorials, which discussed and analysed on all aspects of the tragedy: the victims, impact of tsunami, the issue of aids and assistance rendered to the effected countries and victims. All newspapers had at least an editorial on the subject, and Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian had three each.

An equally dominant issue of pollution was also featured in the editorials. The editors of nearly all newspapers wrote on this issue especially on the regional haze in 2005. Again, it is assumed that most of the newspapers wrote and discussed this issue because they know that pollution is not only a local issue but also an issue that interests their readers. The editorials gave various suggestions with almost all agreeing that steps should be taken by both the Malaysian and Indonesian authorities to control the recurring haze. An editorial in The New Straits Times read:

Indeed, Indonesia should participate fully in the regional effort to deal with the problem. While there is no easy solution to a problem that seems like it has been around forever, a little help from her Asean partners could go some way towards alleviating the constrains on the country’s resources and expertise. (The New Straits Times, 20 July 2006). 284 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 These issues affected the people directly and people need to be informed. The authorities concerned had to be alerted on the situation and measures to be taken recommended. responsible for the disaster.

Eleven (16.4 percent) of the editorials discussed issues related to forestry, wildlife and protected area. The next category, water resources and management represents 10.4 percent of the overall percentage and the other two categories, sanitation and waste management and land use and conservation follows at 3.0 % of the whole editorials. The other category of toxic and hazardous management, marine and coastal areas and energy production and use are the categories with the least number of editorials.

Figure 1: Environmental categories discussed in editorials

Most of the environmental news was negative in nature – disaster, deaths and threats to mankind. Editors chose to pick on these issues mainly because they were easier to handle and were of interest to their readers. Issues on toxic and hazardous management and energy production and use were not dealt with proportionately. These are important issues as the nation industrializes, but were not addressed. As to why they were left out is anyone’s guess. and handled by non-science writers. The New Straits Times, however, had an editorial on the subject:

The present target of a “B5” blend, with a 5 percent palm oil component to 95 percent normal diesel, would save the country 10,000 barrels a day of diesel or 500,000 tonnes a year. (The New Straits Times 12 August 2005). iii. Geographical focus of Issue Raised

This section examines the geographical focus of issues raised or discussed in the editorials. Most of the editorials were on local environmental issues. About 68.7 percent or 46 of the 67 editorials written were on local or domestic environmental issues. Only 10.4 percent discussed international or global environment topics. However, issues that affect the country and at the same time discussed at international level were also picked by some newspaper editorials (20.9 percent). 285 The Journal of Media Studies iv. Content of the Editorials This section examines the content of the editorials – what the editors wrote about in the editorials. Most the editors basically wanted to share their opinion and voiced up their concern related to certain issues or agenda which arose in their community and surrounding. concern on environmental issues, locally and globally. It followed by the description of certain environmental issues which erupted. Besides just voicing concern and describing certain environmental issues, most of the editorials also suggested to us some solution to mitigate the environmental problems. There were about 17.9 percent or 12 of the 67 editorials that suggested several plans and solutions to lessen the impact and effect of the environmental issues. v. Editorial Trigger

Most of the editorials were triggered by news reports – from their own newspapers or reported in other newspapers. About 60 percent of the editorials originated from events and reported. They were picked by the newspapers and discussed lengthily and were practiced widely in almost all newsrooms, where there exist a good coordination between the journalists who covered the new and the editor who discussed the issue. Moreover, all the facts are available, the work being done by the reporters who went to the ground.

Figure 2: What triggered the editorials? of these are policy statements, and are reported in the media. However, for the purpose of this research, we have separated them, as the issue being discussed in the editorials are not the event (which was reported), but the statement which was made at the event. This accounts for 16 percent of the total editorials collected. Some editorials were based on the observation or personal experience of the editor. An 286 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 a tributary. (The New Straits Times, 10 March 20)

There were 18 percent of other issues that triggered the editorials. They concerned issues such as the malodorous drinking water from Sungai Selangor, open burning in Indonesia, forest burning, earthquake, hurricane Katrina, tsunami, natural disasters, environmental laws, issues raised were related to natural disasters.

vi. Tone of the Editorials

Most of the issues in the editorials (52 percent) were being framed as advocacy. Generally the writers of editorials of this nature (advocacy) proposed measures to be taken by the people

An example of the advocacy editorial is as below:

The dubious distinction of doing the least against climate change should serve as a wake- up call to put the lid on fossil-fuel emissions. While there have been commendable initiative such as the reduction in the use of unleaded petrol, the promotion of biodiesel and advances emission regulations. (The New Straits Times, 21 November 2006).

Adversary tone accounted for 24 percent of the editorials. Adversary frames means opposed or on the other side of the system. Usually the content of the editorial would not in 24 percent editorials as they agreed on the decision or action made. The editorial content usually supported and agreed on the steps taken or the decision made by the authorities. Sometimes they recommended a solution to be taken together with the authority’s decision or statements. One of the editorials that supported the Prime Minister at that time (2006) - Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in his statement about people who are taking advantage

We agree with the stance of the Prime Minister that people should co-operate in order to get rid of thieves by citizen arrests because the police cannot be everywhere all the time. those involved. (Berita Harian, 25 December 2006)

Conclusion

structure of the newsroom. A study by Siti Aishah Mohamad (2009) found that in nearly all newspapers in Malaysia, there is no environmental desk to cater for environment-related news. Reporters working on environment stories are either from the general or crime desk.

in the intensity of editorials on the environment. In general, this study showed that Malaysian newspapers carry very few editorials and analysis related to the environment.

Editorials are supposed “to bring order out of the chaos of glut of occurrences….save the reader from becoming news drunk and provide a pattern in the confusion and complexity of events” (Waldrop,1969). Thus having a relatively low number of editorials on the environment 287 The Journal of Media Studies compared to the volume of reportage on the various topics related to the environment, the press in Malaysia has not been serving its readers.

Most of the few editorials seemed to try to avoid controversies. Government policies on the environment are almost always not questioned. When journalists were reminded to avoid controversial issues and all legal matters that would involve them in any political interests (Siti Aishah 2009), understandably editors would steer clear of any controversies, especially one that would involve the government. In a country like Malaysia, the relationship between the media and government is more cemented, resulting in less freedom in the media.

The editorials written were either voicing concerns or describing a situation. Very few of the editorials offer or suggest solutions to the existing environmental problems. Editorials should not only describe a situation – that is only part of their functions. They should explain, evaluate and propose suggestions to be taken to remedy the existing situation.

A newspaper has its social obligation and responsibility – to serve its readers. The best platform for such a role is the editorial section – the editorial and the letters to the editor play their role to educate their readers, and do so more professionally to bring back readers to read the editorials, more so with the challenges that came with the new media.

Everyone should be aware and concerned about the well-being of the environment. There is a need – an urgent one – for the media to create such awareness among the public. And the best avenue is the editorial column.

References

Garrison, B. (1990). Professional News Writing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hamidah et al (2005). Media Framing of an Environmental Controversy: A Qualitative Analysis of Toxic Waste Coverage in Two Selected Malaysian Newspaper. A paper presented at Third International Qualitative Research Convention, Skudai, Johor, August 21-23, 2005.

Hamidah Abd Hamid, Adnan Hussein and Kamaliah Siarap (2010) Journal of Media Studies, Vol 1 (2), 229-237.

Hohenberg, J. (1995). The Pursuit of Excellence. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida

Holdgate, M. (1996). From Care to Action: Making a Sustainable World. Washington DC: Taylor & Francis.

Kam. P. (2008). “For the deserving”. The Star, August 14, 2008.

Karam Singh Walia. (2008). International Training Workshop on Disaster Risk and Environmental Management. Retrieved 10 January, 2010, htttp://www.wyf.org.my/ image/Media%20and%20the%20Environment%20By%20Karam%20sigh%20 walia.pdf 288 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Mac Dougall, C. D. (1973). Principles of Editorial Writing. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown. LaMay, C. and Everette, E.(1992). Media and the Environment. Washington DC: Island Press.

Mariah et al (2004). Isu alam Sekitar di Dalam Akhbar Arus Perdana di Malaysia. (Environmental issues in Malaysian mainstream newspapers) Jurnal Komunikasi, 20, 17-37.

Ng, P. T. (1994). Role of the Media in Communicating for the Government. A paper presented at Seminar on Policy Making on Environment Issues: The Impact of Media Coverage, Kuala Lumpur, January 24-26, 1994.

Nunn, C.Z. (1979). Readership and Coverage of Science and Technology in Newspapers. Journalism Quarterly 56 (1), Spring, pp. 27-30.

Sahabat Alam Malaysia. (No date). Malaysian Environment in Crisis. Penang: Sahabat Alam Malaysia. Sham Sani. (1993). Environment and Development in Malaysia: Changing Concerns and Approaches. Kuala. Lumpur; ISIS Malaysia.

Siti Aishah Mohamed (2009) Constraints Faced by the Environmental Journalists in Malaysia: Interviews with Journalists. MA thesis. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Waldrop, A. G. (1967). Editor and Editorial Writer. (3rd Ed). Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.

289 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Two Coverage of Development News in Dinamalar - Content Analysis of Headlines from 1957 to 1966 M. Shuaib Mohamed Haneef

Abstract

Content analysis of newspapers clearly indicate polarisation of consumerist content and development news with the latter receiving scant regard in terms of space and salience. The bias in covering development news seemingly stems from political and economic ideologies embraced by newspaper organisations. The conglomerate media group accords less space for development journalism. However, the context in which newspapers functioned after India got Independence was different and most of them, if not all, strived to be neutral. Furthermore, development journalism was given due consideration in the agenda of daily reportage. This paper makes an effort to study the emphasis given to development frames in the leading Tamil daily Dinamalar between 1957 and 1966. A sample of about 139 headlines analysed for identifying the development news items reported and the frames in which they were constructed.

Keywords: agenda setting, development journalism, framing in newspapers, content analysis of headlines.

Introduction

Against the backdrop of the deluge of media choices available today, newspapers still continue to enjoy considerable audience. The print culture of the news media heralded a the public began to understand the dynamics of governance and policy decisions and their implementation. This also led to the public being able to form perceptions about issues on their own. By virtue of their empowering potential, newspapers are considered to be the potential tool for development (McDaniel, 1986; Singhal & Rogers, 2001).

Development news is sparsely reported in media as opposed to consumerist content. Many researchers have pointed out that independent media in developing countries cover less development news than state media (Vilanilam, 1979a; Mustafa, 1979). However, in this study Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Communication, School of Media and Communication, Pondicherry University, Puducherry. E-mail: [email protected] 290 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 the vernacular daily Dinamalar gave equal importance to development news that addressed the concerns of improving the socio-economic conditions of society after Independence.

According to Vilanilam (1976), development news is ‘news relating to the primary, secondary, and tertiary needs of a developing country. Primary needs are food, clothing, and shelter. Secondary needs are development of agriculture, industry and all economic activity which environment, medical research, family planning, employment, labor welfare, social reforms, national integration and rural and urban development. Tertiary needs are development of mass media, transport, tourism, telecommunication, arts and cultural activities. (p. 34)’

practised in western countries and developing countries.

In this paper, the researcher analyses headlines in a vernacular newspaper from 1957 to 1966. The researcher assumed a priori concerns about headlines dealing with development news stories in the daily that they would be in consistency with the dominance paradigm.

However, the discourse of the development news suggests no pre-conceived plot by the newspaper to purvey content for achieving a desired goal with vested interest. The aim of the study is an integrated approach of the daily supporting the political decisions taken by the government to develop the nation and the state the newspaper represents. Assessing the level of content and development news in the daily, it is evident that the absence of free market journalism then and the dire need for a string of development initiatives resulted in the daily carrying the information straight to the public without much scepticism.

But, the infancy following the Independence allowed media little freedom to take on government efforts. On the other hand, the daily was majorly supportive of the causes the government espoused. This suggests that audience dependency is said to be high in societies in which the media serve many central information functions and in periods of rapid social daily serves the role of communicating the initiatives taken by both the State and Central governments when the country is at the watershed period of social change and development on all frontiers. In this context, this study aims to present development and development- related stories published between 1957 and 1966 in the leading Tamil daily Dinamalar.

The dependency model of media effects is presented as a theoretical alternative in which the nature of the tripartite audience-media-society relationship is assumed to most directly determine many of the effects that the media have on people and society (Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976).

Thus, the top down communication approach was not erratic. Participation was limited and the daily’s agenda was to promote initiatives in close congruity with the government to be able to create awareness and an understanding among the public about the steps taken for their welfare (thus creating favourable public agenda). The researcher would like to avoid using political agenda as the term political has negative connotations loaded with negative cues. Background of the study

Taking a peek into the chosen period or rather the assigned period between 1957 and 1966, it can be understood that it was a time when privatisation was not even thought of as an 291 The Journal of Media Studies option except SPIC fertiliser manufacturing plant which was started in Tuticorin during this period. Free market trading practices were non-existent. Interestingly, the time period between 1957 and 1966 was set in a context when development was precipitated largely by public sector and government initiatives. It was an era before cold war, an era after Independence, an era It was also an era when India was in the clutches of food shortage, poverty, illiteracy, social inequity and faced with inadequate technological and industrial presence.

In this context, Dinamalar played a crucial role in promoting governmental agenda for development.

The paper content analyses the headlines promoting developmental journalism in It also highlights the need for socio, cultural and economic makeover the society demanded for its holistic and integrated progress. The research period is fore-grounded in the context of separatism except the Indo-Pak separation.

The political agenda aimed at propping up the nation and the lifestyle of the rural people was given prominence in the daily. In a pluralistic society it is possible to argue that political and media agenda run counter to each other. However, the scenario in 1960s was different and our country was a tabla rasa wanting to rise in all spheres in unison. This did not give rise

In this paper, the headlines chosen for analysis incidentally document the conditions within Integrated Rural Development Programme during 1960-66.

Literature Review

During the last three decades, the notion of agenda-setting has probably provided the most setting studies was conducted by media and public opinion scholars and focussed on media and public opinion and not on media and politics. The number of studies explicitly focussing on the political agenda and the media remains limited (Rogers, Dearing et al. 1993; Eilders 1997). In fact, both agenda-setting traditions, in communication and in political science, developed separately. Only timidly starting in the mid-80s some scholars began to concentrate on the media and the political agenda. They scrutinised if and how (public and) media agendas, previously the focus only of communications researchers, interact with political agendas, formerly the exclusive playground of political scientists. The outcome of these investigations was mixed and both scholars, in communications and in political science, seemed to stick to their core business.

A major chunk of media research on political communication in the beginning was dominated by agenda-setting framework (McCombs and Shaw, 1972). Media effects research precluded agenda-setting and both are closely intertwined in that the effects research paradigm was broken down into precise entities one of which dealt with media agenda and its universal impact on undifferentiated audience. However, the stimulus-behaviour model of media content impacting a homogenous audience was challenged and gave rise to building of 292 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 perceptions among individuals. The latter model has the underpinnings of cognitive structures of individuals in processing information. Individuals process information provided by media using their cognitive structures or “schemata” (Graber, 1984).

There is a correlation between the salience of issues portrayed by media and the individuals’ perception of these issues as well as the order of priority accorded to these issues by the explore the existence of this relationship (Rogers & Dearing, 1988; Rogers et. al., 1993; Kosicki, 1993).

The present study analyses content that appeared between 1957 and 1966, which is well before the agenda-setting theory was documented. The setting of the study spans two time frames viz. the time period during which the development news stories were published and the present time frame of analysis – the then and now. In retrospect, it could be argued that individuals did not form schemas of their own nor did their schemas change with the salience of news. There was hardly any ‘salience transfer’ to enable audience to give importance to issues of their liking (Iyengar & Kindler, 1982).

In other words, the schemata or the repository then was empty and the efforts of Dinamalar to portray the initiatives of the government only led to undifferentiated schema development cognitive schemata do not play a major role except in making the audience process and store. Recipients are likely to perceive and remember issues better that already exist in their cognitive mediating factors that tend to reinforce messages rather than change existing perceptions. covered better. Rather the focus is on the frames through which the government initiatives (political agenda) by the media (media agenda-what and how) are portrayed.

In this context, it is appropriate to mention that there was no room for ‘cognitive dissonance’ (Festinger, 1995) and as such all development initiatives were treated with conditions. The comparison and processing of information was absent and the ‘perceptual cycle’ of processing had just begun. This might appear to be closely in alignment with the traditional and transmissive mode of media ethics which is top-bottom in approach in a linear format.

Agenda-setting is used to explain how governments put in place their priorities, attach importance to issues, or do not, take decisions or a stance concerning these topics (Cobb and Elder 1971; Kingdon 1984; Laver and Budge 1992; Baumgartner and Jones 1993; Klingemann, Hofferbert et al. 1994). In this study, both State and Central governments have common as setting up plants and other industrial and research-based stations in the country.

In the current study, the researcher explores the coverage of development news stories and the overall frame in which it is contextualised.

embodiments of the principles of organisation which govern social events. Following 293 The Journal of Media Studies Iyengar (1991), Entman (1993) focused on framing of mass media on public opinion and decision making.

Frames are basic cognitive structures which guide the perception and representation of reality. On the whole, frames are not consciously manufactured but are unconsciously adopted in the course of communicative processes. “Frames are principles of selection, emphasis and presentation composed of little tacit theories about what exists, what happens, and what matters” (Gitlin, 1980).

To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation” (Entman 1993: 52)

Likewise, D’Angelo (2002) sees frames as consciously pitched powerful discursive cues. From the arguments of Entman and D’Angelo, it is proposed that development frames pitched in Dinamalar daily were consciously placed cues to promote government/political agenda of the established government at the State and Centre. The consciously embedded cues were analysed in terms of the frames in which words and phrases were loaded in the headlines. There was not even a single incident of the daily eulogising or denigrating the efforts of the government and hence no attempt was made by the daily to harbour or kindle emotion or mood towards the development stories portrayed in the daily. However, the tacit creating a fresh set of schemas. On the other hand, frames surrounding the headlines were not created by the journalists to deceive the audience. Journalists are professionals who deal communication studies treat framing as a conscious process.

Method

The paper content analyses the headlines promoting developmental journalism in Dinamalar. The study employs content analysis method to analyse headlines from 1956 to 1965 in Dinamalar. A sample of 50 pages was chosen from a list of many pages and later from each page the entire universe of development stories was selected and eventually 139 headlines were analysed.

The empirical results of this study are based on a qualitative content analysis of headlines. Thus, the basic unit of analysis is the headlines selected. The headlines were analysed in the context of neo-development stage of India soon after Independence. Using framing analysis helped the researcher to identify the efforts of the daily in promoting the government’s agenda the government’s agenda is the underlying or the explicit agenda of the media.

Headlines: This refers to all headlines of the sample that deal with development news stories from 1956 to 1965.

In this paper, the headlines chosen for analysis document the conditions within India – two Rural Development Programme during 1960-66. The daily gave importance to proposed government projects to improve conditions in the country. However, the study does not seek to investigate whether the measures taken were effective or not. 294 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 India was at the threshold of development during this period. The headlines, a few samples, taken from the digitised images provide a snapshot of a range of development frames in which news headlines were constructed. A larger percentage of headlines focused on economic activities. Under this frame, headlines hinge on sops to farmers and students, allocation of funds for setting up new bus stands, laying roads and railways, loan schemes to build houses, hike in salary, etc.

The words ‘thittam’ and ‘aalosanai’ used in most of the headlines- their English equivalent being plans, deliberations and discussions for mooting new ventures in order to improve the social and economic conditions of the people and the overall development of the state and country – indicate that development is the cardinal and indispensable requirement of that age.

Analysis and Interpretation

Budget News headlines

In the study period, one budget session took place. One of the budget headlines reads ‘No New Tax’. The headline quells the anxiety of the citizens and functionally eliminates the fear. Budget news also covered details of expansion plans and fund allocations. Most of them were reported in just-as-facts format.

Except a few news headlines that have interpretative commentary, others tend to be more informative conveying the message directly without any ambiguity. It was also a period when transition to industrialisation was beginning to happen. Headlines related to allocating funds for new projects to bring about modernity fall under both economic and modernity frames as the process of industrialisation involves investment.

Industrialisation

The country’s accountability for development lies in its foundation of democracy. Efforts to promote industrialisation and the drive towards achieving it can be gauged from the preponderance of news headlines – setting up power plants, Neyveli Lignite Corporation, plants, giant rice mill, Kalpakkam atomic plant, weaving industry and hydro electric projects in Papanasam and Nilgiris, desalinisation plant.

The period of study establishes a need for promoting agriculture and making a smooth transition to the industrial age. It was a propitious moment that Nehru was the Prime Minister for many years and Kamarajar the chief minister of Tamil Nadu. Thus the headlines need to be interpreted in the context of state and central leadership. Chief Minister Kamaraj, appreciative of people’s concerns, based his development efforts on the needs of the people.

Nehru, on the other hand, emphasised on science, technology and modernity. He proposed others. His visit to Tamil Nadu for inaugurating Neyveli Lignite Corporation is a case in point. Dinamalar reported development news related to the state laying emphasis on proximity ‘news value’. Economic and industry related development news headlines are interrelated and together they account for a majority of the sample studied. Also, industry garnered major stake as opposed to agricultural schemes. 295 The Journal of Media Studies Industrial schemes were introduced/proposed for the development of the country. The increasing its knowledge base. It certainly would not have led to attitude formation. Rather, the governmental agenda mediated through Dinamalar would have helped the public to grapple with the measures taken by the government.

which leads to debates and discussions. The lack of public debates curtailed oppositional reading of the news in Dinamalar. In addition, agenda-setting was not needed in terms of manufacturing consent or creating social dysfunction. Dinamalar believed in supporting the government for good cause of bringing about regional development.

The pace at which the government favoured industrialisation and their immediate reportage are signs of media trying to disseminate the initiatives to create a sense of oneness, loyalty and togetherness. This type of development journalism encourages a cooperative effort between citizens of the nation.

Wars

During this period, two wars broke out: India-Pak war and Indo-China war. News headlines As it could be argued today, with the lack of public agenda all Indian citizens could not have established themselves to see, introspect and analyse who was responsible for social problems of international scale.

The U.S warns China and this provides insight into the international axis of relationship. The hegemonic trait of the U.S. comes to the fore and its act hinges on curbing any nation from raising its head, especially China as it was a Communist country like USSR. In spite of India being close to USSR, it received support from the U.S. that expressed its discontent over China’s initiative to wage war against India.

is a trace of development, call it pseudo-development, to win the support of the U.S. apart from USSR. Similarly, the economic investments made in military and nuke power contribute to development journalism as reported in Dinamalar.

Basic needs

Addressing basic needs is a constituent of development journalism. The most fundamental needs were drinking water and electricity. If Neyveli Lignite Corporation was set up during this period and Kalpakkam was selected for setting up Atomic plant, the headlines are clear assertions that power was produced to be supplied to all parts of Tamil Nadu. Similarly, the hydro electric project in Papanasam and the second phase of Nilgiris-Gunta project were intent to provide drinking water to villages in several districts. The headlines also point out the concentrated efforts the state made to develop rural areas.

This period went through severe food shortage and ‘Green Revolution’ arose as a result of this. The state government proposed ration cards for villagers to get subsidised rice and 296 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 measures were introduced to reduce the price of clothes. What is clear from this is that an economic crisis had occurred that pushed the government to forestall the retro movement with people lapsing into poverty that would have caused a setback to development plans.

The state government also allocated housing plots to washer men and other poor people. The economic crisis could have also occurred partly due to smuggling of rice, an unlawful activity that prevailed then. Rice was not available to many of the rural populace and the government decided to issue ration cards and simultaneously drafted a law to curb the smuggling menace. The tone of these two headlines differ one being it-is-reported-so and the other carrying a stringent tone.

It is evident from this study that the founder did not apply leftist lens to all stories across- the-board. The radical leftist thinking opposes industrialisation on the grounds that agriculture will be ignored and unemployment will rise.

This is true when attempts are made to give utmost importance to industrialisation at the expense of agriculture, signs of which we are witnessing today. But, an equally proportionate space was given to both rural and urban development, agriculture and industry.

Social reforms

A few news headlines are constructed in morality frames – women’s age for marriage is above 20, severe punishment for demanding as well as giving dowry and punishment to parents for not sending their wards to schools. The tone of the headlines regarding punishment for dowry and not sending children to schools is strong and conveys the message ‘either comply or face the law’. This is an example where the headlines were reported in harsh and uncompromising tone.

Women Empowerment

Women empowerment tops the agenda including free education to women in all districts, jobs in postal department, employment for war widows and giving opportunity for women to contest in elections. These plans were envisaged to break from the shackles of illiteracy and

(change of government) facilitating participatory democracy. The womanpower of the country can be enhanced only when everyone gets educated and when equal opportunity is given to both men and women. In an attempt to allow widows fend for themselves, who are given no rights in our society, an exclusive employment scheme was introduced.

Transportation and Trade

Headlines related to harbour development and upgradation in Madras (now Chennai) and Tuticorin indicate the government’s endeavour to increase trade and export thereby providing impetus to the economy. The central government played a key role with Nehru urging the Planning Commission to look into providing necessary infrastructure the ports needed. implemented - and two road transport routes expanded. 297 The Journal of Media Studies India procured war planes from Britain and this featured in 1962 and the daily also reported ‘India to review relations with Britain’ in 1961. The context in which the second headline appears is a product of the discord between the two countries. The animosity mellows down in a year and war planes were procured to beef up India’s defense mechanism. Development does not reside in patching up with Britain who ruled our country but the wherewithal and might our country had to buy the planes.

Future Study

audience, issues and salience as the readers would have developed schemas and their ratings of issues will vary from individual to individual. Most importantly, with change in the government and commercialism and corruption topping the agenda, the media possibly would have taken issues with the government and would have commented strongly with trenchant criticism and opposition parties is very much likely to moderate the agenda set by media. The globalisation spin is another factor that might orient the study towards different dimension.

Conclusion

In totality, industry, trade, women empowerment, providing basic needs, national for training teachers, exporting goods to Lanka, Mobile Hospital, Pension for senior citizens, and others testify to the daily allocating larger space for development news reports.

Dinamalar agenda ideologically. The government and the daily understood the need for bolstering economy, improving administration at local and regional levels, upgrading railways and transport systems, providing sops to farmers and empowering women. The public agenda was conspicuously absent as policies and plans introduced across the state were new. Ill-effects or brownie points of the plans implemented were not known till late 1960s or early 1970s. As a result, and as part of policy issue, Dinamalar followed the ethic of objectivity. The headlines studied mostly answer ‘what’ and ‘where’ with the implied answer of ‘why’ being ‘development’.

References

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300 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Three Communication for Development: A Case Study of ‘SIRUTHULI’, Coimbatore Lakshmi L. Lunda Dr. P. E. Thomasb

Abstract

The developmental communication system, the concept of communication and the communication perspectives shape the reality of any society. The development communication model proposed by Wilbur Schramm in the 1960s had limited success in third world countries. Schramm argued that media do not transfer society but they provide modern society different process of social change in a society indented to bring both social and materialistic advancement in the society.

The objective of this paper is to bring to light the role of the media as a catalyst in the ‘Sirutluli’ movement. ‘Sirutluli’ movement is an ecological project that intends to salvage Coimbatore’s rich heritage. This ambitious project started off in the 90s and has gained momentum as the years have gone by.

The paper aims to research how media plays an important role in spreading awareness and involving people in various developmental projects of ‘Siruthuli’. Quantitative research methods were used to check how aware and involved people are in ‘Siruthuli’ movement because of the media. Sample of 300 people, in Coimbatore city from all walks of life were questioned using questionnaire with close and open- ended questions.

Results of the study show that development of various kinds, in ‘Siruthuli’ movement has been brought about through effective use of media technologies. It is not media per se but of ‘Siruthuli’.

Keywords: Ecological Project, Media Technologies.

a. Research Fellow, PhD. FT., Department of Communication and Media Studies, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Email: [email protected]

b. Associate Professor and Head in Charge, Department of Communication and Media Studies, Bharathiar University, Coimbatoren. Email: [email protected]

301 The Journal of Media Studies Biographical data of authors

Lakshmi L Lund is a full time PhD. Research Fellow with the Department of Communication and Media Studies, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. She has been a successful freelance journalist contributing regularly feature stories in the cities leading English dailies for close to 8 years. Her area of research is New Media.

Dr P. E. Thomas holds M.A, M. Phil and Ph.D. in Communication and is Head in Charge and Associate Professor at the Post graduate Department of Communication and Media and information society. Prior to taking up as an academician, he has had eventful stints in journalism, advertising, printing and publishing. The cultural context of ‘Development’

social sciences. The concept is often equated with ‘modernization’, ‘industrialization’, ‘social change’, ‘progress’ and ‘growth’ and like these other terms is invariably seen as something desirable and positive for society in general and for community in particular. Also ‘development’ as socio- economic phenomena is seen as necessary, even inevitable; as good and salutary. Rarely is development discussed as possibly hazardous and destructive of the environment or of social values and cultures. Indeed rarely is development framed in the context of history, culture and values or looked at in relative terms. Development is in the main seen as absolute, inevitable and universal; it is promoted as a laudable goal irrespective of what the society, the culture, the people and their resources and their traditions.

The concept of ‘development’ has evolved since World War II from a narrow economist term into a comprehensive and dynamic one, talking within its ambit almost every aspect of human existence. For in its fundamental meaning all ‘development’ is human development, the focus of development is human being, the quality of his life and the environment in which the quality of life is sustained. The early concept of development overlooked the concepts of human and the environment factors. Having been inspired by the Western industrialization process, the concept was initially restricted to ‘an almost exclusive concern with a narrowly conceived economic dimension and to reliance on a traditional Western market- oriented model of industrialization and growth.’ The stress was on modernization imposed from above, at the expense of tradition and culture. were then given prominence, but the talk of such notion as ‘functional literacy’ and ‘human resource’ revealed that the concept of development was still dominant by economic growth theories. Rural development and communication were given little thought then. sentiments and lately science and technology, including technological transfer. In keeping with the trend today with towards more holistic paradigms, there is a growing recognition of still another crucial dimension: the cultural dimension: the cultural dimension seen from another dimension, the communication and technological dimension.

Development therefore is a whole: it is an integral value- loaded cultural process: it takes in the natural environment, social relations, education, production, consumption and welfare. The approach to development depends upon the local cultural or national situations, not 302 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 on any outside model. In other words, development springs from the heart of each society, relying on its history and traditions, as also its own strengths and resources as far as possible.

Until the 1960s economic theories of development explained ‘underdevelopment’ as a consequence of industrial and technical backwardness and fatalism of the illiterate masses. Thus the quickest solution to ‘underdevelopment’ was believed to be the borrowing of ‘modernization’ strategies of Western societies, however, needed the know- how as well as the capital which the industrialized countries alone could provide at the time.

Development Communication

studies during the post –World War II years when the countries of Asia, Africa and South America were asserting their rights of independence, self- reliance and non- alignment. people: the eradication of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment. Colonial rule had established massive bureaucracies, skeleton transport and communication infrastructure and public services. Centralized economic planning, large scale industrialization, and the development of mass media appeared at that time to be the most effective strategies for ‘catching up’ with

Mass Media as Magic Multipliers

William Schramm extended the argument of Lerner and Rogers in favor of ‘modernization’ and ‘development’ through mass media, which he termed- the magic multipliers. To Schramm, as to the mainstream social scientists of that time, the mass media were ‘agents of social change’, almost miraculous in their power to bring about that change. Schramm argued that the mass media could help accomplish the transition to new customs and practices, and in some cases to different social relationships. Behind such change in behavior must necessary lie substantial change in attitudes, beliefs, skills and social norms. The process he elaborated was second the need to invent or borrow behavior that comes close to meeting the need. Hence a nation that wants to accelerate the process of development will try to make people more widely and quickly aware of needs and the opportunities of for meeting them, will facilitate the decision process and will help the people put the new practices smoothly and swiftly into effect.

Schramm went further that Rogers in taking account of cultural linkages in ac knowledging ‘resistance to change’ and in urging ‘an understanding participation’. However his model of communication was still manipulative of behavior towards the end of innovation adoption. It still cited an empirical evidence, a strong correlation between high media exposure and development. Schramm argued forcefully that mass media has the potential to widen horizons, to focus attention and raise aspirations and to create a climate for development. Mass media also has the potential to confer status, to enforce social norms, to help form tastes, and could also affect attitudes lightly. He was optimistic about the potential of mass media in all types of education, training and development. Unlike Rogers, Schramm conceded though that ‘the mass media can help only to change strongly held attitudes and valued practices’.

Schramm therefore recommended that a developing country should review its restrictions on the importing of information materials, should not hesitate to make use of new technical 303 The Journal of Media Studies the resources and the power of modern communication skillfully and fully behind economic and social development. He described as fortuitous, ‘almost miraculous’ that modern mass communication should be available to multiply information resources. So carried away with imagine national economic and social development without some modern information multiplier; and indeed, without mass communication probably the great freedom movements and national stirrings of the last few decades would never have come about at all’. Such was the faith of the purveyors of ‘modernization’ models.

The ecological movement ‘Siruthuli’

Siruthuli, that started its journey through the hands of a few corporate houses in Coimbatore, is now undoubtedly a people’s movement. The citizens and denizens of Coimbatore could realize Siruthuli’s activities as the need of the hour. Success of any movement is largely dependent on participation from general public. Siruthuli believes that no single individual can bring about measurable change. It is combined effort from all quarters that leads to success. Siruthuli also believes that today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens; it is with this belief that most activities of Siruthuli are focused on children. Teaching them young makes more sense.

Purpose of ‘Siruthuli’

The ecological movement was started with the purpose to improve eco-consciousness

Tasks Involved

1. Bringing up concepts and subjects that are needed to be shared among public. 3. Conducting frequent public meets towards updating the progress made. 4. Establishing forums between schools and Siruthuli to share our knowledge among them. 5. Appreciating best practices on water harvesting and such related things. 6. Conducting quiz, elocution, essay competition etc. on environmental topics. 7. Sensitizing environmental setbacks such as global warming, 8. Making public to become involved in Siruthuli’s developmental activities such as planting trees among others. 9. Conducting summer camps to help children meaningfully utilize the holidays. 10. Celebrating environment friendly days like World Water Day, Environment Day. 11. Promoting NSS camps to tap environment related services. 12. Conducting fund raisers to support projects at various intervals. Projects of ‘Siruthuli’ All projects and activities of ‘Siruthuli’ are concentrated around the area of water management, afforestation, and waste management. However the projects of ‘Siruthuli’ can Water management Noyyal river restoration Tank Rejuvenation (7 Tanks have been rejuvenated) 304 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Chithirai Chavadi Anicut Nandagari Checkdam Rain Water Harvesting Scheme (Phase 1, 2 and 3) Watershed Others like Tracking mother Noyyal Theethipalayam Pallam Water Sharing Kuruchi Channel Bench Geo Textile Demo Selvampethy Tank Bench Perur Padithurai Culvert Construction Valankulam Afforestation Pasumai Payanam Viduthalai pasumai payanam Kakkum pasumai payanam Green events 2003 – 2010 Tree Park- Nursery Outsourcing Waste management EM Technology Eco- scan Others Waste to wealth Kamadhenu Nagar Quarry Falls Sulur STP Survey to determine how media fuelled the development of ‘Siruthuli’ movement No development of any kind in the society or nation can take place without the help of media. In the ‘Siruthuli’ movement the various sections of the media act as catalyst in spreading the awareness and also increasing the involvement of the individuals in the various projects of ‘Siruthuli’. A survey was undertaken to determine the role of media in spreading awareness, involving individuals and also shaping the attitudes of individuals about the ‘Siruthuli’ movement. The survey questionnaire on ‘Siruthuli’. The sample included male and female respondents. The respondents were house wives, school and college students, retired individuals, professionals and self employed. The questions like their awareness about ‘Siruthuli’ movement, how did they come to know of this movement, since when are they aware of this movement and do they discuss about ‘Siruthuli’ and its various projects and are they happy to read news about ‘Siruthuli’ and its various projects, were being asked. In order to test the attitude of the respondents on the involvement of media in the various projects of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement 305 The Journal of Media Studies respondents were asked to rate each of the question as Strongly Agree SA, Agree A, Neutral N, Disagree D and Strongly Disagree SD.

Survey Results

A sample of 300 respondents was chosen to undertake the survey. The sample included about 124 male respondents and 176 female respondents. The results of the survey are:

The respondent included about 41 per cent male and 59 per cent females. About 27 per cent of the respondents were school students, 14 per cent college goers, 24 per cent house wives, 18 per cent self employed, 6 per cent retired, 10 per cent professionals and a meager 1 per cent of the respondents were either looking for a new job, on the verge of getting married or were preparing for an entrance exam. About 41 per cent male and 59 per cent females said that they are aware of ‘Siruthuli’ movement. A major chunk that is, 269 of the respondents that is, almost 53 per cent of female respondents and 37 percent male respondents admitted that they became aware of ‘Siruthuli’ movement through media. Media constitutes being a major factor in making individuals aware of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement. Only 32 respon dents admitted becoming aware of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement through family/ friends, work place and word of mouth. Around 106 respondents, 35 per cent of the respondents said that they have been aware of ‘Siruthuli’ movement ever since its inception in the year 2003 when asked since when have they been aware of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement. The results go to show that the highest percentage of the respondents have been aware of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement ever since its initiation. A majority of the respondents admitted having participated in any of projects of the ‘Siruthuli’ movement. A total of 213 respondents, 77 per cent admitted having volunteered or contributed in cash or kind towards any of the projects of ‘Siruthuli’ movement. A meager 21 per cent admitted not being able to remember having volunteered or contributed. A whooping 279 respondents that makes up to 93 per cent of the respondents admit being happy to read news or listen to news about ‘Siruthuli’ movement and its various projects. A good amount of 196 respondents that is 65 per cent admitted sometimes discussing about ‘Siruthuli’ and its various projects.

Following are results of the statements to test the perception of respondents towards ecological movement ‘Siruthuli’ in reference to awareness, participation and media’s involvement. On being questioned if ‘Siruthuli’ ecological movement has done good to the environment and society, 48 per cent of respondents strongly agreed while another 48 per cent agreed to this statement. A majority of the respondents felt that ‘Siruthuli’ should not take up more projects. About 75 per cent of the respondents disagreed to the statement if it is required for ‘Siruthuli’ to take up more environmental projects. 306 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 About 66 per cent respondents shared a neutral opinion when asked if the projects of ‘Siruthuli’ have been successful in involving individual and corporate participation. When asked if more such movements like ‘Siruthuli’ should be encouraged, 85 per cent of the respondents strongly agreed to the statement. Around 145 respondents that is 48 per cent of the respondents has a neutral opinion when asked if individual’s involvement in ‘Siruthuli’ should be made compulsory. The respondents disagreed strongly when asked if the projects of ‘Siruthuli’ are being hyped up various sections of the media. As 33 per cent disagreed the same and about 58 per cent strongly disagreed to this statement. Almost half of the respondents that are 43 per cent of them strongly disagreed when asked if ‘Siruthuli’ is receiving more than required media coverage. 34 per cent disagreed to the same. Close to 49 per cent had a neutral opinion when asked if ‘Siruthuli’ should spread more awareness about its projects through the various sections of the media. In order to reach the uneducated and illiterate masses, 54 per cent respon dents strongly agreed that ‘Siruthuli’ should use more effective communication tools. A whooping number of 552 respondents that makes up to 92 per cent of the respondents strongly disagreed to the statement when asked that there is no need for a movement like ‘Siruthuli’.

Conclusion

The study only goes to show that the ideology and reality of development communication can happen through making proper use of the various mass media and interpersonal channels, present political, economic, cultural situation and technology. In the ‘Siruthuli’ ecological movement, true development happened by making proper use of communication channels, technology, political and cultural situation. In the case of ‘Siruthuli’ the mass media did act catalyst in spreading awareness and also involving more individuals to participate in the movement, thus bringing about social change.

Reference

Awareness of Siruthuli. (No date). Siruthuli ecological movement [On- line] Available : http://www.siruthuli.com/awareness [2011] [2001, September]. Correspondent, Special (225, June 23).Students show the way to Rain Water Harvesting. The Hindu, p.3. Kumar, Keval. (2009). Mass Communication in India. New Delhi : Jaico Publishing House. Nirula, Uma. (2008). Development Communication Theory and Practice. New Delhi : Har –Anand Publications Pvt Ltd. Projects. (No date) Siruthuli projects. [on- line] Available http://www.siruthuli.com/ node/8 [2001, September].

307 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Four Media Literacy in Post-Graduate Video Productions

Aaron Raoa N.V. Prasadb Dr. Mahyuddin Ahmadc

Abstract

The ability to read and write, also known simply as literacy, has since played an invaluable role in shaping human history. Recent research reports suggest that many people learn and retain information that is presented to them visually is much better than that which is verbal. This is where the term “Media Literacy” comes in. Having the ability to be consciously aware, and critical to the credibility of information represented by mainstream media has been an increasingly important subject in media education. Within both Communication Bachelors and Masters Degree at University Sains Malaysia, is a video production sub-course where students & post-graduates learn technical skills in video production and with critical thinking, the media, which is the higher focus aside from technical prowess & abilities. The purpose and objective of this paper is bringing to knowledge, the level of media literacy in post graduate students by analyzing the students’ technical and theoretical execution in the post graduate video productions.

Keywords: Media Literacy, Digital Video Production, Media Awareness, Authorship & Critical Thinking.

Introduction “The pen is mightier than the sword”, is undoubtedly one of the most famous sayings in all of human history. It is also probably the best way in describing the power of writing in historic as well as recent times. The saying basically brings the meaning that the pen or writings, has the the future, in ways that the sword, or warfare can never do. With the invention of the movable

a. Lecturer, Department of Public Relations, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Perak, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] b. Senior Lecturer, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected] c. Senior Lecturer, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]

308 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 type printing press, followed by the industrial revolution in the mid 19th century, books and Poet Robert Burns and feminist activist Mary Wollstonecraft. In short, the print media held much power in shaping concepts and beliefs in society for a remarkably long period of time and it is pretty much the same length of time that the saying “the pen is mightier than the sword” held a similar status of educational power, at least not until the rise of visual communication. It is no question that combining both written text and visual images has a greater effect on the cognitive mind of audiences. It is in the age of visual communication and mass media that the media well documented and observed in peoples’ behavior and trends, learning or being pivotal skill for every person to master, or in some circumstances, liberate individuals from in. Having the ability to consciously be aware, and critical to the credibility of information provided or presented by the mainstream media has been an increasingly important subject in media education. In University Sains Malaysia (USM), under the “Communications” course, students are drilled in almost all aspects of the media from technical skills, to critical media and communication theories. The idea is that graduates and post-graduates of the Communication course would enter into the media world as critical media practitioners with a high level of literacy in media thus creating & producing information that are more critical and credible, at least that would be the assumption. Within both Communication Bachelors and Masters Degree, is a video production sub-course where students learn technical skills in video of criticality of society and certainly the media, which is the higher focus aside from technical prowess & abilities.

This paper hopes to examine post-graduate video productions within the context of media literacy by mapping out the emerging themes, issues and subject matter in post-graduate productions and how students use techniques learned to critically bring out their subject matter. This study conducted in USM is to have a better understanding of post-graduate views and messages and the way they convey it.

ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages in a variety of form print to video as well as the internet at the same time building a better understanding of the media in society. Access here would imply the ability to locate media from various sources i.e. television, radio, newspaper, and internet. Analyze and evaluate would be to instill a critical thinking attitude whilst consuming media materials, understanding that not everything seen or heard can be trusted as credible information and lastly create, which means the ability to construct “various formats of media” similar materials created by the media, although not necessarily similar in terms of style nor skills standard (Considine, 2002). Applying the skill of “critical thinking”, 2007).

According to David Buckingham (2002), the role of media literacy is to develop both critical understanding and active participations that enhances critical and creative abilities in 309 The Journal of Media Studies young people. (Buckingham, 2002) He further states that “the aim of literacy is not so much in promoting self-expression, but also to encourage a more systematic understanding of media 2007, p.12). What this means is that consumers of the media should always maintain an active viewing mentality rather then being passively acceptive towards everything that is being shown. Buckingham stresses that a more “hands on” approach with digital technology i.e. camera’s and digital videos, is a starting step in learning culture in an engaging and meaning way. However, the attainment of this literariness requires a mentality that is capable of questioning and looking beyond the surface when evaluating information in terms of its sense of balance, bias and accuracy (Buckingham, 2003). In efforts to attain media literacy, “a critical understanding spread of digital technologies, the ability to make and manipulate moving images will become more important than ever” (Bazalgette et.al, 2000, p.4). Continuing on, in attempts in making students “writers as well as readers” (Buckingham, 1993) students can gauge how media can present and produce information differently, whether to give ‘emphasis on it, or to dismiss it altogether’ (Gauntlett, 1997).

This is done by understanding how media operates from the inspiration of an idea all learning to a certain extent the technicality behind media messages. In other words, a hands on approach such as that adopted in USM production courses, in learning simply the art of working a camera, and how different shots and angles can produce different meanings. Once a person is exposed to such knowledge, the power of discernment then shifts to the audience or consumers. In this context post-graduate students are given an opportunity to apply skills of critical analysis, thinking, synthesizing, evaluating knowledge, and attitude when digital tools are untilized (Tyner, 2003). As post-graduate students, they are considered to be experienced and problem solving relating to social or contemporary issues.

A Study on Post-Graduate Video Productions

Prior to the writing of this paper, a study of videos produced by post-graduate students in USM has been conducted using the methods of content analysis and questionnaires. With content analysis, four key questions were applied while viewing every video that was chosen. are authorship (contructedness), format (techniques), audience, content (message) and motive (purpose). Genres, themes, and subject matter were systematically mapped out in the form of a table/chart to get a conclusion of emerging trends and tendencies of the post graduate matter, the messages they intended to deliver, the values and ideas, and the techniques chosen to deliver them.

After carefully watching and studying a total of 20 videos and questionnaires from post graduate students, a few factors can be taken into consideration. Firstly, media literacy entails for students to have prior knowledge in the way media materials are structured, chosen, and produced, primarily to deliver messages to audience with intentions of persuasion. The materials produced by the students did in some ways manage to hold a certain power of persuasion which could prompt certain positive actions when it comes to social concerns 310 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 with most of them being issues of environmental protection. What is clear is that students appear to be consciously aware of the effects of ignorance when environmental and green living issues are concerned and were fairly successful in transferring such thoughts into on domestic violence, concerns on smoking, drug abuse, and morality created a fair stir of in many of the student videos and it is believed that with extra nurturing, greater heights are certainly reachable for the students in improving the quality of videos. Adding to that, emphasis should be given more on technical training in efforts to boost the ability of students in delivering messages in their videos. Moreover, a feeling of empathy arose when it is noticed during viewing that some students lacked skills in experimenting with subject matters and production techniques. As post graduate students of communication, they need to be well two aspects are both mentally and time consuming.

To master production techniques, students in an academic environment have to take extra initiative and make room for more self practice with the production tools. There is no doubting the fact that effective selection of point of views, shot sizes, lighting, and aesthetics investment in time and experimentation to master.

However, it is a very encouraging sign that students in this study appear convincingly to be literate enough in mass media contents to convey critical messages that they were guided to learn and apply in their coursework assignments. Secondly, are the predominant ideas in student productions. The Communication School in USM take pride in the teachings that encourages students to question the messages in the media, as well as its role in society by including multiple schools of thoughts and theories to buff up students knowledge in the media. The results of such teachings were very obvious in subject matters discussed in the of visual images instead of a research thesis or article. However, what is gathered in the questionnaire reveals a somewhat contrasting revelation in that majority of the students had any predominant ideology or views in the planning of their production in that most of the source of their ideas comes generally from viewing the media, talking to friends as well as self thought ideas.

subject matter was not informed by their theoretical knowledge. Hypothetically speaking, there is a possibility that the predominant ideologies and theories taught in lectures took place cognitively in the minds of the students without them realizing that it did. Inherent in most of their subject matters are the desire to make their voices heard. Choosing issues like environmental degradation, marginalised social groups like immigrants and indigenous people, gender politics and politics of society at large clearly shown that the theoretical issues discussed in theoretical classes are slowly seeping into productions. What can be argued here is that there is an increased theoretical awareness when it comes to these subject matters.

These choices are not uninformed choices; students are aware of the problems confronting the society and by choosing these subject matters over others, students are clearly being 311 The Journal of Media Studies eclipsed by the post-structuralist struggles of namely women, coloured and marginalised people and so on. In other words students, who were exposed to various theoretical perspectives in lectures were able to choose subject matters that are relevant to the struggles in society at large and these are partly due to the exposure of these issues in theoretical lectures.

However, the question of ‘authorial’ intentions also remains vague. Whether these students intentionally or unintentionally choose the subject matter is hard to determine. But the desire to discuss issues affecting society, points towards an understanding of the relationship between media and society.

The awareness of their social surroundings (politics, economic, social and culture) is given just via the canonical and orthodox tradition but also from the more critical socio-historical debates and with assumptions that cinema is a cultural and social institution that gives rise to arguments such as cinema contributes to the maintenance of capitalism or cinema enhances and maintains the patriarchal ideology. Along with other theoretically oriented courses students then were exposed to a great many intellectual traditions that allows them to look at social phenomenon critically.

Besides the ability to construct images and try to locate these images within the issues they discussed, students’ productions are also being evaluated based on their aesthetics quality and as explained earlier aesthetically they need to improve further. Things however are improving judging by the number of productions of recent years that won a number of accolades at practical also depends on the intellectual capacity and the talent that a particular student has.

As the programme is not entirely a production programme whereby students focus more on technical aspects of productions, thus students accepted in the programme are having mixed abilities. Some are clearly good and have the ablity to understand complex theories and making linkages between theories and practice, while others are just mediocre students.

Conclusion

As far as media literacy is concerned, post graduate students in USM does appear to be literate in most aspects of the media. After viewing all the student productions, it is certain that a high amount of talents are present in the students. The study also reveals that the way of choice of subject matter, critical approach taken in dealing with the issues and images captured to convey the messages.

It is believed that the understanding of the media will be better spread to mass audiences when the young thinkers in the university i.e. students fully comprehends its functions, effects, and weaknesses before going out to the ‘real world’ so to speak, and practice it in their towards a more comprehensive academic setting for a better future in the media practices and teachings. 312 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 References

Books

Babbie, E “The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition, Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc. Bazalgette, C (2000) Moving Images in the Classroom : A Secondary Teacher’s Guide to Using Film and Television, A Guide Book Published by British Film Institute, London. Featherstone, M (1995) Undoing Culture, Globalization, Post Modernism and Identity, London: Sage. Ferguson, B (1991) “What is Media literacy for?” in Prinsloo, J & C. Criticos (Eds) Media Matters in South Africa, Durban: Media Resource Centre, University of Natal. Fiske, J ( 1990) Introduction to Mass Communication Studies, London, Routledge. Gauntlett, David (1997), Video Critical: Children, the Environment and Media Power, John Libbey Media, Luton. Hilton, M (Ed) (1996) Potent Fictions: Children’s Literacy and the Challenge of Popular Potter, W.J (2005) Media Literacy. (Third Edition) Thousand Oaks: Sage. Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy: A Play in Five Acts. (second ed.). London: Saunders and Otley, Conduit St. 1839.

Journals

Andrew Garrison (1999) Video Basics and Production Projects for the Classroom: CML Media Lit Kit. California: Center for Media Literacy Publications. Aufderheide, P.(Ed.).(1993).Media Literacy: A Report of the National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy.Aspen,CO: Aspen Institute. Bazalgette,C. (1997)An Agenda for the Second Phase of Media Literacy Development. In R. Kubey (Ed.), Media Literacy in the Information Age (pp.69-78).New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Brown, J.A.( 1998). Media Literacy Perspectives. Journal of Communication, 48(1), 44-57. Buckingham, D (1993) Children Talking Television: The Making of Television Literacy (London, Falmer Press). literacy: UNESCO Publications. Buckingham, D (2003) Media literacy: Literacy, Learning, and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge : Polity Press, 82-3. Buckingham, D ( 2007) Media literacy Goes Digital : An Introduction to Learning, Media and Technology, Vol 32, No.2, pp 111-119, Taylor & Francis – Routledge. Burton, L (2005) What Is This Media Literacy Thing? Primary and Secondary Classroom Ideas From Across Australia, Australian Screen Education, Gale Group. 313 The Journal of Media Studies Burton ,L ( 2008) I heard it on the radio… Broadcasting in the Classroom -Online, Screen Education, issue 50, pp 68-73. Chen, M (2007) Training the Eye : Expanding the Language Arts With the Grammar of Film, Journal of Children and Media, Vol 1, No.2, Taylor & Francis : Routledge. Considine, D.M (1997) Media literacy: A Compelling Component of School Reform and Restructuring, Media Literacy in the Information Age: Current Perspectives, Information and Behaviour, Vol 6, pp243-262, edited by Kubey.R. Eagle, L (2007) Commercial Media Literacy: What Does It Do To Whom – and What Does It Matter?, Journal of Advertising, American Academy of Advertising, vol36,No.2, pp 101-110. Politics of Race and Authenticity, Social Text 82, Vol 23, no.1, Spring, Duke University Press. Gauntlett, David (1998), Losing Sight of the Ball? : Children, Media and the Environment in a Video Research Project, International Broadcasting Symposium, University of Manchester. Hammer, R (2006) Teaching Critical Media Literacies : Theory, Praxis and Empowerment, UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies, Vol 2, Issue 1, University of California. Hobbs,R ( 1997) Expanding the Concept of Literacy, Media Literacy in the Information Age : Current Perspectives, Information and Behaviour, Vol 6, Edited by Kubey.R. Hobbs, R. (1998). The Seven Great Debates in the Media Literacy Movement, Journal of Communication, 48(1), 16-32. Hoffman, G ( 1999) Media Literacy Study, ETC : A Review of General Semantics, Vol 56, Issue 2, pp 165-172. Niestyto, H, Buckingham, D & Fisherkeller, J (2003) Video Culture: Crossing Borders 461-482, Sage Publications. Silverbratt, A ( 2007) Media Literacy : A Survival Skill, St Loius Journalsim Review. Tyner, K (2003) Beyond Boxes and Wires: Literacy in Tradition, Television and New Media, Vol.4, No.4, Sage Publications.

Internet

Considine, D.M ( 2002) Media Literacy Across the Curriculum, retrieved on August 23 , 2009 from http:// www. medialit.org/ reading_room/pdf/ 551_cicml_ considine.pdf.

314 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Five COMMON SERVICE CENTERS IN RURAL INDIA: An Evaluation by Sequential Mixed Method Design

M. Maani Mabela Dr. P. Govindarajub

Abstract

There is an increasing debate in the evaluation research domain questioning the methodology used by the researchers. Everett Rogers (2003) comments that, “the usual survey research methods are less appropriate for the investigation of innovation consequences than for studying innovativeness. An innovation’s consequences cannot be understood simply by adding an additional question or two to a survey instrument”. In the meanwhile, the qualitative methods are criticized for generalizing results to the entire population and researcher bias. Hence, in the recent years a new tradition has started to rise which is known as Mixed Method Design. Mixed Method design is adopting both the qualitative and quantitative research methods in a research. This study is focused to evaluate the Common Service Centers using Sequential Mixed method design. Common Service Centers are initiated by the Government of India in every six villages of the country to make available all the information and government services over online. Sequential mixed method design will be employed in two districts (unit of administration) – Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri. Both the districts have similar geographical, physical, economical and social characteristics. In step 1, Common Service Centers of Dharmapuri district will be evaluated using Qualitative methods. Based on the results of Step Krishnagiri district will be evaluated through Quantitative methods. The results of the study

Keywords: Mixed Methods Design, Evaluation research, Innovation and Common Service Centers. ICT and Development – An Introduction Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are proven catalysts of social and communication revolution that happens in any part of the world. The advancement in

a. Research Fellow, Department of Communication, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli – 12. Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected] b. Professor and Head, Department of Communication, Dean – Faculty of Arts, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli – 12. Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

315 The Journal of Media Studies technology moved the industrial society to an information society with new social and cultural possibilities. Many of the developmental practitioners and development agencies have been stressing that use of ICT in the developmental projects is the indicator for development, as it is believed that ICTs are the only solution for the developmental issues of the 21st century.

Results from various nations on the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) initiatives suggest that they are powerful disseminators of information to communities particularly in development aspects including health, education, agriculture, coastal and reproductive information. There are ample evidences suggesting that ICT can serve as change agents in mainstreaming the least developed countries into the arena of “Information Economy” by achieving poverty reduction, improved health care and quality education (Chakraborty, 2011). The interventions have a measurable impact on commerce, marketing, public services, governance and education. Information and Communication Technologies enable the technological, social, cultural and economical change through participation, opportunity and accountability.

The guaranteed and observed change compels nations to revise and formulate the IT policy based on research and advocacy. International societies urge the developing nations to develop infrastructure, administer them and formulate an effective IT policy for better change. Since the beginning of the millennium, the ICT/ telecom policy and regulations are revised consistently to meet the demands of the end receivers. Though the majority of the remote areas still remain unconnected with educational and other developmental services, the amount they spend for ICT services is apparently seen and questioned.

an authenticated and authoritative statement by Sam Pitroda. In his article on “Development, Democracy and the Village Telephone” he says, as a great social leveler, information technology ranks second only to death. It can raze cultural barriers, overwhelm economic inequalities, even compensate for intellectual disparities. In short, high technology can put unequal human beings on an equal footing, and that makes it the most potent democratizing tool ever devised (Pitroda, 1993).

India and Development

intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities) for the majority of people through their gaining greater control over their environment (Rogers, 1976)”. For most of the countries soon after they had attained independence from their colonial powers, development was their primary agenda and India was on par for this step ahead. History tells us that when Pandit Jawarhalal Nehru the country ahead and he carved such industrial policies. After four decades during the late 1980s the then Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi made his cabinet to begin adopting informatization as an enabler for development. After a decade later, Atal Behari Vajpayee believed IT is India’s tomorrow and established National IT task force during 1998 (Singhal & Rogers, 2007).

Though the country has had a slow pace of implementing the regulations and recommendations of IT task force, the establishment of IT and Broadcasting Ministry has clearly showed India’s focus on IT towards development. Information Technology has had 316 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 two fold manifestos in India. One is to enhance software industry and thus reducing the unemployment and increasing the GNP (Gross National Product). The other one is to use the ICT to improve the living conditions of poor people and addressing the developmental issues like poverty, hunger, malnutrition and illiteracy. India could achieve the former goal in a very short period compared with the later.

As the latest milestone, the Government of India has set up the National e-Governance Plan which envisioned, “make all government services accessible to the common man in his reliability of such services at affordable costs to realize the basic needs of the common man” and envisaged Internet and Common Service Centers as the two major delivery modes for services delivery to citizen.

It is to be followed up by the march of establishing one Common Service Centers for six villages throughout the country to make the governance transparent and accessible. Despite these planned actions, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) reports in its regional Human Development Report (2007) that among the South Asian countries India along with Pakistan and Mongolia lags behind in achieving most of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Many development thinkers have raised doubts whether India could achieve any of the MDGs by 2015.

Rural Information Centers/ Kiosks

Villagers are deprived of ICT access, further widening the digital divide is an alarming way. Nonetheless the potential of the Community Information Centers in rural India are widely recognized and they have a measureable impact among the community. In some places, the centers have brought about land sliding changes, by providing improved access to information. The setting up of Information Centers in a typical rural village represents a the experimental phase attempting to measure their potential.

In India, with the sourcing of voluntary funds from western countries and developmental agencies, Government agencies and the Non Governmental Organizations have taken it up as an agenda to carry forward the technology to the poor. These information centres are also known as Information Kiosks, Community Information Centre, Village Knowledge Centres, Village Resource Centres so on and so forth. Information Kiosks are becoming the window of tele-medicine, e-commerce and e-judiciary initiatives. Various stake holders including research agencies, NGOs and educational institutions have targeted the rural communities in holistic empowerment by providing knowledge inputs through appropriate use of the technology.

Remote villages are witnesses of change effected by the new technology. There are a number of success stories like how agriculturists interacted with professionals to save their crops from seasonal diseases, school drop outs and women have completed school education eliminated middlemen in their buying and selling of products, children have become familiar with teaching of computer applications, narrowing down of gender and caste discriminations, the list goes on. 317 The Journal of Media Studies

Even though the ICT initiatives among the rural communities have shown encouraging developments at the initial stages of implementation, the scenario changed as the time went by. In the endeavour of studying the effectiveness of these initiatives among the rural folks of India, many researchers have found out the presence of major setbacks in the rural ICT initiatives. The deterrents are lack of sustainability, misconception on the role of ICTs, lack of community ownership and participation, lack of awareness among rural folks on the usefulness of ICT and inappropriate content. Most of the projects have not resulted in

The targeted communities are not aware of the potential of ICT in adding value to their life. Chiraag Internet Centres by TeNeT of IIT Madras, one of the pioneering initiatives has encouraging factor is that most of the villagers have made an attempt in using the technologies. It is evident that the project initiators have not found committed change agents among the population would not opt to spend for technologies.

It has been misconceived that ICTs are solution for development and not as a means to an end. Any development activity should be combined with pre-implementation research, where campaigns to convince them of positive decision making. But apparently the change agencies have emphasized on adoption and underemphasized on recipient input into development decisions and processes.

agenda at some levels. Some chopped down in the planning phase, some others after a short period of implementation and a majority of the projects could not sustain its impact for a unsuccessful, particularly ‘large’ ones over $10 million. Indeed, 20 – 30 percent are abandoned altogether, while around half are over time, over budget and/ or do not deliver on expected

Howard states that, “the lapse is due to the many ill executed or misguided projects that use of inappropriate equipment. From the perspective of donors, the most obvious failure of Information and Communication Technologies for development initiatives was that few an impression that Information and Communication Technologies for development projects development, the term ‘sustainable’ refers to “initiatives that are able to translate into models that can be supported by local and domestic resources”.

This is a withdrawal from the fashionable use of this term to denote an initiative which has an environmental impact that can be supported by community resources. Ironically, this untenable; funding agencies generally want to cut short their involvement for a limited period 318 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 in order to brew it, then have its continued operations handed over to others. This practice, called “parachuting,” is ill-suited to ICTs as few communities are able to continue to fund and support this equipment. As a result, at the end of the project term, the funding agencies would believe the communities would take care of the running of the project. But most of the communities give up their attempt with lack of technical knowledge and the competency to run apparently a new system (Howard, 2008).

Common Service Centers (CSCs)

Ministry of Information Technology, Government of India had set up the National e-Governance Plan, through which it has planned to initiate a Common Service Center (CSCs) for each six villages all over the country. The Central Government funds and the state government implements the project through Public Private Partnership (PPP). Through bidding, the Government has selected the Service Center Agencies(SCAs) to deliver the services through Village Level Entrepreneurs(VLEs). Every CSC is equipped with Desktop PC/ laptop, printer, web camera, digital still camera, scanner and a high speed broadband connectivity.

The total infrastructure costs around Rs. 1, 62, 000/- and at the time of installation the VLEs need to pay Rs. 42,000/- and the remaining amount will be arranged as loan and the VLEs are expected to pay back in installments. The VLEs were selected in consultation with the local bodies and screening, so as to make sure that the VLEs would serve the society. They should have the minimum pass of school education and they were trained by Sahaj. It is mandatory for the CSCs to offer Government services to the citizens in the areas of e-governance, education, health, agriculture and commercial.

Figure 1: PPP framework perceived by NeGP

Common Service Centers (CSCs) in Tamil Nadu (TN)

The Government of Tamil Nadu through Tamil Nadu e-Governance Plan (TNeGP) has been initiating one CSC for three villages since 2008 taking one step ahead of the National out the state. 3i – infotech has withdrawn from the scene after initiating the CSCs in all districts of Tamil Nadu except Chennai, Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri, Tiruvannamalai and 319 The Journal of Media Studies Vellore districts. The VLEs are left without any help. Sahaj SREI has been operating in the four districts - Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri, Tiruvannamalai and Vellore. They are entrusted to schemes, employment exchange, ration cards, electoral services, pension schemes, transport and public grievance. In Tamil Nadu there are a total of 5440 CSCs.

Research Design

This study is focused to evaluate the Common Service Centers using Sequential Mixed method design. Common Service Centers are initiated by the Government of India in every six villages of the country to make available all the information and government services over online. Sequential mixed method design will be employed in two districts (unit of administration) – Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri. Both the districts have similar geographical, physical, economical and social characteristics. In step 1, Common Service Centers of Dharmapuri district will be evaluated using Qualitative methods.

The employees of Sahaj SREI, VLEs and the users of the CSCs were personally interviewed. The researchers have observed as well as discussed the issues related to the functioning of the 3, the Common Service Centers of Krishnagiri district will be evaluated through Quantitative methods. A structured questionnaire has been used as the tool to collect data from 150 respondents who are above the age of 18 using random sampling technique. Questionnaires of using mixed methods design in evaluation researches.

Monitoring and Evaluation researches are often backed up the combination of both quantitative and qualitative data as the presentation of facts are done through words and statistical results through numbers. In that way, the in depth study avoid the weaknesses of both the quantitative and qualitative methods. While tracing the history, many theories, models and approaches have evolved using either quantitative or qualitative data in the researches.

The quantitative researchers argue on the objectivity of the research without researchers’ biased interpretations and the numbers of data collected give the possibility of generalizing the research results. Real status of the social phenomenon could be drawn out and hence it could be valid and reliable. The qualitative researchers oppose the views of quantitative researchers and they stress that objectivity can not bring out the real social phenomenon. They also say causes and affects cannot be measured using the quantitative data and the existence of qualitative enquiry is needed at all places. Mixed Method Design

Mixed Method research is a design used for integrating both the quantitative or qualitative data at some point of the research process in a single study to better understand the phenomenon under study from more than one perspective. Mixed Method Research is widely to explore a phenomenon and to augument one analysis with another. The method requires a lot of time and resources to initiate and implement. They incorporate both inductive and deductive approaches and answer epistemological and theoretical research questions. In that way, the in depth study avoid the weaknesses of both the quantitative and qualitative methods. While 320 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 surveying the existing literature, there has been a clear evidence of more than forty categories of Mixed Method Designs being employed by the researchers (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Mixed method designs have been used in various concepts like academic performances (Jerome De Lisle); mobile technologies and disadvantaged women (Devendra D. Potnis); health-promoting behaviuors (Azam Baheiraei et. al.); nursing and health sciences (Elizabeth J. Halcomb) and traditions and alcohol use (Castro F. G. and Coe K.)

Sequential Mixed Method Design

Sequential mixed method is one of the previously indicated forty plus categories and they are known for methods being implemented sequentially. There are two types of the sequential design – explanatory research design and the exploratory research design. If the researchers collects quantitative data initially and then collects the qualitative data to explain, elaborate, interpret and contextualize the quantitative results, it is understood as explanatory sequential design. If the researcher collects qualitative data initially to explore a phenomenon and follows the quantitative data collection to explain, test and verify relationships found in the qualitative phase, it is perceived as exploratory sequential design (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003).

In the present study, the researchers have employed the exploratory sequential design and hence the residents of Dharmapuri district were interviewed in Phase I with a semi structured questionnaire as part of the data collection. Based on those results a structured questionnaire (III), the questionnaires have been administered by the researchers among the 150 residents of Krishnagiri district using random sampling technique.

The Village Level Entrepreuners, key informants of Sahaj SREI and Tamil Nadu e-Governance Agency were included as part of the sample for validating the results. But with the new State Government in power, they were ordered not to give any data for any kind of research regarding the project. Though the order has been in practice, one Village Level Entrepreneur (VLE) came forward for the interview with the assurance of his identity being held secretly, which helped in identifying the services and formulating the questionnaire. Even though the study lacks the data of project initiators, the study has evaluated the Common Service Centers from the receivers or community’s perspective.

The in depth interview was adopted among the users and non-users of Ellakiyampatti, Harur and Olapatti of Dharmapuri district. Of them, Ellakiyampatti and Olapatti has centres in the respective villages and the residents of Harur had to access the Common Service Center at Morappur, a nearby village.

The Results

Results from Phase I

After a survey of available literature on ICT and development researchers, we have concluded that the quantitative data collection tool could be only formulated after knowing the young and old facilitated to draw the real picture. The results have clearly shown the present status. Most of them do not give a positive sign to achieve the goals. The results are categorized here under: 321 The Journal of Media Studies Services offered at CSC

Government services are left behind. The people have widely accessed the recharging services to recharge their mobiles and Direct To Home connections. Next to it, photocopying and photo printing was used frequently as the villagers otherwise have to travel far to access these services. People also access the online ticketing facilities infrequently. Very few people have 3 kilometers away from the Primary Health Centers/ Hospitals. These centers are connected with the district headquarter hospitals and patients consult the doctors through online. In the remotest places, in coalition with Central Bank of India, provisions are made to deposit money and use Debit cards.

Issues

But the VLE has noted that these recharging facilities, photo copying, photo printing and sustaining the centers and the SCAs do not have any role in it.

E-Governance Services

online. The VLEs are authorized to submit the forms online after thorough inspection and to them to the applicants in a due course. Most of the Indian villages are not connected with frequent transport. This would allow the people not to travel a long distance and no urge to wait in a long queue from morning to evening. Moreover these processes avoid the middlemen and promises transparency. But in case of the study area, these services are given only to the the CSCs are not authorized.

Issues

The people are enabled to make their petition every Monday to the District Administrative So at present, the TNeGP has set up a provision that the people need not travel a long do not open these online petitions and rectify them. It forces the people to loose their hope reported back immediately.

They are rejected, without the applicants being uninformed. So the people prefer to go in presence and get things done without waiting for a long time. Government and the SCA is expected to take immediate steps to implement all the announced services at the earliest. Many services like paying the monthly Electricity or Telephone bills are announced but yet to through CSC. In some cases, the VLEs are misconceived as agents who exploit the people 322 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 E-learning

With the partnership with Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), the CSCs to make the school drop outs, young women and children to avail these services and learn teachers (who are appointed by the Government and not the natives of the community) come package offers and helps them to learn by themselves without anyone else’s help.

Issues

VLE has suggested the fee for course package needs to be reduced to attract the unaware community and the share to the VLEs to run the course needs to be increased from 50% at present to 80% of the fee. But the Villagers are not affordable to pay the fee. Villagers computer learning? Where do we get the money” There are few students who go to college the community. Only a minimal number of the e-learning users get alternative employments as indicated by the VLE. It should also be noted that only the well off of the community pay the fee and learn. There are few school drop outs who attempt for computer education. But they feel the VLE does not know about the content and they themselves could not learn with the help of computer. VLE has opined that he does not know all the course packages and many course packages are irrelevant to the community.

The VLEs are not paid by the Government. But the private partnership enables them to receive subsidies and gifts. The private insurance and banking agencies are tied up with the CSCs for insuring and buying property or vehicle and selling the course packages. So if the still trained to invest their money in various businesses.

Issue

service promising commissions for the VLEs but the Government has failed to understand the “real need of the community”. Some of the targets to get a subsidy is unattainable and he said “I I sell more than ten motor cycles in a month, I would be taken to visit Taj Mahal. If I make more than Rs. 2,50,000 I would be awarded Tata Nano CX OR 5 Laptops, if its between Rs. 2,00,000 to Rs. 2,49,000 Bajaj Pulsar 150 CC OR 3 Laptops, Rs. 1,50,000 to Rs. 1,99,000 Window AC (LG 1/0.75 Ton) OR 1 Laptop, Rs. 1,00,000 to Rs. 1,49,000 Mobile Phone (with Qwerty Keyboard) and Rs. 50,000 99,000 Titan/Timex Watches. I can not make even Rs. 10, 000 among this community in the stipulated period of one month in any of the schemes. In for the irrelevancy of the services either to the community or to the VLE”. The installation amount forces the VLEs to charge higher amount as they want to get rid of the debt at the earliest. But the poor people feel they are charged high, which in turn minimizes the number of visitors. Another case is, the Government has offered many schemes before the CSCs were 323 The Journal of Media Studies initiated, but most of them are not yet introduced. So the VLEs feel as if they are cheated and instill CSCs. If we are forced to pay back the loan or to pay the dues, we are ready to quit the shoulders”.

Other Challenges faced by the VLE

The negative outcomes of the study create a cloud of doubt whether this initiative would lead to the further deepening of social, cultural, economic and digital divides.

Technical issues CSCs are not conferred with fast broadband services. In the middle of the process, the connection gets disconnected and the uneducated get irritated of this technology and avoid services.

Social issues There is a serious issue of caste (social class) discrimination. The CSCs have to be set up in the common place where all the people can access easily. But if the selected VLEs belong to the lower social class, they do not either own a place in a common place or get for rent easily. lower social class.

The uneducated old aged people do not understand the applicability of the eservices. So at time, they create problem and the VLEs have to struggle a lot to get things settled. The economically deprived people do not use the services as they think the technology is for the rich. Only the literate folk access and browse through the internet for various things. The illiterates get the services through VLEs.

VLEs expect the Government to do state wide campaign promoting CSCs. They believe it would help themselves to be trusted by the citizens and the services would be eventually popularized.

With the results drawn from Phase I, the researchers have prepared the questionnaire with two objectives: To identify the factors causing the acceptance or rejection of the technology

Results drawn from Quantitative data (Phase III)

differences are shown among the respondents in education and employment. 324 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Table: 1 Distribution by “Age” Age Frequency Percent 21-35 85 56.7 35 – 50 38 25.3 51 – 60 18 12.0 Above 61 9 6.0 Total 150 100.0

Table: 2 Distribution by “Gender”

Sex Frequency Percent Male 102 68.0 Female 48 32.0 Total 150 100.0

Table: 3 Distribution by “Monthly Income”

Monthly Income Frequency Percent Below Rs. 3000 11 7.3 Rs. 3001 - 5000 28 18.7 5001 - 10000 48 32.0 Above 10000 63 42.0 Total 150 100.0

Table: 4 Distribution by “Education” Education Frequency Percent Illiterate 9 6.0 Primary 9 6.0 High School 47 31.3 Higher Secondary 30 20.0 College Education 38 25.3 Vocational Training 17 11.3 Total 150 100.0

Table: 5 Distribution by “Employment” Employment Frequency Percent Daily Labour 18 12.0 Government Job 20 13.3 Self Business 27 18.0 Private Job 66 44.0 Not Working 10 6.7 Retired 9 6.0 Total 150 100.0 325 The Journal of Media Studies Table: 6 Distribution by “Awareness on CSC”

Awareness on CSC Frequency Percent Yes 55 36.7 No 95 63.3 Total 150 100.0

Table: 7 Distribution by “Usage” Usage Frequency Percent Valid Percent 30 20.0 54.5 No 25 16.7 45.5 Total 55 36.7 100.0 Only 36.7% (Table 6) of the respondents knew about the Common Service Centre and of them, only 20% (Table 7) use the Common Service Centres.

Table: 8 Distribution be “Services” Services Frequency Percent Valid Percent Education 20 13.3 66.7 Browsing 10 6.7 33.3 Total 30 20.0 100.0 Of the 30 respondents who access CSC, 20 use it for educational purposes and 10 for general browsing (Table 8)

Table: 9 Distribution by “Reasons for not Accessing”

Valid Reasons for not accessing Frequency Percent Percent Lack of Services 6 4.0 24.0 Technical Problems 19 12.7 76.0 Total 25 16.7 100.0

55 respondents do know about the Common Service Centre. Out of them, 6 respondents do not access for lack of services and 19 respondents for technical problems (Table 9).

Table: 10 Distribution by “Reasons for Using”

Reasons for Using Frequency Percent

Proximity 30 20.0 Not using 120 80.0 Total 150 100.0

The using respondents access the centre only because the services are proximal to their location (Table 10). 326 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Above quantitative data analysis clearly supports the qualitative inferences. People are not aware of the services and publicity is the need of the hour. Interestingly, every home is connected with Television and Cable connection. All the respondents have mobile connections which clearly shows that people are acceptable towards technology but they are not aware of

Recommendations of the study

1. Rather than partnering with the private agencies, the SCAs should try to hold partnership with the local bodies. SCAs generally sign MOUs with the private bodies but without knowing the real need of the people. A need based study should be implemented to evaluate and improve the project.

2. not in full swing. Poorest of the poor could not access the educational services as well. It is on the pressure of SCA, the CSCs are functioning, neither the community nor the VLEs are interested to continue the service. So some amendments need to be made for consistency and sustainability.

3. It has been evidently proved that the Old Government had been using these services for election strategies as the processing fee is minimized for a short period to access the eservices. If they increase the fee, the people would not depend on it more and the model would fail. VLEs have to charge as they have invested more. The Government can move the CSC’s control either to the Self Help Groups or local administrative bodies and cut off the rates. So the entire community would be

4. There is a need for some campaigning strategies through televisions to increase awareness among the rural users especially the aged and uneducated, as they are the strong opinion leaders of the society. It is evidently proved that more than 90% of the community is connected with Television sets as the Old Government has distributed free Television sets to every household. Hence television campaigns should be done to publicize the role, potential and its relations with the Government. It enhances the credibility of the CSCs among the general public.

Conclusion

The world is moving towards the mobile revolution in a rapid pace. The developing countries are testing the m-commerce, m-governance and so many other m-developmental initiatives. Mobile has deep rooted in the Indian society than any other medium. People of all classes use the mobiles. Rather than distributing free television sets, the Governement can spend on installing new applications which would allow the people to access all the services not even at the door step, but at their private rooms.

There are other serious issues to be dealt within the society before taking internet and computer. And moreover, the mobiles are user friendly than the computers. So it is the time for the Indian Government to stop spending money on the rural ICT initiatives and try to improve the research on m-governance. 327 The Journal of Media Studies References

Chakraborty, J. (2011, January). Information and Communication Technologies for Development: A Case Study of Community Information Centers in Assam and Nagaland. Ph. D Dissertation . Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India: University of Hyderabad. on Infomation Systems. Howard, I. (2008). Unbounded Possibilities: Observations on Sustaining Rural Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Africa. Association for Progressive Communications. Pitroda, S. (1993). Development, democracy and the village telephone. Harvard Business Review , pp. 66-77. Rogers, E. M. (1976). Communication and Development: The Passing of the Doninant Paradigm. In E. M. Rogers, & E. Rogers (Ed.), Communication and Development: Critical Perspectives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (2007). India’s Communication Revolution from Bullock Carts to Cyber Marts (Nine ed.). New Delhi, India: Sage Publications. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods in the social and behavioral sciences. (A. Tashakkori, & C. Teddlie, Eds.) Thousand Oaks , CA: Sage Publications.

328 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Six The Impact of Television Advertisements Featuring Children on The Audience

Dr.M.Neelamalara Ms.P.Chitrab

Abstract

Advertisers normally use various types of creative methods to make interesting and innovative advertisements. Of late, they have found out one more method which will make the advertisements more interesting and innovating than the usual. Advertisers therefore discovered an untapped market among the children and the persuasive power they possess over the decision markers in the family. Children could be used to reach the target segment-the parents. This study focuses on the impact created by the advertisements featuring children on the audience. Keywords: Advertisements, Children, Impact, Persuasion, Television.

Children featured in Television Commercials

The code for advertising in India - although outdated and inadequate, is conscious of the “implications” on children of certain broadcasts and realizes the scope for misuse. For example, under the code no advertisements should be accepted which lures children to believe that if they do not own or use the product advertised they will be inferior to other children or that they are liable to ridicule for not owning or using a particular brand. However, in reality there is neither strict monitoring of the advertisements nor a rigid follow-up despite the fact that many advertisements on television fall under this category. And most of these children’s channels have become marketing outlets for brands altogether in India (Rao, n.d).

Those who “have something to sell” – to use George Gerbner’s phrase -- have been aware of the market value of this section of the audience for quite some time. As Namita Unnikrishnan and Shailaja Bajpai reported in their book, The Impact of Television Advertising on Children, by the early 1990s, “children had become an important audience

a. Assistant professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University, Chennai 25. Email: [email protected] b. Research Scholar, Dept of Media Sciences, Anna University, Chennai 25.

329 The Journal of Media Studies segment for Indian advertisers and television had been instrumental in targeting them… Before television became a major social force, Indian children were less exposed to aggressive advertising and became aware and sensitive to its claims only as young adults. Today, children graduate into becoming consumers much earlier. They begin watching TV almost at birth and, since no skills are required to absorb ideas from television, they become part of the advertising audience fairly soon.” According to their study, of the commercials recorded from Doordarshan during April and May 1992, more than 35 per cent featured children and a little over 30 per cent of the advertisements reviewed held a direct appeal for the child audience.

And this was in the early stages of economic “liberalisation” and globalisation in India – the situation could have only become more acute by now, a decade and a half later. The chances are that similar situations exist in other Asian countries, too. In other words, the commercial potential of young audiences is being fully utilised, if not exploited, through ideas, and as a forum for discussion and debate – in fact, as a critical component of “the public sphere” so essential to the proper functioning of democracy -- are still not being made really available and accessible to children (Joseph 2006).

Advertising to children can take place on traditional media – television, radio and print – as well as new media (internet and other electronic media). Packaging, in-store advertising, event sponsorship and promotions can also be means to advertise to children. There is commonly used as a cut-off point, on the basis of the widespread academic view that by the age of 12 children have developed their behaviour as consumers, effectively recognise advertising and are able to adopt critical attitudes towards it.

To children under 7 or 8 years of age, commercials are perceived as entertainments or as a source of information for new and better products, rather than as an attempt to persuade them to buy certain goods. For preschool aged children, commercials are often interpreted as short, funny programs, or a continuation for the television show that they were viewing (Kunkel 2001). The cognitive ability of the child explains this developmental of the advertiser. Thus, because of their egocentric perspective, young children perceive advertisements as being consistent with their own use of the advertised products: a source of entertainment and happiness. In contrast, because older children can take the perspective of the advertiser, they are better able to recognize the fact that advertisements are simply attempts to persuade the viewer to buy their product (Ward & Wackman, 1973). Furthermore, the limited cognitive ability of younger children prevents them from understanding disclaimers that feature in company advertisements, such as “batteries not included,” “some assembly required,” or “each part sold separately” (Lebert, Sprafkin, Liebert, & Rubenstein, 1977).

The important question here is that – are we raising children to be indulgent, mindless, couch potatoes who go through life thinking that life is the synthetic reality they see on television. It is a happy world devoid of any ugliness. Is this how we teach our children to face the outside world? What are we protecting them from or are we protecting them? 330 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Children have become mere pawns in the world where money and power have become the primary agenda. Ads with their lively, catchy tunes feature children and animals to being used to market even non – children products and have become the decision makers not only for chocolates and toys but automobiles and electronic gadgets such as cars, bikes, television sets etc. Media has become a surrogate parent of sorts, teaching values, imparting lifestyles and telling children what they should buy, eat or wear.

The nature of Advertising to various audiences To the children

A large amount of children’s television viewing consist of programs aimed at adult audiences, and therefore much of the advertising children see is intended for adults. However, because children are not so interested in products of adults, they are less likely to pay attention to them. Thus, research on advertising and children has focused on likely to attract children’s interest and affect their behavior (Kunkel, 2000)

To the youth

“Today’s youth are no fools and are far more sophisticated than they were 20 years ago, when many of today’s youth advertising guidelines were written”, says Jerry Mc Gee who ran perhaps the largest advertising agency (Ogilvy and Mather). Marketing to the youth is a delicate issue. Because of the combination of color, sound and action, television attracts more viewers than any other medium (with the exception of cinema). TV perceived as a persuasive medium of communication. Moreover, the youth is treated ‘special’ audience. Besides these, gender–focus, gender–orientation are used as advertising techniques and strategies, the advertisers have now started using children to captivate the minds of the youth.

To the Older people

Older people are not a homogeneous group. They are as economically, socially and politically diverse as any other segment of our population, comprising sick and well, rich and poor, dynamic and depressed, all stripes of society, and they deserve to be portrayed that way, not shown as stuck in mud, or in a wheelchair, or rocking and whittling, when in fact some may be rocking and rolling. So, they won’t be feeling comfortable, if ad is long story short, since the older people like to have plenty of product information on which to make a decision.

Some ads are useful for the kids and some are not useful. But, still we see kids being used in the ads which are meant for the older people, the reason which it is being used is to win the heart of older people (emotional appeal), the older people are stolen by the children’s talk, smile and expression and they get entertained, and certain times they even buy the product.

Objectives of age group of 5-15 331 The Journal of Media Studies the youth and the people above 45 years audience in general

Literature review

Advertising to children has been a major focus of public policy and concern for many years. The major issues are whether TV advertising to children is inherently unfair, whether it causes children to make poor product decisions, whether it increases parent- issues, particularly associated with toys and games that involve violence, are whether advertising of such games, or the games themselves, should be disallowed, A related question is whether advertisers, even though it does not contain violent material, should be sponsoring television programs that do depict violent scenes that can be seen by children.

Advertisements featuring children in categories such as air conditioners, washing machines, cooking oil, home appliances and even paint is based on the acceptance of Consequently, categories using kids today extends to the family spending area including beverage, toothpaste or even a luxury car. Hyundai and Maruti Udyog Ltd hold painting contests for kids and distribute free T-shirts. Clearly, advertisers have been quick to cash in on the growing importance of kids within the families. Ever since the emergence of nuclear families in urban areas, all the activities in a household revolve around the “young ones” and parents would do anything to keep the children happy. Besides, in most product are emotionally driven. Here, kids tend to play a bigger role. So, in case of parity among most brand offerings (features, quality, price), be it durables or fast moving consumer goods, the advertising focuses on emotional connect (psnacet.edu.in, 2008).

Arnett (2007) reveals that children are inundated with marketing messages for toys, fast foods, cereals, snacks, electronics, and media content itself. Historically, concerns about advertising to children surround the issue of fairness. Is it fair to target children who are unable to distinguish commercial from noncommercial content or unable to recognize that the goal of the advertisement is to persuade them to buy a product? Moreover, there are concerns about the effects of marketing messages on children’s attitudes (e.g.,

This entry examines the research evidence related to children’s perceptions of advertisements and potential effects of these persuasive messages. Children usually do not recognize the persuasive intent underlying advertising until around age 7 or 8. To process advertisements effectively, the viewer must recognize that the source of the advertisement has perspectives and interests other than those of the audience, which the source intends to persuade, and that biased messages demand interpretive strategies different from those required by unbiased messages.

thus they are more vulnerable to misleading information. Children often do not understand that claims may be exaggerated and that products are not as dazzling and exciting as they appear on television. The production techniques or formal features (e.g., audiovisual 332 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 special effects, type of music, quick cuts) used in children’s advertisements contribute to these perceptions. Special effects are largely holistic and designed to create moods, images, and impressions rather than to convey accurate information about products.

Gunter and Aleer (1997) state that children are allocated to various viewing conditions in experimental studies. Some of the children will generally be shown advertisements, usually for various kinds of toys or snacks. After being exposed to advertising materials under controlled viewing conditions, the children will be given an opportunity to select a made. If there is a tendency to select those items for which commercials have just been seen, rather than items not featured in the commercials, such a result is taken as evidence of an effect for advertising.

There are a number of drawbacks to this kind of research. First, it does not actually examine children’s purchase behaviour, but only deals with the child’s choice out of a number of prizes which are offered as a free gift. Second, the effects that are measured are short-term effects, since the ‘choosing phase’ usually takes place immediately after exposure to the advertising. Third, it does not explore any of the processes that mediate between watching advertising and eventual product purchase. Fourth, it does not stimulate the natural activities of television viewing and consumer behaviour.

Thus, experimental research suffers from having limited external validity. In contrast to experimental research, many researchers have used survey research to study the effects of advertising on children’s purchase behaviour. Most research studies that follow this approach emphasis that television advertising is only one of a large number of children’s purchase behaviour.

Gunter, Oates and Blades (2005) have found that advertising to children is increasing and despite new marketing approaches aimed at children, such as Internet, the predominant way of advertising to children is via television. Television is an invasive medium because it reaches children in their own homes, and there is only limited control over the advertisements that are seen.

Of course, children (and adults) may not always give their full attention to the screen during advertisement breaks because they can turn away or leave the room, but in practice, the viewer has the opportunity to see all the advertisements associated with any program they watch. Parents may restrict the channels that children view or the times that children watch television. But parental control is obviously weaker if children have access to television independent of their parents. The underlying concern about television advertising is whether it exploits children, and this exploitation is sometimes described in emotive terms with references on “seducers” (the marketers) and “innocent” (the children, particularly young children).

In this context, advertising is seen negatively with the criticism that advertising persuades children to buy products they do not need and spend money they may not have. Product advertising places an emphasis on possessions and on aspiring to acertain lifestyle. This is especially the case for branded products where emphasis of the advertising is on purchasing not just a product but a product with a particular label, children can recognize brands and logos before they can read. 333 The Journal of Media Studies Bullen (2000) states that marketers are increasingly introducing brands into the set and into the strategic placement of products that are normalized within the setting or context and add children which avoid product placement, but which instead, engage in what is know as reverse product placement.

advertising, most recently the 2005 version with Johnny Depp. And, of course, children’s exposure to the convert form of advertising of both direct and reverse product placement for viewings. In a sense, such repeated exposure mimics the operation of advertising itself.

Giroux (2000) opines that increasingly promotional materials have constructed their own rich imagery of childhood, to the extent that it can appear to be the only source of images and popular meanings. In the early days of advertising, a picture of a child tended to be for sales prop, persuading adults to buy then, as the twentieth century developed and propriety became market segment, then targeted children themselves – both on the strength of their pocket of sweetly appealing youngsters to assertive brats has been seen in this context.

The trend is most highly developed in the USA, where Giroux argues that ‘childhood transformed into a market strategy and a fashion aesthetic’, the only type of citizenship that adult society offers to children is that of consumerism.

practices and genres of television, revealing much about both family life and family media. genres such as ‘reality television. More recently, scholars in this tradition have looked at how policy making in children’s television and family media is rooted in ideas of democracy, civic space and democratic participation. Still other studies have looked at particular issues in family and children’s media, including sexuality and even – one of the themes in our work reported here – religion.

Resnik et al (1979) state that television advertising and its effect on consumption patterns, values, and social interaction has been hotly debated for many years. But only recently has the controversy focused on its differential impact on special interest groups-the elderly minorities and children. Because of their purportedly greater vulnerability and higher potential for exploitation, children have received increasing attention from researchers. The importance of the problem related that the supposition that constant exposure to television advertising in essence limits a child’s freedom of choice in the market place by inducing children to manipulation or by distorting reality, thus limiting a child’s ability to exercise economic freedom. Supporters of children advertising on the other hand contend that commercials increase awareness of alternatives, providing useful information and greater satisfaction. Much of children’s television research has focused on the effects of advertising on processes and behaviour preceding the 334 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011

The primary issue still undetermined is whether causal relationship exists between television commercials aimed at children and family purchases. In addition, the child, parent, product and situational factors associated with parental yielding needs more thorough examination. Keeping in mind that a number of studies indicate that other children are an important source kinds of product information passes through word-of-mouth, what types of products and satisfaction levels prompt word-of-mouth, the effect of word-of-mouth on a child’s sensitivity to advertising related to the product in question, and whether child opinion leaders and

Methodology

The method chosen for this research study is in-depth interview with different sets of above the age of 45. The reasoning behind segregating the audience is: Parents of the age groups are covered. The total sample size was 200. The study was conducted in Chennai, one of the metros of India which comprises people of various backgrounds and different sectors and thus provides a typical backdrop to the study.

Findings

Table: 1 - Attractive element in the advertisement for children in Parents’ View

Attracted to see the same age group acting in 88 advertisement Attracted because of jingle, music and color 22

Parents (5-15 age group children)

1. Most of the parents are employed and most of the children are school going. 2. Almost all the parents said that their kids are watching channels like Pogo, Chutti TV, Jetix, Cartoon network, Disney, (all children channels) Aditya, Vijay TV, Sun TV and sun music (popular regional channels) etc., 3. All the parents said that their kids are giving special attention to the ads in which kids have featured. 4. Almost all the parents said their children recall the advertisements by humming or imitating the advertisement jingles, in which children have been featured. When their 5. Table 1 indicates 88% of the parents say that their children are attracted towards the ads in which kids have been featured since they see their own age group children acting. Children are being connected with those characters featured. And remaining 335 The Journal of Media Studies 22 % of the people say that, their kids are attracted because of jingle, music and color used in the ads in which children are featured. 6. Around 92% of the parents say that, the gifts or free things given by the product drives their children and they nag to get the product. But, around 8% of the parents say that, it’s the advertisements of the products that motivate them to get it.

Some of the free items given with the products are small toys, books, guns, balls, tattoos, ball, water bottle etc. 7. All parents accept that their kid nags after seeing the advertisement to get the product, as the ads attract their children. 8. Though all the parents accept the fact their kids nag them. 96% say that they are forced to buy the product for their child saying that they don’t want to get irritated by kids nagging. And only 4% of parents say that even though their child nags, they don’t get the product for the child but rather they decide what to get to their child and what not to. 9. None of the parents restricted their child from watching advertisements. persuaded and buy the products. 11. Around 6% of the parents don’t agree with the fact that, the advertisers intentionally use children in ads to pull the minds of the children and 4% says that, advertisers are clever and use small children in ads so that they can catch the minds of the small children 12. None of the parents are against the children acting in the ads. They say kids have talents and they are exhibiting it. Parents say that advertisements in which kids are featured have a greater impact among their children. The advertising experts who were interviewed expressed that kids in advertisements attract the customer more easily. It is a marketing strategy of advertisement agencies as many products in the market are related to kids. Advertising agencies effectively use children as models for products ranging from baby soaps to electronic gadgets. Children watching these advertisements get easily attracted by their same age group children acting in the ads. They also try to act and imitate them. Hence the slogan of the brand easily gets registered in the kids’ mind. Then, they force their parents to buy those products even if it is not necessary. Normally a kid’s desire to buy a product is not denied by family members. To place a brand in the minds of the people, using kids in the ads has become a powerful means. Kids grasp the slogans and product names soon and they keep telling them, so it automatically reaches the people around them Majority of the experts accepted that the idea of introducing kids in the advertisements is one way of attracting customers. The fact that these kids are innocent and have no relevant idea of what they are endorsing makes matter easy for the advertising agencies. Parents make their children models to increase their popularity and star status. Though, kids acting in the advertisements play a major role for the product, it gradually affects the people. Children who get tempted and attracted by few ads, they try to copy the same attitudes in their life too. Unknowingly it affects the originality of the kid. Youth The youth respondents said that they see the advertisements in which kids act and they 336 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 agreed to the fact that the advertisements in which kids are featured create an impact among them. Table: 2– How do the youth feel on watching advertisement that features children

Entertaining 22 88%

Irritating 1 4%

Persuading 2 8%

The youth said that it is not the advertisement which directs them to buy the product. (Table 2 explains that only 8% of them accepted that the advertisements featuring children persuade them). They know how to judge the product and its ad and they take their own decision in buying a product

All the respondents say that, advertisements have an impact over them, because the kids’ acting is

Table: 3- Youth’s response on whether advertisers use kids as a tool to capture minds 15 60% No 8 32% Nothing to say 2 8%

From table 3 it could be seen that , around 60% of the youth say that advertisers don’t use kids as a tool and 32% say that advertisers use kids as a tool.

According to youngsters, when kids appear on the screen, they feel energetic, happy and appealing. They feel like seeing that particular advertisement again and again. A child’s innocence attracts more viewers and has a positive impact than the charm of an actors and advertisements in no way affect their buying behaviour, but appeal to them and thus create a good impact on them.

Above 45 years age group

The respondents said that they see the advertisements in which kids act and they agree to the fact that, the advertisements in which kids are featured creates an impact among them, but they don’t get persuaded easily to get the product.

Entertaining includes – relaxing of the minds and making them happy. It is because of the acting of the innocent children. Especially, 60 and above age group people, say that when they see children in ads and their acting, they relate it to their grandson or grand daughter.

The reason why most of the people like those advertisements is because, the acting of the children is humoristic, mainly the expression and the act of pretending to be mature. 337 The Journal of Media Studies Table: 4- The impact of advertisements featuring children on people above 45

Entertaining 20 80%

Irritating 5 20% Persuading 0 -

Table 4 indicates that for 80% of the respondents, advertisements are entertaining when children are featured on advertisement and 20% says that it is irritating to see such advertisements. All the respondents say that the advertisements do not make them buy the product. They analyse and judge and it is their own decision to get the product. Table: 5 - Do people of above 45 think advertisers use kids, as a tool to capture the minds

1 14% No 24 96%

From table 5, in above 45 yrs, around 96% of the people opine that advertisers don’t use kids as a tool. But only a few think (14%), advertisers use kids as a tool.

Conclusion

which children feature. It is because these advertisements make a personal appeal to the kids at home. So much so, they even start acting (hum or imitate) as shown in the advertisements. But the same can not be said about the youngsters and the respondents above 45. They do like the advertisements featuring children but do not get persuaded by them. They like those advertisements only for their entertaining capacity and the innocence displayed by children.

Television is a powerful mass medium. And through it, kids reach every home in the form of advertisements. Today’s children have developed too expensive tastes, especially as a result of the children of their age group featuring in the advertisements of the costly products. They desire, parents are forced to buy the products.

Some ads are useful for the kids and some are not useful. But, still we see kids being used in the advertisements which are meant for the older people, the reason for which they are being used is to win the heart of the older people (emotional appeal), the older people are stolen by the children’s talk, smile and expression and they get entertained and certain times they even buy the product. If kids are used in the advertisements depending on the nature of the product, it will be useful for the public.

Acknowledgement: The authors acknowledge the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, India for the fund given for the major Research project - “Impact of Ethical Violations in television advertisements on children: A study in the Metro of Chennai” References:

Book

Arnett J (2007), ‘Encyclopedia on Children, Adolescents and the media’ SAGE Publications, Inc. Pg: 59-60. 338 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Bullen E & Kenway J (2000), ‘Dividing Delights” Children Adult and search on sales’ in Drotner K & Livingstone S (Ed), ‘The International Handbook of Children, Media and Culture’ Sage Publication Pg: 170 Giroux (2000), ‘The child in the picture by Patricia Holland’ Pg: 38-39 Gunter B and Mc Aleer J (1997) ‘Children and television’ Pg: 140 Gunter B, Oates C & Blades M (2005) ‘Advertising to Children on TV: Content, impact and regulation’, Pg: 3& 4, Routledge. Hoover & Clark (2000), ‘Children and Media in the context of the home and family’ Pg: 106 Kunkel D (2001). Children and television advertising. In D.G. Singer & J.L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media,. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage. Pg. 375-393 Liebert D, Sprafkin J, Lebert R, & Rubienstein E. (1977). Effects of television commercial disclaimers on the product expectations of children. Journal of communication, Pg: 118-124 Ward S. & Wackaman D. (1973). Children information processing of television advertising. In P.Calarke (ED.), New models for communication research. Beverly hills, CA: Sage. Pg. 119-146

Internet

Retrieved February 12, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_to_children Retrieved February 12, 2010 from http://www.psnacet.edu.in/courses/ MBA/ASPM/18.pdf Retrieved March 5, 2010 from ‘Why children should be seen and heard’ www.workingchild. org/Why%20children%20should%20be%20seen%20and%20heard.doc Retrieved March 5, 2010 from Rao (n.d) ‘Whither Children’s Television in India?’ www.cmsindia.org/cms/events/children%20television.doc Retrieved March 15, 2010 from Resnik et al (1979), ‘Integrating results fromChildren’s Television advertising research, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4188264?seq=1

339 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Seven Negotiating Cultural Practices: Consumption of Tamil Television Serials among Indian Youth in Malaysia

N.V.Prasada Dr.Shanthi Balrajb Dr. Thomas Jayaprakash Yesudhasanc

Abstract In this era of globalization, television programmes from the place of origin have been studied in diverse diasporic settings for their socio–cultural implications. In the Malaysian context, not much is known about the way Indian youth in Malaysia read Tamil television programmes and on their ability to provide a source of cultural knowledge and identity to the Indians. The present study explores an area of diasporic communication in the context of Malaysian Indian youths’ negotiations of cultural identity. This paper through the analysis of in-depth interviews and focus group discussions argues that Indian youth in Malaysia negotiate cultural practices, traditions and customs depicted in Tamil television serials. The cultural knowledge and capital to the young Malaysian Indian audiences. Keywords: Cultural Practices, Television Literacy, Cultural Identity and Television Serials Introduction

In today’s digital age, increased globalization has extended television’s representations of the culture of different societies in serials and series to vastly wider circles of viewers. through Tamil channels such as Astro Vaanavil and SUN network channels. This paper demonstrates how Tamil television programmes broadcast from India through satellite pay channel ASTRO, promote the cultural capital and strengthen Tamil cultural identity among Malaysian Indian youth.

shared values, practices and expressions of Malaysian Tamils as well as Tamils elsewhere.” In addition, he argues that living in a complex multi-racial setting, Malaysian Tamils look a. Assistant professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University, Chennai 25. Email: [email protected] b. Research Scholar, Dept of Media Sciences, Anna University, Chennai 25. c. School of Media Culture and Creative Arts, Curtin University, Australia. 340 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 for values, ideas and images that give a sense of identity and stability. This topic assumes in their understandings of the values, attitudes and the dynamics of relationships in Malaysia is an interesting one as television is blamed for escalating violence, for the erosion of traditional morality and the promotion of promiscuity and other social problems in the society (Ravindran, 2005). The generalizations concerning the role of television in relation to social problems among Malaysian Indian population have hardly any evidence presented in local press without supporting evidence based on systematic research.

Television programs such as movies, talk shows and serials that come from South India are extremely popular among Tamil Indian communities in Malaysia. Vaanavil, ASTRO and SUN TV are exclusive channels that airs television programs in Tamil. The main objective of this study is to focus on the role of television in the lives of Indian youth in Malaysia by studying how they read the Indian Tamil television serials that were broadcast shown in the serials like marriage, interpersonal communication, violence, dressing and other traditional practices.

Methodology

The study is based on the methodological and theoretical frameworks central to audience studies. It focused on Malaysian Indian youth, who are not a homogenous grouping and included people drawn from different classes, gender, ethnic and linguistic backgrounds but as Tamils constitute the majority. We deliberated on the different elements in the composition of the Indian youth and assume them to be of one homogenous group. This study was conducted at Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. We used qualitative method of data collecting. Focus group interviews were conducted among members of a selected group of Indian youth who were avid viewers of Tamil television serials broadcast in Malaysia. Six focus groups were organized; each focus group had eight participants consisting of both male and female students from Universiti Sains Malaysia. The duration focus group discussions were transcribed and the data was segmented and coded into categories such as marriage, interpersonal communication, violence, dressing and other traditional practices. These categories were then examined for recurring themes, patterns, trends, statements that could enlighten the perspective of the youth. These themes and trends from the focus group data are combined into generalized descriptions of the participants’ experiences. Discussion And Findings family life. It was obvious from the focus group discussions that most of the participants watch Tamil serials regularly. As Dr. Karthikeyan (2002) an eminent psychologist from Chennai puts it, “The narrative style will always be the most entertaining as story telling has always been an integral part of Indian culture. And today in nuclear families, the TV serials have in a way substituted for the stories grandparents used to tell their grandchildren”

To explore Malaysian Indian youth’s negotiations of identity, we focused the discussions on the way they read certain cultural practices shown in the serials like the way 341 The Journal of Media Studies they dress, usage of language, remarriage and traditions. Participants felt that there are many similarities in traditional practices between the Malaysian Indians and as it is shown in the of the major differences can be seen in the rituals that are done during certain religious and are celebrated in a much bigger scale in India. Most of the participants admire the way they in the local dramas. Surendran, a participant explains that through Tamil television serials festivals are differently celebrated in India and some of the social implications. He vividly puts:

My grandmother says that there are festivals every month in India. Here we only have ‘Pongal’ and ‘Deepavali’. For example we don’t have ‘Holi’ and ‘Bhogi’. ‘Bhogi’ they burn old things in India. Here we can’t do it because it is an offence. We came to know about these festivals only from Tamil serials.

Majority of the participants agreed that television serials apart from providing entertainment also teach the cultures of Tamil Nadu in India. Apart from cultural and religious festivals such as Pongal and Deepavali, participants revealed that they are exposed to how these festivals and customs are practiced in India and particularly among Tamil communities. Ramesh, another Tamil speaking Malaysian Indian while endorsing Surendran’s views added some of the family values and customs that are being practiced in India. Ramesh argues that:

Some cultural practices are not seen here in Malaysia. For example ear piercing for the child, here we just go to the shop and do it. There they have a big function to celebrate that occasion. Ear piercing is done on the uncle’s willing to give to their daughter they give. In India, it appears from the serials that they are very particular about how much money the girl’s parents should keep for the marriage as dowry.

The participants often argued that television serials that come from India teach them about how festivals and functions are being celebrated in India. These television serials along with storyline incorporate necessary functions, customs, and festivals. The participants really appreciate the depiction of these events, as Revathy pointed out:

I really admire one thing i.e. the way they show functions. Every function has its rituals and traditions. Sometimes they show why it is practiced. Here it is rarely seen in the local dramas. We do celebrate Pongal but in a simple manner but in India it is celebrated like Deepavali.

The views expressed on cultural festivals and customs not only taught them their culture Weddings are celebrated very grandly in India as it is shown in serials. I want my wedding to be as grand as it is celebrated in India. I admire the way, the wedding halls are decorated in India.

While discussing the costumes in the television serials there were both positive and negative comments. Generally, most participants like the clothes used or the dressing style because it is very traditional and it emphasized on Indian culture. Some female participants said that they watch serials because they are attracted to the costumes. However, there are some negative comments by male participants mainly on the formal clothes worn by the male characters in in full sleeves and tuck in. They observed that women who are shown in modern clothes are 342 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 often portrayed in a negative role. It was also observed that arrogance and toughness in a woman would somehow make her unfeminine and unattractive. These characters are shown to be undisciplined, rude or aggressive. Like for example, the educated girl in jeans has loose morals and symbolizes the corrupted youth. Some felt that this is not the right portrayal and Looking at the traditional clothes worn by the female characters in the Tamil serials, male participants felt that it would be nice if Malaysian Indian women also wear traditional costumes here in Malaysia. They feel women here rarely wear the traditional dresses like Saree or Salwarkameej except for occasions like marriages or attending temple. However, females defended this by saying even though they like the traditional costume it will look out of the place here in Malaysia as it is multicultural in society. During the same discussion female youth raised a point that it would be nice, if Indian men in Malaysia are as equally responsible as male characters shown in the serials. They would be happy to see their male counter parts more responsible.

Female participants in the focus groups were really appreciative of the depiction of traditional Indian costumes worn by the television artists. They argue that Indian traditional costumes depicted in the Tamil television serials often promote the image of Indian community in Malaysia. As Kalpana explains:

Talking about clothes, it is a known fact that we local people despite being Indians admire clothes of native Indians. In drama context, I think they have done a very good job in portraying our culture in traditional sarees and Punjabi suits. Not only to Malaysian Indians but also to the other audience who are not targeted for example the Malays and all. So, I think their dressing is very proper and it is not as terrible as movies.

cultural costumes. She argues that:

In Malaysia, it is very rare that Tamil women wear saree, churidar or pavadai thavani everyday. When we look at serials, they wear traditional clothes. I like that very much. It promotes our culture. When we go to textile shops, we can see sarees in lead female characters names. Not only sarees but also choker set, are available in the name of characters in the serials. We want to wear those clothes and we feel we are learning our culture.

On the other hand female participants criticised the way negative roles that were played by women. One of the women participants in the focus group discussions argued that:

What I don’t like is that if a character is little modern in her appearance, they will portray as if she is undisciplined and rude. For example in Kungumam the girl (Sukanthi) is shown a bit modern and she is the bad one in the serial with less values. Her hair is a bit stylish and coloured.

Similarly, Manimozhi, argues that women those who wear traditional costumes are presented with nurturing roles whereas negative characters were presented with modern clothes:

Most women are portrayed to be traditional in serials. Women who are good natured and capable are shown as traditional and those who are modern are those who are going to take the wrong path in life. For example in Engiruntho Vanthal, the two sisters are very traditional and responsible. The sister, who is modern, will be in love and that creates problems to the family. It gives a wrong idea that those who are modern are bad.

Kamal, observed that women in Malaysia and India differ in costume selection. Indian women are always portrayed in traditional costume such as Saree whereas Indian women 343 The Journal of Media Studies in Malaysia wear those costumes during special occasions such as Indian wedding, cultural ceremonies, Hindu religious festivals and functions. He also learnt how few cultural ethos and values differ between Indian women in Malaysia and India. He narrated that:

Dressing is totally different; here they wear saree only for any function. There they wear all the time. Socially, as it is shown in serials a girl and a boy should maintain a distance even though they are friends. In Malaysia, that is not a big issue. Over there, women are expected to be back home by 7 pm in the evening. I don’t know whether it is real situation or only it is shown in serials. Here it is not like that. They can go out even at night but they should come back fast or bring someone along.

Male participants in the focus group discussions unanimously agreed that men in Tamil television serials are largely portrayed in formal costumes. Anbarasan pointed out that: formal attire. The way they tuck in their shirt, wear long sleeve and always in pants. India is such a hot country. They never wear t-shirt. They are always in long sleeve, tuck in and tie. Apart from costumes, participants were asked to comment on language used in the serials and how it is different from the spoken Tamil in Malaysia. Generally they seem to like the language used in the serials and they are able to understand the dialogues even though there are some minor differences in the words that are used in the serials. They also felt that the way people address each other in serials is different from how it is practiced in Malaysia. They felt it to be less ‘respectful’ in serials when compared to Malaysian context. Ramesh pointed out that: some serials we hear a brother calls his sister ‘vadi, podi’ and sister calling brother ‘vada, poda’(less respectful). I don’t know if it is like that there or only in serials. That does not happen here. Here elder brothers are called ‘anna’ and younger sisters are called by their name. Tamil spoken in the serials are more ‘pure’ compared to what is spoken in Malaysia because here when Malaysian Indians speak words from different languages are mixed. Even if the is how people normally speak. Kalpana argued that:

multicultural we are, they should stick to Tamil. When they use like ‘lah’ , it is like what we call ‘bahasa pasar’. I don’t think it is very right. In Indian dramas their Tamil is very clean compared to our local dramas. Sometimes in serials they use different slang words or accent used in various parts of Tamil Nadu. We found mixed response to this from participants; some felt it is interesting normal life. Since Tamil serials are shown worldwide, it is good to use standard Tamil. In this context, Ramesh argued that:

If you take a serial, it is not only shown in India but also world wide where ever Tamils live. So language is very important in drama. The use of local dialects should be reduced like Chennai slang, Tiruchi slang, and Madurai slang. It is good to use standard Tamil. We can see children imitating the slang words here in Malaysia. So use of good and standard Tamil is important.

In contrast, Mageswari had different opinion: “It is good to have slang because we know 344 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 that people in different area speak differently. As long as they don’t mix it too much with other However, they felt it is good to have the proverbs. They sometimes ask the elders if they do not understand the proverbs.

Bigamy & Extra Marital Affair

In the context of the Indian society in Malaysia, remarriage is common when the spouse Participants found that there are many instances where bigamy or second marriages are shown in serials. Logeswari narrated that:

Remarrying should be encouraged when somebody has no companion but not when the spouse is around. In ‘Metti Oli’, ‘Selvam’ and his sister both have no companion, so it is ok for them to remarry because their and should be stopped.. Like in ‘Kolangal’, ‘Devayani’ is chased out and she is forced to allow the husband to remarry.

They feel that there is a strong bias in portraying remarriages in the serials. Whenever a guy marries for a second time (bigamy) it is not shown as something very serious or bad. Everyone seems to accept the situation. However, when a woman does it, she is often insulted by her family and society. Surendran argued that:

In the serial’ Metti Oli’, ‘Sarala’ is married and her husband is in Dubai. She has an affair with ‘Manickam’ before his marriage. ‘Manickam’ mother knows about this but she does not discourage this. It seems like the mother is encouraging this act because ‘Sarala’ is rich.

They feel that such portrayal of remarriage in serials will only encourage others to follow it. It makes people to think that there is nothing wrong in bigamy or polygamy. Since television even the language we talk, the dress we wear and all that. So when the serials portray certain social issues like remarriage it promotes wrong ideas to the viewers”.

Portrayal of violence

Many participants felt that even though violence is portrayed in the serials, it is not as much as it is shown in Tamil movies. Even if the intention of the producers is to create awareness among women, it should not be shown frequently. Sathya observed that:

There is lot of verbal abuse in the serials. Male characters are shown drunk and the words they use are not nice. For example in ‘Kolangal’, ‘Aathi’ scolds ‘Devayani’. He scolds her very badly and we can’t accept it. It sounds very abusive. The words they use are very harsh. We wonder if people actually say things like that.

Participants felt that most of the violence portrayed in serials is verbal abuse. It is usually done by husband character and his family members particularly mother-in-laws. However, in some serials we see wife abusing the husband. Couples are often shown as using very harsh language to insult or scold their spouse. Participants felt that in most of the serials mother-in- laws are always portrayed as negative characters or being evil. This stereotype of mother- 345 The Journal of Media Studies in-laws gives a negative impression to youth. The constant portrayal of mother-in-law in a negative manner creates fears in some of the female viewers regarding their future mother-in- law. Shenbagam said:

I don’t think the theme of portraying in- laws as the ones who are abusing is over reacting because it is a reality. I think not only in Indian community but also other communities have these perceptions that in laws are like that. What they are showing is reality. Probably they should not emphasize on it so much because it would affect the young ones. Personally, if I would to marry I would have the fear in me. You have this negative perspective of our in laws. I mean there may be a truth to it. But for them to stress on it more will provoke our feelings.

Conclusion

This study has highlighted some of the main ideas about Malaysian Indian youth reading the television serials and how they connect to the stories, images and messages emerging from India in Malaysia. It is also evident from the study that Indian Tamil television serials provide a source of cultural knowledge to Malaysian Indian youth and they are able to identify with the cultural practices like dressing, language, worship, traditions and gender shown in these serials. Both male and female participants admire the traditional costumes used by the Indian women in the serials and they are popular among the Indian society in Malaysia.

However, they are not happy with the portrayal of women wearing modern clothes as being always aggressive and rude. Some male participants felt that the costume worn by male characters are different from the way they dress up here in Malaysia. Rituals and traditions shown in the serials are educative to them and they learn new things like for example the way a festival is celebrated. Many of them seem to be attracted to the mythological serials which educate them regarding the religious customs and traditions. Language used in the serials they

Some viewers are ‘addicted’ to these serials so much that they even plan their daily routines around these serials. Most serials focus only on family life and ignore other elements of a person’s life such as work and college. Another issue highlighted by the participants is Bigamy or second marriage which was shown frequently in the serials. Women participants felt it bigamy is shown so frequently, they fear that viewers might think that it is a norm in Indian society. Portrayal of domestic violence is another issue they are concerned. Many felt that there is much verbal abuse shown in these serials. Also they notice mother-in-laws are mostly portrayed as negative characters which create a stereotype in the minds of the female youth.

Participants highlighted few elements that are lacking in Tamil serials compared to other other foreign serials which run only for 2 or 3 months.

It is interesting that there are many complexities surrounding the television texts and the audience that read these texts. Clearly more work and television literacy efforts can be initiated so that youths can engage in these television works in a more systematic, productive and 346 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 meaningful way. One positive point about Tamil viewers approach is they have great love for the medium, so the programme producers should use the media effectively to cultivate the right attitudes in the minds of Tamil youth.

References:

Books

Alasuutari, P. (Ed.). (1999). Rethinking: The Media Audience. London: Sage. Alvermann,D.E.,J.S Moon (1999) “Popular Culture in the Classroom: Teaching and Ang, Ien (1985) “Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination.” London: Methuen. Brown, Mary Ellen (1994) “Soap opera and Women’s Talk : The Pleasure of Resistance”. Thousand Oaks (etc) Fiske J. & J. Hartley (1978) “Reading Television.” London: Methuen. Fiske J. (1989) “Television Culture.” London: Routledge. Gautier, Francois (1996) “ Rewriting Indian History.” Vikas Publishing, New Delhi. Goodwin, Andrew & Gary Whannel (eds.) (1990) “Understanding Television”. London : Routledge. Masterman,L (1985) “Teaching the Media”, London: Comedia. Morley,David (1980) “ Study of the Nationwide Audience” London: BFI Morley,David (1992) “ Television, Audiences and Cultural Studies” London : Routledge. Muriel G.Cantor & Suzanne Pingree (1983) “ The Soap Opera”, London : Sage Ravindran, G. (2005) Research Report “Cinema and Tamil Diaspora: Exploring the Negotiations in the Diasporic Space by the Tamil Cinema Audience in Malaysia,” USM, Penang Vivelo, Frank R. (1978) “In Cultural, Anthropology Handbook: A Basic Introduction.”

Journals

Alasuutari, P. (1996). Theorising in Qualitative Research: A Cultural Studies Perspective. Qualitative Inquiry, 2(4), 371-384. Buckingham, David (1987) “Public Secrets: East enders and its Audience.” London: British Film Institute. Gunter,B & Svennevig,M.(1987) “Behind and in Front of the Screen: Television’s Involvement with Family Life”, John Libbey and Company, London. HMSO (1963): The Newsom Report- ‘Half Our Future’ Central Advisory Council for Education. London.Paragraph 475. Hobson, D. (1982). Crossroads: The Drama of Soap Opera. London: Methuen. 347 The Journal of Media Studies Livingstone, Sonia M. (1991) “Audience Reception; The Role of the Viewer.” London: Routledge, (eds.). Livingstone, Sonia M. (1998) “Making Sense of Television: the Psychology of Audience Interpretation.” London: Routledge.

Internet

http://chennaibest.com/cityresources/Entertainment/malathi.asp Downloaded on 1st July 2005. Http://www.Raadan/est/myes/conn.html. Downloaded on 20st July 2005. Http:// www.thehindu.com/the hindu/mp/2002/01/24/stories. Downloaded on 1st July 2005.

348 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Eight Language Revolution, a Necessary Evil? on language and meaning

Dr. Sony Jalarajan Raja Rohini Sreekumarb

Abstract

the ways in which we perceive and enact communication practices. These web 2.0 social based on phonetics, making it adaptable even to those who are unfamiliar with the lexicon and grammar. This paper addresses the manner in which the language utilised in virtual social environments has been adopted into the mainstream vocabulary, creating entirely new meanings with regards to connotation and denotation. The often abridged form of language customary in electronically mediated forms of communication now pervades face-to-face social exchanges, and this article speculates on whether this phenomenon represents another phase in the evolution and democratization of vocabulary. This research paper is based on qualitative textual analysis, interpretation and literature review on scholarly articles. Keywords: SMS, computer mediated communication, language, digital, new media. Introduction

New media provides us with a fantastic world, where virtual and ‘real’ realities co- exist to make social life smoother, (more) interactive and above all, borderless (Lister, M &Dovey, J., 2003, p. 233). We are living in a digital age where the structure of production, consumption and communication have given the way for new media technologies to rule the roost. As Jenkins (2002) opined, both cultural jammers and fans have gained greater visibility as they deployed the web for community building, cultural distribution and media activism. It has basically altered the nature of tools available to the human species for thinking and human expression; and as McLuhan (1964) said, digital technologies are the extensions of our sense organs; in that case, internet or any social media is the extension of our nerve system. Communication has always been the act of transmitting ideas, opinions, thoughts and information through a medium (Foulger, 2004, p. 18). In

a. Lecturar, School of Arts and Social Sciences, Monash Universiti, Sunway Compus, Jalan Jagoon Selantan, Bandar Sunway, Selongor 46150, Malaysia. b. Research Scholar, School of Arts and Social Sciences, Monash Universiti, Sunway Compus, Jalan Jagoon Selantan, Bandar Sunway, Selongor 46150, Malaysia. 349 The Journal of Media Studies present day context, information is crucial and the medium to transmit the information must be fast, reliable, and globally connected.

what all technologies encompass the new media. Lev Manovich (2001, p. 68), in his book, The Language of New Media, tries to peek into this dilemma. He questions that if we take internet, websites, DVD and virtual reality as new media, then why cannot we consider the television programs shot with digital video, 3d animation etc. as new media. It is not and conviction, to make use of in their daily life, both for interaction and for seeking information. Over the past few years, one of the most important shifts in the digital world has been from the wide-open web to semi-closed platforms that use the internet for transport but not the browser for display (Anderson &Wolff, 2010).

The rapid growth of new media technologies – internet, mobile phone, iPods, iPads world, without which nothing is possible (Castells, 2007, p. 207). The Internet is one of the examples of a medium that brings revolution to new media technology. It also communications such as emails, chat rooms, avatars, forums and other social networking sites, thus providing a new platform to distribute and consume media texts such as simulated virtual reality, interactive websites and online computer games. Woolsey (2009) calls it ‘internet soup’, a dynamic communication that incooperates different media types.

‘New media’ technologies in this essay refer mainly to the internet and mobile phones as the medium of communication, giving emphasis to the new identity and experience constructed in a virtual world. This includes popular social networking sites such as with one another. We do text messaging through S.M.S with popularized text such as ‘BRB’ (be right back) and ‘OMG’ (oh my God) which we practice from instant-messaging to revolutionize the way we convey our thoughts and express our emotions through new media technology. As such, new vocabularies and meanings are produced. Novel words are invented in order to eliminate lengthy explanations as long as they are descriptive and usable.

A new system of ‘Un’-words has become the new language of social media as well. Everything can be ‘undone’, ‘unsubscribe’, ‘un-tag’, ‘un-delete’, and ‘un-purchase’ on the social media. These practices have gone beyond the virtual world, seeping into our daily conversations thus, forcing us to re-think our notions of connotation and denotation. The following case study will analyze the above mentioned language transition under the on qualitative methodology of textual analysis and observation in order to justify the arguments.

Language for Communication – from Imitation of Nature to Limitation of Words

Prior to the development of the printing press, our culture basically relied on face-to- face communication. What sets human beings apart from other species is our ability to 350 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 communicate verbally. Language development is directly affected by the developing brain, and vice-versa. The evolution of a concrete system of language and speech is explained by scientists using different theories and suppositions. As the ‘Bow Wow Theory’ or ‘Ding Dong Theory’, argues, speech evolved as a result of the imitation of sounds and movements of nature (Dunbar, R; 1996). It was a process, not an invention; a cultural language origins lies in the words itself,

“For all its power to wound and seduce, speech is our most ephemeral creation; it is little more than air. It exists the body as a series of puffs and dissipates quickly into the atmosphere. . . . There are no lava that took them by surprise.” (2007, p. 42)

Gradually, language attained its undistinguished position through literary revolution and then to newspaper proliferation. Culture is as important as the human brain in developing a vocabulary and language (Oxford English Dictionary 1996). Languages became saturated, when the majority familiarized with it and began to consider it as the easiest way of conveying thoughts (Croft & Cruse, 2004:58). The written codes and norms of using language, like Lexicons and Dictionaries, are only attempts to preserve the human language. Hence, print was so inextricably entwined with culture that local languages soon whole world; graphical media, combining images and print, have added to the range of expressions available in print culture at a large scale (Woolsey 2005).

As new technologies develop, their mode of communication and usage too differs. Advertisements and magazines full of pictures have become mainstays of the popular culture. Cinematic media has also become powerful elements in the media landscape, as movies and television have become central experiences within popular cultures (Woolsey, 2005). In spite of the proliferation of electronic media, face-to-face communication was never overruled, but used in a different technological context, or as J.B. Walther (2008) said, a mediated intervention through which we now designate new media communication (p. 13). Web 2.0 provides the information age with much interactivity, interaction and a consistent two-way communication (McNamara, 2010), not merely transmitting ‘information from one individual to another while leaving their relationship unchanged’, but through these communication media, ‘individuals create new forms of action and interaction which have their own distinctive properties’ (J. B. Thompson; 2005:31-51) . In another way, it can be said that it creates a language and vocabulary of its own, according to ‘user-ability’.

When analyzed in this manner, the email has much difference from a letter, even though it bears the same purpose; precisely, the spatial and temporal compression is much greater in the latter. Likewise, chat rooms and forums work entirely in a different way, as compared to emails. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has been around 2004: 14). By the advent of Web 2.0, a new dimension of CMC was inculcated where a convergence was in effect between the internet and mobile phone technologies which had a tremendous impact on the lifestyles of people, the effect of which was the ‘rise of mobile phone into mobile media of user generated content (Hjorth, 2009:120). 351 The Journal of Media Studies have allowed individuals to communicate with friends and family in real-time and with new media technology evolving so rapidly, together with high speed internet access and wireless mobile connectivity such as laptops and 3G Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) phones, the meaning of communication has changed inevitably. The experience with new media technology has also moved to hand held devices such as PDAs and mobile phones. In today’s mobile devices, users are able to send emails, chat on instant messaging (IM), surf the web and download videos.

Short Messaging Service – Source of New Vocabulary

have shifted our language and meanings to a higher altitude. As a result, they have created new forms of representation in social life. The use of Short messaging services has evolved from communicating important messages to being a social tool for everyday discussions about daily activities (Small, 2003). This evolvement has changed the language of communication from the use of full words or complete sentences to shortened and popularized acronyms such as ‘OMG’, ‘LOL’ and ‘BTW’. The digitization of information has enhanced the way we transfer our knowledge through Facebook, emails, blogs, system allows its users to stay in constant contact with friends and family by posting text- based stories of up to 140 characters, which are colloquially called ‘Tweets’. With users’ creativity, new language and jargon are created to give the best short representation of users’ daily vocabulary. For example, ‘Miss3’ in twitter refers to a daughter who is three years old, while, ‘HAND’ stands for have a nice day.

New words are created everyday to suit the communication needs, and it is no surprise about the vocabulary employed by users. These new words have now evolved to daily usage not just on Twitter, but in SMSs on mobile devices as well. The creator of Twitter claims that it is a modernantidote to information overload (Eckels2009). Twitter(ing) compels its users to express themselves or update their statuses in less than 140 characters. As a result, the term micro-blogging bears a whole new meaning, forcing a shift in representation.

Ever since the invention of the printing press, new technologies were always looked upon with skepticism, fear, confusion and suspicion. In the case of short messaging, it was not any different. The arrival of print was perceived as an invention of Satan – ‘these uncensored ideas will lead to social disorder and chaos’ (Crystal 2006, p. 13). For instance, John Humphrys(2006)argues that texters are:

“...vandals who are doing to our language what Genghis Khan did to his neighbours 800 years ago. They are destroying it: pillaging our punctuation; savaging our sentences; raping our vocabulary. And they must be stopped.”(p. 19)

However, texts communicated by pagers were replaced by text messages or SMS, at Although many texters enjoy breaking linguistic rules, this is not an irrational action to overwrite the foundation of language or to add a new chapter in the orthography. SMS, as the name suggest, has only limited space; hence the longer the idea and information, the 352 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 longer the script will be. So, many chose to avoid grammatical words such as ‘you’ and ‘be’. The most noticeable feature is the use of single letters, numerals, and symbols to represent words or parts of words, for example, be becomes ‘b’ and to becomes ‘2’. As older and more conservative language users have begun to text, an even more standardized style has appeared. David Crystal (2008, p. 32) argues that this style of orthography dates back to centuries, and calls it rebuses, which is especially popularized by literary personalities and poets:

“In 1711, for example, Joseph Addison complained about the way words were being “miserably curtailed” - he mentioned pos (itive) and incog (nito). And Jonathan Swift thought that abbreviating words was a “barbarous custom”. Several of these are so much part of English literary tradition that they have been given entries in the Oxford English Dictionary. “Cos” is there from 1828 and “wot” from 1829. Many can be found in literary dialect representations, such as by Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, Walter Scott, DH Lawrence, or Alan Bloomsdale…”(ibid.)

Even before the introduction of these text messages, the English language contained abbreviated words ever since the time of documentation. Words such as exam, fridge, cox and bus are so familiar that they have effectively become part of the daily vocabulary as pure stand-alone words. It was the poetic way to use shortened words like-‘t s (for it is) and can be wildly seen in Shakespearean plays. The original Old English language Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety known as Anglo-Norman. These two invasions led English to become ‘mixed’ to some degree (Cowie; 2009). Later on it developed into the status of an international language, creating classic literary works. It is then understandable that certain newly-minted abbreviations have been inducted into the English language vocabulary.

age via text messaging. Phone novels were primarily read and authored by young Japanese women, mostly surrounding subjects such as relationships, lovers, rape, love triangles, and pregnancy. Each chapter sent out via text message on mobile phones contained about 70 to 100 words due to the word limitation of each short message. Most of the sentences were short, and in the form of dialogues. They were downloaded in short installments dating’ and ends up contracting AIDS. It became so popular that it was published as an actual book, with 2.6 million copies sold in Japan. Consequently, it became a spin-off named ‘Love Sky’, written by ‘Mika’ received approximately 12 million views online was

Paradigm shift in Language System

lives of hundreds of millions of people globally (Mischaud 2007). New computer and Communicative technologies affect social integration by shifting the balance between relationships that are interpersonal and those that are mediated (Calhoun 1986, p. 329). One 353 The Journal of Media Studies of the major agents that have brought changes in culture is the new media’s communication system (Thompson 1978, p. 104-107). New media’s shortened language is saving space, time, money and cutting across boundaries as well as enabling the transmission of visual and aural expressions to many. It ensures maximum interactivity because even the non- across barriers as well as simplifying language and vocabulary, the popularity of textese is enhancing day by day.

The phonetics is becoming more important when compared to the script. It turns out to be about the speed and spontaneity of messages or information that needs to be passed on. Social networkingis a term used to describe the websites that offer ‘the people formerly known as the audience’ (Rosen; 2006) from all walks of life, the chance to ‘meet’ virtually, share information, news and views via the internet. It has played a crucial role in bridging boundaries and crossing the seven seas, enabling them to communicate on a common platform and expanding their social circle.

A decade ago, Citizen Journalism was restricted to resentful people expressing their dissatisfaction in a small column of ‘Letters to the Editor’ in a newspaper. When the mainstream media failed to represent grassroots level news, the void was leveraged by the ‘citizens’ through new media in various forms such as blogsand online sites. This new technology has created a new broadcast medium to the world and users now communicate in their own language. A simple message posted on Twitter such as ‘let’s party!’ will attract interested friends to join the topic. With every ‘tweet’ posted, anyone interested in a topic may respond accordingly to what he/she wishes to relate to.

This creates a niche-oriented and narrowcast interaction when compared to blogging. Everyone is ‘tagging’ someone or some group and at the end, it turns into a huge social group that most users lose track of and tend to forget who they have tagged and how it started. In many cases, discussions posted online were meant to be private but have now been accessible to the public. This then blurs the lines between the public sphere and the private sphere as new media technologies possess the ability to alter the underlying architecture of social interaction and information distribution.

One of the reasons that has changed the dynamics of global linguistic scenario is the impact of internet technology on the use of the English language:

…the Internet as an event which is as revolutionary in linguistic terms as it has been technologically and socially (Crystal, 2004, p. 13)

Crystal terms it as ‘netspeak’ - the discursive features of the Internet – of which he refers to emails, chat rooms and many other net applications. Language is for communication and the orthography does not matter if the idea is transmitted successfully. ‘Netspeak’ is not a written or spoken language – it possesses the characteristics of both. However, a study conducted by a group of students in the University of Tasmania (2008) found that rather, they take a much longer time to be read and understood than that of conventional English. The internet began exclusively as an English-mediated platform, but by the 1990s and thought appears far more than a mere extension of capitalism, into more intrusive and intimate domains. The system of capitalism is on the verge of consuming the very 354 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 foundation of human life (Graham, 2006, p. 24). Language ultimately coordinates the fundamentally creative social phenomenon that marks the human species as unique .The expansion of new vocabularies in English and other languages has forced net users to catch up with new jargons used in cyberspace. In many cases, these jargons from Twitter or SMS have managed to penetrate into our everyday conversations.

This new technology has created a new broadcast medium to the world and users communicate in their own language. Icons have also evolved from traditional designs Apart from that, it must contain elements or meanings that work with the market without negative social or political connotations. This new form of language must communicate In other words, icons are designs to be malleable. From PC desktops to palm tops in mobile devices, the language and meaning have merged into one singular platform that is recognized and understood by the masses. The Internet as a medium of all new media impact on the language that we use today.

According to Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory (CMM), two people who are interacting socially, construct the meaning of their conversation (Pearce &Cronen; 1980, p.112). Data sharing such as Windowslive space provide free space for users to upload data as additional storage from the common hard drive that we use everyday such as hard disks or USB thumb drives. The term human-computer interface (HCI) describes the way in which users interact with a computer and virtual reality allows us to travel through non-existent three dimensional spaces. As Manovich (2006) says, a computer monitor, whichworks as a window to the outer world of faraway countries, together with the help of a mouse or a video camera, transforms into an intelligent being capable of engaging us in a dialogue.

Today, coupled with a computer, the screen is rapidly becoming the main means of accessing any kind of information, be it still images, moving images or text. We are already using it to read the daily newspapers, to watch movies, to communicate with co-workers, relatives and friends, and, most importantly, to work.This is a form of ‘detribalizing’ the language. What we are currently witnessing is the homogenization of the English language.

New media’s shortened language rewrites the rules of grammar. By this way it ensures demarcation between British English and American English – only ‘textese English’. With this form of shortened language, its prominent role is effectively changed from awakening, learning, reading to informing and understanding. This is a paradigm shift from its intended purpose and function of languages. In November 2006, New Zealand to use mobile phone text language in their end year exam papers. Beginning in 2002, these highly publicized reports incited concerns over the quality of written communication by allowing students to use text language in their assignments. Other reports also claim that teachers and professors are beginning to experience a tough time in dealing with this predicament. The concept of a global village is made quite practical with this new universal language, where even non-schooling populations can be a part of the ‘Information Super Highway’. 355 The Journal of Media Studies “We live existing in our languages as if language were a symbolic system of referencing to entities of different kinds that exist independently from what we do, and we treat even ourselves as if we existed outside language as independent entities that use language….the main consequences of our existing in language is that we cannot speak about what is outside it”(Maturana 1995, pp. 15-26)

When McLuhan mentioned that the medium is the message, he was referring to the the upsurge of shortened language, one may deduce that the medium is no longer the message. In the shifting world of technology and social media, the people have now become the message and the new message of vocabulary has witnessed its evolution through the birth of new media. The medium employed in conveying a message is disregarded as individuals place priority on the contents of the message communicated. Shank (1993), argues that communication through these online networks or new media is

We use the word ‘Windows’ in Microsoft Operating system on a desktop PC to represent a meaning of another space or world of information. The ‘Windows’ metaphor to a real-world window. The interface and icons created will give users the comforting representation of domestic life. A virtual environment on a PC desktop becomes a platform that reshapes the way we see our world today. A new language of icons is formed within the virtual worlds that help us to cut down the need of using texts. Icons for international messages. For example, the recycle binfunction on top of a Windows desktop resembles the real item in domestic world – it is an image of a bin.

This new form of language has transcended into mobile devices that enhance its users experience with graphic representations of a content or concept. It helps to avoid confusion and reduce liability exposure with information that users can easily understand. As a result, denotation takes precedence over connoted meanings. ‘Smileys’ are the most with the lack of sentence using, hence, long sentences can be eliminated and be replaced with an icon. Mediated communications are always looked down for its low-media richness character, but with the help of functions such as smileys and keyboard characters to imitate facial expressions and cues, this limitation has been elided.

“…In addition to well-known use of keyboard characters, or ‘smileys’, to imitate facial expressions and paralinguistic features of conversation (e.g. typing “:-)” to indicate smile), users frequently express emotion and meta-communicative intent by embedding words in text…the person who wishes a message to be taken as friendly teasing, for example, may embed a word or phrase like “grin” or “just kidding” in text…” (Parks and Floyd 1996, p. 82)

Non-users feel lost and do not understand the shifts that are taking place and this creates a huge gap between them and the technologically-equipped today. This new media technology has made most non-users or older generations for example, insecure as they are unable to ‘let their hair down’ knowing that there are risks involved when exposing themselves to the public freely. In many cases, social networking sites have become a breeding ground for predators as they are open to public and conversations have been known to be accessed by anyone, through legal or illegal means. This form of language degradation, did not reduce the communicative possibilities, but facilitated a new literary genre including mobile novels and literature. 356 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 One of the tantalizing hopes for web 2.0 has been the promised invigorated participation of ordinary citizens in public debates and, down the track, decision-making and policy changes. As Crystal (2004) pointed out, the web holds a mirror up to the graphic dimension of our language system; it can be type-written, handwritten or even printed text. The common language spoken by the majority is preferred by the mainstream decision making, SMSs plays a crucial role through public participation.

where viewers’ SMSs determined one’s elimination in vote-based competitions, this practice could very well be implemented in major political issues too. For instance, the Obama campaign showed that social media can be very useful in raising money, spreading the message and receiving votes. But from a policy viewpoint, Obama’s campaign was tightly controlled. Social media is said to be communication-led rather than information- driven – to offer a sharing of values and beliefs, a sense of ownership as well as emotional involvement that speaks to a sense of identity that is performative and mobile. They are seen to allow or encourage dissent through multiplicity and polycentrality, and to be hard to censure; they are described as predicated on ‘self-communication to a mass audience’ (Castells 2007, p. 71)

In the domain of the internet, there are worlds beyond just text-messaging such as users dwell in and communicate via graphical avatars representing themselves on the internet. A company from San Francisco, Linden Lab has successfully created Second Life,which enables users to create their own avatars representing themselves with of the closest representations of reality in the social network today. The virtual worlds sometimes are referred to as collaborative virtual environments (CVEs) or multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) because they ‘involve more than one person’s avatar or immersive virtual environments (IVEs) because the user actually experiences being within another world’ (Curtis, 2009).

These avatars are a language – a visual language of new media that is associated with the psychological and bodily expressions of human beings. As such, one may not speak or comprehend the English language but can partake in web-related activities due to the very fact that it is the user who decides on the language and initiates the movement. There are other important virtual reality tools as well, which involve collaborative virtual environment. Google Earth for example, is a satellite imagery system of maps, terrains and 3D buildings which allow users to see the world virtually from any computer and allows its users to take a tour of any selected country.

The application helps us to make new meaning of this world and users are able to participate by contributing information on their own country or their current place of stay. They are able to create worlds with applications such as Google Sketch up and Google 3D Warehouse which represent the area or town they live in with 3D virtual reality. These virtual reality worlds create new meanings amongst those who look for new information that can be communicated through a 3D map.

Many theoreticians have opined that technology includes not only the built devices, but also the practices and social arrangements that form around these devices (Dierkes&Hoffma 1992, p. 55), Mackenzie &Wacjman, 1999, p. 78). Language then can 357 The Journal of Media Studies be considered as such a technology if applied to the aforementioned concept. Social shaping of technology theory argues that society plays a crucial role in shaping and constructing the technologies that surround us (Mischaud; 2007). For instance, SMS was not initially slotted for commercial purposes but was viewed as part of the wider GSM mobile telephony network, as an “add-on” service. It was conceived as “a machine-to- person service” that would alert a mobile network in the event of an emergency (Trosby; 2004). Fast-forward nearly two decades later, text messaging has become an integral part of personal communication for hundreds of millions of people worldwide, in both developed and developing countries (Goggin; 2005).

As such, society according to its own convenience, warped language which ultimately became a form of popular new media language. Cognitive semantics hold a similar second, that conceptual structure is embodied and motivated by usage; and third, that the ability to use language draws upon general cognitive resources and not a special language module (Croft & Cruse 2004, p. 58) Instead, it divides semantics (meaning) into meaning- construction and knowledge-representationagainst the traditional separation of linguistics into phonology, syntax and pragmatics.

New media and shortened language has economic values. It is used frequently in today’s new media language comprehension between users and those without the means to access it. We brand items using ‘ver. 1, 2, 1.1’ as well as the word ‘plus’, such as ‘coca-cola plus’, or something similar to show there are upgrades. Hence, interactivity is communication/ information driven, not media driven. As the social construction of technology theory argues, individuals mould technology for their own purpose, irrespective of the intended purpose of a particular technology. Many social networking sites provide mobile connectivity between their members. This enhances the interactivity and usability, as it limited time and knowledge.

Conclusion

As Bruckman (1992, p. 268) said, cyberspace has created an ‘identity workshop’, where one learns and tests one’s social skills .The internet is providing a new social space, a ‘third space’, where people can interact, build relationships and hang out beyond the workplace metaphors that could apply to computers and gadgetry have changed the language and meaning which are associated with our psychological, ethical, and legal expectation about the use of language. It may not bear as much negativity as speculated simply because this phenomenon might create an avenue for new creative linguistic forms that may dominate the next century to come.

Hence, we are currently witnessing an inevitable transition of linguistic practices or evolution, as some might prefer to call it. Marshall McLuhan (1964) pointed out that whenever we get our hands on a new medium we tend to use it like older ones. Early TV broadcasts consisted of individuals reading radio scripts because nobody had realized that TV could tell stories differently. Today’s webcam video is not any different as most 358 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 exploring its potential. For in this new information-rich world, a wide range of media becomes centrally important for self-expression, understanding and communication. Though oral and print literacies continue to be central to human communication, their power is enhanced with e-media and other literacies, hence becoming more essential to general literacy in an interlinked world. Just as the introduction of the printing press in the fourteenth century and photography in the nineteenth century had a revolutionary impact on the development of modern society and culture, we are now witnessing a new media revolution – the shift of all of our culture to computer-mediated forms of production, distribution and communication (Manovich; 2001).

Indeed, the introduction of the printing press affected only a single stage of cultural communication in that the medium of communication was changed. In contrast, computer media revolution affects all stages and types of communication media like texts, still images, moving images, sound, and spatial constructions. In other words we can say use its scripts for almost all the languages, thus vesting to it a democratic status.

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363 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Nine SEENSAY: PARTICIPATION OF THE CITIZEN MOJO IN INFORMATION DISSEMINATION M. Sripriyaa P. E. Thomasb

Abstract

Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) have become ubiquitous in all the world’s economies and there is a near-universal consensus that they are not only mediums of communication, but also enablers of development. Among them, the permeation of the mobile technology in development is discerned to be faster than any other communication technology in history and nowhere has that growth been more important than in the developing world. Mobile phone users in developing nations now account for 58% of the world’s three billion mobile phone users. With its falling prices and increasing functionality, however, it is virtually certain that not too far into the future most of the world’s citizens will have cell phones. This is reason enough for citizens to explore the possibility of making the cell phone an important tool in mobile journalism in the developing countries. This paper explores the possibility of i.e., what is seen as breaking news in one’s locality, be divulged to the whole world. It considers versatility of the mobile as a convergence medium that can help realise the need for participatory information dissemination and analysed the possibility of the citizen turning into a social “Foot Soldier” that leads to realizing the need for completeness in

Key words: Introduction

Tomi Ahonen, a commentator and author on new and social media, has called the mobile phone the “7th Mass Media.” He noted,

media, economically viable with a stable business model from day one. Yet, differing from the legacy mass media, all of which are witnessing a decline in their audiences and revenues, mobile like the internet, is an interactive media enabling it to fully capitalize on social networking and digital communities”.

a. Research Scholar, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Email: [email protected] b. Associate Professor and Head i/c, Department of Communication and Media Studies, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Email: [email protected] 364 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 He pointed out that the convergence of mobiles combining voice, text, video, audio, geo-location, and a host of applications, pose an “inherent threat” to mass media channel. Today the mobile phone can replicate everything that all the other six mass media can do.

However, the speed of the mobile phone adoption had outstripped that of other forms of communication technology so far, so that within the past decade “mobile telephony had moved from being the technology for a privileged few, to essentially a mainstream technology”(castells, Fernandez-Ardevol and Qiu, 2004)

This paper explores the power of mobile phones in information dissemination as turning into social “Foot Soldiers” in covering the uncovered issues which are neglected by the main-stream media.

Mojo-Mobile Journalism

Mojo refers to Mobile Journalists, often abbreviated as Mojo. Mojo uses only a mobile phone to gather and distribute news. The news can consist of text, audio, stills or video, or sometimes a combination of these. Mojos tend to work alone. News and stories are posted either in online magazines, blogs or online newspapers, on newspaper’s websites or included in the print editions.

The term “Mojo” was coined in 2005 by people with Gannett newspapers as a codename for a project at the News-Press at Fort Myers, Fla, which has now come into regular use within the community of journalists.

Mobile News Production And Consumption

Mobile technology bring into being new pathways for user-generated content creation and broadcasting. Mobile phones can be utilised to collect and broadcast written, audio, and video to the Internet and to other mobile devices.

Sms -Text Messaging

CNN have been offering SMS news alerts in the last few years as well for urgent updates deliver news to their constituents.

Twitter is a popular ‘micro-blogging’ site. Users can text message news to Twitter or the dozens of local twitter clones around the world. Users who subscribe to a given user’s Twitter account can immediately see the posts. Since many online services like Twitter also allow subscribers to get updates via SMS, people without Internet access can still receive the information they want.

Voice And Audio

There are a number of companies that provide applications for mobile phones to create instant podcasts. In Afghanistan, RFE/RL and Radio Azadi uses an interactive SMS service that allows listeners to access content and participate in the program via mobile phone. 365 The Journal of Media Studies Megafone.net, is a platform which uses mobile phones, or ‘digital megaphones’, to create webcasts to amplify the voices of individuals and groups who are often overlooked or misrepresented in mainstream media. The concept is a communal one.

Photos

Mobile phones that have can use MMS (Multi Media Messaging Services), email, or bluetooth to send images to other phones. Many popular photo sharing websites allow photo and video repository and community, gives every account a mobile email address to send photos to and from a mobile device.

There are many other, often grassroots, citizen media efforts that encourage mobile blogging via email, SMS, and MMS. For example, MoBlog Ukraine is a grassroots site that encourages Ukrainian citizens to report their own stories to a web blog by sending a anybody to post their picture who uses camera phones.

Videos

Mobile video can also be one of the most effective ways to share important information and current events not covered by conventional media. Individuals can record and send directly to web blogs.

spaces for creating one’s own blog where one can create video press releases.

Netherland based Africa news has been a pioneer in mobile journalism in Africa with its website “VoicesofAfrica” where reporters are posting their video stories.

Videos on mobile phones are also shared routinely via Bluetooth from mobile phone to mobile phone. The project, the Community Platform, developed by a group of MIT students, creates a local interactive workspace that can be used to collect and distribute automatically duplicated to those within certain proximity. By using physical proximity, information can be shared quickly. Because the system is off-grid, it can be accessed in remote areas without connectivity.

Location-Based Services And Mapping

Some NGOs and community-based organisations are using mobile phones and GPS devices to engage communities in social mapping activities for advocacy as well as local reporting linked to locations.

The best-known is Ushahidi, a platform used during the Kenyan election to crowd source and map incidences of violence. 366 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 were sending text messages from their cell phones to friends to tell them where they were. Those messages were posted to a blog at the Times-Picayune newspaper’s website, which then was read by emergency crews who went out and saved the people.

The Mobile Web

The Mobile Web refers to the access to the World Wide Web using a mobile device connected to a public network. Opera Mobile and Opera Mini, web-browser software for mobile phones, show rapid growth in mobile-web browsing in developing countries.

The fastest growth is in developing countries including Russia, Nigeria, Egypt, Indonesia, India and South Africa. These trends have implications for media outlets and NGOs alike. Already all major news outlets have mobile sites viewable from a mobile browser.

There are dozens of free commercial services that turn almost any website or blog into a mobile site. Viewing websites on mobile phones is only an option for people who have Internet-ready mobile phones, of course. However, for those who do not there are products such as Podlinez that can turn Internet-based audio and blogs into a dial-in which provides mobile publishing and advertising.

Mojo - An Overview Of India

In India mobile journalism was witnessed during the time of Tsunami. In Uttar Pradesh, India, Gaon Ki Awaaz delivers news updates twice daily via voice calls in their native language Avhadi. It was launched in December 2009, covering 20 villages and 250 subscribers.

In the same title another project operating among the Adivassi tribe in India, which allows the villagers to share and receive news over their mobile phones in their native language, Gondi. Launched by Shubhranshu Choudhary of the International Center for Journalists, the project focuses on citizen reports with dozens of citizen journalists reporting throughout the region.

Besides, IBM India Research produced a system, VoiKiosk, a voice-based service that uses the telecom network. IBM envisions two types of users: the voice kiosk operator or post voice information (such as news, advertisements for their Businesses, event information, etc). The project is being rolled out in Andhra Pradesh in the local language, Telegu.

Chhattisgarh and Bangalore are linked by a mobile phone-based information system, internet-radio-cum- website system. Here anyone can call the designated Bangalore number – 080 6693 2500 – listen to news on the line, as well as record his or her own report, or comment. Once a news item is recorded, it shows up as a link on the website, which is moderated and the edited reports gets published. 367 The Journal of Media Studies CGnet is another people’s Web site of Chhattisgarh. It is a citizens’ journalism forum whose mission is the democratization of journalism. Citizen journalists of CGnet have helped expose human rights violations that the mainstream press has missed. Some of the stories have been picked up by the mainstream media and attracted the attention of human rights activists.

CNN IBN, news channel in India allows anyone to send in videos and images taken from their mobile phone to their Citizen Journalism account on the channel’s website IBNlive.com over MMS. Mobshare.in, is an another partner for the same for mobile social network.

The growing presence of citizen journalism in India is visible from the active working of over a dozen websites in both regional and English languages. Their sustenance and continued growth are dependent upon the efforts of the knowledge producers “to capitalize on India’s appreciating economic group and the simultaneous” enhancement of the literacy level in the country.

Seensay

The scenario in the media has been relatively bleak in its information oriented communication. The country has only a few prominent media houses that not only parties or now by religious groups.

Many a time, these mainstream media due to their vested interests do not address some of the critical or socially relevant issues. Sometimes, they do not cover the regional issues extensively and mention them only in tickers. Many a time they do not address the issues of women, minority groups and even developmental news.

existing mass sentiments, social norms, ownership pattern, marketing, and editorial policy play a vital role in information dissemination. This prevents people from experiencing their right to know about is happenings in the society at various levels. In order to bridge the gap between the information and the society, a new concept of participatory journalism is fast emerging across the globe. Citizen journalism, also known as public or participatory journalism, is an evolving form of journalism through user-generated content, when any common man in his capacity as a citizen of a nation takes up the initiative to report things or express his views about happenings around him.

To report the incidents one is in need of a digital camera, video camera or other reporting accessories. Mobile due to its nature of convergence of different media into one, paves way for talking, recording audio and video, broadcasting and connecting to net .This simple tool consists of all the potential in reporting news -worthy happenings.

The importance of mobile in news dissemination was obvious during Tsunami in India, Katrina hurricane in China, the recent earth quake of Japan which also included other incidents of any hard news of the world. Mobile because of its ubiquitous nature is the most effective tool in reporting things. In Ling and Donner’s (2009) book Mobile 368 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Communication: Digital Media and Society Series, they believe that the ubiquitous mobile phone not only makes possible the spread of information and in-roads production of news, but also records breaking news.

Mobile phone’s recent advances to facilitate citizen journalism lies in many phones and applications allow for immediate uploading of photos to web sites, social networking platforms and photo-sharing sites. This promising nature of the technology had given rise to Mojo. In a way this emerging form of Mojo is capable of breaking free from media bias as well as taking local news onto a global platform. This paper proposes the and discerns as worthy of dissemination is “said” to the world by being a link in the form of a “Mojo”.

Mobile as a medium has no limitation of its use. Donner (2008), who studied mobile use in the developing world observed “the politics of mobilization and resistance is another domain in which the interrelationship approach to mobile use is proving fruitful”. Smart Mobs (Rheingold, 2002) played a role in the removal of Estrada in the Philippines. Pertierra, Ugarte, Pingol, Hernandez, and Dacnay (2002) argue that texting “caused” the political shift, it is true that the SMS-driven protest become an icon for Filipinos’ new postmodern, urban, individualist lives. Parages (2003) also focuses on the interrelationship between democracy and the technology, noting how prior reforms and liberalization in the telecommunication markets established the conditions for the text revolution to occur. 2006; Arsenault, 2006; Gordon, 2007) are optimistic, arguing that mobiles will help give voices to those marginalised by lack of access to other ICTS.

Rafael (2003) is more skeptical, focusing on the fetish of communication-as- empowerment taken on by the participants in the anti-Estrada uprising, and wonders whether the cries for reform and transparency, mediated by a technical communication platform, represented the demands of a stable middle class rather than a disenfranchised group. Hill (2003) discounts the role of the SMS and the mobile in Indonesia’s 2000 political text messaging, using the example of SARS to illustrate how text messing can be used in form of appropriation, rather than outright resistance, to support civil society in a time of crisis.

Mobile now is becoming a mainstream media for every family. Thus this Mojo is much promising for the development of the society. Not only these cases there are number of possibilities the mobile be used for social change. Social “Foot Soilder”

A 16-year-old pupil at John Ogilvie High School in Hamilton, near Glasgow, used her mobile phone to take a video of her fellow pupils misbehaving in class. The Hamilton Advertiser, a local paper, not only ran the story in print but also uploaded the video on to its website. Two other papers, The Scottish Sun and the Scottish Daily Mirror, also used images from the video to illustrate stories concerning lax school discipline. Here the mobile is actively playing the role bringing out the truth from any location and tries to conform the existing social norms. 369 The Journal of Media Studies The power of cell phone was much evident in the case of the Iranian crisis. In reporting that incident, Twitter was in the spotlight as an organizational tool showcasing how the online world could be used to communicate and unite people, despite government censorship. Armed with cell phones, Iranians were able to text, tweet, and send pictures and videos to the world community, focusing the spotlight on this world-altering event. Their efforts were not in vain; the international community rose in uproar to defend the democratic principles of Iran, forcing political and religious leaders to publicly discuss the issues.

The universal access and power afforded by digital tools is breeding a new kind of world citizen and establishing this type of “citizen journalism” as a crucial supplement to traditional media. The increasing prevalence of mobile phones makes possible that, from protests to war, anyone with a cell phone can become an automatic witness to history and participate in the process-even in a small way.

The fundamental right is the right to information but the common man does not receive all the essential information what he is in need of. In that case this Mojo is an opportunity to document and express to his community and to the other parts of the world, depending upon its importance. He has his own media the mobile to disseminate the information even if the main stream media neglects it. Mojo is seen as our opportunity for all the responsible citizens to cover the important incidents and to reveal them to the whole world. This possibility paves way for all the citizens to become a social “Foot

Minutes after the London’s bombing in 2005, the photos and videos were used by the media. The BBC received 50 images within an hour and later it was thousands. Any common man is a potential reporter now because this low cost technology is an advantage. He has all his chances to document happenings around him. Rachel Sterne, founder of citizen journalism site Ground Report, in mobileactive.org says about the integration of citizen journalism and mobile devices. “Mobile devices are the perfect tool for on-the- ground reporting: they enable event documentation that is instant, rich and location-based. video publishing feature, and the Nokia N97’s video streaming ability, empower people to report wherever they are with multimedia capabilities.

Mobile is the best tool for instant news gathering especially when it is related with any hard news. Levinson (2004) elaborates the immediacy of the mobile phone by comparing it to other conventional media like the telephone, the radio and the television as well as the desktop Internet. He argues that all those previous media make information delayed, because neither of them could provide the most updated information anytime and anywhere. Today the cell phone is heating up and rapidly evaporating those last puddles of delay. When the cell phone has completely permeated our society, when immediacy in media is the de facto order of the day, there will no longer be any contradiction between immediate and media, no whiff of oxymoron. And at that point, media and immediate will be one and the same (Levinson 2004).

The emerging trend of Mojo had resulted in a hyper local journalism on the global platform. This facilitates anywhere, anytime, anybody to document and report news. Mojo seeds microsites, gathering super granular real life. For example “voiceofafrica” is a 370 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 website where it consists of all real-time neighborhood events. For example a news report shows the video how an individual prevents the public from using the toilet built out of government funds and stopping others from using it. potential uses of mobile media remains at an early stage among journalism educators. Missouri School of Journalism had introduced mobile journalism into its curriculum. Karen Mitchell, an assistant professor of convergence journalism, found a viable product with a growing market during the real-time test of the new mobile software and hardware. The apple was approaching the school of journalism to update its iphone according to the need of the journalism students. for the Web. The News-Press in Fort Myers has been at the forefront of mobile journalism staffers with mobile packs that include laptops, digital cameras and audio recorders by the end of spring 2008. The management at the Gannet chain had responded with enthusiasm for Mojo, Ahrens, 2006, in Martyn wrote, budgeting for 50 mojos on staff from 10 in 2006 – although it has been reported that Gannet management ordered her to cut three staffers in order to meet the chain’s budget for the News-Press and it would be offering buyouts to older staff; the paper was not unionized. Its Challenges The possibility of the citizen becoming a journalist is high and analysts and professional Habermas’public sphere journalism. For example “Voicesofafrica” contained a piece of video reporting, in which a man assaulting his wife and her crying and whining in their house was shown. If abusive quarrel is given importance it not only ceases to be news but also an invasion on privacy. The more the Mojo becomes a common practice the lesser will be the public space. The future consequence may be the lack of privacy in one’s own locality and possibility of getting into public space without ones knowledge.

organizations performing a public service as satisfying the demand for information and come cheap”. But he argues, as has American media analyst Jay Rosen (2000) that media audiences-readers, listeners, viewers – are not just consumers …but also citizens” who need reliable sources of information to practice in democracy. The traditional news scenario is facing the changes. The traditional media always had different hierarchy and in its each stage gate keeping is possible and it has its own editorial to say its opinion. As the Mojo is rapid there is a possibility that gate keeping is pared out. have rooms in organization. Here mojo paves opportunity for everybody to become a gate keeper and possibilities are that it results in selectivity. Ahrens (2006) in Martyn described “Mojos are posting stories directly to the web without editing – a breach of news paper editing protocol”. Mojos need to be trained on which items can safely be posted live and which items need the scrutiny of an editor,” (Marymont,2007). 371 The Journal of Media Studies The sense of ubiquity underlies several major issues. For eg, though ubiquity might be assumed, new technologies and the resources to use them are not distributed evenly or in the late 1990’s(Rice and Haythornthwaite). Mojo with its pervasive reach prompts questions about the control of the system exception. There is need to study the relationship among media messages, public opinion and political participation. It may present new arenas for discourse that challenge the The quality of journalism will be a question when it falls into the hands of untrained professionals. There is plenty of criticism around treating citizen journalism as news, sourcing, the often limited analytical skills found in many articles, and devaluation of the professional reporting. Another consequence of the Mojo is the sense of interactivity that they convey to users. Switching is the pivotal part of new media systems; they afford users more selectivity in their choices of information sources and interactions with other people. The mass media users the means to generate, seek and share content selectively, and to interact with other individuals and groups, on a scale that was impractical with traditional mass media. This selectivity account for much of the sense of interactivity or social presence associated the sheer proliferation and diversity of content and sources now available have raised concerns about the quality of the content (for example, its authenticity or reliability), as well as questions about nature of online experience and interaction (for example, about anonymity or identity of participants in online interaction). The convergence of technology has led to the technological determinism and it has its own profound effect on the society. Marshall McLuhan (1964) observed that older media often become the content of newer media. Today, this has become an ongoing process of remediation in which older media are appropriated, refashioned or absorbed by the new, therefore simultaneously shaping the new and reshaping the familiar.(Bolter and Grusin 1999). Each of these technologies not only expands the range of information and communication possibilities, affording new or different forms of social relationships and experiences, but it also “mediates” (rather than replacing or displacing) older forms such as diary writing, voice telephony, taking photos, video capturing, SMS, MMS, audio recording or video games. There are reservations about the moral and ethical labor practice as it is spontaneous and unplanned. If it is with the erroneous hands it will result in nonprofessional production culture. Though the high-speed technologies make it possible to deliver information in evaluate, shape, craft and contextualize the news rather than merely transmitting what happens to be in front of his or her video camera. Zelizer calls it “a technology that superseded [the reporters] ability to gain composure”.

Furthermore any negative impact such tools have had or having has nothing to do with the technologies themselves: it is merely how they are used, by whom and to what ends – social shaping at work (Winston, 2007) – that determines their effect on news content. 372 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 social transformation: as a media device, mobile phones are now vying with the other old and new media technologies. Goggin & Clark,(2009) mentioned two things as note the Internet; second, mobile phones are often connected to other media, to create new forms of connection and cultural expression the camera-phone-generated content

Since the mid-1980s, community and citizens’ media around the world have been radically and luminously extended with new social, cultural, economic, and technological developments associated with video camcorders, personal computers, computer networking, internet and free, liberal, and open-source movements. The mobile phone is playing a great role as citizen media, contributing much to the citizen journalism.

Mojo is a double-edged sword. When it is in the hands of ethically morally responsible group it ends in trivialism and commercialization.

References

Journals

Martyn, Peter .H (2009) ‘The Mojo in the third millennium’. Journalism Practice, Taylor and Francis, vol. 3, no 2, 196 -215. Donner . J (2008) “Research approaches to mobile use in the developing world: A review of the literature” The Information Society, Taylor and Francis, vol. 24, 140 – 159.

Books

Lievrouw, Leah . A & Livingstone, Sonia, (2009), The Hand Book Of New Media, Sage Publications: Los Angels. Caldwell, John .T and Everett, Anna, (2003), New Media Theories And Practices Of

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375 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Ten Trial by Media: Problem and Prospects

Dr. G. Rajasekar

Abstract

The emerging concept of Good Governance of 20th century has encouraged the active participation of people in all affairs of their community and the State. It is their right to be kept informed about the current political social, economic and cultural life as well as the burning topics and important issues of the day. To achieve this objective people need a clear and truthful account of events, so that they may form their own opinion or conviction to have their future course of action.

Media has wide ranging roles in the society and is also capable of changing the whole viewpoint through which people perceive various events. In other words, media plays a vital role in molding the strong public opinion in the society. The right to freedom of speech and expression guaranteed in Article 19 (1) (a) of the Constitution also includes right to receive information. Keeping this in mind this freedom is extended to Media though it has not been expressly mentioned in the above article. However the freedom is not absolute as it is bound by the sub clause (2) of the same article.

The concept of investigative journalism made the media become active in reporting the crimes occur and bringing those accused to hook. But, again and again it is established that the sensationalized news stories circulated by the media have gave death knell to the right to fair trial guaranteed under the Constitution and also posed a grave threat to the presumption of innocence. It is pertinent detrimental to the impartial decision-making process of the judiciary. Such news stories cannot easily be defended under the auspices of freedom of expression.

Madras, Cheapuk, Chennai-5. Email: [email protected]

376 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 The right to a fair trial is at the heart of the Indian criminal justice system. It encompasses several other rights including the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, the right not to be compelled to be a witness against himself, the right to a public trial, the right to legal representation, the right to speedy trial, the right to be present during trial and examine witnesses, etc.

The concept of fair trial obviously would mean a trial before an impartial Judge, a fair prosecutor and atmosphere of judicial calm. Fair trial means a trial in which bias or prejudice for or against the accused, the witnesses, or the cause which is being tried is eliminated. The credibility of news media rests on unbiased, objective reporting. It is in the media’s interest to ensure that the administration of justice is not undermined.

Key Words: Administration of justice, Fair Trial, Informed citizenry, Investigative Journalism, Public opinion, Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression.

Introduction

The Strength and importance of media is well understood in a country which accepts democracy as a principle of Governance. Hence, the Constitution of those Countries recognized Free Speech as a fundamental Right to its citizen. A paradigm shift has been happened in recoginising this right. One such shift is recoginising the freedom of Media. Certain countries like US explicitly guaranteed the media rights but Indian position is different in this aspect. Even though the Indian Constitution has not recognised the rights of media expressly the Indian judiciary made it as a derivative right under Art.19 (1)(a) of the Indian Constitution.

Freedom of media is the freedom of people as they should be informed of public matters. It is thus needless to emphasise that a free and a healthy press is indispensable to the functioning of democracy. In a democratic set up there has to be active participation of people in all affairs of their community and the state. It is their right to be kept informed about the current political social, economic and cultural life as well as the burning topics and important issues of the day in order to enable them to consider forming broad opinion in which they are being managed, tackled and administered by the government and their functionaries.

Access to information is essential to the health of democracy. The rule of law may be further institutionalised by support for an independent media that keeps a check on the judiciary, reports on the courts, and promotes a legal enabling environment suitable for press outlet.

power with them carries with it an obligation to act with responsibility and creativity. But, there are symptoms of negativity in the media. In the context of the judiciary, the positive blown out of proportion and publicised.

When days gone this right becomes a multifaceted right. Publishing the Court proceedings, interviewing the prisoners are some facets of this right. At the same time like other fundamental 377 The Journal of Media Studies rights this right is also subjected to reasonable restrictions. In a single word it can be said that it is not an absolute right.

The existence of a free, unbiased, independent, powerful media is the corner stone of civilised society. Moreover, a pluralistic society like India is highly in need of a powerful media not only to express the sentiments, news and views but also to mould public opinion on various issues of National and International agenda.

like political, economic and social in general and moulding the public opinion to strengthen the democracy in particular. Today the society is having a regular interface with the media in the form of news papers, TV, Internet etc. Therefore imagining a life without media is not viable. It has become a regular practice for Newspapers and TV News Channels to publish/ telecast disputed matters which are sub-judice or under investigation, in the name of news. Every news story of this nature has certain common elements. For example in case of Dowry issues generally News Channels always portray wife is in distress and the husband and his family members are crooks.

This forms an opinion that always women are victims of this issue. This made the viewers the husband and his family. Such irresponsible reporting of sensational lies and half-truths on disputes in the name of news causes immeasurable damage to the family members of husband and his family even then they are decent, law-abiding citizens. Often, the stories of such persons become the cover story and headlines in the media irrespective of their willingness.

Many a time the seasoned criminals and the ordinary ones and even innocents are treated as alike by the media. This attitude of the media brings unnecessary pressure on the Police and Judiciary. This media pressure can persuade the police and the court to believe the innocent as guilty.

Conducting trial by media by publishing/telecasting one-sided versions or forcing the husband and his family to face the TV camera under the threat or risk compelled the relatives of such husbands have to face unnecessary humiliation in the society. Passing one-sided verdicts by the media even before the case has been heard or decided by the Court posed serious challenges to the basic rights guaranteed to the Human Community. In other words these acts of media amount to violation of the human rights of the accused. In addition, making generalized statements demeaning all men also amounts to blatant violation of the human rights of a person.

Of late, in all countries both electronic and print media are experiencing ruthless competition leading to aggressive journalism. Indian media are also not an exception to this experience. Today, there is feeling that in view of the extensive use of the television and cable services, the whole pattern of publication of news has changed and several such publications are likely to have a prejudicial impact on the suspects, accused, witnesses and even judges and in general on the administration of justice. Therefore the aim of this short paper is to analyse the consequences of trial by media in case of criminal offences. 378 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Media and Judiciary

Technically speaking, Judiciary is the fountain of justice and media are the watch dog of the society. It is pertinent to note that both the institutions have many shared responsibilities and common goals. The most important among them is truth and justice. Here the role of media and the judiciary are to be realised. The former deal with the freedom of speech and the latter is related to the Law of Contempt of Court. Therefore it goes without saying that striking a balance between the demands of investigative journalism and upholding the dignity of judiciary is the urgent need of the hour. The common consensus is that freedom of media is important but at the same time impartiality and dignity of the judiciary had to be maintained. Therefore it is felt that the media coverage of judicial proceedings should not affect the independence of the judiciary.

Concept of Media Trail

Trial by Media is a phrase popular in the late 20th century and early 21st century to describe the impact of television and newspaper coverage on a person’s reputation by creating a widespread perception of guilt regardless of any verdict in a court of law. It is contended that the trial by media refers to a situation where media asserts the rightness or wrongness of a cause of action, pronounces on what is for the Court to lay down. In fact people at large have a right to know in order to be able to take part in such like proceedings. The right to know is a basic right which citizens of a free country aspire for the broader horizon of the right to live in this age in our land under the Constitution of India. Media has now reincarnated itself into a ‘public court’ and has started interfering into court proceedings.

It completely overlooks the vital gap between an accused and a convict keeping at stake the golden principles of ‘presumption of innocence until proven guilty’ and ‘guilt beyond reasonable doubt’. Now, media itself does a separate investigation, builds a public opinion against the accused even before the court takes cognizance of the case. By this way, it prejudices the public and sometimes even judges and as a result the accused, that should be assumed innocent, is presumed as a criminal leaving all his/her rights and liberty unredressed. The excessive publicity in the media about a suspect or an accused before trial prejudices a fair trial or results in characterising him as a person who had indeed committed the crime. This amounts to undue interference with the “administration of justice”, calling for proceedings for contempt of court against the media. Unfortunately, rules designed to regulate journalistic conduct are inadequate to prevent the encroachment of civil rights.

criminal cases and celebrity’s issues due to the wide spread of mass communication. This invariably leads to the issue of prejudicial publicity placing one or the other party involved in a disadvantaged position besides creating situation which tends to reduce legitimate trials unnecessarily draw the judiciary into the public scanner, often making a mockery of justice delivery system.

The Supreme Court observed in Anukul Chandra Pradhan V Union of India(1996 (6) SCC 354) in the hawala cases that the publicity attached to the matters should not affect the essentials of a fair trial including the presumption of innocence. In September, 379 The Journal of Media Studies the special TADA court judge in Mumbai trying the Bombay blasts case expressed his unhappiness at the media interviewing the accused, prosecution and defense lawyers within the court premises.

M. P. Lohia V State of W. B. and Another ((2005)5 SCC 686) was a case of dowry death, the investigation was in progress and special leave petition was pending before the Court. Even then an article had appeared in the magazine called “Saga” titled “Doomed by Dowry” written by Kakoli Poddar based on her interview of the family of the deceased.

Pointing out that the article was a one-sided version of the case, N. Santosh Hedge Justice said that the facts narrated therein are materials that may be used in the forthcoming trial in this case and that this type of article appearing in the media would certainly interfere with the administration of justice. He observed

“We deprecate this practice and caution the Publisher, Editor and the journalist who are responsible for the said articles against indulging in such trial by media when the issue is sub-judice. Others concerned in journalism would take note of this displeasure expressed by us for interfering with the administration of justice.”

Restriction on media trial is necessary so that the people may not have a wrong perception of the administration of Justice System. Sometimes it is necessary to protect the privacy of individual. But the major concern of the hour is to check prejudicial effect caused by a sensational reporting of a sub-judice matter. So far as a criminal trial The media cannot be granted a free hand in court proceedings. The media has to be properly regulated. One way is the recourse to the Law of Contempt. But, in the interest of democracy, it is better to have a self-regulated and self disciplined media in comparison to a media regulated by the court and the state.

Right to Know

The million dollar question before the society is whether it is right for the police to hold press conferences and tell the progress about criminal investigation. Answer is positively yes. When sensational crimes occur and people’s morale is low, it is the duty of the culprits. However, people’s right to know cannot authorise the police or media to make baseless character assassinations, or intrusions of privacy. So, the police have a duty to inform the public about the progress in crime investigation, but, at the same time it has no right to comment on the suspect’s character or background. The media can criticize the ineptitude or tardiness of police investigations without prejudging the guilt or innocence of the suspect.

Meaning of Fair Trial

A trial is a judicial examination of the issues in the case and its purpose is to arrive at a judgment on an issue as to a fact or relevant facts which may lead to the discovery of the fact issue and obtain proof of such facts at which the prosecution and the accused have arrived by their pleadings; the controlling question being the guilt or innocence of the accused. Since the object is to meet out justice and to convict the guilty and protect the 380 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 innocent, the trial should be a search for the truth and not about over technicalities, and must be conducted under such rules as well protect the innocent, and punish the guilty.

Right from the inception of the judicial system it has been accepted that discovery, vindication and establishment of truth are the main purposes underlying existence of courts of justice. The operating principles for a fair trial permeate the common law in both civil and criminal contexts. Application of these principles involves a delicate judicial balancing of competing interests in a criminal trial the interests of the accused and the public and to a great extent that of the victim have to be weighed not losing sight of the public interest involved in the prosecution of persons who commit offences.

Elements of Fair hearing

The Right to public hearing

Right to public hearing means that the hearing should as a rule be conducted orally and obliged to make information about the time and venue of the public hearing available and to provide adequate facilities for attendance by interested members of the public within reasonable limits. The public, including the press, may be excluded from all or part of a trail.

The Right to competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law

The basic institutional frame work enabling the enjoyment of the right to a fair trial is that proceedings in any criminal case are to be conducted by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law (Article 14 (1)). The rationale of this provision is to avoid the arbitrariness and/or bias that would potentially arise if criminal charges were to be decided on by a political body or an administrative agency. A tribunal should be competent and established by law. Both of these attributes are in fact aspects of the same requirement: while competence refers to the appropriate personal, subject-matter, territorial or temporal jurisdiction of a court in a court in a given case, the court as such, including the delineation of its competence, must have been established by law.

The term “law” denotes legislation passed by the habitual law-making body empowered to enact statutes or an unwritten norm of common law, depending on the legal system. In either case the important feature is that the law must be accessible to all who are subject to it. The general aim of this provision is to assure that criminal charges are heard by a court set up in advance and independently of a particular case and not prior to and been established by law to perform adjudicative functions, i.e. to determine matters with in its competence on the basis of rules of law and also in accordance with proceedings conducted in a prescribed manner (procedural).

The Right to a presumption of innocence

According to Article 14(2) of the ICCPR “Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law”. As a basic component of the right to a fair trial, the presumption of innocence, inter alia, means that the burden of proof in a criminal trial lies on the prosecution and that the 381 The Journal of Media Studies accused has the burden of proof in a criminal trial lies on the prosecution and that the the standard of proof required, it is generally accepted that guilt must be proved “to the intimate conviction of the protection for the presumption of innocence under national law. The presumption of innocence must, in addition, be maintained not only during a criminal trial vis a vis the defendant, but also in relation to a suspect or accused throughout authorities to maintain the presumption of innocence by “refraining from prejudging the outcome of a trial”. It may also be necessary to pay attention to the appearance of an accused during a trial in order to maintain the presumption of innocence; for instance, it may be prejudicial to require the accused to wear handcuffs, shackles or a prison uniform in the courtroom.

Right to Fair Trial

Right to a fair trial is a right of every individual within the territorial limits of India vides Articles 14 and 20, 21 and 22 of the Constitution. Therefore, it is needless to say 21 of the Constitution to be read with Article 14. Freedom of speech and expression incorporated under Article 19 (1)(a) has been put under ‘reasonable restriction’ subject to Article 19 (2) and Section 2 (c) of the Contempt of Court Act. One’s life with dignity is always given a priority in comparison to one’s right to freedom of speech and expression. accused.

a fair trial is the cardinal point of Indian criminal justice system. It encompasses several other rights including the right to be resumed innocent until proven guilty, the right not to be compelled to be a witness against oneself, the right to a public trial, the right to legal representation, the right to speedy trial, the right to be present during trial and examine witnesses, etc. In the case of Zahira Habibullah Sheikh V State of Gujarat,( [(2004) 4 SCC 158]) the Supreme Court explained that a “fair trial obviously would mean a trial before an impartial Judge, a fair prosecutor and atmosphere of judicial calm. Fair trial means a trial in which bias or prejudice for or against the accused, the witnesses, or the cause which is being tried is eliminated.”

Media Trail V Fair Trial

Parties to litigation have a constitutional right to have a fair trial in court of law by an be defeated if the media while reporting a matter use such a language which may have an

The concept of media trial is not a new concept. This role of media was debated much in the Priyadarshini Mattoo case (Santosh Kumar Singh vs. State through CBI- instances in which media has been accused of conducting the trial of the accused and passing the ‘verdict’ even before the court passes its judgment. Trial is essentially a process 382 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 word which is associated with the process of justice. It is the essential component on any judicial system that the accused should receive a fair trial.

trial. The freedom of press stems from the right of the public to know. At the same time the right to fair trial is a basic tenet of justice system in India. This has been guaranteed as a right only to avoid extraneous pressure on trial. The Contempt of Court Act, 1971 and Arts.129 and 215 of the Constitution of India are aiming to safeguard this right. The main object of these provisions is to impose restrictions on media in matters relating to the publication or discussion of case pending before any court. A journalist may thus be liable for contempt of Court if any publication affects the fair trial or impairs the impartiality of the court to decide a cause on its merit.

The ever increasing tendency to use media while the matter is subjudice has been glared down by the courts including the Supreme Court of India in plethora of cases it is observed as follows;

There is a procedure established by law governing the conduct of trail of a person accused of an offence. A trail by a press, electronic media or public agitation is very antithesis of rule of law. It can lead to miscarriage of justice. A judge has to guard himself against any such pressure and it is to be guided strictly by rule of law.

With the growth of Cable Television and Channels, Local Radios, News Papers and Magazines, Networks and Internet the range and reach of media has increased a lot. In recent time there have been numerous instances in which media has conducted the trial of an accused and has passed the verdict even before the court passes its judgment. This phenomenon is popularly called as media trial. Trial is a word, which is associated with the process of justice. Presumption of innocence is the basis of criminal jurisprudence and it is the essential component of any judicial system that the accused should receive a fair trial. Needless to remind that in recent times, in order to sensationalize the reporting and to increase its commercial value, the media starts naming and blaming the suspect or accused. Photographs and other materials in the form of interview etc. are published and shown along with public reaction. The problem is more visible when the matters involve big name and celebrities. In such cases media reporting can swing popular sentiments either way. It is, therefore, necessary to make a balance between the constitutional guarantee of free media on one hand and the individual right to fair trial on the other.

In Saibal Kumar V B.K. Sen ((1961) 3 SCR 460) the Supreme Court tried to discourage the tendency of media trial and remarked,

“No doubt, it would be mischievous for a newspaper to systematically conduct an independent investigation into a crime for which a man has been arrested and to publish the results of the investigation. This is because trial by newspapers, when a trial by one of the regular tribunals of the country is going on, must be prevented. The basis for this view is that such action on the part of a newspaper tends to interfere with the course of justice, whether the investigation tends to prejudice the accused or the prosecution.”

Again in R.K. Anand V Delhi High Court ((2009)8 SCC 106) reluctantly reiterated that “it would be a sad day for the court to employ the media for setting its own house inorder and the media too would not relish the role of being the snoopers for the court. Media should perform the acts of journalism and not as a special agency for the court”. 383 The Journal of Media Studies Although the Indian judicial system relies on the competence, impartiality and fearlessness of the trial judge and one can argue for unrestrained media converge of court there has been divergence of opinion. In view of Lord Denning, a professional judge of judicial superiority was not endorsed by Lord Dilhorne. Even in United States the judiciary is of the view that the court cannot function properly if a reporting is calculated to disturb the judicial mind. In John D. Pennekamp V State of Florida, ((1946) 328 US 331) it was observed,

and by what is judicially appropriate for his deliberations. However, Judges are also human and we know better than did our forbears how powerful is the pull of the unconscious and how treacherous the rational process and since Judges, however stalwart, are human, the delicate task of administering justice ought Prejudice or interference with the judicial process

This provision owes its origin to the principle of natural justice; ‘every accused has a right to a fair trial’ clubbed with the principle that ‘Justice may not only be done it must also seem to be done’. There are multiple ways in which attempts are made to prejudice trial. In case if there is any prejudice it is said that the persons will be convicted of offences which he has not committed. Contempt of court has been introduced in order to prevent such unjust and unfair trials. No publication, which is calculated to poison the minds of jurors, intimidate witnesses or parties or to create an atmosphere in which Commenting on the pending cases or abuse of party may amount to contempt only when a case is triable by a judge. No media has the right to assume the role of an investigator to try to prejudice the court against any person. The law as to interference with the Hanumantha Rao V K.R. Pattabhiram and Anr (AIR 1975 AP 30) observed as follows:

“ …… When litigation is pending before a Court, no one shall comment on it in such a way there Judge, the witnesses or by prejudicing mankind in general against a party to the cause. Even if the person making the comment honestly believes it to be true, still it is a contempt of Court if he prejudices the truth before it is ascertained in the proceedings. To this general rule of fair trial one may add a further rule and that is that none shall, by misrepresentation or otherwise, bring unfair pressure to bear on one of the parties to a cause so as to force him to drop his complaint or defense. It is always regarded as of in so stating the law we must bear in mind that there must appear to be ‘a real and substantial danger of prejudice’.”

From the above words of the judiciary it is crystal clear that it is essential for the maintenance of dignity of the cardinal principles of the rule of law in a free democratic country that the criticism or even the reporting particularly, in subjudice matter must be subjected to check and balances so as not to interfere with the administration of justice. Negative effect of Media covering Criminal Trials

When media covers a case and publicize lawyers, judges, witness pre-trial forms a kind 384 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 of presumed mental set-up on the judges who sit to adjudicate the criminal trials. Unlike US in India there is no jury system and the judge who is sitting there is the sole authority the rule of natural justice. In order to make things spicier normally the press makes comments on cases which are in trial, the judges come across these and unconsciously have a set of arguments in their mind. When the Honourable Supreme Court said that the judges have hardened themselves enough not to get affected by the hearsay evidences may be true for the judges in the Supreme Court or even High Court. Even if there can be appeals to the given judgments how far it is right to waste the precious judicial time when the matter could have been settled in a unbiased manner at the lower Courts. The preconceived notion of the jurist in the US trial Courts has also been empirically proved though not very elaborate but still has some indications, some of the jury said that they had in their mind some notion and the defense had to prove their case. Subconscious Effect on the Judges

Another worrying factor and one of the major allegations upon ‘media trial’ is prejudicing the judges presiding over a particular case. The American view appears to Anglo-Saxon view is that Judges, at any rate may still be subconsciously (though not by such publications under such a situation. Therefore, Lord Denning stated in the Court accepted in the House of Lords. Cardozo, one of the greatest Judges of the American Supreme Court, referring to the “forces which enter into the conclusions of Judges” observed that “the great tides and currents which engulf the rest of men do not turn aside in their curse and pass the Judges. Honurable Justice D. M. Dharmadhikari, Chairman, M. P. Human Rights Commission also asserted that there is always a chance that judges get presents the case in such a manner to the public that if a judge passes an order against the “media verdict”, he or she is deemed either as corrupt or biased. Judicial Safeguards against Trial by Media

Murder Trial,((2010)6 SCC1) the Supreme Court made extensive remarks against the country being turned into one where the trial is by media. In the concluding remarks, the Court declared that “Every effort should be made by the print and electronic media to ensure that the distinction between trial by media and informative media should always be maintained. Trial by media should be avoided particularly, at a stage when the suspect is entitled to the constitutional protections. Invasion of his rights is bound to be held as impermissible.”

In India, the free press-free trial debate assumes intriguing dimensions. Following the liberalization of India’s economy, many independent news channels have been born. One consequence of this institutional imbalance has been the pre-emptive news coverage of pending trials. The media has exposed attempts by the rich and powerful to subvert justice.

The Indian judiciary has time and again refrain from taking punitive action against the press for making prejudicial remarks, preferring to issue token proclamations against a “trial by media” instead. However, Indian judiciary is very clear in its view that the media 385 The Journal of Media Studies should not impinge upon the dignity and respect of judicial system. In other words it is the responsibility of the media not to intrude in the administration of justice delivery system.

Conclusion

From the light of above discussion it is easily inferred that the sensationalism in reporting criminal cases become very common with the spread of mass communication through various media. This pose challenges to the criminal investigation and administration of justice system by way of prejudicial publicity. This affects one or other party involved in that particular incident which tend to reduce legitimate space for assessment of truth by the judiciary. In the name of investigative journalism violation of basic norms of privacy, lowering the reputation, victimization of victims was done by the media. More over the process.

Trial by media starts much before the actual trial commences before the competent parade, are all matters in which media conducts parallel proceedings. This put a heavy burden on the judiciary that has constitutional duty to reduce the effect of prejudicial publicity. In sensational criminal cases the trial court should not hesitate to uphold the

Unlike yester years the Supreme Court of India had to transfer the trial to a different venue in certain cases that received more media publicity. This is because of the apprehension that there is every possibility of distortion in law enforcement process.

Therefore, it is the social responsibility of the print and electronic media to take every step to ensure that the distinction between trail by media and informative media will be always maintained. Trail by media should be avoided at the stage when the suspect is entitled to the constitutional protection. But the experience shows that many a time the media has given up its responsibility by creating impediments to the accepted judicious and fair investigation and trial. Moreover due to the development of technology the mushrooming of media becomes inevitable. Realising the reality, Press Council of India with an intention of regulating the print media framed ethics for journalist. But, those ethics are not effective since its binding nature is shabby. Trial by media is a very serious thing and must be stopped before it takes a more vicious form. The media is there to report facts or news and raise public issues; it is not there to pass judgments. Hence it is suggested that a comprehensive legislation is to be enacted without affecting informative media. References

200th Report of Law Commission of India on Trial by Media Free Speech and Fair Trial under Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 August 2006 A. M. Ahmadi J., (1997-2000,) Interrelationship between Law, Media and the Judiciary, Vol. 4-7, United Lawyers Association, page 75 A.H.Monjurul KABIR, Law & Our Rights, available at http://www.thedailystar.net/ law/200306/03/, June 15, 2003 386 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Anukul Chandra Pradhan V Union of India Union of India 1996 (6) SCC 354 Attorney General v. British Broadcasting Corporation, 1981 AC 303 (HL) Express Newspapers V U.O.I., (1997) 1 SCC 133. See also re:Harijai Singh and re:Vijayakumar, AIR 1997 SC 73 Express Newspapers V Union of India, AIR 1958 SC 578 at 61 Gisborne Herald Co. Ltd. V. Solicitor General, 1995 (3) NZLR 563 (CA) In Re: Arundhati Roy, AIR 2002 SC 1375 at 1380 John D. Pennekamp V State of Florida, (1946) 328 US 331 Justice R. C. Lahoti, Speech on Law Day, (2005) 2 SCC Jour. 1 at 6 Justice R. S. Sarkaria,(1994) Freedom of Information and its Responsibilities, Vol. 15, The Press Council of India Review, Lekshmi Vijayabalan, Refresher Course on Court- Media Relations in Advancing the Cause of Justice, held between Feb. 25-27, 2005, Vol. 2, Newsletter of the National Judicial Academy, Dec. 2005 at Page 60 M. Jagannadha Rao, Fair Trial or Free Press?: Law’s Response to Trial by Media, Constitutionalism Human Rights & Rule of Law, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. at Page 97 M.P. Lohia V State of West Bengal (2005)5 SCC 686 Nature of the Judicial Process (1921), Lecture IV, Adherence to Precedent. The P. B. Sawant J., Media and the Constitution, Vol. 18, The Press Council of India Review, 1997, page 9 R.K. Anand V Delhi High Court (2009)8 SCC 106. Reliance Petrochemicals Ltd. V Indian Express News Papers, Bombay (P) Ltd (1988)4 SCC 592 Saibal Kumar V B.K. Sen (1961) 3 SCR 460 Samya Sett V Shambhu Sarkar, (2005) 6SCC 767 Santosh Kumar Singh vs. State through CBI- ( 2010)9SCC747 (Known as Priyadharshini Matoo Case) Sevanti Ninan, Trials on the Tube, The Hindu Magazine (Delhi Ed.), Nov. 12, 2006 Sidhartha Vashisht @ Manu Sharma V State (NCT of Delhi) (2010)6 SCC1 State of Maharashtra V R. J. Gandhi AIR 1997 SC 398. State V Mohd. Afzal & Others, 107 (2003) DLT 385 at 443, Para. 139 Zahira Habibullah Sheikh v. State of Gujarat, [(2004) 4 SCC 158]

387 The Journal of Media Studies © The Journal of Media Studies Vol: 2, Issue: 1 January 2011 All rights reserved.

Eleven Participation of Indian Women in the News Production with special reference to Tamil Nadu – A Study S. Jenefaa Dr. I. Arul Aramb

Abstract:

For women journalists to empower women in society, they have to be in a position to thinks of expecting them to contribute to equality. This study is an attempt to understand and analyze the participation and position of women in various forms of news media in Tamil Nadu. It has adopted the survey research method-using questionnaire as the tool for data collection. More than half (58%) of women journalists are working in the English press with the remaining 42% percent of them are with the regional press. A considerable number (18%) of journalists working in the Tamil press are with television news channels, whereas in the English media majority of them are with newspapers. Majority (61%) of them are with journalism education. Almost half of the respondents (48%) are doing desk to them. Less than one-third 29.4% are working as journalists on a permanent basis.

Key words: English Press, Regional press/Tamil Press, News Media, Journalism Education, Women Journalists.

about the issues pertaining to their public sphere of life. As Herbert Schiller, a theoretician of repute would say, mass media performs the function of “mind managers”. It is even more so with the news media as it caters to the intellectual quotient of a man. Hence the originators of media content play a more crucial role in the democratic societies like India, where ideologies with regard to the issues of public concern will be shared and adopted and where press freedom has always been intact. But then no press if free unless there is an equal share of women voices in newsgathering and news dissemination process

a. Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Visual Communication, Vels University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected] b. Associate Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

387 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 as the IWMF1 claims. Communication scholars like Beasley, H.M (1989) and Gallagher, M, (1995) and have reiterated the fact that ‘more women in news media can alter the representation of women in news content’.

Review of Literature

There are not many global and Indian baseline studies conducted on the participation 239 companies (both news and other forms of media) in 43 nations and found the Indian women only 12% of the media workforce. Indian women have pushed historically for a recently published study – “Global Report on the Status of Women in the News Media” (IWMF, 2011) by examining more than 500 companies in nearly 60 countries. It shows that men occupy the vast majority of the management jobs and newsgathering positions in most nations included in this study. Bhagat, P, (2004) has carried out a comprehensive and journalists in the Print Media in India. It was initiated by the National Commission for Women to look into issues affecting the role of women working in the print media, taking 410 women journalists as samples. According to the study, more women are employed in the media now since they are available at lower salaries on the contract system. With regard to the news beats assigned to them, as much as 24.7 per cent feel that they do not have access to all areas of work and that lifestyle, arts, gender, fashion and education are traditional areas reserved for women.

Joshi, S.R, (1987) has conducted a study on prospects and problems faced by women working at senior levels in Doordarshan2. The study was concerned only with the senior staff – primarily those responsible for policy development, administration and management and decisions affecting programmes amounted to around 700 personnel in the Doordarshan, When comes to the men’s perceptions of the effectiveness of female reaching decisions and incapable of independent – decision making and unlikely to have their decisions implemented.

Joseph A,’s (2005) qualitative study on women in Journalism provides an overview of the situation, experiences and perspectives of women working as journalists in. India. The issues discussed include recruitment and remuneration, assignments and beats, night work, promotions, colleagues and sources of news/information, families, generational changes, and professional networks.

Durgabhavani’s V, (2007) study on the status of Women Journalists in Electronic Media in Andhrapradesh, a southern state of India, found more than one-third of them were freelancers (27.4%) followed by newsreaders (26.8%) and considerable percent of women were working as reporters (22.6%) whereas 14.5% were sub-editors. The study Women journalists who are less educated faced greater discrimination in the workplace compared with those who are more educated.

1. International Women’s Media Foundation. 2. The State-owned Television in India 389 The Journal of Media Studies Ravikumar, P, (2007) has carried out a comparative study of male and female journalists in Bangalore, which is considered to be IT hub. The study has looked into the glaring differences between the males and the females in their work and workplaces in terms of gender. Interestingly, most of the male reporters opined that they were assigned to beats such as politics, crime and business, which did not allow them to explore subjects like health, fashion and lifestyle.

Rationale of the Study

The participation of more women in the process of news production process becomes more crucial because ‘whoever controls assignments, whoever decides how a story is going to be covered, whoever decided what placement that story gets in a newspaper or over the airwaves, is not only shaping the content of news, but is deciding what readers and listeners know and how they know it’. Media leaders are not just industry leaders, they have the power to shape society’s attitudes. (Pozner, L, 2001). Hence it is imperative the impact of their presence in newsrooms over the representation of women and the coverage of women’s issues.

Women journalists in Tamil Nadu, as it is with their counterparts in other states, form a microscopic portion of total number of journalists in the country. And with the all forms of news media concentrated in the capital city – Chennai, women journalists too are restricted to the city. Both the English press and the vernacular press – Tamil are functioning in the state with the former has well educated, upper middle class and upper class people as media consumers, while the latter has a mixed receivers.

Study Design

The study is descriptive in nature and has used survey method in data collection using questionnaire as the tool. Women journalists working in both the Tamil press and English press located in Tamil Nadu, constitute the major population. There are 310 women journalists working in various mass media throughout the state. Since there is no authentic information or record available with regard to the total number of women journalists working in the state, the investigator herself personally visited each and every news media organization functioning in Tamil Nadu and collected the lists of journalists, both males and females from the 35 news media organizations.

The list of the news media organizations included in the study is given in the Appendix are 310 women journalists in the study area and they are the population for the study. Forty percent of the total population constitutes the sample thereby making the sample size 124. These women journalists were divided into two strata, namely – Tamil journalists (52 Nos. and English journalists (72 Nos.), since the characteristics of both categories are not similar and in order to maintain homogeneity among the respondents, these two strata were formed. Again three clusters namely Print media journalists (79 Nos.), Electronic media journalists (39 Nos.) and New media journalists (7 Nos.) were formed to establish further homogeneity and equal representation of the population. One hundred and twenty four respondents were selected randomly from both strata, which is inclusive of various forms of the mass media. 390 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Working Journalist Act, as journalists. According to the (the Working Journalists and other Newspaper employees (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955) is a person whose principal avocation is that of a journalist and who is employed either whole time in one or more newspaper establishments and includes an editor, a leader-writer, news editor, sub-editor, feature writer, copy tester, reporter, correspondent, cartoonist, news photographer, and proof reader.

Distribution of Women in Journalism

As it is with the rest of the country, the media industry in Tamil Nadu, especially the news media has grown manifold in recent years, with both vernacular or regional press is comparatively lesser than that of English press. More than half (58%) of women journalists are working in the English press with the remaining 42% percent of them are

Figure.1 Distribution of Women Journalists in Tamil Nadu

42%

58%

Tamil Journalists English Journalists

When the distribution of women journalists is correlated with the press category, a considerable number (18%) of journalists working in the Tamil press are with television news channels, followed by women in magazine (11%) and newspapers (9%), while the more percent (32%) of women journalists working in the English media are with newspapers, followed by (11%) working in magazines and television channels (10%). At the outset it can be interpreted, as Tamil press still remains conservative in recruiting women as journalists for majority of them and have hidden agenda of not recruiting women for journalism jobs. As one journalist working in a leading Tamil weekly magazine puts it, “the management has a policy of not recruiting women and also don’t encourage a male and female talking inside and the management asked one of them to resign the job. Consequently, the girl who was a reporter with its women’s wing resigned her job after their marriage”.

More women in television channels can be interpreted, as the electronic media is more open to women; this may be because women are more presentable in television. Again it is the process of feminization of journalism with the women’s physical beauty is used to attract the audience. Moreover, covering a news story for television is more of teamwork and the reporter is just a part of the unit. So it is comparatively safer and has regular work timings with 391 The Journal of Media Studies proper shift system in place. Television news gives more visibility and reach to the audience and hence it looks an attractive option for women and young women in particular.

There is also an assumption that writing a news story for television requires less depth knowledge about the issues and events, which becomes news. When the distribution of women journalists in television channels is cross tabulated with the designation they occupy, more women (64%) in television journalism are working as reporters for whom the job is to go to the beat assigned by men and gather news and get bytes from the people involved in the news story. These activities are usually considered feminine and expected to be done by women easier than men.

Educational background

Education plays a major role in building the rational thinking and knowledge on current affairs, which is the basic attribute of a journalist. So it is important to know the educational background of women journalists in the study area. The study reveals that 46% of them are undergraduate degree holders, followed by 43% are with master degrees. Only one tenth (11%) are without any collegiate education. The cross tabulation with their age shows more (41.1%) young journalists are degree holders and the journalists between the 30-40 age group, and above 40 are without degrees. So it can be inferred as, very few without a degree are entering media industry nowadays and gone are the days when anybody who can write a bit, usually a literary piece, in the respective languages takes up journalism as a career.

Majority (61%) of them are with journalism education and out of which 49.2% of them have a postgraduate degree in journalism followed by 37.7% are degree holders in journalism and 13.1% of them have done diploma course in journalism. This can be inferred as most of the journalism programmes are offered at the postgraduate level. Undergraduate level programme in journalism has received a lot of criticism from the media professionals with journalism education as well because according to them, “students with +2 pass would not have got rounded knowledge about society and polity”.

Only one third of them (39%) have entered the news media without media education journalism education. It may be due to the proliferation of media education in the study area as well.

Figure.2. Distribution of Women Journalists with and without Journalism Education.

3% 19% 24%

24% 20%

9% UG in Journalism PG in Journalism Diploma in Journalism UG in Others PG in Others Diploma in Others

392 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Professional Details of Women Journalists

As it is mentioned elsewhere in the paper, majority of women journalists in the study area are working with the English press. The following paragraphs deal with the position of women journalists in their professions in terms of designation, salary, etc.

Designation

When it comes to their present designation, majority (23%) are reporters, followed by feature writers (19%), and sub-editors (18%). Only two percent of women journalists are occupying the top most positions such as Chief Editor for women’s magazines. Almost half of the respondents (48%) are doing desk jobs such as sub-editor, proofreader, feature writers and layout artist. As many studies carried out in India reveal, majority of women journalists are at the desk in newsrooms. This is clearly an indication of women opting for such works due to the fact that they need to do balance work and family.

Figure: 3 Distribution of Designation of Women Journalists

Chief Editor 2% News E ditor 2% Sub Editor 18% Correspondent 5% News Producer 7% News Co-ordinator 2% Reporter 23% Feature writer 19% Proof reader 6% Layout artist 2% Photographer 2% Camera woman 1% Graphic artist 2% Newsreaders 6% Anchors 3% Others 2%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

A few (8%) of the journalists are doing on-screen jobs and the reporters of the television channels also appear on television. Only a meager (5%) of the respondents are doing technical jobs such as photographer, camerawoman, and graphic artist. It can be inferred as women journalists are not techno-savvy and some reporters do both reporting and operating still/ video camera as well.

Salary

More than half of the journalists (56.2%) earn between Rs. 10,000 – Rs.20,000, per month, followed by 21% of them earning below Rs.10,000 and 16% earn between Rs.20,000-Rs.30,000 per month. A meager percent of 4.6% and 1.2% earns between Rs.30,000-Rs.40,000 and above Rs.50,000 respectively, per month. Hence it can be inferred that journalism in the study area is not a lucrative profession.

The cross tabulation of salary per month and the journalists of Tamil and English press as 393 The Journal of Media Studies of both journalists with the former earns less when compared to the latter. It is further the country whereas the regional press’s reach is limited and so the income generated by both the press differs and the pay packets of the employees thereof.

Table: 1 Z-Test of Salary with Tamil and English Press

Salary Tamil English CI Inference In Rs. Press Press Below 23 44% 4 6% 5.228088 95% 10000 Higher than English Press 10001- 18 35% 10 14% 2.672747 95% 20000 Higher than English Press 20001- 8 15% 35 49% -4.29922 95% 30000 Higher than Tamil Press 30001- 2 4% 16 22% -3.2942 95% 40000 Higher than Tamil Press 40001- 1 2% 5 7% -1.41448 95% No No Difference 50000 Above 0% 2 3% -1.43427 95% No No Difference 50000

Job provisions

When it comes to the journalists’ nature of appointment, majority of them (38.3%) are working on a contract basis, followed by a temporary basis (32.3%). Only Less than one- third 29.4% are working as journalists on a permanent basis. The overwhelming majority (82%) of them are given appointment letters. But only one-third (38%) of the respondents area are not in pathetic situations as that of their counterparts in other states of India. But the

It can also be inferred that to avoid giving maternity leave, women journalists are appointed on a contract basis. Also, as it is mentioned earlier, journalists are made permanent only after they spend considerable number of years in the organization. Till then they are appointed on a contract or temporary basis. As many studies have pointed out, women’s productive period at work is also their reproductive period, when they actually require maternity leave. As one journalist working in the national newspaper said, “the management asked me to resign and go for maternity break and rejoin as a fresher under a new contract”.

When it is cross tabulated with English and Tamil press, it is found that women working in Tamil press face high level of job insecurity compared to their counterparts, as very few (18%) are working on a permanent basis in the Tamil press. As one journalist working in a Tamil 394 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 news channel said, “I did not ask for the maternity leave salary since I wanted to continue my job”. That is the state of affairs in the regional press.

Beats Covered

With regard to the news beats allotted to women journalists, majority (24%) of them cover general issues, followed by social issues (17%), women’s issues (15%), and youth &

When the beats covered by women journalists working in the English and regional press are cross tabulated, it is found that more women in English press (29%) are found covering hard beats such as politics, business, crime etc., than their counterparts the in Tamil press. There are more women in Tamil press cover general issues. It can be inferred as women working in the Tamil press to cover all and sundry assigned to them and they cover more soft beats. There is cover than their counterparts and they are in better position in the ladder of promotion. It can be interpreted as the women journalists in Tamil Press are given all and sundry works which can’t be carried out by men for want of time and of less weightage in terms of position and

Years of experience

Almost half of the journalists (48.4%) have 1-5 years of experience in news media, followed by (34.3%) of them with 6-10 years of working experience and a considerable number of journalists (12.3%) have 11-15 years of experience with the news media. A meager percent (4.7%) of women journalists are with more than 16 years in journalism.

When the frequency is cross-tabulated with regional language journalists and English journalists, more English journalists have more years of work experience. This can be inferred as English press could retain women for longer years with a more systematic approach and reasonable salary as motivational factors whereas the same cannot be said about the Tamil press. Having analysed the position and the professional status of the women journalists in the

Over half (58%) of women journalists are working in the English press with the remaining 42% percent of them are with the regional press.

Out of the women journalists working in the Tamil press, most of them are with television news channels, followed by women in magazine and newspapers, while more women journalists working in the English media are with newspapers, followed by women working in magazines and television channels.

Most of the women in television journalism are working as reporters for whom the job is to go to the beat assigned by men and gather news and get bytes from the people involved in the news story. 395 The Journal of Media Studies When it comes to the designation hold by women journalists, most of them are reporters, followed by feature writers and sub-editors. Only two percent of women journalists are occupying the top most positions such as Chief Editor for women’s magazines.

Almost half of the respondents are doing desk jobs such as sub-editor, proofreader, feature writers and layout artist.

Overwhelming majority of the Tamil journalists are earning less than Rs.20,000 per

a temporary basis.

More women journalists cover general issues, followed by social issues, women’s issues, and youth & entertainment .

Just over half of the women journalists working in the news media are with any kind of journalism education.

This study is an attempt to understand and analyse the participation and position of women in various forms of news media in Tamil Nadu. It has analyzed their position at which they are held at the work place and its relationship with the language of the press they work with. It could serve as a sketch of the characteristics of women of useful in understanding the ‘status quo’ of the women journalists in Tamil Nadu, India, which will have an impact on the gender balance in the newsrooms across the nation thereby on the representation of women in general.

Appendix 1

List of News Media Organizations covered

1) The Hindu 13) NDTV 26) Kumudam Snegithi 2) The New Indian 14) Sun News 27) Vikatan Express 15) Jaya TV 28) Aval Vikatan 3) Times of India 16) Raj TV 29) Mangayar Malar 4) Deccan Chronicle 17) Zee TV 30) Kungumam 5) The Week 18) Dinamalar 31) Kalki 6) Frontline 19) Dinathanthi 32) Dinamani.com 7) India Today 20) Dinakaran 33) Kumudam.com 8) Sunday Indian 21) Dinamani 34) Aramthinai.com 9) All India Radio 22) Dina bhoomi 35) Sify.com 10) Doordarshan 23) Tamil Murasu 11) CNBC TV18 24) Malai Murasu 12) Times Now 25) Kumudam

396 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Reference

Books

Creedon, J. Pameela (Ed), Women in Mass Communication, Challenging Gender values, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Bhagat Pamela (2004), Status of women journalists in the print media in India, Press Institute of India, New Delhi. Joseph Ammu (2005), Making News – Women in Journalism, Penguin Books. Joshi S.R. (1987), Invisible Barriers : Women at Senior levels in Indian Television, In Gallagher M. (Ed.) Women and Media Decision-making, UNESCO.

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Bhavani V.Durga, Vijayalakshmi (2007), “Status of Working Women Journalists : A study in Andhra Pradesh”, Karnatak University Journal of Communication.

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Kaul Malvika, (2004), Raw deal for Women Journalists, http://www.indiatogether. org/2004/jul/wom-rawdeal.htm, Accessed on 14.04.2006. Kumar Payal, (2002), The Role of Women Journalists in Strengthening Democratic processes, http://www.nwmindia.org/resources/research/women_journalists.html, Accessed on 22.01.2006. Pozner L. Jennifer, (2004), Power shortage for media women, http://www.fair.org, Accessed on 5.11.2007. Ravikumar Pooja, (2007), Gender and Journalism: A Comparative Study of Male and Female Journalists in Bangalore, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/studentresearch-2. pdf, Accessed on 11.03.2008. Veena Madura, Guru Chandra Mahesh, (2005) http://www.whatisindia.com/univpubs/ wis20050221_mys_journalism_education_in_india_a_quality_perspective.html, Accessed on 19.11.2006.

Reports

Communication and Media Needs in India, A report of the study conducted by AMIC – INDIA, for UNESCO-IPDC, 2002. Global Report on the Status of Women in the News Media, by International Women’s Media Foundation, 2011.

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399 Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Notes The Journal of Media Studies Notes Vol - 2, Issue - 1, January 2011 Notes The Journal of Media Studies Notes