Chapter 7 ANALYSIS of the FLORA

Chapter 7 ANALYSIS OF THE FLORA . ANALYSIS OF THE FLORA

Gorumara National Park (GNP) is a virgin broadleaf forest but the vegetation is very much disturbed. The Park belongs to the Bio-Geographical zone 7B (Lower Gangetic Plain) as recognized by Rodgers and Panwar (1988). Total area of this bottle shaped National Park is only 79.99 sq km. The National Park is located in the flood plains of Jaldhaka and Murti rivers and other medium and small rivers and rivulets which have created pockets of grassland. As it is not possible to control the movement of big wild animals like Rhinos, Gaurs and Elephants within the legally demarcated boundary of the National Park, it is seen that the ecological boundary extends up to the Sibchu, Khumani and Jaldhaka blocks of Jalpaiguri and Kalimpong Forest Divisions respectively. In the South too it extends into the Bichabhanga, Lataguri and Ramsai areas of Jalpaiguri Forest Division. The ecological boundary in the eastern fringe extends well beyond Gairkata, Central Diana upto Moraghat blocks of Jalpaiguri forest division whereas in the western part it assumes an area beyond Sursuti, Lataguri blocks of Jalpaiguri forest division up to the Apalchand and Kathambari forests of Baikunthapur forest division. The GNP has immense significance in view of it being situated in the middle of the elephant migratory route between the rivers Teesta and Torsa in North Bengal. Gorumara can become one part of the Managed Elephant ranges for containing and sustaining the wild elephant population of North Bengal. Especially, the Tondu, Selka, Gorumara, Panjhora and Indong blocks serve as a major habitat of elephant population and with more scientific management of these are as follows by development of fodder, cover and water resources, the Elephant depredation problem can be substantially reduced. The same is true for the ever increasing population of gaurs in the area. However, inspire of having a good habitat for large carnivores, with plenty of food, water and covered the area is not having much tigers which it once had, though still today it is quite rise in Leopard population. In view of the ever dwindling number of great Indian one horn rhinoceros, any area harbouring a natural population of this animal assumes immense significance, even if the population is small, yet with increasing population of one horn rhinoceroses in west Bengal, other than its much larger counterpart, Jaldapara National Park (JNP). Besides rhinos, GNP serves as an important corridor for sustaining the population of wild elephants in North Bengal, between Teesta and Torsa rivers. A large number of Indian Bison also utilize this national park along with other herbivore species. Though the presence of Royal Bengal Tiger is debatable but the national park can boast of a good population of leopards and few other small carnivores. The area also has a great significance in the forested landscape of the Jalpaiguri district along with its forest and riverine ecosystem. GNP has approximately 48 species of carnivores and herbivores, approximately 193 species of birds, 22 species of reptiles, 7 species of turtles, 27 species of fishes and other macro and micro fauna. The complete flora and the vegetation structure of GNP are not known. So, an attempt was initiated in 2006 to record the flora of this area that has enough potential for conservation.

7.1. Recorded Flora: After the comprehensive floristic survey, it is noted that the Gorumara National Park is housing enormously rich flora. A total of 670 species of spermatophytes has been recorded from the intensive survey since the year 2006. Of these, angiosperms are represented by 666 species 338 Goutam Saha under 431 genera belonging to 104 families (Table 7.1). In addition, 4 species of 4 genera from 4 families of gymnosperms have been recorded from the GNP during the present exploration. The reason for sustentation of enormous richness in floral diversity within the forest is basically due to the Natural Habitation areas and suitable climate of Terai and Duars foothills. The area receives annual precipitation of 200 – 400 cm, the major amount of which is received mainly during the monsoon months. However, little amount of rain is received almost in all other months. This type of distribution of precipitation helpful to maintains a very good broadleaf floristic wealth. The analysis of the flora revealed that there are numerous tropical, subtropical and even temperate elements those are common with the East Himalayan region. The beels, nalahas, other low-laying areas, scrubs, forests etc. provided enormous variety of habitats and that is reflected in the richness of its flora. The detailed analysis of the total spermatophytic flora of the forest distribution and variation in dicots have much dominance over the monocots. An analysis of the flora of GNP further revealed the existence of numerous important plant species which are directly or indirectly beneficial for the human sustenance. Many of the species have been recorded for having varied potential as food, medicines, etc. for humanity, besides an extraordinarily rich repository of various plant resources including the large number of valuable and durable timber-yielding trees.

7.2. Numerical Distribution of Taxa The present floristic work on GNP deals with the recorded 108 Spermatophytic families, out of which 78 are dicotyledonous and the remaining 26 are monocotyledonous; 484 species under 319 genera are recorded from 78 dicotyledons families and 182 species belonging to 112 genera in 26 monocot families. Only 4 species of gymnosperm belonging to 4 genera from 4 families were recorded (Table 7.1). Table 7.1. Numerical representation of different floristic elements in GNP Categories Families Genera Species Magnoliopsida 78 319 484 Liliopsida 26 112 182 Gymnosperms 4 4 4 Total 108 435 670

The Tables 7.2 to 7.5 provided accounts of family-wise numerical distribution of Taxa recorded from the GNP. Table 7.2. Alphabetically family-wise numerical representation of Angiospermic taxa: A. Dicotyledons for the flora of GNP

Families No. of genera No. of species Acanthaceae 16 25 Amaranthaceae 9 16 Anacardiaceae 3 4 Annonaceae 5 7

Apiaceae 4 4 Apocynaceae 18 18 Araliaceae 3 3 Aristolochiaceae 1 2 Asteraceae 21 23 Balsaminaceae 1 2 Bignoniaceae 3 3 Bixaceae 1 1

Analysis of the Flora 339

Families No. of genera No. of species Boraginaceae 2 2 Brassicaceae 3 3 Cannabaceae 1 1 Capparaceae 3 4 Caricaceae 1 1 Caryophyllaceae 3 5 Celastraceae 1 1 Chloranthaceae 1 1 Clusiaceae 1 1 Combretaceae 2 7 Convolvulaceae 6 11 Cornaceae 1 1 Crassulaceae 1 1 Cucurbitaceae 7 12 Dilleniaceae 2 3 Dipterocarpaceae 1 1 Droseraceae 1 1 Ebenaceae 1 1 Elaeocarpaceae 1 1 Elatinaceae 1 1 Euphorbiaceae 10 13 Fabaceae 37 62 Hypericaceae 1 1 Icacinaceae 1 1 Lamiaceae 15 20 Lauraceae 4 15 Lecythidaceae 2 2 Lythraceae 5 10 Magnoliaceae 1 3 Malvaceae 19 26 Melastomataceae 2 2 Meliaceae 7 8 Menispermaceae 4 5 Molluginaceae 1 2 Moraceae 4 13 Moringaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 3 6 Nyctaginaceae 4 5 Nymphaeaceae 1 4 Onagraceae 1 4 Oxalidaceae 2 4 Papaveraceae 2 2 Passifloraceae 1 1 Phyllanthaceae 4 9 Piperaceae 2 6 Plumbaginaceae 1 1 Polygalaceae 2 2 340 Goutam Saha

Families No. of genera No. of species Polygonaceae 3 10 Portulacaceae 1 2 Primulaceae 2 2 Ranunculaceae 2 2 Rhamnaceae 3 5 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 9 13 Rutaceae 6 8 Salicaceae 1 1 Sapindaceae 2 2 Sapotaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 5 12 Tamaricaceae 1 1 Theaceae 1 1 Ulmaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 7 9 Verbenaceae 5 5 Violaceae 1 1 Vitaceae 5 12 Total (76 Families) 308 461

Table 7.3. Family-wise numerical representation of Angiospermic taxa: B. Monocotyledons for the flora of GNP Families No. of genera No. of species Poaceae 29 45 Cyperaceae 10 29

Araceae 14 20 Orchidaceae 15 17 Commelinaceae 6 13 Zingiberaceae 5 10

Hydrocharitaceae 6 7

Alismataceae 3 6 Arecaceae 5 5 Dioscoreaceae 1 5 Pontederiaceae 2 3 Potamogetonaceae 1 3 Amaryllidaceae 1 2

Eriocaulaceae 1 2 Hypoxidaceae 2 2 Musaceae 1 2 Smilacaceae 1 2 Acoraceae 1 1 Burmanniaceae 1 1 Cannaceae 1 1 Ceratophyllaceae 1 1

Costaceae 1 1

Analysis of the Flora 341

Families No. of genera No. of species Juncaceae 1 1 Marantaceae 1 1 Typhaceae 1 1 Xyridaceae 1 1 Total (26 Families) 112 182

Table 7.4. Family-wise numerical representation of Pinophyta for the flora of GNP

Family Genera Species Araucariaceae 1 1 Cupressaceae 1 1 Cycadaceae 1 1 Gnetaceae 1 1 Total 4 4

7.3. High Representation So far, the most comprehensive floristic work for the Indian subcontinent was published by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872 – 1897) in his The Flora of British India. Recently The Flora of Eastern Himalaya, Parts I - III by Hara (1966, 1971) and Ohashi (1975), and Flora of Bhutan, vols. 1 – 3, by Grierson & Long (1983, 1984, 1987, 1991, 1999, 2000), Noltie (1994, 2000) and Pears and Cribb (2002) also presented detailed floristic works on this region. The first flora, i.e. The Flora of British India covers the plants collected from Indian subcontinent, Eastern Himalaya to Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, etc. The Flora of Eastern Himalaya has engrossed the plant collection from the hilly parts of North Bengal, Sikkim, Eastern Nepal and Bhutan regions in the Eastern Himalaya covering an altitudinal range of 300 m to 4400 m. Flora of Bhutan covered the Terai and Duars of North Bengal. In case of Dicotyledonous flora, In Flora of Eastern Himalaya (FEH), the Fabaceae is represented with highest number of species, which is followed by Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, etc. The Flora of Bhutan (FB) recorded Asteraceae as the most represented and is followed by Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Lamiaceae, etc. The present survey recorded 62 species for the Fabaceae and then followed by Malvaceae,Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, etc. A comparative account of top 10 families in these three works are given in the Table 7.6.

Table 7.5: Comparative study of top 10 dicots Families after the survey of GNP with FEH and FB Name of the FEH FB GNP plants Genus Species Genus Species Genus Species Fabaceae 71 184 85 277 37 62 Asteraceae 70 166 126 370 21 23 Acanthaceae 19 46 27 83 16 25 Malvaceae 8 18 12 34 19 26 Amaranthaceae 9 16 11 21 9 16 Lamiaceae 39 88 43 117 15 20 Rubiaceae 31 66 55 153 9 13 Moraceae 6 15 7 52 4 13 Solanaceae 7 25 22 50 5 12 Apocynaceae 12 13 22 45 18 18

In case of Monocotyledonous flora, in the Flora of Eastern Himalaya (FEH), Orchidaceae is highest represented, which is followed by Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae and Commelinaceae. In Flora of Bhutan (FB), Orchidaceae is the largest family and that is followed by Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae and Commelinaceae. In the present survey recorded highest number of 45 species for Poaceae and is 342 Goutam Saha followed by Cyperaceae, Araceae, Orchidaceae and then Commelinaceae. A comparison of top 5 monocotyledonous families in these three works are given in the Table 7.6. Table 7.6. Comparative study of top five monocot families after the survey of GNP flora

Name of the FEH FB GNP plants Genus Species Genus Species Genus Species Poaceae 78 183 125 381 29 45 Cyperaceae 10 114 73 181 10 29 Araceae 14 37 17 44 14 20 Commelinaceae 9 16 11 31 6 13 Orchidaceae 61 188 132 579 15 17

7.3.1. Present work: The present work in GNP, the Fabaceae appeared as the largest with 37 genera and 62 species and it is followed by Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Malvaceae, Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Araceae, Lamiaceae, Apocynaceae and Rubiaceae, is presented in Table 7.7 with further details.

Table 7.7. Top ten families in the flora of GNP Families No. of genera No. of species Fabaceae 37 62 Poaceae 29 45 Cyperaceae 10 29 Malvaceae 19 26 Acanthaceae 16 25 Asteraceae 21 23

Araceae 14 20 Lamiaceae 15 20 Apocynaceae 18 18 Orchidaceae 15 17

The present survey is restricted to a small fragment of the Duars Forests. So, the number of families, genera, species and their highest relative position also varied. A comparative account of top ten families in these four works are given in the Table 7.8.

Table 7.8. Comparison of top ten families of GNP with three monumental publications SN FBI FEH FB GNP 1 Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Fabaceae 2 Asteraceae Fabaceae Poaceae Poaceae 3 Poaceae Poaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae 4 Rosaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Malvaceae 5 Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Fabaceae Acanthaceae 6 Geraniaceae Rosaceae Scrophulariaceae Asteraceae 7 Ericaceae Scrophulariaceae Rosaceae Araceae 8 Liliaceae Lamiaceae Rubiaceae Lamiaceae 9 Lamiaceae Ranunculaceae Lamiaceae Apocynaceae 10 Apiaceae Urticaceae Ranunculaceae Orchidaceae

The study area is comparatively too small and is housing only 670 species of vascular plants as has been recorded through the intensive survey since the year 2006. Of these, angiosperms are represented by 666 species under 431 genera belonging to 104 families. In addition, 4 species of 4 genera from 4 families of gymnosperms have been recorded from the GNP. The largest genus is Cyperus of Cyperaceae Analysis of the Flora 343 with 9 species and is followed by Ficus of Moraceae, Litsea of Lauraceae, Solanum of Solanaceae, Eleocharis of Cyperaceae, Persicaria of Polygonaceae, Phyllanthus of Phyllanthaceae, Dioscorea of Dioscoreaceae etc. The best represented 10 genera in the GNP flora has been presented in Table 7.9. Table 7.9: The highest represented ten genera in GNP flora

Family Genus Species Cyperaceae Cyperus 9 Moraceae Ficus 8 Lauraceae Litsea 8 Solanaceae Solanum 7 Cyperaceae Eleocharis 6 Polygonaceae Persicaria 6 Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus 6 Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea 5 Polygonaceae Commelina 5 Piperaceae Piper 5

7.4. Rare and threatened plants of Gorumara National Park The Gorumara National Park is one of the important conservatories for rare and threatened species of plants in the area. During the study, some of the threatened species of India, under Red Data Books of Indian Plants (Nayar and Shastri 1987, 1988, 1990) has also recorded many plants from this area. These plants seem to be widely distributed inside the conservatories. The rarity of or threat to a majority of those could be due to several natural causes, but it could also be due to severe anthropogenic factors like habitat destruction through timber extraction, grazing, fishing, tourisms, etc. Unskilled and unscientific harvest of large number of species by local plant-traders for several identical purposes are attributing directly or indirectly in the population structure or even the loss of species from their natural habitat. The knowledge of plants being used in medicine is high in the Indian Himalayan region, Terai and Duars regions. There are major gaps in the knowledge of biological resources and the means by which biological diversity is being maintained (Heywood and Baste 1995; Biswas 2015). Dioscorea deltoidea is an endangered species found in this area. Two species, Shorea robusta and Toona ciliata has been recognized as ‘Lower Risk/ Least Concern’ under ver 2.3 in the Red List of IUCN [http:// www.iucnredlist.org/], Indian Red Data Book [Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988] and Red List of Botanical Survey of India [http://bsi.gov.in/content/259_1_ InventorisationofEndangeredPlantSpecies. Aspx].

7.5. Exotic Elements Earlier, Das (2002) has recorded 114 species of naturalized and semi-naturalized taxa from the subtropical and temperate hills of Darjeeling. Again, Himalayas and its foothill region is rich with a total of 190 invasive alien species under 112 genera, belonging to 47 families (Chandra Sekar 2012). Out of 190 invasive alien species, dicotyledons flora is represented by 40 families, 95 genera and 170 species and monocotyledons by 7 families, 17 genera and 20 species. Scattered research work on the exotic and alien species of India has been carried out by Maheswari 1962; Matthew 1969; Maiti and Guha Bakshi 1981; Das and Chanda, 1986; Khuroo et al. 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012; Negi and Hajra 2007; Singh et al. 2010. Nayar (1977) has discussed the changing pattern of vegetation due to some exotic and invasive species. Liu et al. (2005, 2006, 2008) has worked in detail on the exotics in China that has also included the Himalayan region. A preliminary list of exotic and introduce plants of India has been compiled by Pandey (2000) and Reddy (2008). Out of the 670 species of recorded flora, 89 species has been recognized as exotics. Out of these 63 are found in naturalized condition (Table. 7.10). The taxonomic distribution of these exotic plants are given bellow: 344 Goutam Saha 7.4. Rare and threatened plants of Gorumara National Park The Gorumara National Park is one of the important conservatories for rare and threatened species of plants in the area. During the study, some of the threatened species of India, under Red Data Books of Indian Plants (Nayar and Shastri 1987, 1988, 1990) has also recorded many plants from this area. These plants seem to be widely distributed inside the conservatories. The rarity of or threat to a majority of those could be due to several natural causes, but it could also be due to severe anthropogenic factors like habitat destruction through timber extraction, grazing, fishing, tourisms, etc. Unskilled and unscientific harvest of large number of species by local plant-traders for several identical purposes are attributing directly or indirectly in the population structure or even the loss of species from their natural habitat.

The knowledge of plants being used in medicine is high in the Indian Himalayan region, Terai and Duars regions. There are major gaps in the knowledge of biological resources and the means by which biological diversity is being maintained (Heywood and Baste 1995; Biswas 2015). Dioscorea deltoidea is an endangered species found in this area. Two species, Shorea robusta and Toona ciliata has been recognized as ‘Lower Risk/ Least Concern’ under ver 2.3 in the Red List of IUCN [http://www.iucnredlist.org/], Indian Red Data Book [Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988] and Red List of Botanical Survey of India [http://bsi.gov.in/content/259_1_ InventorisationofEndangeredPlantSpecies. Aspx].

7.5. Exotic Elements

Earlier, Das (2002) has recorded 114 species of naturalized and semi-naturalized taxa from the sub-tropical and temperate hills of Darjeeling. Again, Himalayas and its foothill region is rich with a total of 190 invasive alien species under 112 genera, belonging to 47 families (Chandra Sekar 2012). Out of 190 invasive alien species, dicotyledons flora is represented by 40 families, 95 genera and 170 species and monocotyledons by 7 families, 17 genera and 20 species. Scattered research work on the exotic and alien species of India has been carried out by Maheswari 1962; Matthew 1969; Maiti and Guha Bakshi 1981; Das and Chanda, 1986; Khuroo et al. 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012; Negi and Hajra 2007; Singh et al. 2010. Nayar (1977) has discussed the changing pattern of vegetation due to some exotic and invasive species. Liu et al. (2005, 2006, 2008) has worked in detail on the exotics in China that has also included the Himalayan region. A preliminary list of exotic and introduce plants of India has been compiled by Pandey (2000) and Reddy (2008). Out of the 670 species of recorded flora, 89 species has been recognized as exotics. Out of these 63 are found in naturalized condition (Table. 7.10). The taxonomic distribution of these exotic plants are given bellow:

Table 7.10. Taxonomic distribution and status of exotic plants in the flora of GNP Plants County from Familyintroduced Status

Ageratum conyzoides South America Naturalized Ageratum houstonianum Mexico Naturalized Alternanthera paronychioides Brazil Naturalized Annona reticulata West Indies Cultivated Annona squamosa Tropical America, Cultivated West Indies

Analysis of the Flora 345 Plants County from introducedFamily Status

Argemone mexicana Mexico Naturalized Bougainvillea glabra Brazil Cultivated Bougainvillea spectablis Brazil Cultivated Bidens pilosa America Naturalized Cajanus scarabaeoides Africa Semi-naturalized Carica papaya Central America Semi-naturalized Senna alata South America Naturalized Senna tora Tropical America Naturalized Cassia javanica subsp. nodosa Sumatra, Java Semi-naturalized Catharanthus roseus West Indies, Naturalized Madagascar Dysphania ambrosioides Mexico Naturalized Chromolaena odorata Jamaica Naturalized Cinnamomum verum Sri Lanka Cultivated Cissampelos pareira Neo-tropical Naturalized Cleome rutidosperma West Africa Naturalized Clitoria ternatea Tropical America Semi-naturalized Corchorus aestuans Tropical America Naturalized Crassocephalum crepidioides Tropical America Naturalized Croton bonplandianus Paraguay Naturalized Datura metel Tropical America Naturalized Delonix regia Madagascar Semi-naturalized Digitaria ciliaris Tropical America Naturalized Eclipta prostrata South America Naturalized Eichhornia crassipes Tropical America Naturalized Emilia sonchifolia Africa, Asia Naturalized Eragrostis tenella Africa, Asia Naturalized Erigeron canadensis North America Naturalized Euphorbia hirta Tropical America Naturalized Evolvulus nummularius West Indies Naturalized Fumaria indica North temperate Naturalized region Galinsoga parviflora Tropical America Naturalized Gnaphalium purpurium Tropical America Naturalized Hibiscus rosa-sinensis China Cultivated Hibiscus sabdariffa America Semi-naturalized Hyptis suaveolens South America Naturalized Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa South America Naturalized Jatropha curcas Tropical America Naturalized Lagerstroemia indica China Cultivated Lantana camara West Indies, Jamaica Naturalized Lippia javanica Tropical America Naturalized Litchi chinensis China Semi-naturalized Malvaviscus arboreus Mexico Cultivated Manilkara zapota Central America Cultivated Mecardonia procumbens Tropical America Naturalized Mikania micrantha Tropical America Naturalized Mimosa invisa Tropical America Naturalized Mimosa pudica Brazil Naturalized Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Tropical America Naturalized Oxalis corniculata South Europe, North Naturalized America Oxalis latifolia Brazil Naturalized Parthenium hysterophorus West Indies, Central Naturalized & North America Peperomia pellucida Central America Naturalized Persicaria hydropiper Temperate region Naturalized Petunia violacea South America Cultivated 346 Goutam Saha Plants County from introducedFamily Status

Physalis minima South America Naturalized Portulaca oleracea Europe, North Africa Naturalized Psidium guajava Tropical South Semi-naturalized America Pupalia lappacea Afro-Asia Naturalized Ricinus communis Africa Naturalized Scoparia dulcis South America Naturalized Senna occidentalis South America Naturalized Senna sophera America Naturalized Sida cordata Tropical America Naturalized Solanum pimpinellifolium Tropical America Naturalized Solanum sisymbriifolium Brazil Naturalized Spathodea campanulata Tropical Africa Semi-naturalized Stachytarpheta indica South America Naturalized Stellaria media Europe Naturalized Synedrella nodiflora Tropical America Naturalized Tamarindus indica Tropical Africa Naturalized Tridax procumbens South America Naturalized Vicia sativa West Africa, Europe Naturalized Wedelia calendulacea Austro-Asia Naturalized Xanthium strumarium South America Naturalized

Mainly cultivated species are planted in Beat Office grounds and village areas. Some exotic species found also in the core forests and these are naturalized. Out of the recorded 4 Gymnosperms 3 species has been detected as exotic elements. Only 2 monocotyledons species found there as naturalized exotic elements (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1. Graphical presentation of Exotic elements in the flora of GNP 7.6. Flowering calendar Flowering calendar of the temperate flora of Darjeeling Hills (1500 – 2400 m) was previously prepared by Das and Chanda (1987) and for the Sambalpur District flora by Panda et al. (1992). The flowering seasons of different species in Terai and Duars flora is little known till date. The flowering seasons of majority of the floristic elements of GNP has been recorded by Biswas (2015) and the present study shows a clear picture of flowering and fruiting periods of GNP flora during the survey work and has been presented in the Table 7.12. Analysis of the Flora 347 Table 7.12: Flowering Calendar of GNP Flora [1 – 12 denotes the months of the year]

Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Abrus pulchellus * * *

Acacia catechu * *

Acacia pennata * *

Acampe papillosa * * * *

Achyrospermum * * * * * * * * * * wallichianum Acmella calva * * * * * * * * * *

Acmella uliginosa * * * * * * * * * * * * Adenanthera pavonina * *

Aegle marmelos * * *

Aerides multiflora * * * *

Aesculus assamica * * * * * *

Ageratina adenophora * * * * * *

Ageratum conyzoides * * * * * * * * * * * * Ageratum houstonianum * * * * * * *

Alangium chinense * *

Alpinia calcarata * * *

Alstonia scholaris * * *

Alternanthera ficoidea * * * *

Alternanthera philoxeroides * * * * * *

Alternanthera sessilis * * * * * *

Amaranthus * * * * * * blitum subsp. oleraceus Amaranthus spinosus * * * * *

Amaranthus viridis * * * * * * *

Amischotolype hookeri * * * * *

Ammannia baccifera * * *

Annona reticulata * * * * * * *

Neolamarckia cadamba * * * * * *

Annona squamosa * * * * * * *

Ardisia solanacea * * *

Areca catechu * * * * *

Argyreia roxburghii * * * * * * * *

Aristolochia indica * * *

Aristolochia tagala * * *

Artabotrys hexapetalus * * * * * * *

Artemisia indica * * *

Artocarpus heterophyllus * * * * * *

Artocarpus lacucha * * *

Asystasia macrocarpa * * *

Axonopus compressus * * *

Barleria strigosa * * * *

Bauhinia acuminata * * * *

Bauhinia purpurea * * *

Bauhinia variegata * * *

Bidens pilosa * * * * * * * * * *

Biophytum sensitivum * * *

Spilanthes acmella * * * * * *

Blumea lacera * * *

Bombax ceiba * * * * * *

Bridelia retusa * * * *

Bryophyllum pinnatum * * *

Burmannia coelestis * *

Butomopsis latifolia * * *

Caesalpinia bonduc * * * * * * *

Caesalpinia cucullata * *

Calamus tenuis * * * *

Callicarpa arborea * * *

Calotropis gigantea * * * *

Cannabis sativa * * * * * *

Cassia javanica * * * * * * * *

Centella asiatica * * *

Cheilocostus speciosus * * * * * * * *

Chenopodium album * * * * * * * *

Dysphania ambrosioides * * * * *

Chloranthus erectus * * * * * *

Continue to next 348 Goutam Saha Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Chonemorpha fragrans * * *

Chromolaena odorata * * * * * * *

Cinnamomum tamala * * * * *

Cinnamomum verum * * *

Cinnamomum bejolghota * * * * *

Citrus limon * * * *

Citrus maxima * * * * * * * * * * *

Clerodendrum indicum * * *

Clerodendrum infortunatum * * * * * * *

Clerodendrum japonicum * * *

Coffea benghalensis * *

Colocasia esculenta * * *

Colocasia fallax * * *

Combretum decandrum * *

Commelina benghalensis * * * * *

Commelina diffusa * * * * * * *

Commelina longifolia * * * *

Commelina paludosa * * * * *

Commelina sufruticosa * * * * * * *

Crassocephalum crepidioides * * * * * * * * *

Crateva religiosa * *

Crinum amoenum * * * * *

Crotalaria alata * * * *

Crotalaria cytisoides * * * * * *

Crotalaria pallida * * * * * *

Croton bonplandianus * * * * * *

Croton caudatus * * * *

Cryptolepis buchananii * * * * * * *

Cyanotis axillaris * * * * *

Cyanotis cristata * * * * *

Cyanotis vaga * * * * *

Cynodon dectylon * * * *

Cynoglossum lanceolatum * * *

Cyperus compressus * * * * *

Cyperus cyperoides * * * * *

Cyperus distans * * * * * *

Cyperus haspan * * * *

Cyperus iria * * * * * *

Cyperus pangorei * * * *

Cyperus pilosus * * * * * * * *

Cyperus rotundus * * * * *

Cyperus stoloniferus * * * * *

Dactyloctenium aegyptium * * * * * *

Dalbergia stipulacea * * *

Dalbergia pinnata *

Dalbergia sissoo * * *

Datura metel * * * * *

Datura stramonium * * * * *

Continue to next Analysis of the Flora 349

Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Deeringia amaranthoides * * * * * * *

Delonix regia * * * * * * *

Dendrobium aphyllum * * * *

* * * * * Dendrocnide sinuata * * Dentella repens * * Desmodium gangeticum * * Desmodium heterocarpon * * Desmodium laxiflorum * * * Desmodium styracifolium * * * * Desmodium triflorum * * * * * * * * * Dicliptera bupleuroides * * Dillenia indica * * Dillenia pentagyna * * * * * * Dioscorea bulbifera * * * * Dioscorea esculenta * * * * Dioscorea pentaphylla * * * * * * * Dioscorea pubera Drosera barmanni * * *

Drymaria * * cordata subsp. diandra * * * Duchesnia indica * * * * * Echinochloa crus-galli * * * * Eclipta prostrata * * * * Eichhornia crassipes * * * * Elaeocarpus rugosus * * * * Elephantopus scaber * * * * Eleusine indica * * * * * * * * * * * * Emilia sonchifolia * * * * * * * Enydra fluctuans * * * Evolvulus nummularius * * * * * * * * * * * * Ficus benghalensis * * * * * * * * Ficus elastica * * * * * * * * Ficus hederacea * * * * * Ficus heterophylla * * * * * * * * * * Ficus hispida * * * * Ficus racemosa * * * * * * * * * * * Ficus religiosa * * * * Ficus semicordata * * * Fimbristylis aestivalis * * * * Fimbristylis tetragona * * * * * Floscopa scandens * * * Flueggea virosa * * * Glinus lotoides * * * * Glinus oppositifolius Globba clarkei * *

* * * * Globba racemosa * * * Gmelina arborea Continue to next 350 Goutam Saha

Deeringia amaranthoides * * * * * * *

Delonix regia * * * * * * *

Dendrobium aphyllum * * * *

* * * * Globba racemosa * * * Gmelina arborea Continue to next Analysis of the Flora 351 Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec * * * * * * * * * * Gnaphalium purpureum * * Grangea maderaspatana * * * Heliotropium indicum * * * Holarrhena pubescens * * * * * Hoya parasitica * * * Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Hygrophila phlomoides * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Hygrophila polysperma Hypericum japonicum * * * * *

* * * * * * * Ichnocarpus frutescens * * * * Impatiens balsamina * * * Impatiens trilobata * * * Ipomoea aquatica * * * Ipomoea hederifolia * * * Ipomoea indica * * * * * * * Ixora acuminata * * * * * Jasminum dispermum * * * Jasminum laurifolium * * * Juncus prismatocarpus * * * Juncus trichophyllus * * * * Justicia adhatoda * * * * * * * Justicia gendarussa * * * * Justicia japonica * * * * Kyllinga nemoralis * * * * * * * * * Lagerstroemia indica * * * * Lagerstroemia parviflora * * * * * Lagerstroemia speciosa * * * * * Lannea coromandelica * * * * * * * * * * * * Lantana camara * * * * * * Laphangium affine * * Lasia spinosa * * * Leea aequata * * * Leea asiatica * * * Leea guineensis * * * * * Leea indica * * * * Leea macrophylla * * * * * * Lepidagathis incurva * * * * * * * * * Leucaena leucocephala * * * * * Leucas aspera * * * * * Limnophila heterophylla * * * * * Limnophila racemosa * * * * * Lindernia antipoda * * * * * Lindernia crustacea * * * Lindernia ruellioides * * * * * Lippia alba * * * * * * Litsea cubeba Continue to next 352 Goutam Saha

Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec * * Litsea glutinosa * * * * * * * * * Litsea monopetala * * * Ludwigia adscendens * * * Ludwigia octovalvis * * * * Ludwigia perennis * * * Maesa indica * * * Maesa macrophylla * * * Mallotus philippensis * * * * Mangifera indica * * * * Mangifera sylvatica * * * Marsdenia tinctoria * * * Mazus pumilus * * Melastoma malabathricum * * * * Melochia corchorifolia * * * Merremia umbellata * * * Merremia vitifolia * * * Meyna spinosa * * * * * * * * Mikania micrantha * * * * Mimosa invisa * * * Mimosa pudica * * * Monochoria hastata * * * * Monochoria vaginalis * * * Morinda angustifolia * * * Morus indica * * * * Murdannia nudiflora * * * Naravelia zeylanica * * * Natsiatum herpeticum * * * * * Nelsonia canescens Nymphoides hydrophylla * * * *

Nymphoides indica * * *

* * * * * * * Nymphaea nouchali * * * * * * * Nymphaea pubescens * * * * * * * Nymphaea rubra * * * * * * * Oenanthe javanica * * * * * Oplismenus burmannii * * * * Oplismenus compositus * * * * * * Oroxylum indicum * * * Osbeckia nepalensis * * * * * * Ottelia alismoides * * Oxalis corniculata * * * * * Oxalis debilis var. corymbosa * * * * Oxalis latifolia * * * * Persicaria barbata * * * * * * Persicaria chinensis * * * * * * Persicaria hydropiper * * * * Persicaria orientalis Continue to next Analysis of the Flora 353

Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec * * * Persicaria strigosa * * * * * Phaulopsis imbricata * * * Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis * * * * Phyla nodiflora * * * Piper betle * * * * * Piper hamiltonii * * * * Piper nigrum * * * Piper longum * * * * * Piper sylvaticum * * * Pistia stratiotes * * Pogostemon andersonii * * * * * * * Polyalthia longifolia * * Polycarpon prostratum * * * * * Polygala chinensis * * * * * * * * Polygonum microcephalum * * * Polygonum perfoliatum * * * * Polygonum plebeium * * * * Polygonum pubescens * * * * Portulaca oleracea * * * * Potamogeton crispus * * * * Potamogeton nodosus * * * * Pothos scandens * * * * * * * Pouzolzia hirta * * * Pouzolzia zeylanica * * Premna mollissima Pseudognaphalium * * * * * * * * * * luteoalbum * * * Pueraria sikkimensis * * * * * * Rauvolfia serpentina * * Rorippa indica * * * Rotala densiflora * * * Rotala rotundifolia * * * Rubus ellipticus * * * Rumex dentatus * * * Rumex maritimus * * * * * Rungia pectinata * * * * * Saccharum spontaneum * * Salomonia oblongifolia * * * * * * Schefflera bengalensis * * * Senna alata * * * Senna fistula * * * * Senna occidentalis * * * * Senna siamea * * * * Senna sophera * * * * Senna tora * * * Sida acuta * * * Sida cordata Continue to next 354 Goutam Saha Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec * * * Sida cordifolia * * * * * * Sida rhombifolia * * * * * * * * * Smilax perfoliata * * * Solanum americanum * * * Solanum anguivii Solanum indicum * * *

* * * Solanum pimpinellifolium * * * * * * * * * * Solanum torvum * * * Solanum viarum * * * Sonchus asper * * * * * * * * * Spathodia campanulata * * * Spermacoce alata * * * * Spermacoce ocymoides * * Spirodela polyrrhiza * * * * * * Spondias pinnata * * * * Sporobolus diander * * * Stachytarpheta indica * * * Stellaria media * * * * * * Synedrella nodiflora * * * Syzygium cumini * * * * * Syzygium jambos * * * * * * * * * Syzygium operculatum * * * Syzygium tetragonum * * * * * * * * * * * * Tabernaemontana divericata * * Tectona grandis * * * * * Terminalia arjuna * * * * * * Terminalia bellirica * * Terminalia chebula * * * Terminalia myriocarpa * * * Tetracera sarmentosa * * * * * Tetrastigma campylocarpum * * Tetrastigma planicaule * * * * Thunbergia fragrans * * * * Thunbergia grandiflora * * * Tinospora cordifolia * * * Toddalia asiatica * * * Trevesia palmata * * * Triadica cochinchinensis * * * Trichosanthes cordata * * * Trichosanthes lepiniana * * Tridax procumbens * * * Triumfetta rhomboidea * * * Typha elephantina * * * Typhonium trilobatum * * Uraria picta * * * Uvaria hamiltonii Continue to next Analysis of the Flora 355

Species name Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec * * * * Vallaris solanacea * * * * * Vallisneria natans * * Papilionanthe teres * * * Ventilago denticulata * * Vitex negundo * * Vitex peduncularis * * * * Wrightia arborea * * Wrightia sikkimensis * * * * Xanthium strumarium * * * * * Xanthosoma brasiliense * * * Xyris pauciflora * * * * Youngia japonica * * * Ziziphus jujuba * * Ziziphus oenopolia * * Ziziphus rugosa

Fig. 7.2. Species showing maximum duration of flowering Acmella uliginosa, Ageratum conyzoides, Emilia sonchifolia, Ficus benghalensis, Lantana camara, Tabernaemontana divericata etc are blooming round the year (Table 7.16) then followed by Acmella paniculata, Citrus maxima, Ficus religiosa, Achyrospermum wallichianum, Acmella calva, Bidens pilosa, Ficus hispida, Gnaphalium purpureum, Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum, Solanum torvum etc blooming for 10 to 11 months, sometimes may be round the year (Fig. 7.2). April, May, June and July and later September to October may be called as nature’s flower festival in GNP flora, because maximum flowering species (9 %) of the total studied flowering species in each month) found to bloom during these two periods every year. December to January appears to be the resting month, as very less number species go for flowering in winter (Fig. 7.3). 356 Goutam Saha

Fig. 7.3. Yearly flowering distribution of GNP flora

Table 7.13. 16 Species showing maximum duration of flowering and fruiting of GNP Flora [1 – 12 denotes the months of the year]

No. of Species months Acmella uliginosa 12 Ageratum conyzoides 12 Emilia sonchifolia 12 Ficus benghalensis 12 Lantana camara 12 Tabernaemontana divericata 12 Citrus maxima 11 Ficus religiosa 11 Achyrospermum wallichianum 10 Acmella calva 10 Bidens pilosa 10 Ficus hispida 10 Gnaphalium purpureum 10 Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum 10 Solanum torvum 10

7.7. Anthropogenic activities: Some Beats like Murti, Bichha Bhanga, Bhudhuram are very much disturbed by the local villagers and poachers. The villagers are collecting commercially important and daily used materials from the forests. If this practice is continued for few more years, then the local valuable and medicinally and economically important plant species of the forests will be vanished from the National Park very soon. They are damaging vegetation when collecting fuel wood and fodder for their cattle and other domestic animals. The population of Aquatic rotifers, Mollusca, Zoo planktons and phytoplanktons Analysis of the Flora 357 are also being seriously affected by them due to fishery related activities in the water bodies like Indong, Gorati, Medlajhora, Dhupjhora etc within the core areas. At the same time, the basic stock of food for the aquatic-birds, both native and migratory birds, are being affected. Poor knowledge of NTFP collection by local villagers is also the cause of damage of diversity and food crisis for aquatic and other birds. Ecotourism is seriously disturbing the local floral and faunal communities and also the overall environment of the area.

7.8. Ex-situ conservation: There is no any facility for the ex-situ conservation of plants in the study area except for some species of Bamboos and Phyllanthus emblica as Elephants fodders and fruits for Birds. Foresters try to stop this practices by planting naturally growing species like Terminalia spp, Mangifera spp, Artocarpus spp. etc. In the Murti River Beds, plantation forest area is also increasing and the species under use for the purpose are mainly Phyllanthus emblica, Salix tetrasperma, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellirica, Syzygium cumini, Putranjiva roxburghii, Cassia javanica ssp. nodosa, Delonix regia, Lagerstroemia indica, Litchi chinensis, Spathodea campanulata etc. It appears that for a conservatory devoted mainly for the bird conservation enough thought need to be given for the selection of species for plantation. Plants provide food, shelter and suitable structures for nesting round the year for larger number of bird species, local as well as migratory, may be properly recognized and should be used for plantations.