DOCSLIB.ORG

The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo Democratisation and the Political Economy of a Dysfunctional State: The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo Claude Kambuya Kabemba Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for a PhD degree in Humanities, option International Relations University of Witwatersrand Supervisor: Professor Gilbert Khadiagala July 2011 Abstract Democratisation and the Political Economy of a Dysfunctional State: The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo Claude Kambuya Kabemba In 2006 the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) organized landmark presidential and parliamentary elections after three decades of the dictatorship of President Mobutu Sese Seko and a decade of war. After three years of a difficult transition, the elections produced a legitimate government under President Joseph Kabila. Subsequently, however, the democratic dispensation has struggled to transform the DRC from a failed to a functional state. This thesis examines the causes of state failure and explores conditions that would restore statehood. The central thesis of this research is that successful state building cannot rely primarily on formal institutions such as the holding of elections, but must be linked to nation-building and building of democracy from below. Empirically the thesis looks at the development of statehood in the DRC from the pre- colonial to contemporary period. In this respect, it analyses the historical trajectories that have shaped the development of the state over the course of decades and identifies attempts to break the impasse around reforms. This thesis contributes to the existing literature on state failure in the DRC by showing how past and present conditions and circumstances are intertwined and impact on the course of state building. It argues that while the origins of state failure are located in Belgian colonization, internal Congolese weaknesses have maintained and reproduced state failure. Furthermore, the thesis proposes that although external actors, interests, and policies continue to determine political and economic dynamics in the DRC, the main challenges revolve around resolving the internal contradictions characterized by democratization without state consolidation. In addition to bad governance, the thesis considers the various strains facing the Congolese state such as the continued conflicts over resources that are fuelled by regional and international actors in collusion with local actors. The thesis concludes that external efforts to build democracy are unlikely to succeed unless there are parallel attempts to reconcile state building with nation building in the DRC. Table of contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 6 ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 7 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 11 The Problem ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 Central questions ................................................................................................................................................ 16 The Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................................... 16 Objectives of the Thesis ...................................................................................................................................... 17 Significance of the thesis ..................................................................................................................................... 17 Structure of the thesis ......................................................................................................................................... 18 Research methods and sources ........................................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER 1: THE STATE, STATE COLLAPSE, STATE-BUILDING AND DEMOCRATISATION: THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING .......................................................................................................... 23 1.1 The State ....................................................................................................................................................... 23 1.2 Collapsed or failed states .............................................................................................................................. 29 1.3 State-building or state formation ................................................................................................................. 33 1.4 Democracy and democratic consolidation .................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 2: EXTERNAL CONTROL, INTERNAL FACTORS AND THE EVOLUTION OF A FAILED STATE ......................................................................................................................................... 49 2.1 Remote causes of state collapse: imperialism and colonialism revisited ...................................................... 49 2.1.1 The impact of pre-colonial politics on the nature of the Congolese state ....................................................... 52 2.1.2 Imperialism and colonialism under Leopold II ............................................................................................... 57 2.1.3 Imperialism and colonisation under Belgium ................................................................................................. 61 2.1.4 The Congolese ideological response to colonialism ....................................................................................... 65 2.2 Post- independent causes of state collapse .................................................................................................... 70 2.2.1 Post-independence leadership and state collapse ............................................................................................ 71 2.2.2 Western struggle over the control of resources ............................................................................................... 75 2.3 Immediate causes of state collapse ................................................................................................................ 80 2.3.1 Kinship politics under Mobutu ....................................................................................................................... 80 2.32 Infiltration of Cold War politics into DRC squabbles ..................................................................................... 84 2.3.3 One-party state: an incarnation of violence and dictatorship .......................................................................... 87 2.3.4 Badly conceived economic development strategies ........................................................................................ 90 2.3.5 Governance system built on corruption .......................................................................................................... 94 2.36 Inadequate international remedies: structural adjustment programmes ........................................................... 97 2.3.7 Failure of democratic transition .................................................................................................................... 102 CHAPTER 3: WAR, NATURAL RESOURCES AND STATE COLLAPSE ......................................... 106 3.1 Security and political dimension of the war ............................................................................................... 107 3.2 The Economic dimension of the war .......................................................................................................... 116 3.2.1 The International economic context of the war ............................................................................................ 116 3.2.2 The Regional economic dimension of the war .............................................................................................. 125 3.3 The SADC connection ................................................................................................................................. 130 3.4 War and its contribution to the state and democratisation........................................................................ 135 CHAPTER 4: THE SEARCH FOR PEACE AND TRANSITION BARGAINS .................................... 140 4.1 The Lusaka Peace Accord: negotiation and signing .................................................................................. 140 4.2 Implementation of the LPA under Laurent Kabila ................................................................................... 146 4.3 Implementation of the LPA under Joseph Kabila ..................................................................................... 151 4.4 The Inter-Congolese Dialogue .................................................................................................................... 154 4.4.1 Preparatory meetings .................................................................................................................................... 155 4.4.2 The Inter-Congolese Dialogue Proper .........................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Report of the Interim Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union on the Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Drc)
    AFRICAN UNION UNION AFRICAINE UNIÃO AFRICANA P. O. Box 3243, Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA Tel.: (251-1) 513822 Fax: (251-1) 519321 Email: [email protected] EIGHTY SIXTH ORDINARY SESSION OF THE CENTRAL ORGAN OF THE MECHANISM FOR CONFLICT PREVENTION, MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION 29 October 2002 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Central Organ/MEC/AMB/2 (LXXXVI) REPORT OF THE INTERIM CHAIRPERSON OF THE COMMISSION OF THE AFRICAN UNION ON THE SITUATION IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC) Central Organ/MEC/AMB/2 (LXXXVI) Page 1 REPORT OF THE INTERIM CHAIRPERSON OF THE COMMISSION OF THE AFRICAN UNION ON THE SITUATION IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC) I. INTRODUCTION 1. At the 76th Ordinary Session of the OAU Council of Ministers held in Durban, South Africa, from 4 to 6 July 2002, I reported on the development of the Peace Process in the DRC and on the efforts made by the OAU, the UN and the International Community to implement the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. In Decision CM/Dec. 663 (LXXVI) Council had, among others, urged the Parties to the Peace Process to fulfill their obligations issuing from the Lusaka Agreement, expressed its concern about the delay in the process of the withdrawal of foreign troops, encouraged the signatories to the Lusaka Agreement to continue their contacts in order to establish the conditions conducive to its implementation, requested the United Nations to strengthen the capacity and expand the mandate of MONUC to enable it carry out successfully the tasks assigned to it in Phase III of its deployment and appealed to the International Community to continue to support the Peace Process in the DRC.
    [Show full text]
  • Democratic Republic of Congo
    DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO 350 Fifth Ave 34 th Floor New York, N.Y. 10118-3299 http://www.hrw.org (212) 290-4700 Vol. 15, No. 11 (A) - July 2003 I hid in the mountains and went back down to Songolo at about 3:00 p.m. I saw many people killed and even saw traces of blood where people had been dragged. I counted 82 bodies most of whom had been killed by bullets. We did a survey and found that 787 people were missing – we presumed they were all dead though we don’t know. Some of the bodies were in the road, others in the forest. Three people were even killed by mines. Those who attacked knew the town and posted themselves on the footpaths to kill people as they were fleeing. -- Testimony to Human Rights Watch ITURI: “COVERED IN BLOOD” Ethnically Targeted Violence In Northeastern DR Congo 1630 Connecticut Ave, N.W., Suite 500 2nd Floor, 2-12 Pentonville Road 15 Rue Van Campenhout Washington, DC 20009 London N1 9HF, UK 1000 Brussels, Belgium TEL (202) 612-4321 TEL: (44 20) 7713 1995 TEL (32 2) 732-2009 FAX (202) 612-4333 FAX: (44 20) 7713 1800 FAX (32 2) 732-0471 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] “You cannot escape from the horror” This story of fifteen-year-old Elise is one of many in Ituri. She fled one attack after another and witnessed appalling atrocities. Walking for more than 300 miles in her search for safety, Elise survived to tell her tale; many others have not.
    [Show full text]
  • Who Belongs Where? Conflict, Displacement, Land and Identity in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo
    Who Belongs Where? Conflict, Displacement, Land and Identity in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo CITIZENSHIP AND DISPLACEMENT IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION WORKING PAPER NO. 3 MARCH 2010 International Refugee Social Science Rights Initiative Research Council C ITIZENSHIP AND D ISPLACEMENT IN THE G REAT L AKES W ORKING P APER NO. 3 Background to the Paper This paper is the result of a co-ordinated effort between staff from the International Refugee Rights Initiative (IRRI) and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC). The field research was carried out by Joseph Okumu and Kibukila Ben Bonome, and the paper was drafted by Lucy Hovil of IRRI. Deirdre Clancy and Olivia Bueno of IRRI, Josh DeWind of SSRC, and Bronwen Manby of AfriMAP, the Africa Governance Monitoring and Advocacy Project of the Open Society Institute, reviewed and edited the material. The field research team would like to express its gratitude to all those who participated in the study, in particular those displaced by the conflict. Citizenship and Displacement in the Great Lakes Region Working Paper Series The paper is the third in a series of working papers that form part of a collaborative project between the International Refugee Rights Initiative, the Social Science Research Council, and civil society and academic partners in the Great Lakes region. The project seeks to gain a deeper understanding of the linkages between conflicts over citizenship and belonging in the Great Lakes region, and forced displacement. It employs social science research under a human rights framework in order to illuminate how identity affects the experience of the displaced before, during, and after their displacement.
    [Show full text]
  • A Critical Descriptive Analysis of the Role of Track I and Track Ii Diplomatic Interventions: the Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo (1998-2002)
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Stellenbosch University SUNScholar Repository i A CRITICAL DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF TRACK I AND TRACK II DIPLOMATIC INTERVENTIONS: THE CASE OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (1998-2002) Vanessa Roque de Carvalho Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in International Studies at Stellenbosch University. Supervisor: Mr. G. Swart March 2010 i ii DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: 8 March 2010 Copyright © 2009 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii iii ABSTRACT The climate of the Great Lakes Region fostered desperate sources of insecurity which fed each other in a conflict-system which was also largely fuelled by the surrounding war economy. Consequently, the focus of this study was narrowed to providing only a descriptive analysis of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s peace processes of 1998-2002. Subsequently, the surrounding climate served to aggravate the DRC’s ethnic cleavages and the conflict grew so complex that the issues could no longer be clearly divided. The motivation for conducting a study of this nature was that amidst the twenty-three failed attempts for peace, the conflict persisted with no signs of abating, which suggests that a historical and discourse analysis of the peace processes is justified.
    [Show full text]
  • South Africa's STATE-Building ROLE in THE
    DECEMBER 2016 POLICY INSIGHTS 39 SOUTH AFRICA’S STATE-BUILDING ROLE IN THE DRC: KICKING THE CAN DOWN THE ROAD TJIURIMO HENGARI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY As the mooted presidential election in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is postponed to December 2018, South Africa’s most significant engagement in post-conflict reconstruction and development (PCRD) since its return to African affairs in 1994 hangs in the balance. While South Africa has done a fairly decent job of supporting the DRC at various difficult AUTHOR intervals since the 1990s, the model it has pursued in that country appears to be falling short of the demands of strategic state and institution building. DR TJIURIMO HENGARI It is a model at the end of its resources. This policy insights paper argues that was a Senior Fellow at the South African Institute of these shortcomings are a result not only of South Africa’s inability to master International Affairs (SAIIA) the challenging political terrain in the DRC but also of Pretoria’s pushback until May 2016. He is now from value-driven doctrines in its diplomacy. This severely impacts South Deputy Regional Director for Africa’s ideological and normative posture, particularly the manner in which Southern Africa at Amnesty it is inconsistently articulated in the political institution-building process International. in the DRC – a complex country with multi-layered issues and competing external and domestic stakeholders. INTRODUCTION Since its own political settlement in 1994, South Africa has invested significant resources in rehabilitating its image as a pariah state during the apartheid era, which lasted for close to half a century.
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict Prevention and Peace-Building in The
    JOINT EVALUATION OF CONFLICT PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING Report recommendations IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO INTRODUCTION TO THE SYNTHESIS REPORT Recommendation 1: Donors should position programming based on an assessment of conflict CONFLICT PREVENTION AND PEACE-BUILDING drivers. “Transparent cross-border trade has the If conflict prevention and peace-building programmes potential to reduce the risks of conflict IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO are to be the focus of international strategies, it is and to promote regional economic important to undertake on-going analysis of peace development.” Without peace, development is impossible. This self-evident fact promotes a fuller and conflict drivers, such as land conflicts, the social environment, the activities of armed groups and the understanding of the logic of conflict in order to identify and activate the most effective socio-economic conditions around mines. This would tools to restore peace and enable those involved in development to establish a presence. necessitate more resources to undertake situational Situated at the heart of Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is gradually analyses in the East, but would enable better use of - Example for donors: ISSSS should form the basis emerging from a prolonged period of violence and instability. This fragile progress is resources over time. for all planning in relation to the peace objective and, in view of this, should be reviewed for a new constantly threatened by frequent eruptions of violence. This evaluation attempts to clarify - Example for donors: earmark funds to ensure that engagement. the impact of peacekeeping and conflict prevention initiatives undertaken in the DRC by projects have conflict-sensitive analysis, and that - Example for donors, agencies and implementing the different international actors over the past ten years.
    [Show full text]
  • In Search of Peace: an Autopsy of the Political Dimensions of Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo
    IN SEARCH OF PEACE: AN AUTOPSY OF THE POLITICAL DIMENSIONS OF VIOLENCE IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO By AARON ZACHARIAH HALE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 Aaron Zachariah Hale 2 To all the Congolese who helped me understand life’s difficult challenges, and to Fredline M’Cormack-Hale for your support and patience during this endeavor 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I was initially skeptical about attending The University of Florida (UF) in 2002 for a number of reasons, but attending UF has been one of the most memorable times of my life. I have been so fortunate to be given the opportunity to study African Politics in the Department of Political Science in a cozy little town like Gainesville. For students interested in Africa, UF’s Center for African Studies (CAS) has been such a fantastic resource and meeting place for all things African. Dr. Leonardo Villalón took over the management of CAS the same year and has led and expanded the CAS to reach beyond its traditional suit of Eastern and Southern African studies to now encompass much of the sub-region of West Africa. The CAS has grown leaps and bounds in recent years with recent faculty hires from many African and European countries to right here in the United States. In addition to a strong and committed body of faculty, I have seen in my stay of seven years the population of graduate and undergraduate students with an interest in Africa only swell, which bodes well for the upcoming generation of new Africanists.
    [Show full text]
  • An Appraisal of South Africa's Peacemaking Role in The
    Report February 2015 Africa’s pre-eminent peacemaker? An appraisal of South Africa’s peacemaking role in the Democratic Republic of Congo By Milfrid Tonheim and Gerrie Swart Executive summary This report reflects on the role of South Africa (SA) as peacemaker on the African continent from 1996 until 2013, focusing in particular on its role in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). SA’s efforts in the realm of peace and security in Africa are scrutinised through a case study of its engagement in the DRC from 1996 to 2013. The report shows that SA has played and still plays an important role in conflict resolution and peacemaking on the African continent. SA is not acting on its own; it is supported by and operating within the parameters of the South African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union (AU). Many of SA’s peacemaking efforts, for instance in relation to the DRC, are also undertaken under the auspices of the UN. The country’s status as an emerging power, its relatively strong economy, its technology and know-how, its past experience of a peaceful transition from apartheid to democracy, and the respect and high esteem in which SA is held by other African countries are all characteristics that equip SA to play the role of a continental peacemaker. Introduction consensus on inclusive transitional political arrangements Unlike the apartheid regime, SA’s new and democratically as part of a peace agreement. The proposed agreement elected government affirms the close links and mutual usually consists of: a broad-based national unity govern- responsibilities between SA and other African countries: ment involving the warring parties; confidence-building measures and the reform of security forces; provisions to “The ending of apartheid was a joyous moment in the history of address justice issues; and a timetable for the drafting of our continent.
    [Show full text]
  • Freedom in the World - Congo, Democratic Republic of (Kinshasa) (2011)
    http://freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/fiw/inc_country_detail.cfm?y... Print Freedom in the World - Congo, Democratic Republic of (Kinshasa) (2011) Capital: Kinshasa Political Rights Score: 6 * Civil Liberties Score: 6 * Population: 68,693,000 Status: Not Free Overview Celebrations to mark 50 years of independence in June 2010 were marred by brutal violence in the eastern provinces, including the killing, rape, and abduction of civilians. The outgoing electoral commission announced in August that the first round of the presidential election would take place in November 2011, while local elections were further delayed until 2013. Meanwhile, opposition politicians, human rights activists, and the press continued to be the targets of attacks and harassment, as evidenced by the murder of a cameraman in April and the suspicious death of a leading human rights activist in June. The king of Belgium claimed a vast area of Central Africa as his private colony in the late 19th century, and the territory was exploited with a brutality that was extreme even for the imperialist era. After gaining independence from Belgium in 1960, the then Republic of Congobecame an arena for Cold War rivalries, and Colonel Joseph Mobutu seized power with CIA backing in 1965. Mobutu changed the country’s name to Zaire in 1971, renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko, and assumed dictatorial powers. Following the end of the Cold War, domestic agitation and international pressure for democratization led to a sovereign national conference in 1992. Mobutu was stripped of most of his powers and a new prime minster was named, but Mobutu created a rival government, leading to a political standoff.In a compromise that marginalized the conference’s prime minister, the two governments merged in 1994, with Mobutu remaining head of state.
    [Show full text]
  • Security Sector Reform in the Congo
    SECURITY SECTOR REFORM IN THE CONGO Africa Report N°104 – 13 February 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................. i I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 A. A DANGEROUS LEGACY........................................................................................................2 II. THE POLICE.................................................................................................................. 4 A. BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................4 B. PLANS FOR REFORM..............................................................................................................5 C. THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ..................................................................7 1. The European Union and Member States ..................................................................7 2. Angola........................................................................................................................9 3. South Africa.............................................................................................................10 4. The United Nations..................................................................................................10 D. THE STATE OF PLAY ...........................................................................................................10 E.
    [Show full text]
  • Perpetuation of Instability in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: When the Kivus Sneeze, Kinshasa Catches a Cold
    Perpetuation of instability in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: When the Kivus sneeze, Kinshasa catches a cold By Joyce Muraya and John Ahere 22 YEARS OF CONTRIBUTING TO PEACE ISSUE 1, 2014 Perpetuation of instability in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: When the Kivus sneeze, Kinshasa catches a cold By Joyce Muraya and John Ahere Occasional Paper Series: Issue 1, 2014 About ACCORD The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) is a non-governmental organisation working throughout Africa to bring creative solutions to the challenges posed by conflict on the continent. ACCORD’s primary aim is to influence political developments by bringing conflict resolution, dialogue and institutional development to the forefront as alternatives to armed violence and protracted conflict. Acknowledgements The authors extend their appreciation to all colleagues who supported the development and finalisation of this paper, including Daniel Forti, Charles Nyuykonge and Sabrina Ensenbach for their invaluable contributions to the paper’s structure and content and to Petronella Mugoni for her assistance in formatting the paper. The authors also appreciate the cooperation of colleagues in ACCORD’s Peacebuilding and Peacemaking units, for affording them the time and space to conduct the research necessary for writing this publication. About the authors Joyce Muraya holds a Master of Arts degree in International Relations from the United States International University in Nairobi, Kenya. Muraya served in Kenya’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs for a year and a half and participated in a nine-month internship programme in the Peacebuilding Unit at ACCORD. She has published on gender and women’s issues, with a focus on women’s reproductive rights.
    [Show full text]
  • Summary Overview of Security Sector Reform Processes in the Drc
    Institute for Security Studies Situation Report Date Issued: 6 January 2005 Author: Henri Boshoff1 Distribution: General Contact: [email protected] SUMMARY OVERVIEW OF SECURITY SECTOR REFORM PROCESSES IN THE DRC Introduction …Security sector reform is the transformation of the security system which includes all the actors, their roles, responsibilities and actions, so that it is managed and operated in a manner that is more consistent with democratic norms and sound principles of good governance, and thus contributes to a well-functioning security framework. Responsible and accountable security forces reduce the risk of conflict, provide security for citizens and create the right environment for sustainable development. The overall objective of security sector reform is to contribute to a secure environment that is conducive to development.2 The Democratic Republic of the Congo’s (DRC) transitional government, in power since June 2003, continues to face significant challenges in implementing crucial aspects of the transition, most notably in the area of security. A key component of the transitional agenda, the terms of reference for security sector reform (SSR) are outlined in the resolutions and provisions of the Global and All-inclusive Accord signed in Pretoria on 17 December 2002 (Annex V, article 2a). This accord, a result of input from various Congolese actors, including rebel, political and civil society leaders, aimed at the establishment of long-term peace in the country while countering the decay and disintegration that are the result of 32 years of Mobutist rule and seven years of high intensity conflict.3 As the term suggests, “political transition” is an interim stage – it began with the implementation of the Pretoria agreements and will cease with the establishment of a new political system based on a new constitution adopted by referendum, and an elected government in the DRC.
    [Show full text]